Use of w a s t e materials in the construction industry

Analysis of the RILEM Symposium by Correspondence

W. Gutt (1), p. j . Nixon (2).

A Symposium by Correspondence has been organised on behalf of RILEM on the use of waste
materials and industrial by-products in the construction industry. 18 countries (excluding the UK
for which the authors are providing information) submitted contributions and in this paper these
contributions are summarised and analysed. Information about individual materials has been
extracted from the national contributions and a chapter devoted to each waste in turn. The
properties, occurrence, present uses and possible future applications of each waste are described.
Blastfurnace slags and pulverised fuel ashes are the two materials which are being used to the
greatest extent. Blastfumace slags are used overall to some 80% of their production and in several
countries virtually all that is produced is used and the slags are regarded as a highly satisfactory
material. Pulverised fuel ashes are about 20% used overall but up to 70% is used in some
countries. Much of these two materials is used as fill but many more sophisticated uses are
developing. These materials can make a particular contribution in conserving energy in the
manufacture of cementitious materials and of lightweight aggregates. Overall however the
proportion of mineral wastes which is used is only about 5% of the production and most
is used in relatively low grade appfications such as fill in roads and embankments.
The most influential factor in determining whether or not a waste material or by-product is used is
the economic cost in comparison with the alternative natural material in a particular application.
These costs are primarily made up by handling, processing and transport but the social benefits of
using a waste, for example avoiding the dereliction associated with the tipping of a waste material
or the quarrying of a natural material, should not be forgotten. Possible disbenefits such as
pollution'arising during processing or a less well proven technical performance should also be
taken into account. Adequate knowledge of the properties of the waste materials and products
containing them are therefore essential to enable a balanced judgement to be made on the overall
advisability of using a waste material in a particular situation.

(1) D. Sc., Ph.D., FRIC, Building Research Establishment, Garston, G. B.

(2) Ph.D., DIC, Building Research Establishment, Garston, G. B.

0025-5432/1979/255/$ 4.00/0 BORDAS-DUNOD 255

Vol. 12 - No 70 - Materiaux et Constructions

CONTENTS CHAPTER 4. BY-PRODUCT GYPSUM

INTRODUCTION 1. Composition
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SYMPOSIUM 2. Quantities
3, Utilisation
CHAPTER 1 COLLIERY SPOIL
3.1. Uses of phosphogypsum
1. Origin of the spoil 3.1 .1. In the manufacture of plaster building
2. Description of the spoil products
3. Disposal 3.1 . 2. Use as retarder in cement
4. Quantities 3 . 1 . 3 . Use in the cement/sulphuric acid process
5, Present utilisation 3,2. Use of anhydrite to make floor screeds
5.1. Use in roadmaking 4. Uses under development
5.1 .1. As embankment fill 4.1. As fill in road and rail works
5 . 1 . 2 . In sub-base and base construction 4.2. In stabilised base courses
5.2. Use as fill beneath buildings 4.3. In building
5.3. Brickmaking 5. Discussion
5.4. In the manufacture of synthetic aggregates
5,5. In the manufacture of Portland cement CHAPTER 5, MISCELLANEOUS WASTES FROM INDUS-
6. Methods of utilisation under development TRIAL PROCESSES
6.1. Fluidised combustion of the colliery spoil Section 5,1. Red mud
6.2. Synthetic aggregates 1. Composition and properties of red muds
6.3. Use as fill 2. Quantities
6.4. In road building 3. Utilisation
7. Discussion 4. Uses under development
CHAPTER 2. BY-PRODUCTS FROM COAL-BURNING 4.1. Use in bricks and ceramics
4.2. In the manufacture of artificial aggre-
POWER STATIONS
gates
1. Introduction 4.3. Non-combustible plastics
2. Properties 4.4. Addition of red mud to cement
2.1. Fly ash
Section 5.2. Silica dust
2,2, Furnace-bottom ash
Section 5.3. Spent oil shale
2.3. Cenospheres (floaters)
Section 5.4. Carbonate and lime sludges
3. Occurrence and disposal
Section 5.5. Burnt clay waste
4. Present utilisation
Section 5.6. Surplus sulphur
4.1. Use in roadmaking
Section 5.7. Cement kiln dust
4.1 .1. Use of fly ash as fill
4 . 1 . 2 . Use as sub-base and road-base material CHAPTER 6. MINING AND QUARRYING WASTES
4.2. Use as fill under buildings 1. Composition and properties
4.3. Use in concrete 2. Quantities and means of disposal
4.4. Manufacture of lightweight aggregate 3. Present utilisation
4.5. Other uses 4. Uses under development
5. Uses under development 5. Phosphate ore processing waste
6. Possible health hazard from fly ash 6. Discussion
7, Discussion
CHAPTER 7. MUNICIPAL WASTES AND DREDGING
CHAPTER 3. METALLURGICAL SLAGS SPOIL
1. Blastfurnace (iron) slag 1. Municipal refuse
1.1. Composition of the slag 1.1. Incinerator residues
1,2. Quantities of blastfurnace slag 1.2. Waste glass
1.3. Utilisation of blastfurnace slag
1.3. Demolition wastes
1 . 3 . 1 . Use in roadmaking 1.4. Sewage sludge
1 . 3 . 2 . Use in'building 1.5. Waste rubber tyres
1 . 3 . 3 . Other uses 1.6. Waste plastics
1.4. Uses under development 1.7. Discussion
2. Steel-making slags
2.1. Composition of steel slags 2. Dredging spoil
2.2. Quantities of steel making slags
CHAPTER 8, WOOD WASTES
2.3. Utilisation of steel making slags
2 . 3 . 1 . Use in road making 1. Quantities
2 . 3 . 2 . Other uses 2. Utilisation
2 . 3 . 3 . Uses under development 2.1. Bark
3. Other metallurgical slags 2.2. Sawdust
3.1, Composition 2 . 3 Solid wood wastes
3.2. Quantities 3. Uses being developed
3.3. Utilisation SUMMARY
3.4. Uses under development
4. Discussion REFERENCES

256

INTRODUCTION
This Symposium by Correspondence has been organised
in response to suggestions that RILEM should undertake a
study of the use of waste materials and industrial by-
products in the construction industry which were made
originally in 1973. In preparation for the Symposium, a pilot
questionnaire was sent out in 1974 by RI LEM to explore the
extent to which research was being carried out into the use
of waste materials. 13 countries replied to this questionnaire.
In 1975 the RILEM advisory group advised the RILEM
Permanent Committee that a symposium by correspondence
be undertaken and Dr. W. H. Gutt of Building Research
Establishment was invited to organise it.
The underlying theme Of the Symposium is that the use of
waste materials in the construction industry may help to
conserve resources of the natural raw materials that are used
in the industry and at the same time can help to preserve the
environment by reducing the despoilation arising from the
disposal of some waste materials. However, successful
utilisation of a waste material depends on its use being
economically competitive with that of the alternative natural
material, including the costs of processing and transporta-
tion, and also on it being suitable for the planned purpose
i.e. its stability and durability over the expected life span
must be ensured in the context of the particular building
application. It is important therefore to establish appropriate
standard specifications incorporating reliable methods of
test.
The objectives of the Symposium therefore were, first of all
to obtain information on the present production, methods of
disposal and utilisation of wastes in the contributing
countries. Secondly it was hoped to assemble ideas on new
possibilities or prospective uses and to identify common
problems and possibly common solutions to the use of waste
materials in the construction industry so that those
concerned with these issues in different countries might
learn from each other how to make the best use of the wastes
and industrial by-products available.
The announcement of the Symposium was made in Issue
49 of Materials'and Structures where the information
obtained from the original questionnaire was also
summarised. The RI LEM delegates in 26 countries were then
invited to carry out a survey of the use of wastes in their
countries, to co-ordinate individual contributions or to
suggest someone else in each country who would undertake
this work. These countries were: Australia, Austria, Belgium,
Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Federal Republic of
Germany (FRG), Finland, France, Holland, Hungary, India,
Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, South
Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, USA, USSR,
Yugoslavia.
BRE undertook to consult within the UK and provide a
contribution: A second announcement in Issue 51 of
Materials and Structures invited additional contributions
from research workers, other than the RI LEM delegates, who
felt that they had relevant data and wished to offer it to the
Symposium.
Eventually contributions were received from 18 countries
(excluding the UK). Although not amongst the countries
approached initially a contribution was provided by New
Zealand. In some cases, principally the Federal Republic of
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
Germany, no one person could be found to co-ordinate the
contributions and so individual contributions on particular
subjects were invited. The contributions and the principal
authors are listed at the end of the Introduction.
In this paper an analysis is given of all the data received.
The approach adopted has been to deal with individual
materials in turn, looking first at the properties of the
material, at the amounts produced and the ways that the
material is disposed of and used and finally at the future
prospects for the material. Emphasis has been placed on
describing ways of utilisation that are actually being
practiced or are under development rather than ideas for
utilisation which are at a research stage, although the latter
have not been overlooked and are mentioned briefly. Where
necessary the technical problems which could arise from
using a waste material are explained and attention is drawn
also to any health hazards that may arise.
In the text of the paper and in the tables references are not
given to the individual contributions to this Symposium, but
individual countries are frequently identified in relation to
specific methods of utilisation or disposal of wastes.
References are given to the sources of information other than
the contributions.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SYMPOSIUM
Australia: Survey of major industrial wastes and by-
products in Australia, J. Beretka, Division of Building
Research, CSIRO, Graham Road, Highett Victoria, Australia
3190.
Belgium: Recycling of waste in the construction industry,
Professor A. Fagnoul, Universit6 de Li+ge, Facult6 des
Sciences Appliqu~es, 6, quai Banning, 4000 Li+ge, Belgium.
Canada: Utilisation of wastes and by-products as
construction materials in Canada, J. J. Emery, McMaster
University, Hamilton, Ontario L8 $427, Canada.
Denmark: The use of waste materials in the construction
industry, E. Brandt, Danish Building Research Institute,, SBI
Postboks 119, DK-2970, Horsholm, Denmark.
Federal Republic of Germany: Utilisation of by-products
from the iron and steel industry, Professor Dr.-Ing. Gunter
Blunk, Der Forschungsgemeinschaft, EisenhQttenschlac-
ken, Bliersheimer Strasse 62, 4100 Duisburg 14, Federal
Republic of Germany. Utilisation of washery refuse and run
of mine dirt in the Federal Republic of Germany, D. Leininger
and T. Schieder, Steinkohlenbergbauverein, Postfach
130140, 4300 Essen 13, Federal Republic of Germany.
Industrial tests for the utilisation of washery refuse for the
manufacture of bricks, D. Leininger and T. Schieder (as
above).
Finland: Use of waste materials in the construction
industry in Finland, M. Keppo, Technical Research Centre of
Finland, L6nnrotinkata 37, Helsinki 18, Finland.
France: Some example of research development on
industrial wastes in relation to their use in the construction
industry in France. Collective work edited under the
guidance of I'Union Technique Interprofessionnelle des
F+d+rations Nationales du B&timent et des Travaux Publics
257
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions
with the collaboration of: Le Laboratoire Central des Ponts et
Chauss~es, Le Bureau de Recherches G6ologiques et
Mini~res, L'lnstitut National des Sciences Appliqu6es de
Lyon, Le Minist6re de rlndustrie et de la Recherche, Le
Minist~re de la Qualit~ de la Vie, M. Pichat.
Netherlands: The use of waste materials in the production
of building materials, J. Lutt, Dutch State Mines. Possible
application of-waste gypsum based on extended programme
of laboratory and real scale in situ tests, W. Bronkhorst,
Intron. Co-ordinated by E. M. M. G. Niel, Intron BV, Postbus
543, Maastricht, Netherlands.
India: Use of waste materials in the construction industry
- - Present state and future prospects in India, S. K. Chopra,
K. C. Narang and G. Ramaseshan, Cement Research Institute
of India, New Delhi, India.
Israel: Contribution on the occurrence and reuse of
porcelenite, reject flint clay phosphogypsum by Mr. U.
Virtsburger, Israel Chemicals Ltd. Co-ordinated by Professor
J. Karni, Building Research Station, Israel Institute of
Technology, Technion, Haifa, Israel.
Japan: The use of waste materials for building materials in
Japan, F. Tomasawa, Building Research Institute, Ministry
of Construction, 3-Chome, Hyakunin-cho, Shinfuka-ku,
Tokyo, Japan. "
Luxembourg: Contribution on the use of blastfurnace slag
in roadmaking in Luxembourg by R. Hoffman, Laboratoire
Ponts et Chauss~es, 7-11, rue Albert-1 er, Luxembourg.
CHAPTER 1
COLLIERY SPOIL
1. ORIGIN OF THE SPOIL
Colliery spoil is the waste from the extraction of coal by
mining. In most countries the waste can be divided into three
types:
(i) the more or less pure rock which originates from the
driving of road ways, roof falls etc. and which in English is
often termed "run-of-mine" dirt. Often this waste does not
go through the washery;
(ii) the relatively coarse waste from the washery where the
coal is separated from the accompanying rock;
(iii) fine material produced either by degradation during
the mining and transport of the coal and waste or as tailings
from the final separation of fine coal by froth flotation. This
fine fraction is often rich in combustible matter.
Table I gives a breakdown of the point of origin in the mine
of the waste arising during the mining of coal in the Ruhr
(German) coalfield. It shows that about 90% comes from the
roof and floor of coal seams and from rock impurities within
the coal.
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPOIL
The main rock types associated with coal seams, and
therefore present in the waste, are mudstone, siltstones,
shale and sandstones. These rocks contain varying amounts
of carbonaceous matter (as distinct from particles of coal
which may be mixed w i t h t h e m ) . The principal minerals
occurring in the spoil are quartz and clay minerals
(principally illite and kaolinite). Mineralogical and chemical
258
New Zealand: Contribution from C. Broad, Dept of Trade
and Industry, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand.
Norway: Waste materials in the construction industry, Aud
Traetteberg, Cement and Concrete Research Institute, The
Norwegian Institute of Technology, 7034 Trondheim-Nth,
Norway.
South Africa: A review of the more important South
African industrial solid waste products and their utilisation in
the construction industry, J. E. Kruger and A. F. G. Rossouw,
National Building Research Institute, CSIR, PO Box 395,
Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
Sweden: The use waste materials in the Swedish
construction industry, Professor S. G. Bergstrom and
B. Modeer, IVA-Report 126, Ingenj~rsvetenskapsakade-
mien, Stockholm, Sweden.
USA: Survey of uses of waste materials in construction in
the United State, J. R. Clifton, P. W. Brown, G. Frohndorff,
Materials and Composites Section, Centre for Building
Technology, Institute for Applied Technology, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington DC 20234, USA.
USSR: Contribution on the use of flyash from Professor B.
A. Krylov, Institute of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
(NIIZhB), Gosstroy Marx Prospekt 12, Moscow K-9, USSR.
analyses of colliery spoils from those countries which have
reported them are given in tables II and III.
When deposited on the heap the spoil is a greyish, shaley
material. It will consist of a wide range of size gradings. Spoil
in Germany is reported to vary from the fine flotation tailings
(----0.75 mm) which make up about 2% of the tota! spoil to
large run of mine waste in lumps of up to a metre in size (see
table IV). British spoils are similar. When exposed to
weathering on the heaps the larger pieces of mud and
siltstone break down rapidly. It is reported that the quantity
of misplaced coal in German spoil is less than 5% by weight
but that the total carbon content can rise to 20% by weight
because of the presence of carbonaceous shale. It can be
seen from table III that British spoils are similar but that the
carbon content of Australian shale is significantly higher.
TABLE I
ORIGIN WITHIN THE MINE OF COLLIERY SPOIL
FROM THE RUHR (GERMANY) COALFIELD
Spoil as per-cent Per-cent
Source of total material of total spoil
taken from source taken from source
Seam. 13.2 41.3
Draw roof. 3.6 11.3
Roof fall. 5.3 16.6
Floor pack 6.6 20.6
Machine stables.... 0.3 0.9
Faults in seams... 0.8 2.5
Gate roads. 1.8 5.6
Road repairs. 0.4 1.2
Total spoil . . . . 32.0 100
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

TABLE II
COMPARATIVE MINERALOGICAL ANALYSIS OF COLLIERY SPOILS (WEIGHT %)

USA

Anthracite Bituminous UK (') Germany Australia

spoil spoil

Quartz. 1-20 7-32 15-24 Major component Major component

Clay minerals:
Illite 1-10 16-50 7-36 Major component Major component
Mixed layer clay . . . . 6-17
Kaolinite 70 16-72 3-38 Major component Major component
Chlorite. 2-7
AIIophane. 1-2
Sericite. - Major component
Muscovite Major component
Montmorillonite. Minor component
Bentonite,. Minor component
Total clay 50-66
Siderite. 1-6
Calcite. 1-10 0-17 0-1
Pyrite. 1-10 0.4-12 0-1 Minor component
Rutile.. 1-10
Magnesite. - 0-4
Apatite. - 0.1-4

(~) From mineralogical analysis of colliery spoils from 8 British collieries, after Collins [14].

Many old coal waste heaps were spontaneously,
accidentally .or intentionally ignited and their combustion
became self sustaining. The resulting "burnt shale" is a
reddish-coloured material which in general has greater
strength and better resistance to weathering. Chemical
changes include a reduction in the proportion of
combustible matter, the partial decomposition of clay
minerals, decomposition of carbonates and the oxidation of
sulphides to soluble sulphates (though this may be
accompanied by some decrease in the total sulphur by loss of
volatile compounds) [1]. This increase of sulphate content is
a significant and undesirable change from the point of view
of utilisation of the spoil.
Most modern tips however are built in layers and
consolidated so that air sufficient to sustain combustion
cannot penetrate the heaps. In the USA State and Federal
programmes have been established to extinguish burning
heaps because of the air pollution caused by the
combustion.
3. D I S P O S A L
Most colliery spoil is dumped on heaps which n o w -
adays usually have t~) be constructed so as to prevent
combustion as described above. In the UK about 10%
of the spoil is dumped in the sea. In India most of the
waste is packed back into the mines but in other countries
the type of mining precludes this. In Australia it is a
requirement that the waste from new colliery projects
is compacted in layers between inert rock of specified
thickness and the disposal site landscaped.
4. Q U A N T I T I E S
The available information on the annual production and
stockpile of colliery spoil together with the coal production
is summarised in table V, The very considerable differences
in the proportion of spoil to coal produced probably reflect
differences in the thicknesses of the seams and the
complication of the geology. The exceptionally small
stockpile of waste in India (less than one years production)
appears to result from the stowing of waste back into the
mine.
5. PRESENT U T I L I S A T I O N
The amounts of spoil used in the different countries and a
summary of the ways in w h i c h it is used are given in table VI.
The greatest amounts of spoil are used in Germany and
France but even in these countries only about one third of
that produced is used. The only uses which consume really
sizeable amounts of the material are in the construction of
embankments and as fill beneath houses and roads. These
uses are, however, very dependent on large construction
projects being carried out close to the stockpile of spoil. For
example it is reported that in France 30 km is the economic
radius for the use of colliery spoil in roadmaking.
The various uses to w h i c h the colliery spoil is at present
put are discussed below:
5.1. U s e in r o a d m a k i n g
5 . 1 . 1 . As embankment fill
The use of colliery spoil in the. construction of
embankments is well established, especially in Germany,
France and the UK. When available burnt spoil has usually
been the preferred material because of its granular nature
and good grading [2]. However in recent years considerable
quantities of unburnt shales have been used successfully. In
the lower part of the embankments there is no particular
restriction on the use of spoil and civil engineering tests
applied generally to fill materials are used.
In the U K there is a limit on the sulphate content (less than
2.5 g of SO 3 per litre in a 1 91 shale water extract) if the spoil

259
 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Materiaux et Constructions

TABLE III
COMPARATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF BURNT AND UNBURNT COLLIERYSPOILS (WEIGHT %)
a Unburnt spoils

USA Ge(many

Anthracite Bituminous
UK [14] Australia I France
80-1 0 mm 10-0,5 mm
spoil spoil

SIC=, 50-57 43-61 38-50 64 (=) 54-60 47-52 58

AI=O~ 30-37 14-20 16-22 25 (") 22-27 22-24 26
FezOa. 3-10 2-31 0.5-3 3 5-8 8-11 9
FeO. 2-6
TiC2 1-2 0.8-2,2 0.5-1 0.9 (") 0,9-1.1 0.8-1
P=05 0.1-0.25 0.04 (=)
CaO 9 1-2 0.1-10 0.5-1.5 0.3 (=) 0.5
MgQ. 0-1 0.5-3 1-2.5 0.7 (") 2-4 4-7 1.5
MnO., 0.05-0.25
Na=O 1-3 2-5,5
0.1-0,6 0.15 (.) 3.5
K~O i ) 0.8-1,5 2.5 (') 4-5 4.5 1
SOw 0-1 0-2 0.5-2,5 0.25 ' 0,75-3 1.5-8,5 0.5
Loss at 105~ 1-2 2.5 (')
Loss 105-950oC.. 15-33 41 (c)
CO=. 0.5-2.5
Free C. 5-21 30 (b) 3-13 4-27
Potential tar. 0.5-2
Calorific value (kJ/kg) 3,000-10,000
9 Combined H=O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7

(') Analysis of ash.

