AMPLITUDE MODULATION m= n+ a+ «* AM Wave v ‘m,, M3, my = modulation index of signal VOH=Vesin r—eos( .- \i-Feosl + git having index 1, 2, 3 respectively where: V. = maximum voltage of the carrier signal Power Savings Vin = maximum voltage of the original a. Single Sideband (SSB) modulating signal Passa + P. ones po = Fiswiesa +P @. = 2af; = frequency of the carrier signal Om = 2afa = frequency of the modulating e geal 7: b. Single Sideband full carrier (SSBFC) Vg Vane V is Ps = Fiserss Ve VaatV ny R where: m= modulation index Voux = maximum peak-to-peak voltage swing ¢. Two independent Sidebands of AM wave ps fe Vose = minimum peak-to-peak voltage swing P of AM wave «Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF)AM Receiver AM wave equation in terms of modulation index TRE Design formulas a, av, V()=V,sin t+ 7 eos( = atoms et alt + AM Bandwidth ont BW=2r, ire: Q -qualy ca where: BW = bandwidth wee foe fx = modulating signal frequency BW = Bandwidth * AM Power and Current View, Visa , Vise P= fT Rape ep * Superheterodyne Receiver F=f 42F, Image frequency f, = signal frequency {i= Intermediate frequency where: =\4+e* where: P, = total transmitted power afew fe P, = unmodulated carrier power rr [,= total transmitted current . where: a = image-frequency rejection ratlo(IFRR) 1c =unmodulated carrier current Q = quality factor of the ctreuit m = modulation Index Note: The voltage should be in rms Amplitude Modulation with Multiple Signals Pe ft] 2TELEVISION Details of Horizontal Blanking Period Time, sec Total line (H) [63.5 H blanking 0.15H-0.18H of 9.5-11.5 H syne pulse 0.08H, or 4.75 + 0.5 Front porch 0.02H, of 1.27 Back porch 0.06H, 3.81 ‘Visible line time | 52-54 Details of Vertical Blanking Period Time Total field (V) 1/60s 0.01675 V blanking 0.05V-0.08V or 9.5-11.5 Each V sync pulse | 27.35 ys Total af 6 V sync pul 3H = 190.5 ps Each equalizing pulse _| 0.04H = 2.54 us Each serration O.07H = 4.4 us Vistble field time 0.92V-0.95V. 0.015-0.016s Picture Information Encoding Y=0.30R+059C+0.11B 1=0.60R-0.28C-0.328 Q=021R-0526+031B Relative amplitude for the AM RF picture signal Tip of sync = 100% Blanking level = 75% Black setup = 67.5% ‘Maximum white = 10 to 15% or 12.5% (typical) oat ee L where: 0 = horizontal beamwidth (radians) ‘=the wavelength of the radar L = the dimension of the antenna in the direction of interest (Le. width or height) = vertical beam-width (radians) RADAR Pulse (Waveform) PRI = PW+ RT i orl PRT Py = Prey X DR Pn = er where: PRT = Pulse Repetition Time PW = Pulse Width (jis) RT = Rest Time (us) PRF = Pulse Repetition Frequency DR = Duty Cycle or Duty Ratio Pay = Average Power Pruax = Peak Power Maximum unambiguous range PRT Radar Range where: R = Radar Range Pr= Transmitted Power Ap = antenna gain S = cross-sectional area of the target ‘Ao = captured area of an antenna Prous = detected signal level In W Doppler Effect ie 2veos where: Fa = frequency change between transmitter and reflected signal v=relative velocity between RADAR and = angle between target direction and RADAR systemTRANSMISSION LINES * Electrical Characteristics Characteristic Impedance iz 25s iF a where: 2Z=R+jol Qm Y=CiJoC Sim at low frequency, 0 at high frequency, almala Separation between center ta center d= diameter of the wire Alternate formulas: L=1016Z,) x10? Hf HER Note: 1500 < Z) < 6000 Resistance, R R=834x10" Gi atl 5d 100- ft 2 8[S Bld where: a = radius (m) frequency (MHz) d-=diameter (inches) For coaxial line: almaly> = diameter of the outer conductor diameter of the inner conductor Alternate formulas: L=1016Z,) ,x10" Ht fe C=1.016* = x10 west 20 Characteristic Impedance, Z, ee sa yd 138, D 2 == he Note: 400 M4 Load boundary characteristics Vid=Vel+ve!* Lapse it =+V'el4-Ve# Ma) af vet*) ‘Loss-less transmission line Vid)=Viel*+Ve!* 1=L(v-e!* -v-e"*) Zo 1(@) = line current at potnt d Ze = characteristic impedance of the line V" = Incident voltage V" = reflected voltage smplex propagation constant for lossy- line = complex propagation constant for loss: less line d = distance from the load Four Cases (loss-less transmission line) 1. Z, +0 (short cirewit) V(d)=2j¥" sin( a) _2V*cos( d) 1a = tant d) 2 Z_—+ (open circuit) V(d) = 2V" cos( @) _2iV" sind) N= vid Za= =—jZ,cot( d) ii T,=1 3. Z: = Ze (matched load) V(d)=Vio!! vel? I(d) = 7) Zz 2d =2, r,=0 A. Z_=JX (pure reactance) Reactive impedance can be realized with transmission lines terminated by a short or by an open circuit. Z,, = JZ, tan( L)Reflection coefficient has a unitary magnitude, as in the case of short and ‘open circuit load. Shorted Transmission Line - Fixed Frequency L=0 Z,=0 Serles ‘Resonance vee, Im(Z,)>0 Inductance im Z,40 Parallel ‘Resonance Im(Z,)<0 — Capacitance Z,=0 Series Resonance Im(Z,)>0 Inductance Z,3% Parallel ‘Resonance 3 pe liZ.)