(b) As received basis,
(c) May not be exact parallels. Figures for "moisture" and "ash" are quoted in the Australian contribution.

b Burnt spoils Federal Roadway Institute have issued a specification for the
UK [14] Australia use of colliery spoil, "'Recommendations for the utilisation of
mine stone as road building material".
SiC= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-60 65 (")
Al=Os . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-31 25 (=) 5.1 . 2. /n s u b - b a s e a n d base c o n s t r u c t i o n
Fe=Oa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 3.5 (=)
TiC= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15-0.25 0.8 (") In the U K burnt shales have been widely used for sub-base
P=O~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 (=)
CaO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5-5 0.3 (-) construction, Ahhough sufficiently strong some burnt shales
MgO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1 (") are subject to frost heave and this can be overcome by the
NazO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2-0.6 0.2 (') addition of cement. Normally no more than 5% is
K=O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3.5 3 (=) required [15].
SOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1-5 O. 03 (b)
Loss at 105~ . . . . . . . . 0.26 (~) Laboratory tests in the UK have also shown that unburnt
Loss at 105-950oC . . . . 2-6 0.3 (c) spoils w o u l d be suitable for sub-base use if stabilised with
Free C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 (b) c,ement [3]. Excessive amounts o~" soluble sulphate can
(=) Analysis of ash. cause cracking in either burnt o r unburnt spoils when
(b) As received basis. cement stabilised r4].
(~) May not be exact parallels. Figures for "moisture'9 Colliery spoils have to be stabilised with cement for use as
and "ash" are quoted in the Australian contribution. a base course material. In France ternary mixtures of unburnt
spoil (85%) flyash (13-15%) and lime (1-2%) are being
is to be used within 0,5 m o~ the road surface or of the investigated.
concrete structures, Fears of spontaneous combustion of
unbumt shale embankments have been allayed by large
5 . 2 . Use as fill beneath buildings
scale tests which have shown that such combustion does
not occur if the spoil is well compacted so that air cannot The use of colliery spoil as fill beneath buildings is well
penetrate [3]. established in the UK although precautions have to betaken.
tn the upper layers of embankments there ~.s need to Problems are 9,kelv to adse through inadequate cot~solida-
establish that the material is not frost susceptible. Tests for tion and from attack on concrete by the sulphate and acid
frost susceptibility are required for material in the top content of the spoil. Consolidation is not usually a problem
450 mm in the U K and in the top 2 m in Germany. In Germany on a large site but small builders, often building private
there is also concern about the general weather resistance of houses, may not have the equipment for adequate
shale is this upper layer and in particular about the adverse consolidation, Sulphate and acid attack can be prevented
effects of fine particles. There is a limit of 3% on particles from causing trouble by the use of impermeable membranes
below 0.02 mm. In general it is considered that if spoil is to and by the use of sulphate resisting cements and pozzolanas.
be used in the upper layer then some pre-treatment is Colliery spoils are sometimes said to swell but there is little
necessary. This means control of the upper and lower limits evidence for this and such swelling can usually be attributed
of grading and a degree of homogenisation. The German to sulphate attack on concret e . Swelling due to the oxidation

260
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

TABLE IV
GRADING AND PROPERTIES OF RUN-OF-MINE, AND WASHING SPOIL IN G ER M AN Y

Water
Size in content Ash content Total S
Type of spoil millimeters Weight (%) dry basis (%) dry basis (%)
(%)
Run-of-mine dirt. --1,000 13.1 3.5 87.8 0.6
Lumpy refuse. --200 7.6 2.4 86.1 0.4
Large washing refuse 150-10 50.5 5.0 83.9 0.9
Fine washing refuse. 10-05 26.7 10.0 80.4 1.4
Tailings 1-0 2.1 26,6 72.7 1.7
Total refuse. - 100.00 6.4 83.4 1.0

of pyrite in natural shales (not from collieries) has been
identified as a problem in several countries including USA,
Canada and UK ([5], [6]). In the UK this problem is not
thought likely to arise with colliery spoils because of the low
calcite content (necessary to form the gypsum which is the
main expansive agent) but the higher calcite and pyrite
contents reported for colliery spoils in the USA indicate that
this could be a problem there. Advice on the avoidance of
problems due to the use of such shales is given in Building
Digests in both Canada and the UK, the latter also giving
general information on the use of waste materials as fill
([7], [8]).
5 . 3 . Brickmaking
Colliery spoil is used in brickmaking in France and the UK
and to a limited extent in the USA. Extensive laboratory and
plant trials have also been made recently in Germany r9].
From France it is reported that there is production of
200,000 shale bricks per day.
In the UK the use of colliery spoils has declined because
the spoil is only really suitable for the manufacture of
common bricks and the consumption of these has declined
in the face of competition from concrete blocks. Production
of colliery shale bricks is n o w mainly in Scotland where the
traditional walling unit is common brick or stone with a
rendered outer surface. The bricks are made in continuous
kilns where the fuel inherent in the spoil can most efficiently
contribute to the total energy requirements of firing the
bricks. These external energy requirements are therefore very
low, 100-1,1 00 MJ per tonne of bricks compared with about
2, 400 MJ per tonne of bricks for equivalent bricks made
from a clay which does not contain inherent fuel.
The reason for the restriction of colliery spoils to the
manufacturer of common bricks in the UK are:
(i) the poor plasticity of the spoil which necessitates a
pressing technique rather than extrusion w h i c h is usually
used in the forming of facing bricks;
(ii) the presence o f " b l a c k hearts" in the fired brick due to
incomplete oxidation of the carbonaceous matter in the
spoil;
(iii) imperfections in the surface of the fired brick mainly
due to the presence of particles of lime on the surface;
(iv) staining due to soluble sulphate or iron compounds
in the brick;
(v) difficulty in the control of the firing due to variations in
the calorific value of the spoil.
In general these factors result in a brick of poor and
variable appearance but yet one which has good durability.
Attempts to make bricks of better appearance from colliery
spoils, whether by reducing the temperature of firing or by
extruding the spoil have tended to affect the durability
adversely.
In Germany the extensive laboratory and plant trials which
have been carried out recently have examined the effects of
adding the spoil to a clay mainly in order to save fuel.
Laboratory examinations of the spoil showed that the
coarser washery waste had a lower and more stable calorific
value and a lower sulphur content and was therefore
preferable as a raw material (see table IV). However in the

TABLE V
YEARLY PRODUCTION AND STOCKPILES OF COLLIERY SPOIL

Coal Spoil as
Reference Number Yearly production Spoil stockpile
Country production percentage quantity (Mr)
year washeries of spoil (Mt) of coal produced
(Mt)

India. 1976 100 14 8-10 8-10

(2 Mt
from washeries)
Australia. 1970/1971 40.6 58 9 22.7
1974/1975 ~ 6O 15.6 25.7 > 100
pred. 1980 20
New Zealand 1975 2.4 m

USA { bituminous. 1975 560 A > 100 ~17 2,000

anthracite. 10 1 7OO
South Africa. 1977 85 42 9 ~10 15O
Holland 0.3
Germany 1973 94 63 67 SeVeral hundred
France. 1972 20 700
UK 1976 120 ~ 60 50 3,000
Belgium [2] 4
. Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

26I
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Materiaux et Constructions
plant trials it was found impossible to separate or crush the
coarse refuse and the fine tailings were used.
The percentage additions varied from works to works up
to a maximum of about 25% by volume. At the best works
35% of fuel oil was saved by the use of the spoil. The physical
properties of the resulting bricks were in general good
though some pitting or spalling of the surface caused
problems in the manufacture of facing bricks.
5.4. In the manufacture of synthetic aggregates
Colliery spoil is used in the manufacture of synthetic
aggregate in France, the UK, Belgium and in Poland (and
probably other Eastern countries including the USSR).
There is limited utilisation of anthracite waste as a
lightweight aggregate for concrete blocks in the USA and it
is also reported [10] that a sinterstrand process making a
lightweight aggregate from bituminous coal waste operated
in West Virginia in the 1950's. Considerable research into the
manufacture of a lightweight aggregate from colliery waste
has also been carried out in Germany but it is not thought
that there has been commercial manufacture to date.
All existing processes for manufacturing aggregates from
colliery spoil produce a lightweight material. These
processes can be classified into two types, sinterstrand
processes and rotary kiln processes. Sinterstrand processes
are used in the UK and Poland. The spoil is crushed, roughly
pelletised and fed onto moving fire grates to form a bed of
spoil. The bed is first ignited by burners above it and then air
is sucked through the bed as it moves along the grate so that
combustion of carbonaceous matter in the spoil is
maintained. The particles of spoil sinter together to form a
sinter cake which is crushed to the aggregate grading
required. Sinterstrand processes have the advantage that
relatively little preparation of the spoil is required, the
sinterstrand can be stopped and started quickly so that
continuous running is not necessary, the capital cost of the
equipment is probably lower than for a rotary kiln and very
efficient use is made of the combustible material in the spoil
so that energy consumption is low. The aggregate produced
is very rough and angular and although very suitable for use
in lightweight concrete blocks (where it is almost exclusively
used in the UK) it is not really suitable for structural
lightweight concrete. Considerable problems with air
pollution have occurred at some British plants processing
colliery spoil although there is no reason to believe that a
sinterstrand is worse than a rotary kiln in this respect.
The plants in France and Belgium and the experiment
carried out in Germany employ rotary kiln processes,
producing a lightweight aggregate with application both in
lightweight concrete blocks and in structural concrete. The
plant in France has capacity for 100,000t of aggregate a
year. The spoil is ground and extruded before passing
through a four-stage rotary kiln process in which the shale is
pre-heated, decarbonised and finally, fired. According to the
process conditions employed the aggregate has a bulk
density of either 400 or 650 kg/m 3.
5.5. In the manufacture of Portland cement
Colliery spoil is used to replace the clay fraction of the feed
to one cement works in the U K. It supplies the alumina, silica
and iron necessary for the formation of the cementitious
262
minerals and contributes towards the fuel requirements of
the process [1]. It is also reported that colliery spoil is used
to a small extent in cement manufacture in the USA.
Colliery spoil was also utilised in the UK as one of the
raw materials in a process in which equal quantities of
Portland cement and sulphuric acid are produced
simultaneously [11]. Normally in this combined process
calcium sulphate (anhydrite) and clay, with balancing
components to supply iron oxide and with coke as a
reductant are reacted in a rotary kiln. The sulphur dioxide
produced by reduction of the calcium sulphate leaves the
kiln and is converted to sulphuric acid by the "contact
process", while the lime reacts in the kiln with silica and
alumina from the clay and w i t h iron oxide to produce
Portland cement. Colliery spoil used in this process replaces
the clay component of the raw meal as well as providing the
carbon for the reduction of the calcium sulphate. However
the use of this combined process to produce cement and
sulphuric acid has declined in recent years and is not
now used in the UK.
6. M E T H O D S OF U T I L I S A T I O N UNDER DEVELOP-
M ENT
6.1. Fluidised combustion of the colliery spoil
The fluidised combustion of colliery spoil is being
developed in Australia, Germany and UK. In Australia work
has so far been concentrated on the development of the
process conditions for burning both washery waste and
tailings in the fluidised bed combustor but attention is now
being given to the use of the heat produced and to the
possible uses of the ash from the combustion. Coarse and
fine ash is produced. The coarse ash may have applications
as a high grade fill, as an aggregate for roadmaking, as a
lightweight aggregate in concrete blocks and as a grog in the
manufacture of bricks, tiles and ceramics. It may also be of
use as a soil conditioner, as a material for filter beds and for
the absorption of oil spillages and slicks. The fine ash may be
usable as a pozzolanic cement.
In the UK (in research by the National Coal Board) and in
Germany, primary attention has been given to the fluidised
combustion of colliery tailings in order to alleviate the
disposal problems of this material. There is also interest
however in the possible use of the rejects from the
combustion as a lightweight aggregate.
6 . 2 , Synthetic aggregates
All existing commercial processes for the manufacture of
aggregates from colliery spoil produce lightweight aggre-
gates. Recent research in the UK has however been devoted
to the production of a non-expanded synthetic aggregate
from colliery spoil which could be used in general concreting
work. Laboratory studies of this aggregate and of concrete
made with it have proved encouraging and a patent has b.een
obtained [12]. However the capital costs of plant make it
seem unlikely that a process using conventional plant would
be ecomomic and more novel methods of processing are
currently being explored.
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

TABLE VI
UTILISATION OF C O L L I E R Y SPOIL

Use as
Use
Country per-cent of Type of use Prospective uses
(Mt/y) spoil productian

India . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roadmaking and fill. Mainly used Lightweight aggregate. Manufac-

Australia . . . . . . . . . .
New Zealand: . . . . .
USA . . . . . . . . . . . . .
South Africa . . . . . . .
Holland . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany . . . . . . . . . .
UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
France . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . .
for back filling mine. ture of cement. Inferior fuel. Clay
brickmaking.
Small Burnt spoil used as roadmaking and Fluidised bed combustion to pro-
fill material. duce heat and burnt rejects sui-
table for use as aggregate, grog
or pozzolanic cement.
Small Fill and land reclamation.
Small Base and sub-base materials in high- As an aggregate and highway cons-
ways. As aggregates for road sur- truction material.
facing. In manufacture of mineral
wool and cement.
Anthracite waste used in concrete
block, lightweight aggregate and
bricks.
Small m Road building, fill and in blocks.
0. 078 Fired block made from colliery waste,
flyash and sawdust.
18 29 As fill material in roads and embank- Brickmaking. Fluidised bed combus-
ments, as landfill. tion, lightweight aggregate.
7-8 11-13 As fill material in road construction Fluidised bed combustion. Manufac-
and building. Brickmaking, cement ture of structural grade aggregate.
manufacture, lightweight aggre-
gate manufacture.
35 Fill in road construction. Stabilised
roadmaking material. Brickmaking.
Lightweight aggregate manufac-
ture.
Lightweight aggregate manufac-
ture.

6 . 3 , Use as fill 7. D I S C U S S I O N

While the use of colliery spoil in the lower layers of roads

and embankments is well established, there is currently
interest in Germany in upgrading the spoil to such a degree
that it comes up to the standards required for the upper layers
and for the frost blanket, The main problems to be overcome
are resistance to weathering. Methods of achieving this
which are under development are by crushing and grading
selected coars~ fractions and possibly by mixing them with
suitable additives. Other uses of interest are as railway ballast
or as filling for dykes and in the solidification of-building sites
and municipal waste heaps.
In the UK there is, current interest in the use of spoil for
reclamation of land from the sea,
6 . 4 . In road building
Current interest here is in the development of methods of
stabilising the spoil for use in sub-base and base courses of
roads. Cement stabilisation is being investigated in the UK
by the National Coal Board and the use of fly ash, lime and
gypsum in France.
Some laboratory work on the production of a skid resistant
road surfacing aggregate from colliery spoil alone (by the
National Coal Board) and from mixtures of colliery spoil and
bauxite [13] has been carried out in the UK. Although initial
results of this research were promising there have been no
further developments of it to date.
The chemical and mineralogical properties of the colliery
spoil reported here seem to be broadly similar except that
significantly higher contents of calcite and pyrite have been
reported in the spoils from the United States.
There are large productions and stockpiles of colliery spoil
in many countries especially USA, Germany and UK. The
considerable differences in the amounts stockpiled in the
different countries reflect differences in the thickness and
difficulty of the coal seams and to some extent differences in
the methods of mining, some of which allow the waste to be
packed back into the mine.
The most feasible method of dealing with the large
amounts of spoil in stockpiles is by landscaping them.
Relative to the quantities available, presently envisaged
methods of utilisation can absorb only a small proportion of
the spoil. The only exception to this is when large scale Civil
engineering projects such as land reclamation schemes,
large dams, etc., are undertaken close to the coal mining
areas; such schemes can use very large quantities of fill
materials.
At present a relatively small proportion of the spoil is used.
The major use is as fill, particularly in roadworks. When using
spoil in this way precautions may be necessary (according
to the level of the road where it is used) against frost
susceptibility, sulphate attack on concrete in contact with
the spoil, and combustion of the spoil. However the main
constraint on the use of spoil is the economic distance over
which it can be transported.

263
 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions
Colliery spoils can be used as fill under buildings but its
use needs careful control otherwise failures may result from
sulphate attack on concrete or settlement due to inadequate
consolidation. Building Digests such as those produced by
the UK Building Research Establishment may give guidance
on the use of colliery spoil (and other waste materials) as fill.
The use of colliery spoil in brickmaking can produce energy
savings but improvements in the technology of use are
needed to enable the production of facing bricks. Variability
in the properties (and particularly fuel content) of the spoil is
a major problem.
The other major manufacturing use at present is in the
CHAPTER 2
BY-PRODUCTS FROM COAL-BURNING POWER STATIONS
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
The burning of coal to produce energy to generate
-electricity results in a number of wastes with different
properties according to the particular burning system used.
Some of the older stations produce a furnace clinker which is
the residue from burning lump coal on travelling grates or
from retort stoker firing. In more modern power stations,
however, the coal is pulverised before injection into the
boiler. In this case the principal waste is the small particles
which are carried upwards by the combustion gases. Their
escape from the stack is prevented by electrostatic
precipitators or other collection methods such as cyclones
and the fine ash collected is usually termed (in English), fly
ash or pulverised fuel ash and is the most important
by-product involved. In addition a proportion of the ash
clinkers together to form larger particles and falls to the
bottom of the furnace. In the majority of power stations these
fall through the grate and are collected as a furnace bottom
ash. However some furnaces produce a molten residue
which is termed boiler slag and this is tapped-off from the
furnace and is usually granulated with water.
Some countries are currently experimenting with the
fluidised combustion of coal and the ash residue from this
process will have its own particular properties and potential
uses. Little information is as yet available and this ash will not
100
6" e t L ~ ="~"~'=~.
~.
80 ~..\
Q "~
8o
40
20
[ 1 I i
2 4 6 8
Particle diameter
Fig. 1. - - Particle size distribution of some fly ashes.
264
production of lightweight aggregates but here too variability
in the properties of the spoil is a problem.
One of the most promising future developments in the use
of spoil is combustion of the spoil in a fluidised bed to
produce energy and to give a raw material which could be
used for aggregate manufacture or as a pozzolanic cement.
The production of a structural grade aggregate from spoil
is of interest because of the considerable potential market for
such an aggregate but the economics of manufacture are at
present unfavourable in comparison with natural aggre-
gates.
be discussed further here (however s e e section on fluidised
combustion of coal wastes in chapter 1 ). Crushed coal has
also been burned in cyclone furnaces to produce energy for
power generation and these produce a molten slag. It is not
known if any such furnaces operate in Europe but it is
reported that they operate in the USA and that boiler slags
from both pulverised and crushed coal boilers contribute
about 25% of the ash produced in the USA.
The vast majority of power plants now burn pulverised fuel
and produce fly ash and furnace bottom ash as residues. It is
these by-products that will be discussed here.
2, P R O P E R T I E S
2.1. Fly ash
Fly ash is composed of small, predominantly spherical,
particles. In bulk the ash is greyish in colour, becoming
darker with increasing proportions of unburnt carbon. An
investigation of 22 British ashes [16] found them to have an
average specific gravity of 2 . 1 4 'with a range of 1.98
to 2 . 3 8 and average specific surface of 390 m=/kg with
a range of 260 to 595 m2/kg. The particle size distribution
of ashes from South Africa, the UK and Hungary are
shown in figure 1.
9 9 BRS, mean of 25 UK ashes
9 9.... 9 S.Africa
~ nn--.~nn Kovach, Hungarian ash
9 (ref 26)
1 I --A
10 20 40 60 80dO0 200 300
#m )
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

TABLE I
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF FLY ASHES, FURNACE AND BOTTOM ASH ANO BOILER SLAG (WEIGHT %)
Fly ashes

Australia USA UK
India
South France USSR (typical
Africa As Recalculated
Bituminous Lignite Bituminous Lignite determined to nil Ioi ash)

02 36-63 9-13 34-52 15-52 43-54 43-53 39-56 47-58 41 -58 56.6
25.5-33 4.5-12 13-31 8-25 27-36 17-20 20-34 25-35 17-25.5 26.39
203 9
~203 1-19 12-30 6-25 2-19 2-8 5-10 5-16 4-16 6-16 5.93
]0. 0.2-10.5 9.5-33 1-12 11-36 2-13 4~11 1-5 1-5 3-8 1.37
gO 0.1-2 16-24 0.5-3 2-11 < 3 1-3 1-2 1-2 1.5-3.5 0.44
a20 0,1-6 4.5-5 0-7 < 1 5-8 0.05-1.5 0.05-1.6 1-2
0.2 1-4
,O 0.1-2 0.3 - < 3 !-4
O= 1-2 10.4-0.5 m - - - 0.5-1.2 1-1.3
33 0.05-2.5 18.5-14.5 0-2 0.7-27 < 2 - 0.3-1.5 0.3-1.6 0.2-0.6 0.2
I. < 0.01-0.02 1.2 - - < 0.002 (b) plus 3-10
(other
components)
;Os 0.03-3 nd . . . . 0.2-0.8 0.25-0.9
nO= 0-0.2 nd
:)2'' 0-0.1 nd
)ss-on-ignition.. 0.8-15 nd 1-12 (a) 1-12 (=) 1-12 7-9 1-25 7.50
20. 0.1-2 2-5 - - <0.2 - -

nd, not determined.

(=), Reported as "unburned carbon".
(b), Determination on one sample only.

Older power stations which come into operation only to

Boiler-slag meet peak loads tend to produce ashes with high carbon
Furnace bottom ash (typical composition)
from USA [10] from USA [10] contents (possibly above 10%) while modern power
stations operating continually to provide base load power
42.7 burn their fuel more efficiently and produce ashes with low
Si02 20-60
AI=O3 . 10-35 27.5 carbon contents. Observations in the UK have however
FezO3 5-35 21.0 found wide variations in carbon content and size grading of
CaO'. 1-20 6.4 the ash from one base load power station during a single day.
MgO. 0.3-4 1.1
Na=O. 1-4 Lignite ashes in for example, the South of France, may
K=O 1-4 have high contents of free CaO which makes these ashes
SO3 0.1-12 0.2
0.9 particularly suitable for stabilising gravels for
TiO 2
roadmaking [2].
The ashes reported from the USSR had 75 to 85% glassy
Chemical analyses of ashes from Australia, USA, South phase while reference [2:] reports 65 to 90% glass. Indian fly
Africa, France, U K, India and the USSR are given in table I. It ashes have been found to be relatively poor in glassy phases
can be seen that there is considerable variation though much (20-30%). The principal mineralogical phases occurring in
of this variation results from the varying carbon content. This British fly ashes have been found to be quartz, mullite,
is illustrated by the results for British ashes which have been haematite and magnetite. South African ashes are also
recalculated to a common base of nil loss-on-ignition and reported to contain quartz and muIlite and those from the
Consequently a much reduced range. Some of the Australian USSR quartz, haematite and calcinated clay materials.
ashes do-have quite distinct chemical compositions, in
particular being much higher in iron and magnesium. They
also have a wide range of chloride contents which could lead
2.2. Furnace-bottom ash
to problems of corrosion of reinforcement if a high chloride
ash is used in concrete. Little other information about the
chloride levels in ashes seems to be available but potential Little information on the composition and properties of
users should take this into account. The one determination of furnace bottom ashes have been reported by the contributors
chloride content available from the UK shows a very low to this survey but as it is produced at the same t i m e a s
figure. The general range of alkali contents is high and this the fly ash it is presumed to be similar in its chemistry and
can have an effect if the ash is used with a view to preventing mineralogy. British furnace bottom ashes [1 ] are reported to
alkali aggregate (silica) reaction. Work in the US has be a fused product with a fairly porous structure and to vary
suggested that ashes with a high alkali content are in size from coarse sand to 300 mm or larger.
significantly less efficient in preventing AAR [17]. An analysis of American bottom ashes is given in table I
The residual carbon content varies with the efficiency of which shows its chemical composition to be similar to fly ash
the combustion and the continuity of power generation. though with higher alkalies and sulphate.

265
 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Materiaux et Constructions

2.3. Cenospheres (floaters)
A small proportion ( 0 - - 5 % ) of British and Australian fly
ashes are reported to occur as h o l l o w spherical particles or
cenospheres. Cenospheres are k n o w n to occur in the ashes
produced in some other countries but not in all. Their
occurrence is believed to be connected w i t h the properties of
the coal. The cenospheres tend to separate when the ash is
allowed to settle in lagoons and are often therefore called
floaters. They have a bulk density of about 250 k g / m 3
compared w i t h pfa at about 1,000 kg/=n 3 and have a particle
size range between 50 and 125p w h i c h is somewhat larger
than the parent ash '[1]. The silica content'also tends to be
higher (55 to 60%) than in fly ash.
3. OCCURRENCE A N D DISPOSAL
The number of coal burning p o w e r stations and the
quantities of, fly ash, furnace b o t t o m ash, clinker and slag
produced in the countries w h i c h have reported are tabulated
in table I1. A more extensive list of the production and
utilisation of fly ash by European countries in 1973 w h i c h
has been presented in the French contribution is also
reproduced as table III.
Most fly ash is pumped as a water slurry to settling lagoons
and much fly ash is also used as landfill in old quarries, etc. In
many countries the lack of facilities for the dry collection and
sale of fly ash is a hindrance to its utilisation. This is reported
to be the case in India and Australia (only 10% of ash is
collected dry). In contrast, in the USA 65-80% of stations
have dry collection facilities a l t h o u g h only about 5% of ash is
used. 50% of ash in the USA is pumped to lagoons and most
of the rest is mixed w i t h a b o u t 2% water and trucked to
landfill sites.
4. PRESENT U T I L I S A T I O N
The information on present utilisation reported by
contributors to the S y m p o s i u m is summarised in table IV
w h i l e information on occurrence and utilisation of ash in
European countries in 1973 is given in table II1. As far as
possible the use of ash in filling old quarries and so on has
been excluded from these statistics. The proportion of ash
utilised is considerable in Japan, Germany, France and the
UK and in most countries its use is growing. Constraints on
the use of ash are:
(i) the lack of dry collection facilities;
(ii) limitations in the distance over w h i c h the ash can be
commercially transported;
(iii) the heterogeneity of ash w h i c h militates against its
use in more demanding applications unless special selection
procedures are adopted.
The more important uses of ash are discussed individually
below:

TABLE It
PRODUCTION OF RESIDUES F R O M COAL BURNING POWER S T A T I O N S (Mt/yr.)

Annual ash production (Mt)

Number of coal Bituminous coals

Reference Total
Count~ burning
year Lignite coal
power stations Furnace
Fly ash bottom Clinker Slag Total ash
ash

India. 1977 (d) 33 7.8 1.0 - - - 0.1" 8.8 84

Australia. 1975 43 2.425 . . . . 0. 321 2.75
New Zealand 1977 (d) 1 0.02
Japan. ~ 1975 0.7 0.8 - - 1.5 (Some lignite ash 60.0
USA 1975 42.3 13.1 - 4.6 (e) 60 included in bitu-
minous data.)
South Africa "1977 27 7.7 1.3 2 - 11 (a) 11(")
Canada. 1975/1976 21 (in 1974) 1.8 0.45 - - 2.2
Germany 1972 . . . . 6 7.4 13.4
France. 1975 2.96 (b) 0.39 - Small 3.35 -0.1 3.35
quantity
Denmark. 1977 (d) . . . . 0.6 0.6
Finland 1977 (~) 0.199 0. 090 - - 0. 289 0.422(")
United Kingdom
--.England and Wales., 1974/1975 104 8.18 2.72 0.92 - 11.82 11.82
- - Scotland, 1972/1973 6 0.98 0.2 - - 1 .18 1.18
13.0

(a) Total includes grit ash from stoker fired boilers.

(b) Includes both bituminous and lignite ash and some slag.
(c) Includes ash from other organic fuels.
(a) Where 1.977 is given as reference year the source does not specify--they are presumably the latest available.
(') Reference 10 suggests about 15 million tonnes of boiler slag.

266

4.1. Use in road m a k i n g
4 . 1 . 1 . Use o f fly ash as f i l l
Fly ash has been used as a fill material in road construction
quite extensively, particularly in the UK and a recent
assessment of its use has been reported by the Transport and
Road Research Laboratory [18]. The optimum moisture
content of British ashes has been found to be in the range
18-23%, When compacted, fly ash has a low density
compared with most other materials and for fill this is
advantageous when fill material is required on highly
compressible soils. Many ashes possess self cementing
properties when they are compacted. The result of this
hardening, if it occurs, is that settlement within fly ash fill is
less than with other materials. This makes it particularly
useful as a selected fill behind bridge abutments where
settlement problems can be particularly troublesome. Wide
variations in self-cementing properties can however occur
and this is believed to be due to variations in the free lime
content and the pozzolanic activity of the ash.
Most fine ashes have been found in the UK to be frost
susceptible though ashes with less than 20% of particles
passing 75 I~ were considered unlikely to be frost
susceptible.
4 . 1 . 2. Use as s u b - b a s e a n d r o a d - b a s e materia/
Fly ash on its own is not suitable as a sub-base or road
base material but it can be stabilised. There are two ways of
using the ash [2]:
(i) as an aggregate--most fly ashes can be stabilised
using economic amounts of lime or cement;
(ii) as a binder--fly ash can be used by itself to improve
the physical properties of soil or imported material or, more
usually, in conjunction with lime or cement to form a binder.
The pozzolanic action is important here.
Cement and lime stabilised fly ash
The amounts of cement which must be added to fly ash to
meet the UK crushing strength requirements of 2.8 MN/m 2
have been found to vary from 5-15% of the weight of ash.
When sufficient cement to meet strength requirements is
added the frost susceptibility of the ash is a~so overcome.
Lime has been advantageously used to stabilise fly ash in
warm climate s (e. g. the Southern States of the USA) but in
cooler climates the slower setting time of the lime-- fly ash
mixture has meant that there is no economic advantage in
using it rather than cement. However the rate of gain in
strength at early ages can be improved by the addition of
4-5% gypsum to the lime fly-ash mixture and added
granulated slag has also been [ound to improve the
strength at early and intermediate ages. Fly ash-lime-
granulated slag mixtures are used in France for the base
construction of lightly trafficked roads [2].
Fly ash-lime mixtures for stabilisation
Lime-fly ash mixtures have been used in the USA and
France for stabilising a wide range of materials to form strong
durable sub-base and road-base material. The presence of
clay severely affects the strengths obtained as the lime
appears to react preferentially with the clay. Typical mixtures
are 2.5-3.5% lime and 10-25% fly ash [2]. Materials which
have been successfully stabilised include sand, gravel,
crushed stone and several types of slag.
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
4 . 2 . Use as f i l l under b u i l d i n g s
The self-hardening properties of fly ash in bulk are also of
use when the fly ash is used as fill beneath buildings. Major
industrial developments have been established on land
reclaimed with fly ash, for example a new power station has
been built in Scotland on land in the estuary of the river Forth
which was reclaimed with fly ash from an older nearby
power station. In ensuring good compaction of the fly ash
controlled hydraulic placing has been found to be effective
but uncontrolled settlement as in a lagoon does not produce
a stable fill because of inhomogeneity and segregation in the
ash.
Fly ash has also found application in filling old mine shafts
and as a grout to stabilise fissured or unstable ground for the
foundations of buildings.
4.3. Use in c o n c r e t e
Fly ash is a pozzolanic material, that is, it will react with
lime in the presence of water at ordinary temperatures to
form cementing compounds. When fly ash is mixed with
Portland cement the lime is provided by the hydration
reactions of the Portland cement. Fly ash can therefore be
used as a cementitious material in concrete in two ways; by
intergrinding in a factory with the Portland cement clinker to
form a blended cement or by on-site mixing with the already
ground Portland cement.
One of the characteristics of the pozzolanic cementing
reaction is that the development of strength is slower than
that of OPC at early ages (less than 28 days). If reasonable
early strengths are to be achieved the proportion of fly ash
must therefore be limited and proportions not exceeding
about 30% are generally used. However, the physical
properties of those fly ashes most suitable for use in concrete
(in general those which are of small particle size and low
carbon content) allow some reduction in the water demand
of the concrete necessary to achieve a given workability so
with a suitable mix design (which generally means replacing
a proportion of the OPC with a greater weight proportion of
fly ash) the reduction in early strength can be kept to a
minimal value and the strength at ages beyond 28 days will
be as great or greater than OPC concrete.
The interest in using fly ash in concrete arises in two ways;
from the economies in cost and energy that can be achieved
and from the beneficial effects it can have on the concrete. It
is however important to recognise that economies arising
from the use of fly ash will vary from country to country and
an analysis of the position in the UK has been made [19].
In the US it is considered that an anticipated increase in
the use of fly ashes in cement by intergrinding will result in
several benefits to the cement industry including decreased
energy consumption in cement manufacture and increased
capacity for a relatively low capital expenditure. At present
incentives in the USA for the use of fly ash in cement are low
because of the reduced demand for cement coupled with
lack of experience in manufacture and the use of blended
cement.
The technical benefits and disbenefits of using fly ash in
concrete are not as yet fully evaluated and much research is
taking place. There is now good evidence E20] that in mass
concrete structures the temperature rise of fly ash concrete
is lower and that its strength is less adversely affected by
the high temperatures that are attained than is the concrete
267
Vol. 12 - N ~ 70 - Mat6riaux et C o n s t r u c t i o n s

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269
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat~riaux et Constructions

containing OPC alone. Much concrete containing fly ash has TAB LE V
already been used in dams and similar mass concrete
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR FLY ASH FOR USE IN CONCRETE
structures. Fly ash concrete is in many circumstances more (after Smith, [21])
resistant to chemical attack than 0 PC concrete both because
of its lower permeability and the reduction in the vulnerable
Specifications
free lime and tricalcium aluminate content. There is also
some evidence that it may be effective in reducing alkali Country Designation of standard Year
aggregate (alkali-silica) attack [17].
Australia AS 1129, fly ash for use in
Apart from the lower earlier strengths, disbenefits arising concrete (~ 1971
from the use of fly ash are the need for more careful mix AS 1130, code of practice for use
design and the increased possibility of batching errors of fly ash in concrete 1971
especially on site when two types of cementitious materials Austria ONORM B 3319, fly ash as
are used. hydraulic powdered admixture
component for cement manu-
Probably the greatest obstacle to the use of fly ash in facture 1962
concrete is the variation in the chemical and physical
properties of the ash which can seriously affect its use in India IS 3812
Part I, fly ash for use as pozzo-
concrete (see section 2 . 1 ) . It is therefore especially lana 1966
important that material used is to an appropriate Part II, fly ash for use as admix-
specification or standard. Of the countries w h o have ture in concrete 1966
Part III, fly ash for use as fine
reported, Australia, India, Japan, the USA and the UK have
aggregate for mortar and
standards covering fly ash for use in concrete while Australia, concrete 1966
France, Japan and the USA have standards governing IS 6491, methods of sampling fly
blended fly ash/OPC cements. A number of other countries ash 1972
including, among those w h o have reported, Italy, the Turkey Fly ashes for use with Portland
Netherlands, Spain, the USSR, India and Finland have cement clinker and Portland
specifications for pozzolanic cements which include fly ash. cement concrete (TS 639) 1968
The assessment of pozzolanicity is a difficult subject and Japan JISA6201, fly ash (=) 1958
numerous different tests have been proposed. Some of the Reaffirmed 1967
best known are: United Kingdom.. BS 3892, pulverised-fuel ash for
the F.M. Lea accelerated curing test; use in concrete (=) 1965
(c)
the ASTM pozzolanic activity index with Portland cement
or with lime; USA ASTM C618, fly ash and raw or
calcined natural pozzolan for
the Rio-Fratini chemical test; use as a mineral admixture in
the Raask and Bhaskar method. Portland cement concrete (b) 1977

The different tests do not unfortunately always give USSR. GOST 6269, binder active mineral
additives 63 1963
compatible results and for fly ash from a known source it is
probable that control of the physical and chemical
(') Methods of sampling and testing are included.
properties, particularly the fineness and carbon content, is
(b) Methods of sampling and testing are determined in
sufficient. A comparison of national standards for fly ash has accordance with ASTM C311.
been carried out at BRE [21] and tables V and VI giving (c) Currently under revision.
details of relevant standards for fly ash and blended
Portland/fly ash cements together with a discussion
(below) of the different requirements in these standards
for fly ash, are taken from this publication (updated where
possible). In the U.K an important revision of the standard
(BS 3892) has commenced in 1978.
TABLE VI
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONSFOR FLY ASH CEMENTS
COMPARISON OF NAT}ONAL STANDARDS FOR FLY ASH (after Smith, [21])
(see table V)
Specifications
The standards range in complexity from the very simple
Russian standard (GOST 6269), which apparently sets no Country Desiqnation of standard Year
physical requirements, to the very detailed ASTM standard
(C618). With the exception of the British standard Australia.. ASA181, blended cements 1971
France. . . . NF 15-302, Portland cement with secon-
( B S 3 8 9 2 ) they all cover the use of fly ash as a pozzolanic
dary constituent 1964
material. The British standard is exceptional in covering the Japan . . . . JIS R5213, fly ash cement 1964
use of fly ash only as an inert sand replacement and avoiding USA. C 595, blended hydraulic cements 1976
reference to its pozzolanic properties (1). In general there are Other. (~
few major differences in the provisions of the various
standards and in some cases they are obviously derivative (") In a number of other countries fly ash cements are
from one another, for instance the British and Australian covered by specifications for pozzolanic cement. These
include Bulgaria, China, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Hungary,
Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Spain, USSR,
Yugoslavia, India, Finland and Canada.
(1) This standard is however currently being revised.

270

standards. A brief indication of the need for each type of test
is given.
The Austrian standard, which covers fly ash for grinding
with cement clinker during the manufacture of blended
cements, has been included in the comparison since the
provisions on chemical composition and pozzolanic activity
are relevant.
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS
Loss-on-ignition
All the standards set limits on the loss-on-ignition, as an
approximation of the carbon content, which has been
shown in a number of studies to be related to the suitability
of the ash for use in concrete. The limits set range from the
5% in the Japanese standard (also the advisory limit for
reinforced concrete in the Indian standard) to 12.0% in the
ASTM and Indian standards. The carbon content will affect
the colour of the ash, and for this, if for no other reason, low
carbon contents are preferable.
Sulphate
All the standards, apart from the Japanese, include a
maximum limit on the sulphate content of the fly ash as do
standards for Portland cements, and for the same reasons,
i. e. that too much sulphate can lead to volume instability of
concrete due to formatio[~ of ettringite. The limits range from
2.5% SO 3 in the British and Australian standards (1.5% SO 3
if the weight of the fly ash in the concrete mix is equal to or
greater than the weight of the Portland cement) to 5.0% in
the Turkish and ASTM standards (also the lowest grading in
the tndian standards). The variation in limits reflects
difference between countries in the limits they set for
Portland cement.
Major oxide analysis
The ASTM, Indian and Turkish standards each specify that
A[203+SiO2+Fe203 shall not be less than 70%. The
Japanese standards require a minimum SiO 2 content of 45%
and the Russian standard a minimum SiO 2 content of 40%.
These limits in each case are meant to be indicators of
potential pozzolanic activity. The general applicability of
such general criteria is not without controversy. The Turkish
standard is unusual in specifying a maximum CaO content
(6%). The Austrafian, British and Austrian standards do not
include any provisions for the major oxides.
Magnesia
The British standard sets a limit of 4%, the Indian and
Turkish standards a limit of 5%. The other standards do not
set limits for magnesia although there is an optional
requirement in the ASTM standard. The limit was included in
BS 3892 to parallel the requirement in BS 12 for Portland
cement. Limits on magnesia are included in this, and in most
standards for Portland cement, since if too much is present,
free periclase (MgO) may appear in the clinker and this can
lead to long-term volume instability of concrete. The
important factor is the quantity of free MgO present and not
the total MgO. It is doubtful whether the test methods
applied to Portland cements to determine volume stability
due to presence o f periclase are applicable to cements
containing fly ash.
Available alkalis as Na20
The ASTM and Indian standards both set a limit of 1.5%
available alkalis as Na20 where required for use in concrete
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
containing a reactive aggregate. These requirements are
similar to those in the corresponding standards for Portland
cement and are needed with certain aggregates which react
with alkalis, leading to long-term disruption of concrete.
Moisture content on defivery
The limits on moisture content range from 1.0% (Japan) to
3.0% (ASTM). The Austrian, Indian and Russian standards
do not include provisions on moisture content. (It is reported
that most Indian fly ashes do in fact have a low moisture
content say 0.1 to 0.3%.) A low moisture content provides
some indication that the ash has been handled correctly
since leaving the power station. There is also some
evidence that too high a moisture content is associated
with loss of activity.
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
Fineness
Fineness is one of the principal variables affecting the
suitability of a fly ash in concrete. All the standards, with the
exception of the Russian and Austrian, include provisions on
fineness. Such a provision would not be relevant to the
Austrian standard since it covers fly ash for grinding with
cement clinker during the manufacture of blended cements.
The Australian, ASTM, and Turkish standards set limits in
terms of maximum residue on specified sieves; the Indian
and British standards set limits in terms of minimum surface
area as determined by an air permeability method; the
Japanese set residues and surface area as alternatives.
Apart from the British standard which uses a specially
developed method (Rigden cell with Lea and Nurse
apparatus) the surface areas are to be determined by the
Blaine method. The results obtained with the two methods
are likely to be broadly comparable. The limits set range from
270 m2/kg (Japan) to 425 m2/kg for Zone C in the British
standard.
The Zone B limits in the British standard, 275-425 m2/kg,
compare with minima in the other standards for pozzolanic
materials of 270 (Japan), 320 (India), and for admixture
280 (India). The different methods of determination must
however be noted. The results of surface area measurements
will be affected by the presence of carbon, and ashes with
high carbon contents will give misleadingly high surface
area values, although in practice high carbon tends to be
associated with coarse ashes. It is for this reason that sieve
residues are preferred as a measure of fineness or made an
additional requirement by some authorities.
Limits on the residue on a 451~ sieve are set by ASTM
(34%), Japanese (25%) and Australian (50%) standards.
The Australian couples this much higher limit with a limit
of 10% residue on a 150# sieve. The Turkish standard
couples residue on a 87 # sieve (8.0% max) with a residue
on a 200# sieve (0.2%).
Compressive strength tests
Compressive strength tests are specified in the Indian,
Turkish and Japanese standards. In each case they are made
on mortar specimens, and the water content of the fly ash
mixes is adjusted to give a similar consistency or flow to the
controls made with Portland cement alone. The ages of test
are: India 28 days; Turkish 7 and 28 days; Japanese 28 and
91 days. In each case the test serves to demonstrate that the
271
 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions
use of the fly ash will not adversely affect the properties of
the Portland cement.
In the Turkish test, the fly ash is used to replace an amount
of fine aggregate equivalent to 25 wt. % of Portland cement
content, i. e. the Portland cement content of the mix remains
essentially constant (s~nce the fly ash mix will have a lower
density the amount of cement per cube will be slightly
reduced--about 3-4%). In both cases the requirement is that
the strength of the fly ash mix at 28 days shall not be less than
that of the control.
The Japanese test is made using a replacement level of
25 wt. % of the cement by fly ash and requires that the fly ash
mix gives 63% of the strength of the control at 28 days and
80% at 91 days. Thus, a small negative effect is'allowed at
28 days and a small positive effect is considered a possibility
at 91 days.
The Indian standard uses a replacement level of 10 to
25 wt.% and the requirement at 28 days is a strength of at
least 80% of the control.
The Turkish standard includes a test for pozzolanic activity
resembling that in the ASTM standard for pozzolanic activity
with Portland cement (see below) but unlike the ASTM
standard no accelerated curing appears to be involved and it
therefore falls more appropriately in the category of a
compressive strength test. In this test a 35 vol. % replacement
is used which is approximately equal to a 26 wt.%
replacement (assuming densities of 3,100 and 2,000 kg/m 3
for the cement and fly ash respectively). The requirement is
for 70% of the control strength at 28 days, that is, no positive
contribution to strength is expected.
Pozzolanic activity
Tests for pozzolanic activity are included in the ASTM,
Indian and Turkish standards. The Turkish test has been
discussed above as it seems more appropriate to term it a
compressive strength test. Pozzolanic activity relates to the
long-term performance of the potential pozzolans in
concrete rather than to shorter-term properties. These are
governed to a greater extent by physical parameters such as
fineness and water requirement.
The ASTM includes two tests: one with Portland cement
and one with lime. The test with Portland cement compares
the strength of a control mortar with one in which 35 vol. %
(approximately 26 wt. %) of the Portland cement has been
replaced by fly ash. The cubes are tested at 28 days after
curing for most of this time at 38~ This elevated
temperature is used to accelerate the pozzolanic reaction.
The fly ash mix is required to give 75% of the strength of the
control.
Both the ASTM test and the Indian test with lime set
simple strength minima. The mix, method of cure and form of
specimen are all different and a direct comparison of the two
tests is not possible.
Water requirement
The Japanese and ASTM standards include water
requirements based upon the relative water content of unit
volumes of a fly ash mix and a control mix without fly ash.
The Japanese standard states that the water content of a unit
volume of the fly ash mix (25% replacement of cement)
should not exceed 100% of the water content of the same
volume of the control. The ASTM standard employs
35 vol. % replacement (approximately 26% by weight) and
sets a limit of 105%.
272
Other requirements
The Indian standard sets limits on increase in drying
shrinkage and on soundness by the autoclave expansion
test. It is doubtful whether this latter test is applicable to
cements containing fly ash. The Turkish standard specifies
soundness to be determined by the Le Chatelier test.
4 . 4 . Manufacture of l i g h t w e i g h t aggregate
The use of fly ash as a raw material in the manufacture of
lightweight aggregates is reported from the USA, Germany,
India and the UK. The process is commercially well
established in the UK. In all three cases sinterstrand
processes are used. Pellets are formed either in a revolving
cone, disc or drum or by extrusion. In Britain a low grade coal
is mixed with the fly ash to " t o p - u p " the fuel content or the
ash is mixed with colliery spoil. Sintering is done on a
travelling grate furnace at 1,1 50-1,200~ and the sinter cake
which is only lightly fused can be broken up to provide
discrete pellets. It is reported from the USA that variability of
the carbon and iron content of the raw ash can cause
problems. In order to produce satisfactory aggregate the
carbon content should be between 3 and 10%. Excessive
iron in the ash can result in an aggregate which causes
staining. Beneficiation of the ash may therefore sometimes
be necessary [10].
The aggregate produced is of high quality with good
shape, strength and moderate water absorption and can be
used for both lightweight concrete blocks and structural
lightweight concrete. Concrete can be made with
compressive strengths up to about 56 MN/m 2 though the
practical works cube strength at 28 days is about
45 M N / m = [22]. Air dry concrete densities range from
about 1,100 to 1,800 kg/m 3.
4 . 5 . Other uses
Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks are made in Britain
(and, it is believed in Eastern Europe and the USSR) from
cement, fly ash, sand and an aerating agent, usually
aluminium powder. Demand for such blocks is increasing in
Britain because of more stringent thermal insulation
regulations.
Clinker, furnace bottom ash and boiler slag are used
unprocessed as lightweight aggregate, primarily in concrete
blocks. It is reported from South Africa that the sulphate
content of the clinker can be higher than is permitted by the
South African standard for lightweight aggregate and that
quicklime nodules can cause pop-outs in the concrete.
Small amounts of fly ash are used as raw material in
cement manufacture i n many countries but little information
on its use is available. Significant amounts of fly ash are used
asa filler in asphalt. In Canada some 22,000 t a year are sold
for use as an oil well cement [23].
5. USES UNDER D E V E L O P M E N T
As discussed earlier the use in road making of fly ash
stabilised with, lime, cement gypsum or granulated slag or
with mixtures of these materials, is under development,
particularly in France.

Much research effort is also being put into the use of fly
ash in concrete, particularly into ways of overcoming the
disadvantage of the variability in properties of the ash and
into the durability of concrete made with the ash.
In several countries work on the manufacture of bricks
using fly ash as a raw material is reported, In the USA fly ash
bricks have been made on a pilot plant scale from 75% fly ash
and 23% furnace bottom ash with a sodium silicate binder.
Mixtures of fly ash and clay, fly ash and boiler slag and fly ash
and sand have also been investigated in the US [10]. In
Scottand mixtures of 75% fly ash and 25% carbonaceous
shale were investigated. The bricks were formed by the stiff
plastic process and fired at 1,000~ Compared with bricks
made with shale alone the fly ash bricks had higher
compressive strengths and lower soluble sulphate content.
Some difficulties were experienced however in getting
uniform mixing of the fly ash and shale and variability of
carbon content in the ash caused difficulties in kiln control.
In England fly ash has been used in the past to offset
shrinkage in some clays. No works are known to be currently
using ash but there is a renewal of interest in the use of ash
because of the possibility of energy savings in firing the
bricks which could result from the carbon content of the fly
ash.
An insulating material using cenospheres as the filler is
being developed in Britain. It is intended as a replacement for
asbestos in protecting steel beams from fire.
A novel cement based on fly ash has recently been
developed in Belgium [24]. Fly ash is melted at 1,400-
1,500*C with an appropriate quantity of limestone. The melt
is then water quenched to form a vitreous granulate which is
wet ground to a very high specific surface (about 1,000 m2/
kg). This is then mixed with an approximately equal quantity
of untreated fly ash. The blended material is activated for use
as a cement by dissolving 5-7% of sodium hydroxide (by
weight of cement) in the mixing water, Claims made for the
cement are good early strength properties, a low heat of
hydration and good resistance to chemical attack. These
claims need further appraisal however and have to be
balanced against the difficulties of handling a strongly
alkaline material on site, the risk of alkali aggregate reaction
and the possibility of efflorescence. A similar cement has
been developed in India which, it is claimed, has better
strength development at lower fineness, a lower dosage of
activator and better storage properties.
6. POSSIBLE HEALTH H A Z A R D F R O M FLY A S H
The finely divided and siliceous nature of fly ash raises the
question of possible health hazards arising from the
inhalation of the fly ash, particularly by people working with
it. A study carried out in the UK [25] has however indicated
that fly ash .is not a source of danger in this respect. Doubts
have been raised about possible increases in the exposure of
people to radioactivity arising from the incorporation of fly
ash into building materials but again preliminary studies of
British fly ashes have found that there is unlikely to be
significant increase in the background radiation level due to
the use of this material. However examination of the
radioactivity in ashes from other coals is advisable.
W. Gutt- P. J. Nixon
7. D I S C U S S I O N
Fly ash is produced in a high proportion of the countries
which have contributed to this Symposium and several other
countries are currently considering the building of coal-
burning power stations for the first time so the means o f
disposal or use of fly ash is of considerable present
importance. There is signifiant variation in the properties of
ashes produced in different countries, also between ashes
produced at different power stations within a country and
even in the ash from one source. The control of this
variability, in particular of the fineness and the carbon
content, is important in facilitating the more sophisticated
uses of fly ash, for example its use as a cementitious additive
to concrete. An awareness of the levels of the minor chemical
components of the ash is also necessary, for example the
chloride content because of possible corrosion of reinforce-
ment in concrete containing the ash and the alkali level if the
ash is to be used to combat alkali-aggregate reactivity. A
knowledge of the total content of trace elements in the ash
and their solubility will be necessary if the ash is placed in a
situation where leaching could cause contamination of
ground waters with respect to drinking water and uptake by
plants.
Even though the proportion of ash used in some countries
is fairly high the local production of ash in very large
quantities from the large modern power stations can lead to
difficulties in disposing of the ash in these areas, Much ash is
currently being used in road works and as fill, These outlets
are useful but by their nature are not continuous. The
distance from the power station at which the ash can be used
in this way is also severely restricted by transport costs,
especially as special vehicles are necessary, Moreover in
these uses the most valuable properties of the material, e, g.
the cementitious behaviour, are not exploited to their
greatest potential.
More sophisticated uses are being established, for
example the use of fly ash as a cementitious material in
concrete, and in the manufacture of lightweight aggregates
and aerated concrete blocks, For such uses to be successful
it is necessary to ensure that there is continuity in the supply
of the fly ash and that there are adequate means of
controlling the variability in the properties of the ash.
Use of fly ash as a cementitious material offers an
opportunity in cases where the demand for cement rises
above the existing kiln capacity to supplement supplies of
Portland cement at a much lower cost than extending the
manufacturing facilities of Portland cement and also of
saving energy in manufacture. The use of concrete
containing fly ash can also give positive advantages, for
example in mass concrete structures where temperature rise
is a problem. Adequate standards are necessary to cover the
use of fly ash as a cementitious material and these should
preferably include some assessment of its pozzolanicity.
Use of fly ash in the manufacture of lightweight
aggregates or aerated concrete can make a contribution to
the provision of insulating building materials to meet more
stringent standards of thermal insulation which many
countries are introducing in order to conserve energy.
273
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat~riaux et Constructions
CHAPTER 3
METALLURGICAL SLAGS
During the thermal reduction of metallic ores a non-
metallic melt is formed. This melt is usually described as a
slag. It has the important function of removing unwanted
impurities from the metal. The term slag is also applied to the
molten material produced during other processes such as
coal combustion and phosphorus production.
1. BLASTURNACE (IRON) SLAG
Blastfurnace slag is a by-product of the manufacture of
iron by reduction in a blastfurnace. The slag is formed by
fusion of limestone (and/or dolomite) and other fluxes with
the ash from coke and the siliceous and aluminous
components of the iron ore burden. The slag floats on the
surface of the molten iron and is separated when the furnace
is tapped. An important function of the slag is removal of
sulphur which cannot be tolerated in iron to any extent. The
chemical composition of the slag is adjusted in order to
achieve this and provide good fluidity of the slag by the
addition of different fluxes.
By varying the rate and manner of cooling of the molten
slag several different types of solid slag are produced. If it is
allowed to solidify in air a dense crystalline material called
air-cooled slag is formed, Alternatively the slag can be
foamed by introducing water from jets into the stream of
molten slag. The steam produced within the solidifying slag
causes it to expand to form lightweight material. If the slag is
cooled very quickly by large amounts of water it can be
quenched to a glassy material called granulated slag.
Recently the options of treatment have been widened by a
new process, called pelletization, which has been developed
in Canada. In this process the stream of molten slag is poured
onto a feed plate onto which jets of water are playing and
then onto a revolving drum. The paddle flings the slag
through the air so that it forms small pellets as it solidifies
and according to the amount of water a foamed or granu-
lated product is produced. The merits of this new process
are still being assessed.
1.1. Composition of the slag
The chemical compositions of blastfurnace slags from a
number of countries are tabulated and compared in table I.
The slags are all broadly similar in composition. Nowadays
many of the industrialised countries, especially in Western
Europe, import much of their iron ore and the slag analyses
are influenced mainly by the composition of this parent ore.
The principal mineralogical phase found in crystalline
blastfurnace slags is mellilite which is the term applied to any
solid solution in the series from akermanite
(2CaO.MgO.2SiO2) to gehlenite (2CaO.AI203.SiO2).
Slags high in lime may contain dicalcium silicate
2CaO.SiO 2, which can cause disintegration of the slag
when it inverts from the/~ form which is thermodynamically
unstable at ambient temperatures, to the stable 7 form. This
change is accompanied by a 10% volume increase which
274
causes disruption of the slag. If /~ dicalcium silicate is
present, the disintegration of the slag usually takes place
soon after pouring but impurities in the slag can stabilise it
and unconverted /3C2S has been found in the UK in slag
from concrete made in 1921. It is not possible as yet to
predict reliably and reproducibly whether a particular
dicalcium silicate present in a slag is thermodynamically
stable or present in sufficiently small quantities to have no
deleterious effect if it does disintegrate. This position could
only be advanced either by finding a quantitative tolerance
limit below which conversion would be physically harmless
or by obtaining enough knowledge to distinguish between
thermodynamically permanent stabilisation where the
inversion temperature has been lowered to below ambient
temperature and "temporary" stabilisation which can be
long-term but leaves the fl form metastable. In the UK it is
considered undesirable for a slag which is to be used
in a manner where its failure could endanger a structure to
contain any dicalcium silicate and in the British
standard 1047 on the use of blastfurnace slag as coarse
aggregate in concrete there are formulae based on the
chemical composition of the slag and microscopic tests
for the identification of slags containing dicalcium silicate.
These formulae are based on extensive phase studies of
the CaO.SiO 2, AI=O3.MgO quaternary system [27].
Those stability criteria in BS 1047 also apply in the UK
to slags used as roadstone. In Germany a test based on
the fluorescence of dicalcium silicate in ultra violet light is
used to identify 7 dicalcium silicate. This'test is applied a
short period after the slag is poured and if it is passed it is
assumed that any/3 dicalcium silicate present is safe.
The other component which can cause problems in the
use of the slag is the sulphur if present in reactive of
leachable form. The sulphur is mainly present as calcium
sulphide but sulphides of other metals, sulphates and
elemental sulphur have also been identified. Maxima for
the levels of sulphide and sulphate are generally given in
standards covering the use of slag; in BS 1047 the limit
for total sulphur species is 2% expressed as SO 3 and
for acid soluble sulphur species 0.7% as SO 3.
It is reported from South Africa that, in high magnesia
blastfurnace slags, periclase (MgO) has occasionally been
found. Periclase has been shown to hydrate and cause
disruption in, for example, steel slags but such a mode of
failure is not known to have occurred with blastfurnace
slags.
1.2. Quantities of blastfurnace slag
The quantities of blastfurnace slag produced and
stockpiled are tabulated in the table II. Little slag is
stockpiled in Western European countries where virtually all
the current production is used and where blastfurnace slag is
a well established material. What stockpiles there are tend to
be very old and to consist of mixtures of blastfurnace slag
and other materials. This can cause problems in use and
sampling for tests of such stockpiles where layers may differ
substantially in composition is difficult.
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