<0 Capacitance 4 Shorted Transmission Line - Fixed Frequency 1=0 Z,2% Parallel Resonance vete, Im(Z,)<0 Capacitance 1 Z,=0 Serles 7 Resonance Im(Z,)>0 Inductance 2,30 Parallel Resonance Im(Z,,)<0 — Capactiance Z,=0 Series Resonance Im(Z,,)>0 Inductance * Degree of Mismatch A. Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) swr=2 = (whichever is larger) 1% ut “1-P Note: The greater the SWR, the greater the mismatch B. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) Vee _ Vie + Voge voir = Yom = “me * hoe Vw Vie Vor where: V" = Vie = Incident (forward) voltage V = Vur= reflected (reverse) voltage C. Current Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) ISWR= tow. 1, Haat lee = reflected (reverse) current Note: SWR = VSWR = ISWR IndB: SUR, = 20 log SWR ‘Coefficient of reflection, F Ver Jot SWR-1 hedge 2, +2) SWRHL ‘Solutions to mismatch condition: 1. Quarter-wave transformer matching - for purely resistive Z=yAd, ‘where: Zo" = Characteristic impedance of the quarter-wave matching transformer 2. Stub Procedure of using stubs: a, Calculate the load admittance b. Calculate the stub susceptance c. Connect the stub to the load, the resulting admittance being the load conductance G. d. Transform conductance to resistance, and calculate Z,' of the quarter-wave transformer. ANTENNA * Antenna Characteristics BR C=10log— ep R ‘where: G (dB) = antenna gain in decibels P, = power of unidirectional antenna P, = power of reference antenna ERP= PGERP= P,,D where: G = power gain (unitless) Pia = power delivered to the feedpoint For an isotropic antenna: P. = P., But for a unidirectional antenna: P, = ERP where: Rag = radiation resistance Py = power radiated by the antenna T= current at the feedpoint Radiation resistance for | not in excess of 3/8 st] P= Py~Paa where: R,,q= radiation resistance Pius power radiated by the antenna C= D where: 1 = antenna efficiency (for lossless ant.) Raa= antenna radiation resistance Ry = antenna radiation resistance = Rew and Ry (ohimic resistance) D = directivity (maximum directive gain) BW= a|> =70— D where: BW = bandwidth f, = antenna resonant frequency (Q=antenna quality factor = beamwidth An =10%og = 20g A . Where: Asa = front-to-back ratio (4B) Py = power output in the most optimum direction Px = power output In the opposite direction £, = field strength in the most optimum direction y= field strength in the apposite direction 60 LF 0, =— sh — 7 7 where: é; = magnitude of field strength 6 =the angle of the axis of the wire and the point of maximum radiation Isotropic Antenna Cain over isotropic = 0dB Beamwidth = 360° # Types of Antenna A. Dipole Antenna a. Half-wave dipole Gain aver isotropic = 2,14 dB Beamridth = 55° b. Folded half-wave dipole Gain over \sotropic = 5.64 dB Beamwidth = 45° B. Beam Antenna a. Yagi-Uda Antenna Gain aver isotropic = 7.14 dB Beamwidth = 25° b. Rhombic Antenna Gain over isotropic = 5.14dB C. Loop Antenna Gatn over isotropic = 3.14 dB Beamuidth = 200° V=K(2 NBAN where: V = voltage induced in a loop antenna physical proportional factora Dp Ae AS where: A. = effective aperture or antenna capture area Ao= Isotropic area k = illumination factor D = diameter of parabolic reflector od? with k = 0.65 Parabolic dipole: D= Horn Antenna (Pyramidal) Elevation Pattern: -34B beammuicth = & Azimuth Pattern: -34B beamwidth = "2 A caf E. Helical Antenna where: G = Power gain beamwidth D = helix diameter N = number of turns S = pitch between turns 2.