TABLE I

COMPARATIVE CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF BLASTFURNACE SLAGS (WEIGHT %)

South
Australia (") USA Germany (") Norway UK (c) UK (a) Sweden France India
Africa

SiO= 33-37 34-38 30-36 35 34-38 31-36 34 34-39 31-36 30-35

AI=03. 15-18 11-15 9-16 12.2 7-10 9-20 13.5 7-15 11-21 18-26
CoO. 39-44 45-47 30-40 41 40-48 33-45 40.9 35-44 39-45 30-36
MgO. 1-3 1-3 8-21 8 6-13 4-15 5.5 4-12 4-8 3-9
TiO 2 . 0.6 = 0.1-0.8 - 0.7-1,1 0.8 - 0.4-0.7

FeO. 0.7 1.3-4.5 - 0,25 0.5 0.5-1.2 0.1-1 <0.5

MnO.. 0.3-1.5 - - 0,5 0.8 - 0.1-1.2 <1
No20 0.2 - 0.2-0.9 1,2 0,1-0.4 0.7 0-3 0.2-0.8
K20 0.5 - 0.5-1.4 0.8 0.2-1.5
S. 0.6-0.8 - 1.0-1.6 0,6 0.8-2 0.53 0.9-1 .2 0.7-1 <1,
P=05 0.6
CoO/Si02 . . . . 1.2

(=) Range of four slags.

(b) Typical slag analysis.
(c) Range of nine slags.
(") "Typical" slag, sulphur figure refers to soluble sulphate as SO 3.

TABLE II
PRODUCTION OF BLASTFURNACE SLAGS

Slag production (Mt/yr.)

Stock- Slag per ton.
Reference Total piles of iron
year Air
oamed Granulated Pelletized (Mt) produced
cooled

India 1976-1977 5.5- - 1.69 30 0.9

1978-1979 (~ 7 2.39
Australia. - 2.76 -
Japan 1975 26.9 25 1.9 4,8 0.3
USA. 1973 27.5 26.8 (b) 0.45 0.23 Started
recently (~)
South Africa. 1976 2.1 1 .3 0.8 7
Canada. 1975/1976 2.4 2.2 - 0.2 - 0.23
Germany. 1976 11 .3 7.8 0.3 3.2 - 0.32
France 1975 14.73 5.8 Small 8.3 Started - 0.655
in 1975 (c)
Luxembourg. -- 4-5 3-4 1.3
Norway -- 0.23 --
Finland - 0.35 -

Belgium (c) - - 0.6 4 .3

Italy (c). - - 0.5 3 .2
Netherlands (c) - - 0.15 1 .2
UK. 1975 5.6 5.5 0.16 Started Small
in 1978
. Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1974 1,4 - - 0.25-0.4

(=) Predicted.
(b) By difference.
(c) Information from [2].

The differences in the proportions of slag per tonne of iron 1 . 3 . Utilisation of b l a s t f u r n a c e slag

produced reflect the quality of the ores used. Many

Australian ores for instance have iron contents over 60%
w h i l e in the USA 50% is a more typical figure and English
and European ores are around 30% iron. In the latter case
however the indigenous ores have been largely supplanted
by imported ores.
In the countries producing large volumes of slag such as
Japan and the USA the majority of the slag is air cooled
whereas in Europe (with the exception of the UK) a much
higher proportion of slag is granulated. The amount of slag
foamed is very restricted and pelletization is a new technique
which is only just being applied.
The amounts of blastfurnace slag used and the fields in
w h i c h it is used are tabulated in table II1. In general the
percentages utilised are very high, approaching 100% in
many cases. The countries in w h i c h the proportions used are
lower are some of the large countries, India, Australia and
South Africa where transport of the slag makes its full
economic use difficult. The greatest amounts are used in
road making f o l l o w e d by cement manufacture. The
individual uses are discussed below.

275
 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions

TABLE III
COMPARATIVE UTILISATION OF BLASTFURNACE SLAGS (Mt/yr.)

Air cooled Foamed Granulated Percentage

dense aggregate Railway cement Other Total used
Ballast
lightweight of
Roads Concrete
aggregate manufacture utilisation

India. Small Small Minor 0.64 Minor usage in

slag wool
Australia 0.36 (b) Major (b) 0.018 Minor Slag wool, slag 0.6 22
bricks, fill, glass
manufacture,
filter medium
Fertilizer, fill.. .{ 11.6 (sales) 43
Japan 12.4 2.44 (") 0.25 1.52
9" 24.5 (total) 91
(~
USA. 20.973 4.436 (c) 0.450 0. 232 - 26.091 95
South Africa 0.32 0.8 53
Canada. 2 Minor use Mineral wool, fill ~ 2 ~ 100
of
pelletized
slag
Germany. 7.2 Some use 0.3 2.8 Fertilizer, bricks ~ 7.8 ~ 100
but not (plus
quantified ~1 Mt
imported)
France. 5.8 8.3 89.9
(includes
graves
laitier)
Luxembourg. Major use 0.35 Granulate is expor- 4-5 100
ted (0.8-0.9)
and also used in
roads
Norway -- w Fill around works m

Finland. 0.08 Road making

Belgium (d) Used Used
Italy (d). Used Used
Netherlands (~).. Used __ w Used
UK >6 0.45 0.16 Filter medium 7 (~) 100 (~,}
Sweden - I 0.015 [ 0.072 (f)

(") Includes use within steel works.

(b) Used only within steel works9
(") Includes use as mineral wool and roofing slag.
(d) Information from reference 2.
(e) More than 100% used as some from stockpiles (1975);
(/) Includes use as binding agent. Production of slag cements ceased in 1974.

1.3.1. Use in road making
Air cooled slag - - is used extensively in road construction
in many countries in all road making applications from ~he
wearing course to sub-grade embankments. In general
there are no separate specifications regarding its use and
the slag simply has to meet the standards for natural
aggregates. In some countries, notably Belgium and the
UK [2], a limit on chemical composition is set to avoid
the presence of dicalcium silicate (see section 1.1).
If slag is used in a position where it is in contact with water
some of the sulphur compounds in the slag can cause
problems, either by leaching out of the slag and causing
contamination of water courses or by attacking concrete in
contact with the slag. Problems of this nature have been
experienced in Germany and the UK. Accordingly, in
Germany there are regulations to ensure that slag is not used
below the water table and that the road surfacing is
completed quickly to prevent rainwater seeping through the
slag.
Granulated s l a g - - i s used in road making in two ways,
as an aggregate and as a hydraulic binder.
The use of granulated slag as an aggregate to replace
natural aggregate is well established in many countries. It is
used in the blanket courses, base courses and sub-bases.
The specifications covering the use of granulated slag for
this purpose are the same as those for natural aggregate [2].
The use of granulated slag as a hydraulic binder for gravel
slag (graves laitiers) and for sand slag has been under
development in France for over 1 0 years and some 1 5 million
tons of gravel slag were used in 1975. It is now used in this
way in several countries including Luxembourg, Italy,
Hungary, Algeria and Tunisia.
Granulated slag will react with water in the presence of an
alkaline activator to produce cementing compounds. The
hydraulic activity of the slag depends on the chemical
composition of the slag, its glass content and the physical
properties of the slag, particularly its fineness. In order to
quantify the activity of different slags for use in road works a
coefficient has been developed in France based on the
surface area and a measure of the friability of the slag.
Gravel slag consists of a mixture of natural and artificial
gravel with 1 5-20% granulated slag and about 1% of a basic

276
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

activator (generally hydrated lime). The water content is A very wide range of cements containing granulated slag
about 10%. Sand slag is similar but uses sand instead of are produced containing slag in proportions varying from as
gravel. These materials are mainly used in the construction of low as 5 to over 90% and the types vary considerably from
the road base and sub-base courses. They have advantages country to country. Most are Portland blastfurnace cements.
in having a gradual rate of setting, a reduced sensitivity to To illustrate tl4e types of slag produced the categories of slag
temperature and in ease of laying. Their use allows cement defined by the Standard NBN 771-1969 in Belgium
reductions in pavement thickness and the standard of (which has a particularly comprehensive range) are listed
evenness which they provide makes it possible to reduce the below:
thickness of wearing courses. PL, Portland slag cement 5-20% slag;
There are French specifications for the use of gravel slag PF, iron Portland cement 20-35% slag;
and sand slag which specify the percentage of granulated HK, blastfurnace slag cement 35-60% slag;
slag to be used in the mix in terms of the aggregates used and
HL, blastfurnace slag cement 60-85% slag;
the activity coefficient of the granulated slag (mentioned
above). LK, permetallurgical cement more than 85% slag;
S, super sulPhated cement more than 90% slag.
1.3.2. Use in building Compared with Portland cements, blastfurnace slag
1 . 3 . 2 . 1 . As a concrete aggregate cements have lower strength at early ages but may achieve
equivalent strengths ultimately. The low early strength is
Air cooled blastfurnace slag is well established [28] but
most marked in cold weather, less apparent in hot weather.
only used to a limited extent as a dense aggregate in
The heat of hydration of slag cements is lower than that of
concrete. In many countries it has been mainly used in this
OPC especially at early ages and the strength development is
way within steelworks. In Germany and the UK the use of
less affected by high temperatures so these cements are
slag in concrete is covered by standards, DIN4226 and
advantageous in mass concrete structures [20]. At high slag
BS 1047 respectively. For the safe and trouble free use of
contents these cements are more resistant than OPC to
blastfurnace slags in this way it is necessary to monitor the
attack by aggressive solutions such as sulphates; this i s
composition of the slag in order to avoid unsoundness due to
especially the case with super sulphated cement [29].
the presence of dicalcium silicate, iron compounds, of
sulphates in the slag. Where these precautions have been Portland blastfurnace slag cements containing less than
taken, however, blastfurnace slag has been found to be an about 35% slag are used in similar ways and for similar
entirely satisfactory aggregate in concrete and can be used purposes to ordinary Portland cements. At higher slag
interchangeably with natural aggregates. contents (over about 60%) the advantageous properties of
~ow heat of hydration and resistance to chemical attack
Foamed blastfurnace slag is used in several countries as a
become more significant but these must be balanced against
lightweight aggregate, mainly in lightweight concrete
the lower early strengths so that such high slag cements are
blocks, but also in structural lightweight concrete. In the U K
used mainly for specialist purposes such as mass concrete or
its use in this way is specifically covered by the Standard
foundations and structures subject to chemical attack. At
BS 877. Recently pelletised slags have begun to be used as
slag contents over 50% precautions are necessary against
lightweight aggregate in blocks. Compared with foamed
premature drying out during the first four days and during
slag, petletised slag has a more rounded, less porous texture
and structure and it is claimed that less air pollution is cold weather.
produced during its manufacture than is the case with Blastfurnace slag cements are also used as an alternative
foamed or granulated slag. to a low alkali Portland cement when the aggregate is
susceptible to attack by cement alkalies.
1 . 3 . 2 . 2 . In cement manufacture
Granulated blastfurnace slags are well proven and are TABLEAU IV
AMOUNTS OF BLASTFURNAGE SLAG CEMENTS USED
extensively used in the manufacture of various slag cements. COMPARED WITH TOTAL USAGE OF CEMENTS
Their use can help to conserve energy used in cement IN THE MAIN SLAG CEMENT USING COUNTRIES (1971)
manufacture. The available information on the amounts of
slag based cements used in the countries which have Stag cement, Percentage
significant productions of these cements is tabulated in used of total
table IV and many other countries produce and use such (Mr/yr.) cement used
cements on a smaller scale.
France 3.2 10
A catalyst or activator is necessary to initiate the Italy. 3.3 10
cementitious hydration reactions of granulated slags. Strong Germany 8.95 22
bases such as soda and lime are effective in doing this and Belgium. 1.6 25
the most com~nonly used activators are the lime resulting USSR. 17. I 27
Netherlands. 60
from the hydration of Portland cement (in Portland South Africa. 1.39 21 (~
blastfurnace cements) and mixtures of calcium sulphate and Japan 3.5 6
Portland cement (in super sulphated cement). Poland 5.2 40
Czechoslovakia 4.3 54
Blastfurnace slags differ in their suitability for use in the Roumania 3.O 35
manufacture of cement. They must have an appropriate India. 3.1 17 (b)
composition and be well vitrified. There are various chemical
formulae which have been proposed to calculate the Use of slag cements in most other countries is believed
hydraulic va~ue of different slags. Usually the slags are to be small.
interground with the activator and are on the whole ground (") Figures for 1977.
more finely than ordinary Portland cements. (b) Figures for 1976.

277
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions
There is evidence from Germany that a higher alkali
content can be tolerated in a blastfurnace slag cement
without deleterious attack on the aggregate than is the case
with Portland cement [30].
There is evidence that pelletized blastfurnace slags also
have hydraulic properties and can be ground and used in
blastfurnace slag cements similarly to granulated slags. Their
use in this way is currently under development and a ground
pelletized slag is being marketed in Canada as a cement
replacement.
A modification of the usual process for making
blastfurnace cement was introduced in Belgium by V.
Trief [31] and has become known as the Trief process. In
this process the slag, after granulation, is ground wet and
stored as a wet slurry. It is kept as a separate constituent until
the concrete is being mixed when the Portland cement, slag
slurry and aggregate are added together. Advantages of
lower energy consumption in drying the slag, and more
efficient grinding in the wet state are claimed for the process.
Because of the finer grinding of the slag, slag contents in
excess of 70% can be used. Cements made by the Trief
process have been used in the manufacture of concrete
products in Belgium and also for the construction of dams in
France and Britain.
1.3.3. Other uses
Air cooled blastfurnace slags are used as ballast under
railway tracks, and are ground for use as fertilisers and are
used as a filter medium. SIag wool is produced by rapid
cooling in compressed air and is used as a heat and sound
insulating material. It is reported that this is of major
importance in the USSR where some 2 million tons are
produced [32].
A blastfurnace slag ceramic can be made by mixing a small
amount of a nucleating agent with the slag together with
other components to give the best composition, melting the
mix, cooling to form a glass and heat-treating the glass in a
two stage cycle so that myriad tiny nuclei form at the
nucleation temperature and a uniform crystalline mass forms
on these nuclei at the crystallisation temperature. The only
country to have used this process on a production scale is
believed to be the USS R. The material produced (Slag-sitall)
is highly resistant to abrasion and attack by chemicals and is
used for purposes such as heavy duty flooring or pipe
sections.
On a restricted scale blastfurnace slags are used as a raw
material in Portland cement clinker manufacture.
Granulated slag is used in the manufacture of autoclaved
bricks, mixed with either lime or blastfurnace slag cement.
1 . 4 . Uses under development
Many countries are continuing to develop the use of the
hydraulic properties of granulated blastfurnace slags, both
for use in blastfurnace cements and as a binder in road
making. A study of the suitability of Swedish blastfurnace
slags for slag cement manufacture has been presented as a
contribution to this Symposium. Other types of cement
basedon blastfurnace slags are also being investigated. In
the U K [33] investigations have been carried out of cements
made from a combination of finely ground blastfurnace slag
with fly ash and sodium hydroxide as an activator. The
278
optimum proportions were found to be 60% slag, 40% fly ash
and 7% sodium hydroxide. Early strengths of concrete made
with this cement were good but there was little gain beyond
28 days. Anticipated problems with this cement are the
difficulties of handling a strongly alkaline material on site,
the risks of alkali aggregate attack and the possibility of
efflorescence.
Investigations of the techniques of using granulated slag
as a binder in road making are taking place in several
countries. In France the use of gravel slag where slag is used
as both the binder and the aggregate and ways of improving
the reactivity of weakly hydraulic granulated slags by
crushing lightly are being developed.
Research into ways of using pelletized slags istaking place
in several countries. Possible areas of utilisation are as a
lightweight aggregate in blocks and structural concrete, for
base stabilisation in roads, as a binder and aggregate in
autoclaved blocks and as the hydraulic component in
blastfurnace cements.
2. STEEL-MAKING SLAGS
Steel-making slag is produced as a by-product of the
conversion of pig iron to steel. This involves the lowering
and controlled adjustment of the content of various
impurities. Refining is achieved by fusion of the pig iron with
a flux such as limestone or dolomite under oxidising
conditions. Impurities which are present in the pig iron in
excess such as carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorous
and sulphur are either oxidised to gases or pass into the slag
as complex oxides. Steel is produced by several different
processes; oxygen convertor processes (called here basic
oxygen furnace or BOF) are becoming the principal
producers of mass steel, replacing the open hearth furnace
while electric arc furnaces are used for more specialist steels
and for refining scrap iron.
Steel slags are usually tapped from the furnace into ladles
and are tipped and allowed to air cool.
2 . 1 . C o m p o s i t i o n o f steel slags
The chemical analyses of steel slags from BOF, open
hearth and electric arc processes from various countries are
compared in tables V a, b and c. The chemical compositions
of the slags vary a good deal, even between samples of slag
from the same process in a particular works. This is in
contrast with blastfurnace slags where the compositions
vary relatively less. In particular large and varying amounts of
iron (included in the total Fe203 figure) are retained in the
slag. The basicities (expressed as the CaO/SiO 2 ratio) also
vary a good deal and are on average much higher than those
of blastfurnace slags. The slags are however very low in
sulphur components.
The mineralogies of steel slags reflect their chemical
analyses in being much more variable than blastfurnace
slags and higher in lime. Typical phases occurring in the
slags are calcium silicates (including dicalcium silicate),
metal oxide solid solutions and calcium ferrites. Metallic iron
and free calcium and magnesium oxides are also found.
These compounds will hydrate and expand in the
presence of moisture and can cause disruption of the slag
mass. The lime hydrates fairly quickly and can cause
 W Gutt - P. J. Nixon

disruption within a few weeks, while the magnesia hydrates 2.2. Quantities of steel making slags
more slowly, over a period of years. Sometimes pieces of
broken refractory brick from the furnace lining are mixed The available information on the production and
with the slag and these can sometimes also hydrate stockpiles of steel making slags is summarised in tableVI
expansively. together with an indication of the types of steel making
In general the compositions of the basic oxygen slags are process used. The amounts of slag produced per tonne of
the most variable and these slags tend to have higher steel is considerably less than in the case of blastfurnace
basicities and a greater tendency to contain free lime. Electric slags; a figure of 0.16 tonne of slag per tonne of steel
arc slags are more homogeneous and contain less free lime. produced is reported from Germany.

The slag has the appearance of an igneous rock and can be

very dense; reported powder densities are 3.46t/m 3 2.3. Utilisation of steel making slags
(Australia), and 3 . 5 4 t / m 3 (UK) while a pouring weight of
2.5-2.9t/m 3 is reported for German steel slags compared The main problems in using steel slags are the presence of
with about 2 t / m 3 for blastfurnace slags. potentially expansive phases such as free lime and magnesia,

TABLE V a
COMPARATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF BASIC OXYGEN STEEL SLAGS (WEIGHT %)

Germany (")
South Africa USA (c) UK (b) Canada (d)
Low C High C

CaO. 47.2 59.9 50-60 40.3 33-51 41 .3

SiO~. 14.8 13.8 10-16 21 .7 9-19 15.6
Fe203 15.8 10.5 17-23 16.3 24-45 20
(total iron)
AI=O3 0.6 2.10 - 3.8 0.5-3 2.2
MgO 1.5 0.9 2-3 4.4 0.5-4 6.9
M~O 3 . 5.4 3.0 ~4 4 3-10 10
P=05 2.50 0.8-1 .8
Na=O. <0.10 <0.10 0.05-0.1
K=O 0.02-0.1
TiO= ~3 0.5-1 0.5
S03 < 0.25 < 0.25 0.05-0.4
Sulphide 0.05-0.15
F 0.02-0.5
CaO/SiO= 3.2 4.3 - 1.85 2.7-5.4 2.65
CaO free 0.6 13.3 - 3.3

(") Typical analyses.

(b) Range of nine samples of slag.
(c) Average of six slags.
(a) Average over two weeks production [34].

TABLE V c
TABLE V b COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
OF OPEN HEARTH SLAG.r (WEIGHT %)
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
OF ELECTRICARC SLAGS (WEIGHT %)
USA (") USA (b) Canada (")
UK (") New Zealand
CaO. 25.1 36.17 25.8
SiO2 25 ?6 18.02 16.4
CaO. 31-50 55 F%03 18 17.46 26.0
SiO2 . 11-24 20 (total iron)
Fe203 5-30 - 20 AI203 . 6.7 8.54 2.4
(total iron) MgO. 10.6 9.96 10.0
AI203 . 5-18 Mn203 4 - ~13
MgO 2-8 P205
Mn=03 6-22 Ha20.
P=05 0.03-1.8 Traces K20
Na=O 0.05-0.3 TiO 2 . - 0.8
K=O 0.04-0.4 SO~
TiO= 0.3-1 Sulphide
S03 0.04-0.9 F.
Sulphide 0.04-0.4 CaO/SiO 2 0.98 2.01 1 . 57
F 0.1-2.6 , CaO free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 2.1
CaO/SiO= 1.9-2.64 2.75
CaO free (") Average of three slags.
(b) From [10].
(") Range Of seven samples of slag. (c) Average of two weeks production [34].

279
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat~riaux et Constructions

TABLE VI

PRODUCTION OF STEEL M A K I N ( SLAGS

Reference Production Stockpiles Type of steel-making

year (Mt/yr.) (Mt) process

India - 0.8 m BOF, electric arc

Australia. 1976 1.5
Japan. 1975 12.4 0.7 90 % from BOF
USA 1973 9.7 BOF, electric arc,
open hearth
South Africa. 1977 2.1 9 BOF, electric arc,
open hearth
Canada. - 1.3
Germany - 6.2 About 1 .1 Mt are
high phosphate
slags
Finland. - 0 . 1 8

Italy ("). - 2.8

Netherlands (") - 0.9

UK. 1975 3.9 BOF, electric arc,
open hearth
New Zealand. 0. 043 - Electric arc

BOF is basic oxygen furnace.

(a) Information from [2].

the variability of their physical and chemical properties and
the presence of varying, sometimes considerable, amounts
of free iron. On the other hand the material has been found to
have an excellent resistance to skidding and to wear by
abrasion when used as a road surfacing material. No
standards specific to steel slags are k n o w n to the authors.
The presence of phases which hydrate and expand w h e n
w e t rule out the use of steel slag in concrete. It is however
possible to use the slag successfully for applications in
w h i c h it is unbound and where some disruption can be
accomodated or where it is bound by a material impervious
to water such as bitumen although suitable precautions to
minimise the expansion have to be taken.
Much steel slag is processed to recover metallic iron
whatever its subsequent utilisation is. Considerable
quantities are also recycled t h r o u g h the blastfurnaces.
The greatest amounts of steel slag are used as fill materials,
and for land reclamation, much of it in and around the
steelworks. Of the more technically demanding uses
however most is used in road making.
2.3.1. Use in road making
2.3.1.1. Control of the expansion
In most countries where steel slags are used in road
making some attempt to weather the slag prior to use is

TABLE VII
UTILISATION OF STEEL MAKING SLAGS (Mt/yr.)

Fill
Road material including Agricultural
Recycling
including use use use
to blast in bituminous in dams including Other uses Total used
furnaces concrete and fertilisers
embankments

India Minor Minor Some granulated Minor

and used in
cement manu-
facture
Australia. 0.315 0.317 0.39 Replacement for
MnO 2 as colou-
ring in bricks
Japan. 1-47 1.15 8.88 0. 145 0.13 used in 12.105
cement
USA [29] Used 3.75 3.38 0.1 1.22 used as 9 (=)
railway ballast
South Africa Minor Minor Minor
Canada 0.018 Mainly used as fill
within works
Germany 1,87 0.21 1.66 1.5 5
Finland Minor Minor
UK. 2 Minor Minor Minor
New Zealand. Mainly used as
landfill

(=) Excludes use in recycling to blast furnaces.

280

made. In Britain for example the slag is allowed to weather
for at least 6 months. In Germany, according to a preliminary
limitation, steel slags are only used for bituminous surface
layers and binder courses if they have less than 4 wt. % of free
lime.
Expansion tests on steel slags carried out in Canada [34]
have shown that elevated temperatures greatly increase the
amount of expansion; at 82~ expansion was about three
times as great as at 60~ that the fine particles of lime cause
the greatest expansion and that significant reductions in the
total amount of expansion could be achieved by treating the
slag with acid (spent pickle liqueur). Canadian experience
also shows that when the slag is used in asphaltic mixes
which are relatively impervious to water the problems of
expansion are much reduced. If the finer sizes of slag (minus
10 mm) are used ageing prior to use is not necessary while
for coarser sized material a minimum ageing period of
30 days is recommended in Canada.
2 . 3 . 1 . 2 , Use in stabilised base courses
Steel slag is used in the Netherlands in stabilised base
coarse construction 25% of I~OF slag (0-15 mm) is mixed
with 60% air cooled blastfurnace slag (0-60mm) and
15% granulated blastfurnace slag [2].
2 . 3 . 1 . 3 . Use in wearing courses
Because of its properties of high density, angularity and
strength, steel slag has been found to be an excellent
aggregate for bituminous mixes and is used in this way in
several countries including Canada, UK, Italy and the
USA [2]. Bituminous concrete wearing courses containing
steel slags have been found to have excellent stability and
flow, very good surface characteristics with in particular very
high skid resistance properties, very good resistance to
stripping and to be easy to compact. The high density does
however mean high transport and bitumen costs.
2 . 3 . 2 . Other uses
Where the steel slag has an appreciable phosphate
content there is a valuable market as a fertiliser but the
quantities of such slags have decreased in recent years.
Some attempts have been made to use low phosphate slags
in this way by mixing or intergrinding them with sources of
phosphate such as high phosphate slags or phosphate rock.
In Australia high manganese slags have been used
experimentally as a source of manganese dioxide in the
manufacture of coloured bricks.
From India it is reported that electric arc slag is being
granulated and sold for use in cement manufacture and in
Japan steel slag is also reported to be used in Portland
cement manufacture. No details of these processes are
available. In Europe it has generally been found that steel
slags are not in the right composition range to granulate
successfully and that the presence of metallic iron makes
such an operation hazardous.
2 , 3 . 3 . Uses under development
The main uses of steel slag under development are in road
making, particularly in the wearing coarses, Attention is
being given to the control of expansion by study of the
weathering process and by accelerated methods of
weathering.
From India it is reported that the use of steel slags in the
calcium silicate products is being investigated.
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
There have been reports in the literature of attempts to
produce a steel slag with hydraulic properties by adjusting
the composition of the melt. The incentive for this is that
many high lime steel slags have a chemical and minera-
logical composition like that of a weak cement clinker and
may even contain small amounts of tricalcium silicate,
the main cementing phase in Portland cement.
3. OTHER M E T A L L U R G I C A L SLAGS
The main metallurgical slags other than those produced
during the smelting of iron and steel are the ferro alloy slags
from the manufacture of specialist steel-alloys and those
from the smelting of copper, lead, zinc, nickel and tin. In
addition there are slags from iron foundries and slags
produced in the manufacture of phosphorus.
3.1. Composition
The chemical analyses of some metallurgical slags are
compared in tableVIIl. They vary considerably according to
the particular ore being used but all the non-ferrous slags
have high iron content. Many of these slags are granulated
and are therefore vitreous in form but it is reported that a
South African copper slag consists mainly of the mineral
fayalite (Fe2Si04) with some feldspar.
The relative densities of the slags vary according to their
iron content but tend to be high (around 3.5). They are
mostly dark coloured and glassy in appearance.
3.2. Quantities
The available information on the quantities of these slags
is tabulated in table IX. Compared with the production of
iron and steel slags the quantities are small.
3.3. Utilisation
The use of slags other than those from iron and steel
manufacture is relatively undeveloped. The ways in which
they are used are summarised in tableX. The only extensive
utilisation is for grit blasting; copper slags in particular are
used in this way. In Canada considerable quantities of
copper and nickel slags are used as ballast in railways. Nickel
slag in particular is judged to form a better support for track
than rock ballast although the high density of the slag makes
transportation more expensive. There is some utilisation in
road making, as fine aggregate, as a pigment and in the
manufacture of ceramics but these probably only account for
small quantities of the slags.
3.4. Uses under development
There is evidence from research that finely ground, vitrified
slags from copper, lead or nickel smelting have some
hydraulic properties and there is development work on the
use of mixtures of such slags and Portland cement as
cemented mine back-fills and for road base stabilisation.
The use of air-cooled phosphorus slag as ballast or
aggregate has been developed in North America and
granulated and expanded phosphorus slags are also
produced.
281
 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat~riaux et Constructions

TABLE VIII
COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF METALLURGICAL SLAGS
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN WEIGHT %)

Low carbon Charge Copper slag Tin slag

Zinc/ Nickel slag
ferrochrome chrome Zinc slag lead slag
slag slag South Australia Australia
India South Africa USA Africa (") UK
UK USA

CaO. 53.3 1.12 6 9.2 16.6 19.5 7.35 20-22 5

SiO= 26.15 19.34 36 34 21.2 17.6 34.5 26 23
AI=O 3 . - 18.25 8 5.7 - 6.1 2.35 13 15
MgO. 7.19 18.27 4.3 0.5 1.3 7.6 1.5 11
MnO - 0.2 4 2-3
FeO. 0.515 5.15 46 32.7 (b) 36.3 35.9 42.9 32-35 12
R203-Fc=O3 . 11-21 3.7 Heavy metal
oxides 27
Cr203 4.715 5.19
S03 0.115 - 7
ZnO 7
PbO 1.1 0.9
BaO - 2
Relative density 2.8-3.8 Up to 3.6 Up to 3.5

(") From copper magnetite ore. Slag predominantly fayalite with some feldspars.
(h) Expressed as Fe, mainly present as FeO and Fe=O3.

Work has been carried out in India on the utilisation of low 4. D I S C U S S I O N

carbon ferrochrome slag and methods have been developed

for producing slag cements and building blocks of moderate
to high strength.
Some work has been carried out on the use of zinc/lead
slags as aggregate in bituminous and asphaltic concrete
where they appear to be satisfactory in most respects though
with only moderate resistance to skidding.
Other uses which have been explored are as a water
filtration medium, in the manufacture of calcium-silicate
products and in night storage heaters. It is reported that zinc/
lead slags are used as aggregate in concrete in Japan but
American research suggests that there may be an alkali-
silicate reaction problem.
A possible problem with the use of these non-ferrous slags
is that they may contain components that are unstable in the
presence of water so that water percolating through them
may leak out harmful pollutants. An example of this
happening with the slag from the refining of silver and
platinum has been reported [35]. It seems inadvisable to
build on old spoil heaps of slags which contain toxic heavy
metals or to use such slags as fill under buildings.
Blastfurnace slag is the best established and best utilised
by-product under consideration in this Symposium. Its uses
as an aggregate in road construction and in dense or
lightweight concrete are well established and covered by
appropriate standards in many countries. It is also the best
established by-product for use in cement and there are no
technical problems or stability barriers to its use.
Blastfurnace slag cements have advantageous properties
over Portland cement in some circumstances and there are
standards for many types of slag cement. New methods of
processing such as pelletization will help to promote its use
still further.
Steel slag is a much more variable material than
blastfurnace slag and is liable to contain compounds such as
free lime and magnesia which hydrate and expand when
wet. Accordingly it is less used but can make a valuable
contribution as a roadstone because of its skid resistant
properties or as a fill in earthwork. To avoid disruption due to
hydration it is necessary to weather it before use or to employ

TABLE IX
PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL SLAGS (Mt/yr.)

Ferroalloy Copper Zinc Lead Nickel Tin Other Stockpiles

India 0.214 0. 164 2 . 5 M t of

ferroalloy slag
Australia 0. 072 0,05 0.2 Unquantified
USA. Unquantified 5.2 U nquantified 0.725 Unquantified 4 phosphate
20 foundry (")
South Africa.. 0.97 0.46 0.35 granulated 3 Mt ferroalloy
platinum slag 3 Mt copper
6 Mt granulated
platinum
Canada. 1.9 Mt of nickel m
and copper slag
Finland. 0. 050 0. 173 O. 108
.UK . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.06-0.07 0.074

(") Includes foundry slag and dust.

282

it in situations where it is protected from moisture for
example in bituminous concrete.
Non-ferrous slags are little used. The only extensive use is
in grit blasting. Other uses have been explored but apart from
technical difficulties the factors militating against their use
are the relatively small quantities produced at any one
location and the tendency in many cases for them to be
produced in remote areas. There are also potentially
problems of toxicity or pollution especially by the slags of
heavy metals.
TABLE X
UTILISATION OF METALLURGICALSLAGS
India:
Ferroalloy slags: small quantities used as filler, as brick-
making materials and as road aggregate in local construction
potential established for making slag cement and autoclaved
building blocks.
Copper slag: used as road making materials and for void
filling in mines.
Australia:
Copper slag: grit blasting and landfill.
Zinc slag: little used but shown to be satisfactory for grit
blasting and in the manufacture of ceramics.
Lead slag: minor use in grit blasting and landfill.
CHAPTER 4
BY-PRODUCT GYPSUM
Calcium sulphate is produced as a by-product of such
chemical processes as the manufacture of phosphoric acid,
the neutralisation of waste sulphuric acid or pickling liquors,
the production of hydrofluoric acid or the removal of SO 2
from flue gases. By far the biggest source is the manufacture
of phosphoric acid by reaction of phosphate rock with
sulphuric acid. There are a number of wet processes for
doing this, The reaction can be illustrated by the equation
describing the process carried out in Australia where the
phosphate rock is relatively free of fluoride;
Ca 3 ( P 0 4 ) + 3 H~S04+6 H20
3CaSO4.2H20~t-2H3PO 4.
Depending on the process conditions the calcium
sulphate may be separated as either the dihydrate or the
hemihydrate. Because of contamination with phosphates
both products are usually termed phosphogypsum.
The amounts of by-product gypsum produced by the
removal of SO 2 and SO 3 from flue gases are increasing,
particularly in the USA and Japan. In the USA they mainly
originate from coal burning power stations and are collected
as a sludge with a solid content of between 19 and 50%.
Both calcium sulphite and sulphate are formed. In Japan the
emitted SO2 and SO 3 is mainly from the burning of oil and
while there are a number of S02 removal systems in
operation the most common uses lime to trap the SO 2 as
calcium sulphate.
W. Gutt- P. J. Nixon
USA:
Phosphorus slag: as an aggregate and in ceramic tile manu-
facture.
Foundry slag: as a fine aggregate and as a pigment.
Zinc slag: as a fine aggregate.
South Africa:
Copper slag: grit blasting.
Canada.
Copper and nickel: used as railway ballast.
Belgium;
Zinc refining waste: iron oxide pigment produced for colouring
concrete and asphalt.
UK,
Copper slag: grit blasting.
Lead/Zinc slag: landfill, fine aggregate.
Tin slag: grit blasting, road making material.
Finland:
Copper slag: grit blasting, brickmaking.
Nickel slag: grit blasting, brickmaking.
Ferroalloy: sanding of roads during winter.
1. C O M P O S I T I O N
The chemical analyses of some sources of phosphogyp-
sum are listed in table I. The main impurities are phosphate
and fluoride though these vary somewhat according to the
source of the phosphate rock and the process used.
Phosphogypsum also tends to contain traces of radium, the
decay product of uranium found in the phosphate rock.
Phosphogypsum derived from sedimentary phosphate ores
has a relatively high level of radioactivity (of the order of
25 pCu/g radium) whereas that from igneous phosphate
ores is generally an order of magnitude lower in radioactivity.
It is reported from South Africa that the moisture content
of phosphogypsum in the dumps is 20 to 30% by weight. The
particle size distribution of a South African phosphogypsum
in given in table I.
No analyses of by-product gypsum from other sources
have been reported,
2. QUANTITIES
The available information on the quantities of by-product
gypsum produced and stockpiled and methods of disposal is
summarised in table I1. A breakdown of the production of
gypsum from exhaust gas desulphurisation in Japan is given
in figure 1. In countries where the waste gypsum is dumped
on land considerable stockpiles have accumulated, parti-
283
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions
339
250 rl
162
140
1975
1980
50
40
o a lack of natural gypsum has it been found economic to do
x this. In countries where there is a ready, trouble-free means
30
20
0 ~
_.oe~ o ,~ 0~ o~"
Fig. 1. - - Exhaust gas gypsum according to the type
o f industry in Japan (from Japanese contribution to
symposium).
cularly in the USA. In other countries, however, some or all of
the waste gypsum is disposed of in rivers or in the sea.
3. U T I L I S A T I O N
The available information on the utilisation of by-product
gypsum is summarised in table II1. The by-product gypsum
used is mainly from phosphogypsum and to a lesser extent
from anhydrite (especially in floor screeds). Little by-
product gypsum from gas desulphurisation is as yet used.
It is possible to use by-product gypsum for any of the
purposes for which natural gypsum is used and it can be seen
that in Japan, where because of the lack of natural gypsum
and the large production of the by-product a considerable
effort to use it has been made, phosphogypsum is the
primary source of gypsum for all purposes. There are
difficulties to its use however. Firstly, because the
phosphogypsum is produced as a slurry, energy is required
to dry it. It is reported from France that 40-45 kWh of energy
are required to produce plaster powder from by-product
gypsum compared with about 20 kWh from natural gypsum.
However, in the manufacture of c~ hemihydrate which has
advantageous properties compared with the more usually
produced /~ form the production of a slurry has technical
advantages (see section 3 . 1 . 1 ). Secondly the impurities in
the gypsum, principally the phosphates and fluorides, have
adverse effects on its properties. The calcined gypsum used
as plaster has been found to be rather fast-setting and to be
insensitive to the usual retarders or accelerators used to
284
control the rate of set. Moreover the setting properties have
been found to vary with the source of phosphate rock and
this has made quality control of products made from
phosphogypsum difficult where more than one source has
been used. The mechanical properties of the set gypsum
have also been adversely affected in some instances by
impurities as the strength of the gypsum depends on the
mechanical interlock between the needle shaped crystals of
CaSO 4.2 H20 which may not grow in the same way if
impurities (habit modifiers) are present.
The amounts of impurity in the by-product gypsum can be
reduced but only in countries where there are serious
disposal problems for the phosphogypsum or where there is
of disposing of the waste, for instance into the sea, and
where ready supplies of natural gypsum are available, there
has been little development of the use of by-product
gypsum. The main uses of by-product gypsum are
considered below.
3 . 1 . Uses o f p h o s p h o g y p s u m
3 . 1 . 1 . In the manufacture of plaster building products
As described above by-product gypsum can be used as
the source of plaster for all the plaster building products
otherwise made with natural gypsum provided the content
of impurities is controlled. The /~ form of the hemihydrate
(CaSO 4 . 1/2 H20 ) is that normally produced and used. The
c~-form of the hemihydrate and the completely dehydrated
CaSO,= produce a stronger, harder material when
rehydrated but the extra costs involved in their production
have so far discouraged their use.
The radioactivity of building products made with
phosphogypsum has caused some concern in the UK. After
investigation by the National RadiologicaI Protection
Board [36] however it was concluded that additional doses
of radiation to individuals living in houses containing
phosphogypsum building products were less than would be
incurred by moving from an area of low to high natural
background radiation. It was decided that such products
could safely be used subject to the following provisions:
(i) that sources of raw material giving rise to concentra-
tions of radium in the finished product significantly in excess
of 25 pCu/g should be avoided.
(i~ that the total amounts produced and used and its
radioactivity should be monitored.
It should be mentioned that if the ventilation rates of
buildings are reduced to cut down on, for example, heat loss,
the retention of radon may increase.
3 . 1 . 2 . Use as retarder in cement
The phosphate and fluoride impurities in phosphogypsum
have been found to delaysetting and reduce the rate of early
strength development of cement to a greater extent than
pure gypsum retarder, though strengths at later ages are not
affected. These impurities can' be reduced by chemical
processing if economically justified. Nearly 3 million tons a
year of phosphogypsum are used in this way in Japan.
3 . 1 . 3 . Use in the cement/sulphuric acid process
Cement and sulphuric acid are made by the combined
process (described in section 5 . 5 of the chapter on Colliery
 W. Gutt - P, J. Nixon

TABLE I

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME PHOSPHOGYPSUMS (WEIGHT %)

South Africa Isra~l UK (o) India Pure gypsum

Australia
(CaSO,,. 2H20)

CaO. 32.58-33.6 32.75 32-34 30.29-34.50 29.4-32.5 32.58

SiO 2. 1.05 0.16-3.20 1.0-3.78
AI=O 3 0.08-0.16 0. O8 0.02-0.16 0.02-0.07
Fe=O3 0-0.4 0.07 0.01-0.10 0.02-0.05
MgO 0-0.03 0.24 0.01-0.04 0.04-0.06
Na=O 0.08 0.02-0.39 0.25-0.56
K20. 0.012 0.08 0.01-0.05 0.10-0.15
F. 0.14-1 .4 0.7 0.3-0.8 0.02-1.27 0.18-1.2
P205 0.31-0.42 1.0 0.5-2 0.17-1.31 0.27-1.3
SO~- 45.6-46.5 44.43 43-45.5 46.50 (b) 41 . 90-44.1 (b) 46.50 (b)
H20 17.8-20.92 20.0 19.0-19.4 20.92

Particle size distribution of a South African phosphogypsum.

Particle diameter < 250 l~m, 98%.
Particle diameter < 105 gm, 75%.
Particle diameter < 75 gm, 50%.
Particle diameter < 45 pm, 30%.
(") Range of five samples of phosphogypsum from ores originating from Morocco and Florida [1].
(h) Expressed as SO 3.

Spoil) using phosphogypsum as a raw material in South
Africa and Austria. A b o u t 125,000 t a year are reported to be
used in this w a y in South Africa. It is also believed that there
are plants in Poland, East Germany and the USSR [37].
Cements from phosphogypsum resemble closely in their
properties those made from phosphatic and fluorinated raw
materials by the clay/limestone process ( [ 3 8 ] , [ 3 9 ] ) . The
presence of phosphate in the raw material restricts the
formation of alite, the main cementing phase in cement
clinker. This effect is partly countered by the presence of
fluorides, which on their o w n tend to be considered as
harmful to the quality of cement but in the presence of
phosphates are beneficial. Phosphatic fluorinated cements
are characterised by delayed setting and a slow rate of
strength development at early ages, so it is necessary to limit
the amount of phosphate in cement clinker to about 2-2.5%
P205. At later ages (28 days) phosphatic cements give
strengths comparable w i t h those of ordinary cements. They
also tend to have useful l o w heat properties. The South
African plant uses hemihydrate w i t h a P205 content of about
0.2 to 0.3% so that the clinker contains only about 0.5% P205
w h i l e in the Austrian plant a raw meal containing both by-
product dihydrate and natural anhydrite in proportions
w h i c h give a clinker containing not more than about 1.5%
P2Os is used.
3.2. Use of anhydrite to make floor screeds
By-product anhydrite from hydrofluoric acid production is
used in the Netherlands, Germany and the UK in the
manufacture of a floor screed. The main contaminents of
anhydrite produced during hydro-fluoric acid manufacture
are unreacted sulphuric acid and residual fluoride from the
calcium fluoride raw material. In the UK plant the acid is

TABLE II
PRODUCTION OF BY-PRODUCT GYPSUM (Mt/yr.)

Number Exhaust gas Stockpile Method of disposal

Phosphogypsum Anhydrite
of plants desulphurisation

1.35
India (est. 5 by 1979) 0.05 12 2.4 In slurry ponds
Australia 0. 837 - 4 1.3 Slurry ponds, dis-
used quarries and
in sea
South Africa 2 - 6 - Slurry ponds or dry
dumped
USA 5, 0.09 - 5 (est. 64 by 1980) 136 In slurry ponds
Japan (estimated figures for
1977) 3.6 1.5 (") - 3
Israel, 0.05 - 1 - 0.5 In slurry ponds
France. 6 0.1 - - In rivers or sea
Denmark. 0.3 -- 1 -- In sea
Finland 0.7 >10 Dry dumped
Netherlands 7 0.018 -
UK. 2 0.08-0.09 9 Most in sea, some
dry dumped
Norway 0.1 In sea
Sweden. 0,7 Stored on land

(") Categorised as "other chemical".