= wavelength L=center-line axis length = NS Note: If pitch ts not given'S = W4 F. Log-Periodie Antenna Design factor formulas: Where: J, = j= the lent ofthe longest element i = the distance between the longest element and the second element 1 = design factor which Is between 0.7 and 0.98 Antenna Fora straight vertical antenna with h< 2/4 A= at sinh where: h, = effective height h=actual helght Note: h, the antenna effective height is 8 tos of the actual height. FIBER OPTICS ‘where: E, = energy of a photon; Joules (J) h=Planck’s constant, 6.62510" J-s f= frequency, Hz frequency of red light = 4.4x10"' Hz frequency of violet light = 7x10" Hz * Snell's Law asin ,=a,sin , refractive index of matertal 1 ffactive index of material 2 6; = angle of incidence ®2 = angle of refraction where: m Note: 1 A= 107°m I micron = 10° m Ny = 1.0003 = 1 a where: n = refractive index = speed of light v= velocity of light at matertal with refractive index of n Note: Angle of incidence and refraction are measured from normalwhere: O¢-= critical angle * Propagation of Light Through a Fiber 8 < Qc — light is refracted 8, > 8c light 's reflected 6; = (8, — reflected or refracted SHR nee = M4008 ¢ where: Bina = acceptance angle = acceptance cane half angle NA= ya) -0; Where: NA = Numerical Aperture where: N = number of modes V=V number d= diameter h= wavelength NA = numerical Aperture ny = refractive index of core ne = refractive index of cladding ‘A= fractional index difference © Optical Fiber System Design Mathematical Analysis The power budget is the basis of the design of an optical fiber link. Total gain - Total losses 2 0 Therefore (P+ Pi) ~ (ap aca, + fe) 20 Thus, L=P,-P.= (@;+ +0 + fa) where: P, = transmitted power P, = receiver sensitivity (minimum received power) ae = fiber attenuation = connector attenuation ial splice losses fq, = fiber margin L = distance between repeaters & zelew 5 where: Z = system length B= maximum bit rate ‘At = total fiber dispersion RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION The Flectromagnetie Wave ‘Velocity of propagation A ms a ‘where: j= permeability of the medium (H/m) © = permittivity of the medium (Fim) The Power Density ERE PG, gt A 4fr ‘The Electric Field Intensity or Strength 08 G, = Hee Vim where: « = characteristic impedance of free space, H = rms value of magnetic fleld Intensity or strength (A/m) ‘The characteristic impedance ofa medium 28 Characteristic impedance in free space o=4 x10" =1.26x10" Him 4 210 Lagsiio” Fim 36 120 Q=3772‘The Attenuation of Power Density and Electric Field Intensity A, (dB) =10 og”! = 2010g& e, f A (dB) =10 log! = 20log 2 f © The effects of environment to propagation of radio waves Refractive indices of different materials HO 1.33 Glass 1.50 Quartz Crystal [1.54 Glycerin 147 Diamond 242 ‘Snell's Law n_ sin, a, sin ‘where: 62 = angle of refraction fracted wave velocity in medium 2 tncident wave velocity in medium 1 lielectric constant of medium 1 lielectric constant of medium 2 fractive index of medium 1 fractive Index of medium 2 ep asl alk V, fi where: n = refractive index c= velocity of light tn free space \V, = velocity of light in a given medium Resultant field strength between waves traveling in different (direct and reflected paths) p= sin? Vim 2 oth, d where: E, = direct radio wave fleld strength (V/m) 5 = the geometrical length difference between the direct and reflected paths hy and h., = the heights of transmitting and recelving antenna above the reflecting plane tangent to the effective earth * The Propagation Modes: The Radio Frequency Spectrum Band Name | Frequency (MHz) | Propagation VLF . Ground Wave LF Ground Wave MF Ground Wave HE ‘Sky Wave VHF UHF SHF EHF ‘A. The Ground (Surface) Wave Method ‘The field strength at a distance (2) act 1 ‘The signal receive at that distance if a receiving anienna is in place Veh, where: a = characteristic impedance of free space hand h, = effective helght of the transmitting and receiving antennas I= antenna current 1 = distance from transmitting antenna B. The Ionosphere ‘The refractive index of the ionosphere sin 8LN on, Yr ‘where: N= number of free electrons per m* f= frequency of radio wave (Hz) The Ionospherie Layers D Layer — average height 70 km, with an average thickness of 10 km. E Layer — existing at a height about 100 km, with a thickness of 25 km. F, Layer - exists al a height 180 km, daytime thickness is about 20 km. F, Layer ~ height ranges from 250 ~ 400 km in daytime and at night tt falls to a belght of 300 km where it combines with F, layer, approximate thickness at about 200 km. ‘The height of the ionospheric layer ei © BanThe critical frequency (£.) £,=MUFoos =9 The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) MUF == f,sec cos The Optimum Working Frequency (OWF) or Frequency of