285
Vol. 12 - N ~ 70 - Materiaux et Constructions

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286
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

neutralised by lime so that the final product is slightly
alkaline (pH 9). The anhydrite is then used as the binder
with gap-graded aggregates.
It is reported from France that the use of anhydrite as a
cementing agent is being developed there and is already well
established in Germany. Particular interest is shown in the
properties of anhydrite cement for covering large areas of flat
ground (floor screed?) and as a binder for fill material in
mines. It is also used as a retarder in cement.
4. U S E S U N D E R D E V E L O P M E N T
4.1. As fill in road and rail w o r k s
The use of waste gypsum as a fill material for the
construction of enbankments and foundations for railways
and motorways is being developed in Belgium. Extensive
laboratory investigations of its geotechnical behaviour have
been carried out and it has been found that with the right
chemical additions and moderate compaction waste
gypsum should give very high elasticity characteristics and
that the stability against failure is better than, for example,
that of sand if the water content is kept to between 5 and
15%. Satisfactory field tests have also been carried out and
it is concJuded that waste gypsum can be used instead of
sand gravel for railway and motorway construction except
for the top layer of 50-80 cm. It is presumably necessary
to ensure good drainage and a waterproof top surface to
prevent leaching by rainwater.
4.2. In s t a b i l i s e d base courses
Recent research has shown that small percentages of
waste gypsum can enhance the strength development of
lime-fly ash mixtures for use in stabilised base courses and
embankments [2]. For example a mixture of 91% fly ash,
4% quicklime and 5% phosphogypsum has been success-
fully used in road building in several locations in France.
4 . 3 . In b u i l d i n g (the following developments have been
reported from Japan)
"High strength" g y p s u m - - t h e use of cz-hemihydrate and
anhydrite, termed "high strength" gypsum is being
developed. It is reported that their hardened body has
strength properties comparable with ordinary cement
concrete. The use of gypsum binder in house construction
and reinforced with steel for structural purposes is being
investigated. The problems found are poor water resistance,
bond strength and corrosiveness as well as the high costs of
calcining these types of gypsum. Some properties of gypsum
concretes are given in table IV.
Expansive cements - - t h e use of anhydrite as an inflating
agent in expansive cements is being investigated. It is
expected to be less costly than the calcium-sulpho-
aluminates which have been used.
Glass reinforced gypsum (GRG) - - the use of grg
(patented by BRE) is being developed for strong and fire
resistant partition walls, ceiling and floor slabs. The use of
grg treated with water repellant for external walls and of
extruded grg to make longer and wider units is also being
investigated. Water proofing is however difficult and loss of
strength when wet is one of the main limitations on the use
of grg.
Gypsum polymer composites (GPC) - - g y p s u m impre-
gnated with vinyl, polyurethane, polyester or epoxy resins
and polymerised is termed gpc. A lustrous material with low
water absorption is obtained and its use in decorative
furniture is being investigated.
Steel sheet-gypsum board composites - - a board
composed of a gypsum core sandwiched with steel sheets is
being developed for non-combustible partitions in houses.
Wood wool-gypsum board - - t h e use of ~-hemihydrate as
binder in the production of a wood wool board is being
investigated.
Fire proofing for structural steel - - lightweight foamed
gypsum plank for fireproofing structural steel has been
developed.

TABLE IV
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH-STRENGTH GYPSUM (from Japanese contribution to Symposium)

Gypsum (b)
High-strength + artificial Omlinary
Mechanical oroperties Unit gypsum (") lightweight cement
aggregate concrete
concrete

Specific gravity 1.5-1.9 1.3-1.6 2.1-2.3

Compressive strength. kg/cm 2 150-400 140-350 180-360
Specific strength kg/cm = 100-210 110-220 80-160
Modulus of elasticity. x 104kg/cm 2 7-13 8.14 19-23
Compressive strength/Tensile strength 10-15 8-12 8-12
Compressive strength/ l Round bar. 30-50 25 - 40 5-10
Bond strength (~e'd bar . . . .
5-8 4-7 2-4

N.B:
(~ Anhydrite and c~-hemihydrated gypsum.
(b) ~-hemihydrated gypsum.

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5. D I S C U S S I O N The manufacture of c~-hernihydrate from by-product

The use of by-product gypsum has been extensively
researched and it is technically possible to use it as an
alternativeto natural gypsum in most applications. However,
the cost of controlling or removing impurities and water from
the by-product g y p s u m has generally made its use
uneconomic except where there is a lack of natural gypsum
or where there are serious disposal problems, as for instance
in land locked areas.
gypsum could be economically competitive and it has
technical advantages over the usually produced /~-hemi-
hydrate in some applications.
The economics of the use of by-product gypsum in the
combined cement/sulphuric acid process are intimately
connected with the cost and supply of sulphur and are
therefore subject to change.
Potential users of by-product gypsum should be aware of
the slight radioactivity of the material.

CHAPTER 5
MISCELLANEOUS WASTES FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

S e c t i o n 5 . 1 . Red M u d 1. C O M P O S I T I O N AND PROPERTIES OF RED

Red mud is the waste from the production of alumina from
bauxite by the Bayer process which is the preliminary to the
manufacture of aluminium by electrolysis of the alumina in
fused cryolite. In the Bayer process the bauxite is digested
with a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution at an
elevated temperature in an autoclave, producing an
insoluble residue termed "red m u d " and sodium aluminate
solution. Some plants in the USA produce "brown muds'"
and during the processing of Arkansas bauxite a "black
sand" comprisi-ng 8-18% of the total waste is separated. A
"red sand" is also reported as occurring in the waste from
Australian plants.
The muds are washed to recover caustic soda and are then
usually pumped as water slurries to settling ponds. The
solids content of the muds approaches 50-60% after years of
settling.
MUDS
Chemical and mineralogical analyses of some red muds
are tabulated in table I. The compositions vary with the
9 source of ore but even muds originating from the same ore
may vary in composition by about 10%. The muds are
generally high in iron, occurring as some form of ferric oxide.
Japanese red muds are reported to have a pH of 11
to 12, a dry relative density of about 2 . 9 and a grain size
of 10-30 t~.
2. Q U A N T I T I E S
The amounts of waste produced per ton of alumina vary
according to the source of the ore, reported ratios are from
0.7 to 2 t of residue per ton of alumina produced. The

TABLE I
CHEMICAL ANO MINEROLOGICAL ANALYSES OF SOME RED MUDS (WEIGHT %)

USA Australia USA Japan

domestic ore domestic ores brown mud

AJ=03 26.5 16 24 27 6.4 20_+ 3

Fe=O3 10.7 31 . 5 24 50 6.1 35_+5
SiO= 22.9 34.5 16 9 23.3 15_+2
CaO 8,1 3 - - 46.6 2_+2
Na=O. 11.8 2 8.5 - 4,1 0.4_+0.
TiO 2 3.3 3 9 8 3 6_+1
SO3 2.8 0.5
Loss on ignition 12.9 10 13-15 7.3 1 1 _+2

ANALYSIS AFTER DRYING

Red mud
Japanese from
mud Jamaican
bauxite

Hematite (Fe=O3)
Goethite (ccFe=O=.H=O) 35 +: 3 75-80
Quartz (SIC=) 4_+1
Anatase (TiC 2) 6_+1
Sodalite (3 Na=O. 3 AI203.5 SiO2nH=O) 50 _+4
Calcite (CaCO3) 5-10
Beohemite (AIO (OH)). 3-5

288

amounts of mud produced and stockpiled are listed in
table I1.
3. UTILISATION
I ....
Very little of the red mud produced is used. Small amounts
are used as pigments, as admixtures with clay for making
bricks, in cement manufacture and in roadmaking. In general
the distance of processing plants from large centre of
population and competition from other raw materials has
prevented any extensive use.
4. USES U N D E R D E V E L O P M E N T
A considerable amount of research has been carried out
into the utilisation of red muds. Some of that described in the
contributions to this symposium is considered below but
there is also a sizeable literature on the subject.
4 . 1 . Use in bricks and ceramics
Research into the use of red mud in bricks has been
published by American workers [40] and Australian
workers [41] while from Japan it is reported that a
brickmaker has developed a method of reducing the water
content of red mud by hydraulic pressing and blending the
red mud solids with clay to form the body of a brick which
when fired has compressive strength and water absorption
similar to those of an ordinary red brick.
The use of red mud in the ceramic industry has been
examined in Australia [42] while it has been demonstrated
in the USA that lightweight structural building materials can
be produced from red muds. These materials have densities
from 480 to 1,120 kg/m 3 with excellent thermal and
acoustical insulation properties [43].
4 . 2 . In the m a n u f a c t u r e of artificial aggregates
Synthetic dense aggregates have been produced from red
mud in the USA [44] and Japan [45]. In both cases the red
mud was pelletized and fired, in the USA work at
temperatures of 1,260 to 1,31 6"C, in the Japanese work at
1,200"C. The Japanese aggregate is reported to have a
saturated surface dry relative density of 2.67 and a water
absorption of 1.5%. Its properties in concrete have been
tested in comparison with a river gravel and the compressive
strength, bending strength and tensile strength of the
concrete made with the red mud aggregate have been found
to be superior. Some properties of the concretes are listed in
table III.
There are several references in the literature to the
manufacture of lightweight aggregates from mixtures of red
mud and various other materials. For example in West
Germany mixtures with fly ash have been used [46] and in
Japan mixtures with blastfurnace slag [47], and types of
pumice ([48], [49]).
4 . 3 . N o n - c o m b u s t i b l e plastics
A method of making plastics non-combustible by
blending with a powder of red mud or gypsum which had a
particle size less than 1 has been developed in Japan. The
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
TABLE II
PRODUCTION AND STOCKPILEOF RED MUD (Mt)
Reference Production Stockpile Method
year (annual) of disposal
India. - 0.6 2-2.5 -
(1 in near
future)
Australia. . . . 1975 9.35 37 Slurry ponds
Japan. 1975 1. 144 Land recla-
mation
from sea
USA 5 9O Slurry ponds
UK. 0.1 Slurry ponds
red mud is added in proportions between 100 and 600%
of the weight of plastic. At high inorganic contents the
mixture is resistent to temperatures over 1,000~ and
produces much less toxic gas than for the plastic alone.
4 . 4 . A d d i t i o n of red mud to c e m e n t
The effects of additions of red mud to Portland and slag
cements in proportions up to 20% have been examined in
Japan. It was found that 2-5% additions of red mud gave the
best results with Portland cement. The compressive and
flexural strength of cement with this addition was higher
than that of pure cement at early ages but fell below that of
the pure cement at long ages. (The reported high alkali
contents could however cause problems of alkali aggregate
reactivity.)
Section 5 . 2 . Silica Dust
The production of waste silica dust is reported from
Sweden and Norway. This is the dust produced in
connection with the manufacture of metal alloys such as
ferrosilicon. In Norway the dust have previoustly been
discharged into the atmosphere but by 1982 all the dust will
have to be collected presumably to prevent a health hazard
and it is estimated that this will amount to some 143,000 t a
year. In Sweden silica dust is produced at two sites. At one
the dust is granulated and used for landfill, this amounts to
about 9,000t a year but is expected to increase to 1 5,000t.
At the second there is. no production at present but until
1977 15 to 20,000t a year were produced and were used
locally as an admixture in concrete.
The chemical composition of dust from the production of
three alloys in Norway is shown in table IV. The principal
constituent is silica and this is in an amorphous state. The
physical properties of the dust do not differ much; their
specific surface area is about 22 m2/g and more than 85%
have a size less than 1 t~. The bulk density is in the range
0.150 to 0.250 g/cm 3 while the relative density is 2.2 to 2.25
g/cm 3. The dust produced in Sweden is reported to be
similar, with a specific surface of about 20 m2/g and
consisting of over 90% SiO 2,
When used in concrete in Sweden about 10% by weight of
the cement has been added. It has been found to improve the
workability of the concrete and although the water demand
has been increased the long term strengths attainable have
also increased. The use of the dust as a pozzolanic material is
also being developed in Norway. The main technical
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problems in its use as a pozzolana mixed with Portland
cement have been found to be in handling and blending this
extremely fine and lightweight material. It is probable that for
mixing with the cement clinker the dust will have to be
pelletized.
At present the Norwegian standards allow only 10% of
other cementitious material to be mixed with Portland
cement and there are no standards for a concrete containing
additions of the silica but it is hoped that research work in
progress will enable these standards to be revised.
Section 5 . 3 . Spent oil shale
Oil shales were mined and processed in the Lothians of
Scotland for about 100 years until 1962 and over 200 million
tons of waste has been dumped in large heaps. In North
America there has as yet been little exploitation of oil shales
but there are massive deposits and it has been estimated that
over 2 x 1 0 1 2 t of shale residue could be produced if the
deposits were fully deve oped. Thus the potential import-
ance of this material is considerable. An analysis of a typical
spent shale as discharged from the Scottish retorts is given in
table V. The shale in the heaps has a characteristic red colour
due to the oxidation of iron compounds and much of the
carbon is also oxidised on long exposure.
The Scottish oil shale residues are used in the manufacture
of autoclaved calcium silicate bricks and as a fill material.
Some 130,000 t of residue a year are used in the manufacture
of the bricks for which purpose it is mixed with time in the
ratio of about 10 parts of shale to I of lime and autoclaved for
about 8 hours at a little over 1 MN/m 2 pressure. The bricks
meet the requirements of the relevant British standard
(BS187) for calcium silicate bricks, and are used for all
building purposes above damp proof course, though they
will suffer some deterioration in the most rigorous conditions
of exposure due to frost action. "The soluble sulphate content
of the bricks is fairly high but although this has resulted in
some problems due to efflorescence there have been no
reported failures due to sulphate attack on mortar.
The shales have been investigated for use in roadbuilding
([51], [52]) ,and were found to be satisfactory for use in
sub-base and as fill below the level of freezing and cement
stabilisation could be used to improve their resistance to
frost heave. The sulphate content of the shale is sufficient to
make it necessary to restrict their use in the immediate
vicinity of any concrete. Very large quantities of the shale
have now been used as fill in roads and other civil
engineering works. This w o u l d appear to be the most
important application to date. Potential uses which have
received attention in the USA are as a raw material for the
production of Portland cement [53], as a lightweight
aggregate, as fines in asphaltic concrete and as a surface
course for secondary roads [54].
Section 5 . 4 . Carbonate and lime sludges
By-products containing calcium carbonate and free lime
are produced by industries such as those manufacturing
ammonium sulphate, and in paper making, the production of
sugar and acetylene generation. These by-products are
reported from India, South Africa and New Zealand (see
table VI).

TABLE III
RESULTS OF TESTS ON CONCRETE MADE
WITH RED MUD SYNTHETIC AGGREGATE (after [ 4 5 ] )

Concrete Concrete
(Coarse aggregate: (Coarse aggregate:
Burnt red mud river gravel)
aggregate)

9 Fine aggregate Fuji river sand Fuji river sand

Aggregate burnt red mud Fuji river gravel
Coarse aggregate. aggregate

Water cement ratio (%). 65 55 65 55

Compressive strength (kg/cm=):

7 days. 150 224 133 195
28 days. 317 406 274 323
91 days. 359 463 312 366
180 days. 375 491 322 385

Bending strength (kg/cm =):

28 days. 46.3 55.1 43.7 51.6
91 days. 51.9 56.9 47.6 53,0

Tensile ~rength (kg/cm=):

28 days 31.0 36.7 28.6 32.6
91 days 32.5 39.5 30.8 35.3

(Test Methods)
Method of making and curing concrete specimens: JISA1132.
Test method of compressive strength: JISA1108.
Test method of bending strength: JISA 1106.
Test method of tensile strength: JISA1113.

290
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

TABLE IV Section 5 . 5 . Burnt clay waste

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DUST

FROM PRODUCTION OF FERRO-SlLICON ALLOYS IN NORWAY From South Africa it is estimated that 5-1 0% of the stock
brick production is lost in brick yards during burning and
Constituents Si metal 90% FeSi 75% FeSi subsequent handling and that this amounts to 400-800
thousand tons of waste a year. There is also some similar
SiO= 94-98 92-95 86-90 waste from clay pipe manufacturers.
SiC 0.2-1.0 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.4 Work in South Africa has shown that crushed, well burnt
C 0.2-1.3 0.5-1,2 0.8-2.3
0.02-0,15 0.2-0.5 0.3-1.0 clay brick is a suitable aggregate for the manufacture of
Fe=O3
AI20 ~ . 0,1-0.4 0.4-1.0 0.2-0.6 concrete building blocks and also for certain types of
CaO 0,08-0.3 0.1-0.5 0.2-0.6 concrete. Possible problems are expansion of the broken
MgO. 0.3-0.9 0.5-1.2 1.0-3.5 brick with uptake of moisture and the effect of soluble salts in
NaaO. 0.1-0.4 0.2-0.7 0.8-1.8
KaO. , 0.2-0.7 1.0-1,5 1.5-3.5 the brick which could lead to efflorescence or sulphate
Other. 0,1-0.5 0.4-0.8 0.5-0.9 attack. Burnt brick aggregate could promote corrosion of
Loss on ignition 0,8-1.5 0.7-2.0 2.0-4.0 steel reinforcing, either because of its permeability or by
soluble salts.
Work in the UK just after the second world war showed
TABLE V that broken brick aggregate could be used satisfactorily in
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
concrete provided the sulphate level was less than 1% and it
OF SPENT OIL SHALE was found that the resulting concrete was more fire resistant
AS DISCHARGED than that made with natural gravel aggregates.
FROM SCOTLAND RETORTS

Weight (%)
Section 5 . 6 . Surplus sulphur
Carbon. 3
SiO= 48.5 Total world production of sulphur in 19"75 was estimated
AI=O3 . 25.2 to be 5 1 . 8 million tons [55] made up of 3 2 . 5 million
Fe=O3 12.1
tons from brimstone, 11.5 million tons from pyrite and 7.7
CaO. 5.3
MgO 2.2
S03 3.2 TABLE VI
CI. Trace
Trace PRODUCTION OF CARBONATE AND LIME SLUDGES
Alkalis

India:
Carbonate sludge from ammonium sulphate manufacture,
1 Mt/yr.;
Chemical analyses for the sludges are given in table VII. Lime sludge, from paper industry, 0.35 Mt/yr.; from sugar
The sludges from the production of ammonium sulphate, processing, 1.5 Mt/yr.
paper and sugar all have calcium carbonate as the major South Africa:
component with varying amounts of free lime. Impurities Carbide lime from acetylene manufacture, 150 thousand
associated with the sludges are generally sulphates, tons/yr.
phosphates and alkalies (not desirable in raw materials for New Zealand.
cement production). The sludges contain 30-50% moisture Carbide lime from acetylene manufacture. ~ 3,000t/yr.
and are discharged as slurries and allowed to dry to a fine
powder. The carbide lime sludges are produced either as a TABLE VII
dry powder or a slurry. They consist mainly of calcium
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF CARBONATE AND LIME SLUDGES
hydroxide but may contain ferrisilicide and calcium silicide
together with quicklime nodules. Ferrisilicide and calcium
Weight (%) Fertilizer Paper Sugar
silicide liberate gas in a wet alkaline environment. industry industry industry
Carbonate sludges from ammonium sulphate and paper
plants have been used in the manufacture of cement and in Loss on ignition 35 8.8-12.8 m
soil stabilisation. Other possible applications are in the CaO 48.0 43 -49 40-50
AI=O= 0.4 6-7.3 2-2.5
manufacture of masonry and white cements, for building
Fe203 0.4 1-1.5
lime and in lime/pozzolana mixtures. Si02 4 0.8-2.9 1.5-4.5
More than 90% of the carbide lime produced in South S04 9
P205 2 1
Africa is utilised. It is used as a raw material in cement F. 1.5
manufacture, for soil stabilisation, as a building lime, as an MgO. 0.8-1.2 2.3.5
agent for neutralising acid in several processes and in the NaaO.
manufacture of chemicals. Insolubles 2-4.5

Most of the carbide lime produced in New Zealand is also Carbide lime (South Africa)
used, in the treatment of sewage and in making mortars. Ca (OH)2:90-95 wt.%;
Some is however dumped. If any of these materials are GAG03:2-5 wt.%;
considered for use in cement making it would be prudent to Acid insoluble residue: 2-4 wt. %;
Available lime as CaO: 64-68 wt. %.
ascertain the content and effect of phosphate, fluorine and Also contain ferrisilicide and calcium silicide.
alkalis as well as the major components.

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 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat~riaux et Constructions

TABLE VIII concrete is porous and hence relatively weak to begin with.
The principal advantages of sulphur concretes and sulphur
PRODUCTION OF SURPLUS SULPHUR
impregnated concretes, however, are their very low
permeability, and hence their good resistance to damage
Canada:
by freezing and thawing, their resistance to attack by
16 Mt in stock;
aggressive chemical solutions and their low thermal
USA:
conductivity.
yearly production of waste sulphur 12 Mt though not all
this is surplus [2]~ Problems with the use of sulphur as a binder are the need
Finland." to heat the entire concrete mix to temperatures greater than
0.3 Mt'/yr. produced; 140~ the rather high shrinkage on setting and the
significant amount of creep.
France:
1.75 Mt/yr. produced. Sulphur foams have been proposed for use as insulating
layers in very cold regions, for example in roads or runways
either to protect the sub-base from freezing or to protect a
million tons from other sources (such as smelter gaseS, perma-frost sub-base from thawing.
gypsum and anhydrite and waste processing). The removal
of sulphur from natural gas is one of the most important TABLE X
sources of surplus sulphur. Countries from which there is a
COMPOSITION OF CEMENT KILN DUST (WEIGHT %)
surplus reported are listed in table VIII. It is also believed that
surplus sulphur is available in the Middle East.
UK
One of the principal present uses of sulphur in USA
construction is in road surfacing in a mixture with asphalt/ Fresh dust Weathered dust (")
bitumen. In the Thermopave process developed in r
Canada [56] sulphur is mixed with asphalt and sand SiO 2 . 11.1 15.3 13.6 23.6
AI=03 5.5 2.1 3.9 i 2.8
(typically in a ratio of 12% sulphur/6% asphalt/82% sand) at Fe203 2.9 1.7 2.6 3.3
a temperature of 130-150~ The principal advantage of the CaO. 44.0 43.0 45.7 34.7
use of the sulphur is that it enables poorer quality and less MgO 2.5 0.9 0.9 ND
well graded sands to be used. In contrast in France a process Na20 0.9 0.7 1.1 ND
K20 6.0 6.0 2.2 i ND
in which 30-40% sulphur is premixed with bitumen for use SO= 5.6 6.2 4.0 5.1
as the binder in road surfacing has been developed. One of Loss on ignition. 21.5 ND Moisture content
the disadvantages of the use of sulphur with asphalt is that about 40%
the temperature control of the asphaltic binder is more
critical--if it gets too hot there may be evolution of ND Not determined.
dangerous sulphurous fumes. (") Weathered dusts used in road schemes in UK [35].
Other uses in the construction field which have been
developed [57] are the use of sulphur as a binder in "sulphur
concrete", and impregnation of Portland cement concretes
Section 5 . 7 . Cement kiln dust
with sulphur under vacuum, sprayed sulphur coatings and
foamed sulphur insulation materials. Sulphur concretes can
have similar strengths to Portland cement concretes with the During the manufacture of Portland cement clinker a
advantage that the strength of the sulphur concrete is proportion of the reactants are carried out of the kiln by the
developed almost immediately. Impregnation of Portland kiln gases as a dust. To prevent atmospheric pollution this
cement concretes with sulphur can increase the strength dust is trapped by, for example, electrostatic precipitators,
considerably though, as with most impregnation tech- cyclones, scrubbing towers or bag filters. Some 10 to 20%by
niques, the improvement is most marked when the weight of the raw material is lost as dust, the amounts
varying somewhat with the particular cement making
process. Some of the dust is returned to the kiln but there are
limitations on this as the dust contains a concentration of the
TABLE IX
more volatile chemicals in the kiln, in particular the alkalis
AMOUNTS OF CEMENT KILN DUST DISCARDED and too much recycling of these will affect the cement
making process and result in an increase in the alkali content
USA: of the cement clinker. This is not acceptable because of the
5 Mt/yr.; risk of alkali aggregate reaction. Therefore considerable
Canada: amounts of kiln dust are discarded. Reported quantities are
0.45 Mt/yr.; given in table IX.
Australia: The kiln dust has a composition comparable to Portland
0.085 (") Mt/yr.; cement (see table X). The compositions vary considerably
India." but are generally high in sulphates, and alkalis. Kiln dust from
1.6 Mr/yr. (30-40% lost to atmosphere); cement works practising chloride control may also be high in
chlorides. From the USA it is reported that 90% of the dust is
UK:
finer than 12p.
0.4 Mt/yr. (stockpile of 3 Mt).
Weathered kiln dusts have been used in the UK as bulk fill
(") Actual quantities much higher but no accurate figures in motorway construction [35] where they proved to be
available. good all-weather materials. The stockpiled material had a

292
 W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon

moisture content of about 40% and appeared to have
residual cementing acting. When compacted the fill was
hard and has a CBR value of about 80%.
It is reported that minor quantities of kiln dust have been
used in the USA for soil stabilisation and as a sub-base for
secondary roads and car parks. However, tests carried out in
the UK on cement kiln dusts from various works as soil
stabilising agents showed that with kiln dust contents of 5 or
10% the stabilised soil did not meet the specified strength of
2.8 N/mn 2 at 7 days.
Kiln dust has been used as a filler in asphalt and
bitumen in the USA and Italy [2] with reported good
results from both technical and economic viewpoints.
Uses which are being developed are its incorporation into
blended cements and in the manufacture of lightweight
aggregates [58]. The high alkali content w o u l d however
seem to make its use in blended cements a hazardous
procedure from the point of view of alkali aggregate reaction.

CHAPTER 6

MINING AND QUARRYING WASTES

Very large quantities of waste are generated by mining and
quarrying industries. This is particularly so in the United
States where over 2,000 mt of waste are produced annually.
There, the copper industry accounts for nearly half the waste
produced, Other operations which produce large amounts of
waste are the mining of iron ore and taconite, uranium,
phosphate, gold, gypsum, lead and zinc. In the UK the
working of china clay and (in the past) slate quarrying has
produced a great deal of waste whNe the quarrying of rock
for roadmaking, concrete aggregate and other purposes is
carried on all over the world and produces waste from the
overburden, reject rock and fine material from washing and
dust control. Little detailed information is available about
this important source of mineral waste.
Mineral mining wastes are usually described as being
either waste rock or mill tailings. Waste rock is the coarse
material that is excavated to expose the ore during mine
development while mill railings are the residues obtained
from the separation of minerals from their ores.
type of rock being quarried. Chemical analyses of some
mining and quarrying wastes are listed in table I.
Similarly the particle size distribution differs according to
the process. It is reported from the USA that the size of waste
rock from mining is generally less than 0.3 m while residues
from the mineral processing of ores where fine grinding to
liberate the ore is practised will be in the clay-silt range.
Between 50 and 90% of such tailings are smaller than 75 p,.
Where concentration by size separation is carried out, the
coarse fraction of the tailings approximates to a fine to
medium sand. Iron ore tailings for example are often
separated into a fine fraction which is in the silt-clay size
range and a coarse fraction which is graded from a fine sand
to a gravel.
The waste from the w i n n i n g and processing of china clay
consists of waste rock and overburden, a coarse sand with a
particle size of 9 mm to 751~ and a fine micaceous waste Of
particle size 75 to 10 p, in the approximate proportions of
4:4:1.

1. C O M P O S I T I O N AND PROPERTIES 2. Q U A N T I T I E S AND MEANS OF DISPOSAL

The composition of waste rock and mill tailings varies from The available information on the production and
one mining operation to another depending on the stockpiles of these wastes is summarised in table I1. As
geological formation from which the ore is removed, or the discussed above the USA is by a considerable margin the

TABLE I
CHEMtCAL ANALYSIS OF SOME WASTES FROM MINING AND QUARRYING

Copper Gold Lead zinc China clay China clay Tin ore
Taconite slime micaceous
ore tailings waste sand
tailings residue residue tailings
tailings

SiO=. 59 71.1 93 56.9 75-90 50.3 50.6

Fe=O3 21 4.9 1.9 0.5t 0.5-1.2 2.37 13.84
FeO. 5.3
AI=O3 2.7 13.2 3.5 9.8 5-15 32.7 17.86
MgO 3.7 2.1 0.41 0.65 0.05-0.5 0.35 1.12
MnO 2 . 9.0 - 1.4
CaO. 2.7 1.1 1 5.9 0.05-0.5 0.07 6.86
Na20 0.3 0.07 0.02-0.75 0.24
K20. 3.3 0.33 1-7.5 5.3
Zn 2.4
Pb 0.57
Total S 1.99 - 0.13
Sulphates (as S) 0.49
Loss on ignition. 7.4 2.6 0.22 0.45 1-2 8.3 3.75

293
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions
biggest producer of these wastes both in quantity and
variety. It is however equally true that more information
about the mining and quarrying wastes in the USA is
available than is the case in most other countries as such
wastes are often produced in remote areas where little
attention is paid to them.
The coarser wastes are usually dumped on land around the
mine or processing plant. Fine wastes are usually conveyed
as water slurries to settling lagoons. In more populated areas
the coarse waste may be used to screen the mine workings
from view.
Some of the mine tailings e. g. those containing heavy
metals, uranium or asbestos may present problems of toxicity
and their disposal will accordingly need to be carefully
controlled. In the UK contamination by water leaching
through old lead/zinc mining dumps has resulted in rivers
being effectively devoid of aquatic life. In the USA, Australia
and Canada there have been problems of radioactivity from
the uncontrolled disposal of phosphate or uranium ores. In
many countries there are now specific regulations relating to
the disposal of such wastes.
3. PRESENT UTILISATION
The information on the present utilisation of these wastes
is also summarised in table II. Overall relatively little use is
made of these wastes, partly because of their natural
limitations but mainly because they tend to occur away from
populated areas and the cost of transport makes them
uneconomic in comparison with competing materials.
The coarser wastes are used in roadmaking ([35] and [59]
refer to experience in the UK), in all layers from skid resistant
surfacings to fill material according to the properties of the
particular waste, and as concrete aggregate. In India the
wastes from the quarrying of laterite and china clay are burnt
to form pozzolanas or are used in brick making. In Australia
manganese mud which is the waste from the production of
manganese by electrolysis is used as a pigment in making
coloured bricks while in India a mica insulation brick is made
with the mica waste.
The fine wastes are used as fillers in bitumen and in the
manufacture of autoclaved calcium silicate products.
Ground slate is used as a filler in plastics and paints and for
roofing granules.
Some slates and shales expand when heated near to their
melting point and can then be used for lightweight
aggregates in concret# and as filtration media [60]. Many
sources of waste slate and shale overburden are suitable for
this purpose and it is believed that plants exploiting such
materials are currently working in the United States. A plant
producing an expanded slate lightweight aggregate has
operated in Wales (UK) but is now closed.
4, USES UNDER D E V E L O P M E N T
Investigations of the suitability of mine tailings for use in
ceramics have been carried out in Australia and the USA. In
Australia low grade ilminite has been shown to be suitable as
a replacement for silica in ceramic bodies and the resulting
material to be usable for vitrified and abrasion resistant
bodies such as floor tiles [61]. In the USA much research
294
has been reported into the use of tailings in ceramic
products, calcium silicate products, bricks, lightweight
building blocks and mineral wool ( [ 6 2 ] - [ 6 7 ] ) . In the UKthe
manufacture of autoclaved aerated materials from slate
powder and Portland cement has been investigated [68].
Using a mixture of 45% slate powder with Portland cement
and aluminium powder as the aerating agent, autoclaved
aerated concrete was prepared on an experimental scale
which had properties very similar to those of commercially
available materials.
Also in the U K efforts have been made by a firm of concrete
brick manufacturers to use waste slate as an aggregate. So
far the crushing characteristics of the waste have made it
unsuitable anf freshly quarried material is used but attempts
to use the waste are continuing.
In developing uses for these materials it should be noted
that there may be health hazards. Waste containing heavy
metals for example may result in toxic contamination of any
water which leaches through it or the heavy metals may be
concentrated to toxic levels by plants grown on the waste
while some mining waste e. g. from phosphate or uranium
mining may be sufficiently radioactive to be hazardous. Thus
there have been problems in the USA, Canada and Australia
where these wastes have been used as fill under houses.
Asbestos mining waste would also seem to be a hazardous
material. Particular care is necessary if building on old dumps
of mine tailings or when using such tailings as fill beneath
buildings because of possible hazards to the health of the
occupants.
5. PHOSPHATE ORE PROCESSING WASTE
Phosphate slimes
The production of this waste is reported from the United
States. Two types of waste are produced during the
processing of phosphate ores; silica sand and phosphate
slimes. Disposal of the sand presents few problems as it can
readily be used in concrete, in landfill or for the construction
of dykes. However the phosphate slimes which constitute
over half of the plant wastes do cause problems. Between 9
and 13 million tons ot the slimes are produced annually and
the rate of production is increasing at about 4% a year.
Production is concentrated in central Florida.
The slimes consist mainly of colloidal clay-sized particles
with 75% being under 3p. Chemical and mineralogical
analyses are given in table III. They are disposed of in large
ponds, many of which are enormous, up to 3 by 3 km. It is
estimated that nearly 2,000 million tons of slimes are stored
in these ponds. The particles settle very slowly and after
about 25 years the slimes have a solids content of 20-30%
and the consistency of grease.
Phosphate slimes have been stabilised and used as landfill
by mixing with sand tailings from phosphate rock processing
plants. The sand tailings capture the slimes and produce a
paste with about 90% solids content when the mixture is
passed through a narrow channel at high velocity. This paste
is allowed to settle in channels made by the mining of the
ore. Up to 35% of the slimes can be consumed in this way but
the ratio of tailings to slime prevents greater quantities being
disposed of in this way.
 W, Gutt - P. J. Nixon

TABLE II
MINING AND QUARRY WASTES-PRODUCTION, STOCKPILE A N D PRESENT U T I L I S A T I O N

Production (Mt/a)

Waste rock Stockpile (Mt) Present uses

(including Mill tailings
overburden)

USA: (Mill tailings

only for USA)
Copper ore 624 234 7,700 Roadmaking, filler in bitumen
Taconite 100 109 3,600 Skid resistant aggregate
Phosphate ore 230 54 (") 907 (")
Iron ore. 27 27 730 Roadmaking
Gold ore. 15 5 450 Roadmaking and concrete aggre-
gate
Uranium ore 156 5.8 110 Bituminous concrete aggregate
Lead ore 0.5 8 180
Zinc ore. 0.9 7.2 180
Quarrying. 68 Uncertain
Gypsum. 14.2 2.7 Uncertain
Asbestos. 0.6 2 14
Barite 1.9 3.1 24
Fluorspar. 0.1 0.4 Uncertain
Feldspar 0.2 0.8 Uncertain
Australia:
Low grade iimenite 0.2 Uncertain
Manganese mud. 0. 003,5 4O,0OO Pigment for clay bricks
Lead/zinc ore. 0.5 4.75
India:
Laterite quarrying. Unce~ain Clay pozzolana, replacing lime
in mortar
Gypsum. 2 Building plaster
China clay. 0.2 Clay pozzolana, in bricks
Mica I 0. 005 Mica insulation bricks
South Africa:
Gold ore ~ 40 0.1 Mt/a used in calcium sili-
cate bricks and probably in
excess of half the waste rock
is used as aggregate in
concrete and for roadbuilding
Quarrying Uncertain Overburden used as sub-case in
roads and fill. Fines in calcium
silicate bricks.
Canada."
Iron ore. 45 m Aggregate, fill, roofing granules
!
Finland:
Miscell. mining and quarrying . . . . . 3.1 5.1 94.8 Roadstone and aggregate for
concrete
UK: [
China clay. 22 300 Roadmaking, concrete aggregate,
calcium silicate bricks, fill

Slate. 1
I >300
( ~ 1 Mt)
Inert filler, granules (minor use)
Tin ore Aggregate for concrete (minor
05 I use)
Fluorspar 0.23 I Roadmaking, concrete aggregate
I i (minor use)
Quarrying Uncertain Roadmaking, calcium silicate
bricks
Sweden:
Iron ore. 25 9.6 289 Some use as landfill, small
Sulphite ore. 11 .7 57 amounts in road construction
and in brickmaking

(a) Includes both phosphate slimes and phosphogypsum (estimation, 136 Mt of phosphogypsum stockpiled).

Other uses of slimes depend on drying to high solids
contents. Cross-flow fluid dryers have been found to be
efficient in drying slimes to 95-99% solids.
The most promising applications have been in the
production of lightweight aggregates. The dried slime is
pelledsed and heated to between 1,050 and 1,100~ in a
rotary kiln to give an aggregate w i t h a bulk density of 320-
480 k g / m 3 [69]. Bricks and sewer pipes have also been
made from the slimes but they were not of high quality.
L o w level radioactivity from phosphate ore wastes has
been reported to be a problem w h e r e these wastes have been
used as fill under houses in Florida. In developing uses for
these wastes therefore possible radioactivity problems
should be borne in mind.

295
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions

TABLE III
OXIDE AND MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
~OF PHOSPHATE SLIMES

Oxide composition (%) Mineralogical composition (%)

P205 9-17 Calcium fluophosphate 20-25

SiO 2 31-46 Quartz. 30-35
Fe=O3 3-7 Montmorillonite 20-25
AI203 . 6-18 Attapulgite. 5-10
CaO. 14-23 Wavellite 4-6
MgO. 1-2 Feldspar 2-3
Loss on ignition 9-16 Heavy minerals. 2-3
Dolomite. 1-2

Porcelanite TABLE IV
CHI~MICAL COMPOSITION
Porcelanite is found between two phosphate beds which OF PORCELANITE
are worked in the Negev Desert in Israel. Annual production FROM ISRAEL
as a by-product of the phosphate mining operation is about
1.6 million tons. %
i,
The material is high in silica which occurs as 55% opal and
20% quartz. A chemical analysis is given in table IV. It has SiO2 75
CasF (PO4) 3 10
pozzolanic properties and the possibilities of using it as a 10- CaSO= 1.5
30% repla(;ement in Portland cement or calcining to produce CaCO3 . 7.5
a white pozzolanic material which could replace 20 to 40% NaCI 1.5
of white cement are being explored. AI203 0.7
MgO 0.4
Porcelanite from Trinidad has been assessed as a Fe=O3 0.6
pozzolanic material at BRE [70] where it was found that in H20. 2.4
spite of variability in pozzolanic activity between deposits,
sufficient reserves of material with good pozzolanic activity
mainly because they tend to be produced in geographically
existed to make exploitation worthwhile. Heat treatment of
remote areas. Small amounts are used as fill and as raw
the porcelanite was also found to improve the pozzolanic
materials in a variety of manufactured building materials
activity.
such as bricks, lightweight aggregates and autoclaved
blocks. In general however these uses are insignificant in
relation to the amounts produced. Attempts to deal with
6. D I S C U S S I O N these very large amounts of waste will probably have to
depend on I~ndscaping and reclamation schemes.
A possible exception is the use of these materials in very
Very large quantities of these mining and quarrying wastes large civil engineering schemes such as land reclamation
are produced, especially in the USA. As lower grade metal from the sea, barrages and so on. When potential methods
ores are exploited throughout the world the production of of disposal or utilisation are being assessed the possibility
massive quantities of mining waste is likely to become more of the wastes being toxic or radioactive should be
common. At present relatively little use is made of them considered.

CHAPTER 7

MUNICIPAL WASTES AND DREDGING SPOIL

A number of wastes generated primarily within urban 1. M U N I C I P A L REFUSE

areas are gathered in this section. These are domestic and
trade refuse, including the residue from refuse incineration
and waste glass, together with the wastes from demolition
work, sewage sludge and waste rubber tyres. Relatively little
of these wastes is used at present though there is much
research interest in them, particularly in ways of utilising
municipal refuse and demolition wastes. To a considerable
extent this interest arises from the difficulty of disposing of
the wastes without transporting them great distances from
the urban areas in which they are produced.
The information on the quantities of municipal refuse
produced and on the amounts of incinerator residue and
glass waste is summarised in table I. Most of the glass waste
other than that occurring within the manufacturing plants is
ultimately disposed of along with other refuse and is
therefore treated here. Incineration of refuse is becoming an
increasingly important method of disposal in many countries
(as can be seen from the column in table I showing the
proportion of refuse incinerated) because of the great

296

P R O D U C T I O N OF
Percentage Incinerator
Total of refuse
incinerated
Australia. 4.5 - m
New Zealand - -
USA 135 11
Canada - -
Japan. - -
Finland - 9 incinerators
working
France - 30
Norway - 7
Denmark. - 50
U K. 20 ~ 25
9 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 2.5
decrease in volume of the residue and the possibility of
making use of the calorific value of the refuse for district
heating, electricity generatlon, etc. The residue from
incineration has physical properties which make its use as an
aggregate a possibility but there are chemical problems.
The separation and sorting of refuse in order to recycle it is
being developed in several countries and pilot plants are
known to be working in the USA and the UK. The primary
objective is recovery of the metal value of the refuse but a
glass-rich inorganic fraction is also recovered and this is of
potential use in construction.
In Belgium a high pressure baling technique followed by
encapsulation of the bale in metal mesh and finally a coating
of pitch or concrete has been developed for disposal of
refuse. The coated bales have a relative density of 1.1 to 1.8
and are of use as a fill material.
The disposal of pulverised refuse by burning during
cement manufacture has been developed in the UK. Up to
about 20% of the pulverised coal feed can be replaced by the
pulverised refuse without affecting the cement qua(ity. The
refuse contributes to the energy supply of the kiln.
In Norway a method for the use of municipal refuse in
chipboard manufacture has been developed. The refuse is
pulverised, dried and air classified before mixing with 50% of
w o o d chip materials.
1.1. Incinerator residues
The compositions and properties of some incinerator
residues are given in table Ila and lib. Little use of these
residues has been made so far except for small quantities in
road making in for example, Finland, Denmark and the
UK [71]. Research in the USA has examined its use as
aggregate in Portland cement concrete and bituminous
concrete. Pilot scale trials of the use in a bituminous road
wearing surface are being carried out ( [ 7 2 ] - [74]). Although
some research has indicated that use in Portland cement
concrete may be ruled out by the presence of aluminium
metal [72], the feasibility of using it in concrete blocks has
been demonstrated [75]. The possibilities of manufacturing
mineral wool and insulation fibres from glass-rich residue
have also been explored. In France and the UK interest has
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
TABLE I
M U N I C I P A L W A S T E S (Mr/yr.)
residue Glass Demolition waste Sewage sludge Rubber tyres
m
_ m w m
1.8
(no. tyres)
5 11 25 7-11 3-5
(18 concrete)
- 1.2 30 11
(no. tyres)
7-12
(concrete only)
0.035
1 m
2 2 21-23 (7.5- 1-1.5 0.24
10.5 concrete) (23 no. tyres)
centred on the use of a residue from which most of the metal
has been extracted. This avoids the problems of staining due
to weathering of ferrous metal and of reaction of aluminiu-n
metal with cement used as binder. In the UK a patent has
been taken out for the production of a synthetic aggregate by
sintering a mixture of clay and separated residue at
temperatures of 1,050 to 1,2000C [76]. The use of the
separated residue as a blockmaking aggregate has also been
examined in the UK but it is considered that the residual
metal content is still high enough to cause problems;
(staining by the ferrous metal and expansion by the
aluminium) and that soluble lead and zinc salts present
could interfere with the setting of the cement. If used in
damp conditions t h e r e is also the possibility of alkali
aggregate reaction between the cement alkali and glass in
the aggregate.
In France a pilot plant separates the residue into a
-nagnetic fraction, a coarse non-magnetic fraction and a fine
non-magnetic fraction (see table II a for composition). The
magnetic fraction can be used as a raw material for scrap
metallurgy while possible fields of use investigated for the
non-magnetic fractions are in concrete and in the
manufacture of tiles and bricks. Up to 20% of the residue has
been used in cement mortars w i t h o u t any unfavourable
effects on the time of setting,the strength at early ages or the
shrinkage. It is not, unfortunately, known how the adverse
effects of residual metal or glass are offset, tn tile and brick
manufacture the residue is used as a grog with clays that are
too plastic. Apart from offsetting the shrinkage and
improving the strength of the ceramic it also contributes
some fuel to the firing.
1 .2. Waste glass
The re-use of waste glass recovered from refuse as cullet in
glass manufacture is limited by impurities and the difficulties
of separating different colours of glass. Some is however
used in glass fibre manufacture in New Zealand, and
considerable research has been carried out into the
utilisation of waste glass in building materials, particularly in
Australia and the USA. In Australia use in themanufacture of
engobes [77] mosaics and glazed tiles [78], glazes [79],
glazed concrete [80] and lightweight aggregate [81] have
297
Vot. 12 - N~ 70 - MatEriaux et Constructions

TABLE II a
ANALYSIS AND PROPERTIESOF INCINERATOR RESIDUES

France (") (wt. %) England (b)

Non-magnetic fraction
Magnetic - Weight (%)
fraction
Coarse Fine

SiO= 25.27 54.02 44.45 54.9

AI metal. 0.19 0.48 0.35 0.25
AI203 . . 5.04 6.94 7.59 22.2
Fe metal 5.13 0.53 0.76 18.3
FeO, 20.97 7.26 6.02
Fe=O3 9 23.76 4.60 4.54 9.4
MnO 0.47 0.24 0.41
MgO 2.10 2.39 3.26 0.5
CaO 7.16 11.07 15.01 5.5
Na=O 2.84 6.70 4.91 3.6
K=O. 0.55 1 . 05 1 . 00 0.5
TiO=. 0.79 0.57 0.63 0.5
CI. 0.05 0.05 0.13 0.4
S. 0.37 0.27 1.17 0.24
H=O. 0.57 0.85 1.91
C total 0.56 2.37 2.82 7.6
C organic. 0.29 1.33 1.91
Cu ppm. 2,880 910 I , 420
Zn ppm 3,010 2,490 6,300
B ppm 9O 210 170
Pb ppm 1,250 1 , 200 2,050
Sn ppm 72O 32O 600
PbO. 0.05
ZnO. 0.04
Density. 4.32 2.76 2.65
Bulk density (kg/m =) 1,650 1,500 1 ,150 1,000
Loss on ignition. 12.4

(0) Mean of 1 year residue.

(b) Compound analysis after removal of ferrous metal and ignition.