Optimum Transmission (FOT) OWF = FOT =0.85MUF C. The Space Wave Propagation The Radio Horizon Distance eee hh & R= ik where: EC = Earth's Curvature R, = effective earth's radius Ra = earth's radius = 3960 mi k = correction factor for relatively flat earth k=48 ‘The maximum line of sight distance between transmitter and receiver towers is given by d=d,+d,=4Jh +4/h, where: hand h, = in meters d, dy and d, = in kilometers 2h + 2h, where: h, and h, = in feet d=inmiles The correction factor (k) k=[1-0.04665e"" where: N= surface refractivity D. Tropospheric Scatter Wave (Troposcatter) Propagation Operates at the UHF band (between 350 MHz to 10_ GHz {and used to link multi-channel telephone links). The common frequenctes are 0.9 GHz, 2 GHz and 5 CHz. T = resistor temperature B = bandwidth of the system Note: 17 °C/290 K Is the typical noise temperature V, = /4k7BR inuV where: V, = noise voltage R = resistance penerating the nolse Series Resistors Parallel Resistors 1, = (hth +i +. For a diode, the rms noise current f= 2el,B typically in pA. where: e = charge af an electron (1.6<10"° C) lirect diode current B = bandwidth of the system 1, = 20421) B where: Io = negligible reverse saturated current Addition of noise due to several sources V,, = SKTBR, TL. Addition of noise due to several amplifiers in cascade Ry=R+RtRt.t Ry ayaa IIL Signal-to-Noise Ratio s 5 y(t) = 10gIV. Noise Factor (NF) or Noise Figure (F) wpe W. F(aB) =10l0g NF For a notseless recetver, NF =I; F=0dB V. Equivalent Noise Temperature (T.) T,=T,(NF-1) where: T, = equivalent noise temperature T. = reference temperature = 290 K NF = noise factor For a nolseless recetver, T, = 0 K For attenuator elements 17, =1,(L-1) where: L = loss (absolute value) T, = physical temperature (K) VL Overall Noise Factor (Friis’ Formula) AE,-1 ¢— Nl GEG C=2Bhg, no bps where: C = channel capacity B= channel bandwidth (Hz) n= number of coding levels (2 for binary, 8 for octal, 10 for decimal etc.) Shannon-Hartley Law C= Blog, (1+ S/N) ‘bps C=3326log(1+5/N) bps where: S/N = signal-to-noise ratio (absolute value) Note: For a practical telephone channel B = 3.1 kHz (300 - 3400 Hz). Total information sent H=Q bt Power required Fatty where: P, = power required in the n-level code P2= power level required in the binary code n= number of levels in a code * Noise Measurements Units dBrn (dB above reference noise) dém=10log—*__ IxlOW dBm = dBm+90 dBa (4B above adjusted nolse) For a pure tone: fBa=10log Ix1o™* dBa= dBm+85 For FIA welghted: Ba= dBm+ 82 dBmC (dB above reference noise, C-message weighted) dBmC = dBm+90 pWp (picowatts, psophometrically weighted) hom etricV* Hp dBamp =10log 2“? p= 10log 10" Transmission level point TLP(AB) = \Olog-—5 Sine “8 = Sean~ Sioa Steg = Sign ~ TPs 20°C, T, veBL5/ oe ms Var where: Tk = Banaue in Kelvin Recall: 7, = 7. +273 T, +460 =oT + (7, -32) ‘Sound Pressure Level SPL-= 20!0g— = 1019 = = BAR RMS sound pressure (N/m’) ference sound pressure Sound Intensity whet ‘where: p = density of air velocity of sound in air pv = characteristic Impedance of air to sound = 410 rayls in alr The total intensity, Ir f=h+hthtutl, The total pressure, Py R= (PARR tAR ‘Sound Intensity coming from (a) a point source (isotropic) in free space Ww ei (b) a source at ground level I= Ww ret The Sound Intensity Level 2 I P i =i = fo 1, = threshold intensity (W/m?) = 10" Win? where: ‘The Sound Power Level (PWL) PWL=10log”- Wo PUL =10logW +120 ‘where; W = sound power in watts reference sound power =10" Ww ‘The Relation of SPL and PWL (@) fora sound produced in free space by an isotropic source SPL = PWL = 20log r=11 (b) for a sound produced at ground level SPL= PWL-20logr-8 « Room Acoustics Optimum —— {at 500 to 1000 Hz) Reverberation fanme time (6) ‘Recording and broadcast studios | 0.45 - 0.55 Elementary classrooms 06-08 Playhouses, intimate drama 09-11 | production ‘Lecture and conference rooms | 0.9 - 1.1 ‘Cinema 08-12 ‘Small Theaters 12-14 High school auditoriums 15-16 ‘General purpose auditoriums ‘Churches 14-34 Different ways in computing reverberation times A. Stephens and Bate formula (for ideal reverberation time computation) tye = H(0.012VV +0.1070) where: V = room volume (1°) r=4 for speech = 5 fororchestra = 6 for choir secondsOptimum volume/person for various types of hall Types of halls ‘Optimum volume/persan (mn) Concert halls it