TABLE It b
COMPOSITION OF INCINERATOR RESIDUES (WEIGHT %)

England U S A (")

Incinerated After Incinerated residue

residue ferrous extraction

Metal { Ferrous 12.5 23-37

23 1-4
Non-ferrous.
Glass 23 25 43-55
Paper 6
Rag 1 62.5
Vegetable and putrescible. 10 Mineral
Plastics. 2 clinker 13-16
Dust and cinders 30 and residual 1-3
U nclassified 5 combustible (Ceramic and stone)

(=) On moisture and combustible free basis.

been investigated. Lightweight aggregates L~sing waste 1.3. Demolition wastes

glass as either a flux or a bonding medium have also been
investigated in France and the USA ([82], r83]). Use in
brickmaking has received attention in the USA [84] and in
Norway. It main function here is to lower the temperature of
firing. In the USA the use of waste glass as a road surfacing
aggregate, "glasphalt" has been developed ([85]- [87])
though it seems to have only a moderate resistance to
skidding. The problems of using waste glass as an aggregate
in Portland cement concrete because of attack by the cement
alkalis on the glass have been reported [88] and the
possibility of using fly ash to offset these has also been
explored [89].
The demolition of buildings produces a variety of wastes,
concrete and brick rubble, metals such as steel, copper and
aluminium, slates and "tiles,. asbestos cement and plaster
boards, w o o d plastics, glass, asphalt. Some recycling of
these products is done by individual demolition contractors
on an ad hoc basis depending on the time available for
demolition and the local market. Most metal will be
recycled because of its value though reinforcing steel
may be tost. Reviews of the availability and reuse of
demolition materials in the USA [90] and the UK [91]
have been published and the available information on

298

the quantities arising is summarised in table I. The
collection of information about these materials is at a
very elementary stage and the relative quantities reported
for the USA and Canada for example seem quite out
of proportion to their populations. Nevertheless the figures
do show that considerable quantities of these materials are
generated.
An estimate for the USA of the quantities of materials used
in new construction and produced from de4rnolished
buildings and the proportions that are reused is given in
table II1.
It can be seen from table Ill that by far the biggest
component of the waste is the concrete and there is most
interest in developing uses for this. Two international groups
have recently been formed to examine this topic; a RILEM
Committee (37/DRC) on the demolition and reuse of
concrete and a co-operative research project between
Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. Some work has also
been carried out in Japan and reported in their contribution
to this symposium. The incentives for this work are the
increasing difficulties of tipping the waste concrete which is
mainly produced within urban connurbations, an expecta-
tion of rapidly increasing amounts of concrete rubble
being produced and the hope that the use of the concrete
rubble can help to supplement the dwindling supplies of
natural aggregates available close to the big cities. In
Japan it is estimated that about 20 times more concrete
will be demolished yearly in the early 2000's.
The use of demolition wastes in road making in the U K has
been reviewed [35] and it has been concluded that they
have considerable potential as road making materials.
Considerable quantities of crushed brick and concrete have
in fact been used, especially as a granular sub-base material,
when available in sufficient quantities free of impurities.
Research on the use of crushed concrete as an aggregate
in new concrete is of relevance both to roads and buildings.
Work in the USA has demonstrated that concrete of
adequate quality can be made using crushed concrete for
both coarse and fine aggregate [92] and the American
Concrete Paving Association has recently reported the first
full scale use in the USA of crushed old concrete as
aggregate in new concrete [93].
TABLE III
ESTIMATED AMOUNTS OF MATERIALS
IN NEW CONSTRUCTIONS
AND IN DEMOLITION WASTE IN THE USA
Amount used
as
Material construction
materials
in 1971
(Mt)
Concrete 315
Wood 42
Iron and steel 22
Gypsum products. 11
Clay products. 18
Plastics 1.2
Aluminium. 0.9
Copper 0.34
Asphalt. 2.3 (")
(") During 1973.
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
The research work in Japan found that the properties of
aggregates from demolished concrete are more affected by
the method of crushing than the properties of the original
concrete. A t w o stage crushing was found to be beneficial.
Generally relative density is somewhat less than for a sand or
gravel and is about 2.1 for the crushed concrete fine
aggregate and 2.3 for the coarse. Water absorptions were
found to be about 6% for the coarse and 10-11% for the fines.
In making concrete with the crushed concrete aggregate it
was found that 5-10% more mixing water had to be used to
achieve the same workability as a gravel concrete.
Compressive strengths and moduli of elasticity of the
concrete made with demolished concrete aggregate were
10-30% lower over a range of water/cement ratios from 0.45
to 0.70. The relationship between age and strength and
water/cement ratio and strength showed the same
tendencies as ordinary gravel concrete. Drying shrinkage
was about 10-30% larger with the concrete rubble
aggregate. The resistance to freezing and thawing was about
the same as a gravel concrete but the water permeability was
greater.
Most of the investigations of the reuse of concrete rubble
as aggregates have concentrated on "clean rubble" and
there is little information on the impurities that are likely to
occur in the concrete rubble from a demolition site and the
effects they w o u l d have on new concrete. Probably the most
serious worry is the presence of sulphates from gypsum
plaster but w o o d and asphalt are also common inpurities in
mixed rubble.
The feasibility of recycling asphalt has been demonstrated
in North America ([94], [95]) and it is estimated that about
0.5 million tons have been used. The first successful asphalt
recycli'ng in the UK has recently been reported [96].
1 .4. S e w a g e s l u d g e
Sewage sludge is the denser material which settles out
during the treatment of sewage by such processes as
biological filters or activation by forced aeration. The sludge
may be treated to reduce smell and the occurrence of
pathogens by a process known as "digestion" in which the
sludge is stored for several weeks at about 35~ in the
absence of air. Disposal of the sludge, either by dumping or
incineration, is costly so there is considerable interest in
Annual
amount
of Amounts reused
demolition (%)
waste
(Mt)
18 Negligible
1.3 5
1.7 5O
Not available Not available
1.4 Negligible
Negligible Negligible
0.01 13
0.07 50
Not available Not available
299
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat6riaux et Constructions

TABLE IV
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PROPERTIES
OF THREE BRITISH SEWAGE SLUDGES

Domestic sludge
Trade
sludge

Dry solids (ds) (%) 5.4 2.2 3.3

Volatile matter (% ds) 67 68 48
N (manurial value) (% ds) 7.8
P (% ds) ~1.6
I Zn 6,250 2,400 511
Cu metals (mg/kg) of dry solids 1 , 100 600 537
Ni ,' 185 160 42
Pb 950 580 457
Ag. 10 28 3
Cd. 65 27 5
Hg 11 3 6
K=O. 610 400-600
Cr. 85O 464 86
Mn. 18,065
Calorific value (kJ/kg of ds) 15,930 15,640 9,360
C 1- mg/I filtrate. 134
SO~- mg/I filtrate. 62

Density of wet sludge 1.012 1.016 1 . 004

using it in some way. The sludge from the treatment of
domestic sewage is a thick black liquid while the sludges
containing effluent from factories may vary considerably.
The analysis and properties of three British sewage sludges
are given in table IV [97].
It is reported from the USA that the sludge has been
combined with a mixture of soil, lime, fly ash and by-product
gypsum to produce a material which could be used in
highway embankments [98] while incinerated sewage
sludge ash can be compacted to a high strength mass
which gradually gains extra strength and can be used
as a landfill [99].
In the UK several possible uses have been explored. The
sludge could be slurried with the raw materials for cement
manufacture by the wet process. This would dispose of the
sludge and make use of its calorific value. The sludge could
alternatively be blended with cement kiln dust for use as a
fertiliser, making use of waste heat from the cement kiln to
help dry the sludge. Some sludges are not, however, usable
in this way because of contamination with heavy metals. A
further possibility is incorporating into concrete as a fine
aggregate/mixing water. A preliminary investigation howe-
ver showed that the sludge significantly reduced the
strength of mortar cubds made with it and no further work
was done, because of this and the possible dangers of
leaching of pathogens of heavy metals from the concrete.
The use of this waste in construction therefore seems to be
undesirable on health grounds.
1 . 5 . Waste rubber tyres
It is reported from New Zealand and France that rubber
powder made by grinding old rubber tyres has been used in
surfacing sports areas. In France techniques of reusing such
rubber powder in road making are being studied, either by
making the rubber into granules or as an additive to bitumen.
In New Zealand old tyres have been used in making reefs
against sea erosion or for revetting steep earth banks.
Research into the use of waste rubber in bituminous
mixtures has been summarised [2]. The main area of interest
has been in the production of rubberised bitumen binders for
surface dressing. However the actual amounts used have so
far been small. A bituminous surfacing material using crumb
rubber as an aggregate has been developed at the Transport
and Road Research Laboratory in the UK but has not been
exploited [35].
1 . 6 . Waste plastics
Much of the plastic waste produced during the
manufacturing process is recycled within the factory into the
same product that produced the scrap. Equally when
homogeneous thermoplastic waste can be collected by a
manufacturer it can be recycled into a new plastic product
although in general the performance requirements of most
plastic products used in the building industry are relatively
high so that there is little use of recycled plastics in these
products. Little information on the amounts of plastics
actually recycled is available. It is reported from South Africa
that thermoplastics represented 67% of total plastic
consumption in 1974. Approximately 130 thousand tons of
plastic waste was available for recycling but of this only
about 15 thousand tons was actually used. In the building
field the following products were manufactured; portable
toilets, irrigation tubes, explosives, curtains, plastic carpets
and bathroom units.
Even more difficult to utilise is mixed plastic waste,
whether from plastic products made of mixtures of different
plastics or plastics recovered from refuse. This is because
there is in general a lack of adhesion between different
polymer phases so that the greater the number of
components in a blend the poorer the physical properties of
the product. Thus products made from mixed plastics are
generally only suitable for low grade uses such as rough
packaging or pallets. However it is reported [100] that a
French company has developed a process for making

300

a type of walling board by heating chopped thermoplastic
film scrap with scrap fibres and wood chip under pressure.
Also in France the use of plastics waste in road making is
being investigated. Two methods of utilisation are being
developed;
- - the incorporation of industrial waste from polymerisa-
tion of PVC in a powder form into tar at the moment of
mixing;
-- the incorporation of strips of plastic household waste
(polyethylene, PVC or polystyrene) in the base
coatings of tar or bitumen.
Laboratory and pilot scale trials has shown that
incorporation of plastics waste improves mechanical
strength and water resistance. The strips of plastic waste
have a reinforcing effect and this method enables general
household plastic waste to be used without cleaning o r
sorting. The main problem is getting large enough quantities
from widely dispersed points of production.
1.7. Discussion
There has been little utilisation of municipal wastes in the
construction industry but considerable research interest
exists especially in the utilisation of domestic refuse and
demolition rubble.
The main opportunity for the use of domestic refuse is the
use of the residue from incineration, possibly as an aggregate
for blockmaking. There may however be problems with
contaminants e. g. glass and aluminium. The greatest
developments in the use of these residues seem to be in
France where there is a pilot plant for the separation and
reuse of incinerated residues. There is considerable research
interest in the reuse of demolished concrete as an aggregate
for new concrete. The only actual applications so far seem to
be of old unreinforced concrete from road pavements as
aggregate for new concrete in roads. There is little
information on the effects of impurities in the concrete
rubble on the new concrete. The recycling of asphalt appears
to have considerable potential once appropriate machinery
and techniques are developed.
2. D R E D G I N G SPOIL
Large quantities of material are dredged regularly by port
and river authorities in order to maintain sufficient depths in
docks and navigation channels. In addition capital dredging
to make new facilities produces large amounts of material. In
the UK over 30 million tons (measured as dredged and
containing about 2/3 water) are dredged on a regular basis
while ilt is reported that the US Army Corps of Engineers is
responsible for dredging about 230 million cubic metres of
spoil annually and Rotterdam harbour district alone
produces some 13 million cubic metres a year [2]. Most of
the spoil is disposed of at sea, 2/3 of the US spoil, nearly
9/10 of the U K spoil and 8 out of the 13 million tons of the
spoil from Rotterdam.
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
There are however problems in dumping spoil back into
the water particularly in polluted tidal waters. The fine
material tends to be brought back into the channel by the tide
and there is an increase in the turbidity of the water and a
build up of the mud on the banks. As the fine material tends
to adhere to the organic pollutants there is also evidence that
the level of pollution of the water is increased.
The dredging spoil disposed of on land is generally
allowed to settle in lagoons. Because of the fine particle size
of much of it the spoil is slow to consolidate.
A survey of the U K dredging spoils [101] showed that the
particle size varied from clay size (< 2~) up to sand and
gravel but that most wa.s,very fine and the clay size fraction
may be as great as 30-40%. Silt as dredged may contain
between 30 and 80% water depending on the properties of
the particles, length of time deposited and dredging method
employed. The wettest silts are collected by suction dredger
and are free flowing muds while grab dredgers collect a more
viscous material with water contents below 60%.
The British spoils had values for loss on ignition of
between 5 and 25% on the material dried at 60~ and
calorific values of between 0.3 and 3.2 KJ/kg. Mineralogi-
cally they consisted mainly of clay minerals (42 to 61%),
quartz (12-32%) and calcite (1-13%) with significant
quantities of dolomite, pyrite and feldspar. Present use of
such material is minimal. A silt-like material from the River
Shannon in Ireland is dredged specially for cement
manufacture. Otherwise some is used for fill (in for example,
the Netherlands). With many dredged spoils however
the rate of consolidation is extremely slow and an excessive
length of time is needed before they can be built on.
Possible uses for dredged spoil which have been explored
are as the clay component of the raw materials for cement
manufacture, in brickmaking and in the manufacture of
synthetic aggregates. Lightweight test bricks have been
made in the United States ([102], [103]) while synthetic
aggregates have been made in Australia [104] and the
U K [101]: In the Australian work the swelling of the silt was
enhanced by the addition of combustible materials such as
sawdust or shredded grass. In the work carried out in the U K
it was found that by firing pellets made from the dewatered
spoil at temperatures between 1,000 and 1,100~ a
lightweight aggregate suitable for use in structural concrete
could be made. However the chloride content of the raw
spoil is significant and in order to avoid chloride levels in the
fired aggregate which could cause corrosion of reinforce-
ment in concrete it is necessary to hold the temperature at
about 1,000~ for some time before final sintering at about
1,100~ Larger quantities of these aggregates made for
testing in concrete had loose bulk densities of 810 kg/m 3
and 1,080 kg/m 3 and water absorptions of 10.2% and
10.95%. Concrete strengths at 28 days of 70 MN/m 2 were
attainable at a concrete density of 2,058 kg/m 3. The early
results of tests for durability have not revealed any problems.
The calorific value of the spoils would help to provide energy
for firing but the cost of dewatering is a serious economic
barrier to their utilisation.
301
 Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Materiaux et Constructions

CHAPTER 8
WOOD WASTES

Waste is produced at all stages in the conversion of a 2. U T I L I S A T I O N

g r o w i n g tree into the timber product; poles, sawn timber,
p l y w o o d or w o o d pulp. Up to 40% of the tree may never
leave the forest, being left behind as roots, stump, branches 2.1. Bark

and top. Of the part of the tree removed from the forest,
further material is lost in sawing, debarking and other forms
of processing. Only some 50% of the material taken to the
sawmill is obtained as sawn timber, though in the processing
of smaller timber for pulp, mining timber, chipboard etc. a
greater proportion can be utilised. A breakdown of the
proportions of waste and product material in a "typical
British tree" is given in table I [105].
TABLE I
PRODUCTS AND WASTE
FROM A "TYPICAL BRITISH TREE'"
(DIAMETER AT BREAST HEIGHT 3 0 0 ram)
(after [105])
Relatively little use is made of waste bark. Some s o f t w o o d
bark is used for horticultural or decorative purposes as a
humus, some is recycled within the timber industry for use in
pulp and fibre boards and some is used (in Canada and
Sweden) in road construction as a frost protection layer,
l i g h t w e i g h t fill or in temporary construction. From Sweden
it is reported, however, that some problems w i t h
contamination of drains and g r o u n d w a t e r have been
experienced where bark has been used in roads. Otherwise
the experience of the use of bark in this w a y was good. The
bark layer generally had a thickness of about 0.5 m.

Harvesting and conversion

2.2. S a w d u s t

Standing tree 100% The fine waste from cutting w o o d (i.e. excluding
shavings) is termed sawdust. Greater use is made of sawdust
Roots and stump 23% than of bark. In Japan for instance it is estimated that 70% is
Branches and top 22%
Bark. 5% utilised effectively. The main use there is in the manufacture
Sawdust. 4% of a cylindrical w o o d briquette by compressing sawdust
Slabs and trim 8% under high pressure. A type of charcoal used by industry is
Primary products: made in Japan by charring these briquettes. Some sawdust
- - pulp 20%
-- sawn timber 18% is also used as fertiliser. In Sweden sawdust is used in the
production of chipboard. In N e w Zealand sawdust is used as
an additive in the manufacture of kraft pulp and in the furnish
Conversion of saw-log
of papers, wallboards and hardboards. In Finland sawdust is
used in the manufacture of bricks. It is added to the clay and
Saw-log 100%
burns out during the firing process to give a l i g h t w e i g h t
product. Similarly sawdust is used in Australia and the UK in
Bark, 8-10%
Sawdust. 7-13% the manufacture of refractory bricks. Sawdust is also used in
Slabs and trim . . . . 20-30% the UK in making c e m e n t / s a n d / s a w d u s t blocks for internal
Sawn timber. 46-65% insulating walls in house construction. S o f t w o o d sawdust is
used and a high moisture content can be tolerated. However
sawdust from larch, E)ouglas fir, hardwoods and decayed
1. Q U A N T I T I E S material cannot be used in such cement based materials as
The information reported on the amounts of w o o d waste they interfere with the cement setting reaction. Wood flour,
generated is summarised in table II. Japan and the UK are made by grinding non -resinous s o f t w o o d sawdust is used as
major timber importing countries w h i l e Australia, N e w a light coloured filler in plastics.
Zealand, Canada, Sweden and Finland are substantial Apart from these uses much sawdust is incinerated w h i c h
exporters. can be regarded as a method of utilisation if use is made of

TABLE II
YEARLY PRODUCTION OF TIMBER WASTES (m 3 or Mr)

Total residues Bark Sawdust Solids

Australia 6.8m 3 1.25m 3 1 m3 4.1 m 3 Processing plant residue

~ 0 . 4 3 x 106 m 3
New Zealand. - - 0.7t -
Japan - - 17.7 m 3
-

Canada. Large but unquantified.

Bark and sawdust represent about 50% of log volume
Finland. - I It 0.5t - Waste in forests ~ 2 t
1 t from UK timber - -
UK. 1 t from imported timber
Sweden 2.5 t I 26 m 3 2.1 m 3 1 . 3 m3
I

302

the heat, and in agriculture for poultry litter and animal
bedding. It should be noted that problems can arise in the
use of sawdust for animal bedding if the sawdust contains
w o o d preservatives.
2 . 3 . Solid w o o d w a s t e s
These are the most readily utilised of the w o o d wastes.
Much is used in the manufacture of w o o d pulp or of
chipboard. Charcoal is made from solid w o o d wastes. Wood
w o o l is made from w o o d wastes and w o o d wool/cement
boards and w o o d chip/cement boards are produced.
Pressurised disc mill pulping has been used in the USA by
furniture makers in order to recycle their residues into boards.
It enables usable pulps to be made from dried as well as
ungreen chips and even from sawdust. In Australia short
pieces of solid w o o d wastes are edge-glued together to
form a longer length for purposes such as flooring or to form
the core of a panel which is then faced with veneers.
3. U S E S B E I N G D E V E L O P E D
Work is being carried out in Australia on the development
of an acoustic ceiling or wall tile manufactured from
hardwoodsawdust. In New Zealand there is research into
SUMMARY
In this paper the information contributed by the
participating countries on the use of by-product and waste
materials in the construction industry has been summarised
and analysed. Of the materials reported the two which are
being used to the greatest extent are blastfurnace slags and
pulverised fuel ash. Blastfurnace slags are used overall to
some 80% of their production and in several countries
virtually all that which is produced is used and is
regarded as a highly satisfactory material. Pulverised fuel ash
is about 20~ used overall but up to 70~ is used in some
countries. Much of these two materials is used for fill etc., but
many more sophisticated uses are developing. Blastfurnace
slags are extensively used in road making, both as aggregate
and when granulated, as the cementitious binding agent.
They are processed to provide dense or lightweight
aggregates in concrele and they also provide the raw
material for blastfurnace slag cements. Pulverised fuel ashes
are also used in concrete, as pozzolanas and are processed to
form lightweight aggregates. The use of these two materials
is, in many countries covered by specific standards.
Overall however the proportion of the mineral wastes
discussed here which is used is small, probably about 5% of
the total and most is used in relatively low grade applications
such as fill in roads, embankments and so on. In these
appfications transport and handling costs are paramount. To
overcome these costs it is necessary to develop higher value
applications and it is hoped that one of the benefits of this
analysis has been to identify and orientate future action
while at the same time pointing out possible drawbacks and
difficulties.
W. Gutt - P. J. Nixon
the use of sawdust as a composite in the manufacture of
newsprint. The shortness of the fibres has so far inhibited its
use in this way.
In Japan there is interest in developing uses for waste
plywood formwork from concrete construction. These
panels are contaminated with sand and cement and are
usually dumped or burnt. Ways of utilising this material by
crushing the panels and producing a sort of w o o d particle -
cement boards have been investigated. In South Africa a
liquid waste from the pulping of w o o d for the manufacture of
rayon and paper is being used as a workability aid for
concrete. The active component of this waste is a ligno-
sulphonate.
In most of the advanced timber producing and using
countries there is considerable concern to make greater use
of timber wastes. In Japan there is a "'wood industry
integration plan" under which the various industries
producing or using w o o d are encouraged to work together
in segregated areas. In 1974 eighty t w o such areas had been
completed. This has enabled a more efficient utilisation of
the timber and greater use of the waste.
In North Africa studies of ways of using the entire tree,
foliage, branches and tops, stumps and roots as well as the
bark, have been carried out [106]. Further work is needed on
methods of extraction and processing, on the potentially
deleterious effects on soil structure and fertility and on the
ways of using the w o o d produced.
RESUME
On a proced~, dans ce rapport, ~ I'analyse et a la
synth~se des informations fournies par les pays participants
sur rutilisation des mat~riaux de rebut. Parmi les mat~-
riaux 6voqu~s, les laitiers de haut fourneau et les cendres
volantes sont les plus utilis~s. Dans /'ensemble, I'utilisation
des laitiers se monte ~ 80% de la production, et dans
plusieurs pays, tout ce qui est produit est utilis~ et consi-
d~r~ comme un mat~riau tres satisfaisant. En g~n~ral, la
cendre volante est exploit~e a 20%, mais /'exploitation
peut atteindre jusqu'~ 70% dans certains pays. L'essentiel
sert au remblayage, etc. mais des utilisations plus ~labo-
r~es sont en cours de d~veloppement. On emploie
beaucoup les laitier's pour la confection des routes, en tant
que granulat, et une lois granule, comme agent de
liaison. IIs sont trait~s pour servir de granulats gros ou
I~gers dans le b~ton, et ils fournissent ~galement le
mat~riau brut pour les ciments de laitier. Les cendres
volantes sont aussi utilis6es dans le b~ton comme
pouzzolanes et sont trait~es de facon a obtenir des
granulats 16gers. L'utilisation de ces deux mat~riaux est
r~gie, dans de nombreux pays, par des normes sp6cifiques.
Dans /'ensemble, toutefois, la proportion de d~chets
mineraux utilis6e, dont il est fait mention icL "est faible,
sans doute environ 5~ et elle se borne ~ des appfications
limit~es comme /e remb/ayage des routes, les terrasse-
ments, etc. Dans ces appfications, le coot du transport
et de la main d'oeuvre est considerable. Pour justifier ces
d~penses, il faut mettre en jeu des investissements plus
importants, et on esp~re que cette analyse aura contribu6
d6/imiter et orienter /'action future, et en m~me temps
faire ressortir /es inconv~nients et difficult6s ~ventue/s.
303
Vol. 12 - N~ 70 - Mat~riaux et Constructions
The most influential factor determining whether or not a
waste material or by-product is used is the economic cost in
comparison with the alternative natural material in a
particular appfication. These costs are primarily made up by
handling, processing and transport but social benefits of
using a waste, though more difficult to quantify, should not
be forgotten. Land which otherwise w o u l d be occupied and
possibly at least temporarily made derefict by the tipping o f a
waste material or the quarrying of a natural alternative will be
conserved for other .uses and the deterioration of the
environment often associated with waste tips will be
prevented. On the other hand the prospective user of a waste
material should be aware of possible disbenefits such as air
pollution arising from the processing, water pollution i f
soluble pollutants leach out of the waste or a less well
proven technical performance. Adequate kn'owledge of the
properties of the waste materials and products containing
them are therefore essential to enable a balanced j u d g e m e n t
to be made on the overall advisibility o f using them in a
particular situation.
This has been an international symposium and it should be
recognised that national conditions in terms of resources
and practice may lead to different conclusions in the
individual countries.
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[1 ] GUTr W. et aL - - A survey of the locations, disposal and
prospective uses of the major industrial by-products and
waste materials. BRE Current Paper 19/74, 1974.
[2] Use of waste materials and by-products in road construction.
Report of OECD Research Group, Paris, 1977.
[3] SHERWOOD P. T. - - The use of waste and low grade materials
in road construction: 2.colliery shale. TR R L Lab. Report 649.
[4] SHERWOOD P. T., RYLEY M. O. - - The effect of sulphates in
colliery shales on its use for roadmaking. TRRL Report
LR 324, 1970.
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deterioration and floor heave due to biogeochemical
weathering of underlying shale. Canadian Geotechnical J.,
Vol. 12, No. 3, 1975, pp. 372-378,
[6] NlXON P. J. --Floor heave in buildings due to the use of pyritic
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1978, pp. 1 60-164.
[7] Expansion of pyritic shales, Candian Building Digest CBD-
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[8] FILL, HARDCORE,- - Building Research Establishment Digest
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[9] R ILEM contribution and VON OBERING,PILTZG. - - Grosserpro-
bung von Steinkolklenwaschberge-Zus~tzen in mehren
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1`13] JAMES J. G., HOSKING J. R. - - British Patent Specification
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304
Le rapport entre le co~t du matEriau de rebut et celui
du mat~riau nature/ correspondant p o u r une appfication
particufiere est le facteur determinant d'utilisation du
mat~riau de rebut. Initialement, ces coElts sont d~termin~s
par la main d'ceuvre, le traitement et /e transport, mais
il ne faut pas oubfier le benefice social, bien qu'il soit
plus difficile a ~valuer. Un terrain qui se trouverait occupY,
et ~ventue/lement, au m o i n s d'une fa,con temporaire,
inutilisab/e, du fait de r a m o n c e l l e m e n t d'un matEriau de
rebut ou de/'extraction d'un rnat~riau nature/correspon-
dant, sera pr~serv~ pour d'autres usages, et on ~vitera
de d~t~riorer I'environnement p a r des monceaux de rebut.
D'un autre cEtE, le futur utilisateur de matEriaux de rebut
dolt se rendre compte des dEsa vantages possibles, tels que
pollution de /'air par suite d u traitement, pollution de
I'eau si des polluants solubles filtrent du mat~riau, ou
performance technique pas tres ~prouv~e. Une connais-
sance correcte des propri~t~s des materiaux de rebut et
des produits qui les contiennent est donc essentielle
pour permettre de porter un j u g e m e n t valable sur I'oppor-
tunit~ de les utiliser dans une situation donn~e.
II s'est agi d'un colloque international et il faut admettre
que les conditions nationales de ressources et de pratique
peuvent entrainer des conclusions diff~rentes dans chaque
pays.
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[20] Work carried out under contract to BRE (to be published).
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aggregate, Kotsuzai Shigen (Aggregate resources), No. 20,
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