Italian-type opera houses 42-51 ‘Churches 71-99 Cinemas 3.1 ‘Rooms for speech 28 B. Sabine’s formula (for actual reverberation time with average absorption less than or equal to 0.2) O.161Y tg OE seconds ‘where: V = room volume (m’) a= total absorption units (m* - metric Sabine) (for a room: the sum of all absorption of the ceiling, walls, floor, furnishings and occupants). t _ 0049 exons a ‘where: V = room volume (ft) a= total absorption units (ft — customary Sabine) ‘Coefficient of absorption Is the ratio of the absorbed sound intensity ta the Incident sound Jntenslty. = + (nts ‘Note: a = I for perfect absorbent material L=1,-1, where: I,= reflected sound intensity Average absorption coefficient (~) 4 Total absorption (a) a= A (mi or ft’) where: A = surface area of the absorbent structure (nt or ft) C. Norris-Eyring's formula (for actual reverberation time with average absorption coefficient greater than 0.2) seconds ‘where: S = total surface area (m’) — = average absorption coefficient of the reflecting surface be ey soot = Sin(t=--) where: S = total surface area (ft”) = average absorption coefficient of the reflecting surface A further correction may need to be added for higher frequency to allow for air absorption. o6iv ly seconds = Shn(l-—)+aV For values of a less than about 0.2 but frequencles above 1000 Hz then a modified form of Sabine’s formula is considered, _061V eo ata where: x = sound absorptio/volume of air (m"/m’) seconds ture of 20°C Foy] soa | aoe | SouRN | orcen | rome | ao gay | sto? | sto | x10? | 10° | nto? | sto? 1000 | 3.28 | 3.28 | 3.28 | 3.28 | 3.28 | 3.28 2000 | 11.48] 82 | 82 | 6.56 | 656 | 6.56 4000 | 39.36 | 29.52 | 22.96 | 19.68 | 16.4 | 16.4 RH = Relative Humidity Methods of measuring absorption coefficient A. Reverberation Chamber Method Note: The lowest frequency should not be lower than the computed frequency from the formula below to ensure a diffuse sound field where v is the volume of the room. Principle of reverberation chamber method “A measurement of reverberation time is made first without, and then with the absorbent material in the chamber.” Without the absorbent material, OGL o—— aWith the absorbent material, 1, 0.16 “ata aero In practice some slight correction needs to be made for the behavior of sound in the chamber which can make a difference of nearly 5%. a-(ssif?-7] vit & Absorption coefficient Therefore: a Ss where: V = volume of reverberatlon chamber ty = reverberation of the chamber without absorbent material tz = reverberation of the chamber with absorbent material a= absorption of the chamber without absorbent material da = extra absorption due to the material v= velocity of sound in alr S = surface area under measurement, which should be a single area between 10 and 12 m* B. Impedance Tube Method Absorption coefficient _ 444 (A+A)* where: A; and A, are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the resultant standing wave pattern reverberation of the chamber without absorbent material Note: a of impedance tube method ts less than a of reverberation chamber method. Types of absorbents A. Membrane or Panel absorbers ‘The absorption is highly dependent upon frequency and is normally in the range of 50 to 500 Hz, They are offen used in recording. 60 f= vind where: f = approximate resonant frequency m= mass of the panel in kg/m? d=depth of the alr space in m B. Helmholtz or Cavity or Volume Resonators Resonant frequency (f) for a narrow-neck resonator {s approximately pot 2 2 \@ir nv If there ts no neck, I= 0 v far fF] 2\v where: v= velocity of sound In alr = radius of the neck 1 = length of the neck V = volume of cavity SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS * Communications Satellite Orbit Location (Satellite Elevation category) (a) Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite Orbital hetght £100 - 300 mi Orbital velocity £17,500 mph Orbital time (perlod) 1.5 hours Satellite Availability 15 min per orbit Typical operating frequency : 1.0.CHz~2.5 CHz (b) Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satelite Orbital height + 6,000 - 12,000 mi Orbital velocity + 9,580 mph Orbital time (pertod) 5-12 hours Satelltie Avallability :2~4 hours pet orbit Typleal operating frequency. : 1.2 GHz - 1.66 GHz (©) Geostationary or Geosynchronous (GEO) Satellite Orbital height 2 22,300 mi Orbital velocity + 6,879 mph Orbital time (period) : 24 hours Satellite Availability + 24 hours per orbit Typical operating frequency : 2 GHz - 18 GHz THE GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE Altitude 19,360 nmi 22,284 smi 35,855 km Period : 23 hr, 56 min, 4.091 s (one sidereal day) Orbit inclination =: 0°‘Velocity : 6879 mph m, = mass of earth (5.9810 kg) Coverage + 42.5% of earth's surface (0" v= velocity elevation) R = earth's radius (= 3960 mi~6371 km) ‘Number of satellites; Three for global caverage h= satellite height with some areas of overlap (120° apart) Satellite velocity in orbit Areas of no coverage : Above 81° north and south [ axi0" latitude “Vea Advantages : Simpler ground station on tracking No handover problem Satellite height : Nearly constant range | gr’ : Very small Doppler shift Gee km Disadvantages : Transmission delay where: T = satellite period + Range loss (lee space Joss) B= ated acceleration (9.81107 Spatlal separation: 3° - 6° [Typically 4° ia (equivalent to at least 1833 tntles of separation distance) Thy escape velocity of earth is 25,000 mph or from rae the formula: Satellite classification according to size Hetage vebichy fe Size Mass Cost Large Sate [> 1.000k | >$100M | The minimum acceptable angle of elevation is 5°. Small Satelite [500 — 1,000 kg | $50 — 100M Mini-Satelliie | 100-500kg | $5-20M Satellite Range (distance from an earth station) Micro-Satellite |" 10-100kg | $2-3M =\(R+ HR cos — Rain Nano-Satellte [|< 10kg <$iM where: = angle of elevation * Satellite Orbital Dynamics Note: fi= 0°, dis maximum, satellite ts farthest 2 f= 90°. d=h, satellite ts nearest = AP! ‘where: a = seml-major axts (km) A mnt Gtk 8, -Frqiency slecation ‘A= 42241.0979 for earth P = mean solar earth days [ratio of the time of one sidereal day (23 hours and 56 minutes) to the time of one revolution of earth (24 hours)} P=0.9972 For a satellite to stay in orbit, the centrifugal force caused by its rotation around earth should be equal to the earth’s gravitational pull. Fk Rec pe (Rei)? (Reh) where: F, = centrifugal force vitational force ravitational constant (6.670x10"') m, = mass of satellite The most common camer frequencies used for SATCOM are the 6/4 and 14/12 CHz bands. Frequency bands used in satellite communications Frequency 225 - 390 MHz 350— 530 MHz 1530-2700 MHz (2500 — 2700 MHz 3400 - 6425 MHz 7250-8400 MHz 10.95 - 14.5 GHz 17.7 -21.2 GHz 275-31 GHz 36 - 46 CHz 46 - 56 CHz 56 - 100 CHz i=l-lofeiefallo|a|-|-|EMicrowave frequency bands designation | Frequency range (GHz) L 1-2 s 2-4 Cc 4-8 x 8-12 Ku 12-18 K 18-27 Ka 27-40 Millimeter 40-300 Submillimeter >300 Earth coverage is approximately one-third of the earth's surface with approximate antenna beamwidth of 17° ‘+ The Satellite System Parameters 1. Transmit Power and Bit Energy P E, = PT, ==! ye hTas ‘where: E, = energy ofa single bit (Joules/bit) P= total carrier power (watts) Th = time of a singe bit (seconds) fi = bil rate (bps) 2. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) EIRP= PC, where: P,= total power radiated froman antenna G, = transmit antenna power gain 3, Equivalent Noise Temperature (T,) T= T,(AF-)) where: T,, = temperature of the environment (K) NF = nobse factor (absolute value) 4. Noise Density (N,) 5. Carrier-to-Noise Density Ratio seo ES Ny kl, 6. Energy Bit-to-Noise Density Ratio c f, _ CBW Wo BW 7. Gain-to-Equivalent Noise Temperature Ratio C _Gr+G(LNA) I, T, The satellite system link equations Uplink Equations CAPE LIA AR (pb) 6 aT, k Z agrees C= ig AF - a ? ~10log L, ~10log k fe - af © ape: ap 7 EIRPLABIN) ~ L (dB) (= }om« ) = 1, (dB) - k(DBWK) Uplink Equations CALLA AR (Lpls) N, I, CO ical yr ioeBAR abe? md | =10log L, —10log k C= eRe aBtN - L, soa E Jee ~ 1, (dB) - k( DBWR) MULTIPLEXING «Frequency Division Multiplexing Voice band frequency (VE): 0 - 4 kHz Basic voice band (VB) circu is called 3002 Channel: 300 — 3000 Hz band Note: The basic 3002 channel can be subdivided into 24 narrower 3001 (telegraph) channels that have been frequency-division multiplexed to form a single 3002 channel. A. Basic Group f=(i2-da) kee where: = channel carrier frequency n= channel rumberLower sideband fise =f, — (Oto 4 kHz) Upper sideband fusy= fe + (O10 4 kHz) B. Basie Supergroup f= (B72+48n) where: f, = group carrier frequency ‘n= group number kHz Lower sideband fess = fe - (60 to 108 kHz) Upper sideband usp =f + (60 to 108 kz) C. Basic Mastergroup ‘Two categories of mastergroups U600 — may be further multiplexed and used for higher-capacity microwave radio. 1.600 — used for low-capacity microwave systems. Basic Mastergroup bandwidth: L600 (60 - 2788 kHz) BW = 2728 KHz 1U6OO (564 - 3084 kHz) BW = 2520 Hr ‘The Supergroup Carrier Frequencies L600 Mastergroup | Supergroup | Carrier frequency (kHz) 1 612 2 Direct aT L116 4 1364 5 1612 6 1860 Z 2108 8 2356 9 2724 10 3100 U600 mastergroup | Supergroup | Carrier frequency (kHz) 13 16 M4 1364 15 1612 16 1860, foi 2108 (1 2356 25 2652 D26 2900 Daz 3148 D268 3396, Summary of AT&T's FDM Hierarchy Croup = 12 VB channels Supergroup = 5 Croups = 60 VB channels Mastergroup = 10 Supergroups = 50 Groups = 600 VB channels Jumbogroup = 6 Mastergroups = 60 Supergroups = 300 Groups = 3600 VB channels Supetjumbogroup = 3 Jumbogroups = 18 Mastergroups = 180 Supergroups = 900 Groups = 10800 VB channels Summary of CCITT’s FDM Hierarchy Group = 12 VB channels Supergroup = 5 Groups 60 VB channels Mastergroup = 5 Supergroups = 25 Groups = 300 VB channels ‘Supermastergroup = 3 Mastergroups = 15 Supergroups © Time Division Multi ‘Summary of Digital Multiplex Hierarchy (North American) Digital | Bitrate | Cham | Sevke | Medium | Capacity | Offered wet] at [at | ve | Teale tehone Tie Posie | ae | a | Tome pr telephone Te] ot | aa] | teamed wineSummary of CEPT 30 + 2 PCM Multiplex __Hierarchy European) _ Level | Data Rate (Mbps) | Channel Capacity | 1 2.048 I 30 2 8.448 [ 120 3 aes | 480 1 139.264 | 1920 5 364.002 | 7680 Japanese Multiplex Hierarchy Level | Data Rate (Mbps) | Channel Capacity | 1 1.544 I 24 2 6.312 | 95 3 32.064 I 480 4 97.728 1440 5 565.148 | 7680 CCITT Time-Division Multiplexed Carrier System (European Standard PCM-TDM System) With CCITT system, a 125-ys frame ts divided into 32 equal time slots. E-1 Carrier Vale] Commen | Vater ‘Channel| Signaling | Channel 2-15 | chamel | 16-29 Framing | Voice andalarm | chanel ume | 1 a Ts! Ts2-16 Sav 1518-30 TSO TSH * Introduction 1.) Typical sounds produced by humans: 100 10 1000 Hz. 2) Peak sensitivity of human hearing: 4 kHz. 3.) Upper frequency limit for hearing: 18 to 20 kHz. 4.) Lower frequency limit for hearing: 18 to 20 Hz. Nature of Speech 1.) Sound pressure wave of speech contains frequencies: 100 Hz to 10 KHz. 2) Speech power range: 10 to 1,000 uW. 3.) Maximum intelligibility for voice frequency: 1,000 and 3,000 Hz. 4.) Maximum voice energy is located between 250 and 500 Hz. Speech Measurement For typical single talker average power in dBm: P(dBm) = VU reading - 1.4 dB For more than one speaker over the channel P(dBm) = VU reading - 1.4 + 10logN here: N = number of speakers © The telephone Set Pulse Dialing To transmit a digit, it takes 0.1 second per pulse = 0.5 second inter-dignal delay time. DIMF Frequencies Frequencies | 1209 Hz | 1336 Hz 697 Hz 1 2 710 Hz 4 5 6 852 Hz 7 8 9 é $41 Hz * 0 1477 Hiz | 3 Network Call Progress Tones Tone___| Frequency (Hz) Dial Tone 350 + 440 Ringback 440 + 480 Busy Signal 480 + 620 © Switching and Signaling ,_ nn-1) N= 2 ‘Where: N = number of connections f= number of subscribers © Traffic Engineering Measurement of Telephone Traffic A=CxT where: A = traffic intensity in Erlangs C = designates the number of calls originated during a period of 1 ir (callsfhr or calls/min) T = the average holding time, usually given in hours (hr/call or min/call) as t where: = sum of all the holding time (min) {= observation period (1 br or 60 min)Note: 1 Erlang = 36 ccs (Century Call Seconds or Hundred Call Seconds) Grado_of service —Number._of _tost_ calls Total_no._of offered _calls © GSM Network Radio-Path Propagation Loss AP=40bog 2 d, (40 dBdecade path fs) AG=2Dlog © 4, (A base station antenna height gan of 6dB/octave) where: AP = the difference in two recelve signal strengths based on two different path lengths dy and dp AG = the difference in two receive signal ‘strengths based on two different antenna heights hy and hy’ Receive signal in decibels For non-obstructive path ~ steams For obstructive path P= > — log * |e 1+ ‘where: r = distance between the base and the mobile unl in mi or km h.’ = effective antenna height L= shadow loss P,, = received signal at a reference distance r, f. = usually equal to 1 mi (1.6 km) a= correction factor P= Standard Condition: Frequi 900 MHz Base-station antenna height (hi) | 30.46 m Base-station power at the antenna _| 10 watts Base-station antenna gain (G,) 6 dBd Mobile-unit antenna height 3m i 1.6 km Mobile-unit antenna gain (Gx) OdBd General Formula for Mobile radio Propagation Path Loss: Pr =P, 1344— 38-4logn + 2Ologh, +20logh, + G+ Ga where: P, and P, are in decibels above ImW, r,s in kilometers, hy and hy are in meters, and G, and Gm are in decibels Cochannel Interference Reduction Factor (CIRF), q get R Frequency Reuse factor, K g=V3K xf Radio Capacity A. Analog, DMA and TDMA cellular system B m=— aya(7} Where: B, = total allocated spectrum hannel bandvidth (Cil) = required carrier-to-tmerference ratio In linear values B. CDMA cellular system M m= K where: M = total number of voice channels KK = frequency reuse factor Antenna Separation Requirement A. At the Base Station where: f= antenna height d=spacing between two antennas B. At the Mobile Unit ‘A separation of a half-wavelength between two mobile antennas is required at 850 MHz. Therefore, the separation between two antennas needs to be only 0.18 m (about 6 inches) at the cellular frequency of 850 MHz.Cell Splitting Formulas A © 3a6ar® where: N = number of cells A= total area to be covered 1 = radius inscribed in the hexagon MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS + Microwave Passive Repeater Gain of a passive repeater G, = 20log 4 AS gl Where: A = actual surface area of the repeater (EC) ‘Acosu = Ap or Aug = projected or effective area of the passive repeater (ft) Abo, Gy =22.1+20l0g 4, + 400g fey, Beamidth of a fully illuminated passive repeater where: L = effective lincar dimension of the repeater in the direction in which the beamwidth Is to be measured Net Path Loss (NPL) NPL(dB) = Gy — Ep, +Gp— Ep, + Gy ‘where: Gr = transmit antenna gain Lyi = path loss on path 1 Gp = passive repeater gain Lr: = path loss on path 2 Ga = recelve antenna galn Near field and far field conditions 1 @d k 4a If ~ < 2.5, near-field condition exists 1 k ? 2.5, far-field condition exists where: d= Jength of the path in question (Le, the shorter distance) * Protection Switching The antenna separation required for optimum operation of space diversity system may be calculated using the formula: where: $= separation Re= effective earth's radius L = path length * Path Characteristics Free-space attenuation or path Loss, Ly ipa( 2 1, =32.4+ 20log d,, + 20108 Lugs Ly = 92.4 + 20log d,, + 20108 oy, 1, = 36.6+ 20log d., + 200g fy, 1, = 96.64 20bog d,, + 200g fon, Antenna Gain, G bY on? G=-526+ 20log D, + 2010g Fins C=7.5+20log D, +20l0g F. C=~42.34 200g D, + 20108 Sign G=17.7+20log D, +20log fi, Receive Signal Level (RSL) RSLeain = Pagey ~ Ling + Gp — Ly + Gp Line RSLéan = (oniniatwm RF input any + Mas where: P, = transmitter output La = total fixed losses at the transmitter side which includes feeder loss, connector Joss, branching loss, waveguide loss etc. ‘Lage = total fixed losses at the receiver side (Gy = transmitter antenna gain (Gp = recelver antenna gain ‘min. RF input = practical receiver threshold FM = fade margin Fade Margin — an attenuation allowance so that amicipated fading will still keep the signal abave specified minimum RF input FM =30log d,,, +10 log 6abf,,,, —10log(1— Ri-70 where: a = roughness factor for smooth terrain, including over water | for average terrain, with some roughness 25 for mountainous, very rough b=0.5 for hot, humid coastal areas= 0.25 for normal interlor temperature or subarctic areas = 0,125 for mountainous or very dry but nonreflective areas System Gain, Gs G5-= Posan ~ (tiinimum RF input} an System Reliability Estimates b) Based on R=(-U,,)x100% where: Undp = non-diversity outage probability for a given path one Uney =abf"'d'(125x10")10 ™ frequency in GHz = distance in miles, ©) Based on equipment R= (1-U)x100% ii. _ MTBF + MITR where: U = unavailability or probability of outage MTTR = Mean Time To Repair MTBF = Mean Time Between Fatlures or ‘Mean Time Before Failures y= —ulage 8760 _ hours Note: Downtime or Outage time (In hours per year) MTBF (See MTBF + MTTR where: A = Availability Fresnel Zone Ratdus/ClearancelHeight y= 72 | \ Fonte vwhere: dy and d, are distances in miles n= number of Fresnel Zone (n = 1 for 1" FZ; n=2 for 2° FZ, etc.) where: d, and d, are distances in kilometers