Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ad Hoc Networks
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adhoc

Maximization of wireless sensor network lifetime using solar energy

harvesting for smart agriculture monitoring
Himanshu Sharma a,∗, Ahteshamul Haque b, Zainul Abdin Jaffery b
a
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad, 201206, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025, Delhi, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are used for the real-life implementation of the Internet of Things
Received 27 January 2019 (IoT) in smart agriculture, smart buildings, smart cities, and online industrial monitoring applications.
Revised 12 May 2019
Generally, traditional WSN nodes are powered by limited energy capacity, non-rechargeable batteries.
Accepted 22 July 2019
The WSN lifetime (days) depends upon, duty cycle, type of application deployment, and battery state of
Available online 23 July 2019
charge (SoC) level. We propose an innovative solution to the limited energy availability design problem
Keywords: by utilizing the ambient solar energy harvesting for battery charging of WSN nodes. However, there are
Wireless sensor networks many challenges in solar energy harvesting like intermittency of available power, solar energy predic-
Sensor network lifetime tion, thermal issues, solar panel conversion efficiency, and other environmental issues. The objective of
Network throughput this research work is to maximize the WSN network lifetime using solar energy harvesting technique.
Solar energy harvesting From our simulation results, it is proved that the sensor network lifetime is increased from 5.75 days
Smart agriculture
to 115.75 days @ 25% duty cycle and higher, ideally up to infinite network lifetime. Furthermore, the
network throughput is also increased from 100 K bits/s to 160 K bits/s. in SEH-WSNs.
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In smart agriculture, modern sensing, computation & com-
munication technologies such as the internet of things (IoT) are
used into existing agricultural practices. The advantages of smart
agriculture are to increase productivity, quality of cultivated crops,
efficiently manage & control agriculture systems, and hence to in-
crease the income of people. The IoTs consisting of wireless sensor
network (WSN) nodes are widely used for monitoring and control
of temperature [1], light [2], gas [3], smart agriculture [4], and
smart cities [5] applications. The major problem with the design
of WSNs is that the sensor node battery energy is limited and gets
consumed within a small period of time (a few days) depending on
the duty cycle of the application. A new idea to increase the sensor
network lifetime is to utilize renewable energy sources like solar
photovoltaic energy. The amendments in IEEE 802.15.4 standard
(called ZigBee) [6] for low rate wireless personal area communi-
cation into ZigBee Pro standard [7,8] by the ZigBee alliances, USA,
allows the energy harvesting feature in traditional WSNs. However,
solar energy is not constant and has a very intermittent nature.
Therefore, even if the optimally designed solar energy harvesting
WSN (SEH-WSN) system is deployed, the variations in solar irra-
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: himanshu.researcher1@gmail.com (H. Sharma).
diance may degrade the network lifetime. In this paper, we have
investigated the issue of network lifetime maximization by analyz-
ing various data communication network layer performance under
various light irradiance conditions (i.e. different battery SoCs).
The advantages of using solar energy harvesting for WSN nodes
are given as:
• Solar energy is the eternal power source.
• Solar energy is unpolluted and does not harm the atmosphere.
• Highest achieved power density of 15 mW/cm2 as compared to
all other renewable sources.
• Solar energy is flexible, i.e. it can be utilized for low-voltage
applications like handheld calculators, watches, wireless em-
bedded microcontroller devices as well as high power applica-
tions like motor traction, water geyser, power plants, satellite
transponders, etc.
• Solar energy is free of cost and does not cause pollution.
• The Solar energy systems need very small preservation and last
for several years.
• Network Lifetime operation of WSN nodes can be maximized.
Additionally, when several hundred or thousands of sensor
nodes are deployed over the agricultural farms, forests, greenhouse
monitoring or any other applications requiring large geographical
areas then, it is very difficult to replace the discharged batteries
of each and every sensor node by the humans periodically. The

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2019.101966
1570-8705/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966
Fig. 1. Twenty WSN nodes without energy harvesting deployed for smart agriculture monitoring.
Fig. 2. Twenty WSN nodes with solar energy harvesting deployed for smart agriculture monitoring.
operation of a WSN is explained using Fig. 1. Here, if the bat-
tery voltage of a WSN node falls below a certain critical minimum
voltage level (Vmin ) i.e. 2.3 V then, it is not used in the routing
path of information flow. Here, Crossbow WSN nodes (also known
as MICAz motes) are used to measure ambient temperature (Cel-
sius),light (Lux), humidity (%), pressure (bar) & acceleration (m/s2 ).
A software application developed by Crossbow Inc., USA (called
Mote View 2.0) is installed and running on a personal computer
system. Using the software control panel, the user can remotely
measure the ambient temp., light, humidity, pressure & accelera-
tion. The maximum theoretical distance of ZigBee wireless sensor
network is 100 m and it can be extended up to 1.5 km. The maxi-
mum theoretical data rate of information in the ZigBee protocol is
250 kbps only.
In Fig. 2 the solar energy harvesting wireless sensor network
(SEH-WSN) scenario is shown which consists of WSN nodes con-
nected to small size solar panels. The solar energy harvester cir-
cuits such as ALD EH300 [9], Cypress Semiconductor, S6AE101A
[10], MAX17710 [11], LTC 3105 [12] and TI BQ25505 [13] are used
to provide the infinite network lifetime to the WSN nodes. The
ambient light energy from the sun is harvested by the solar mod-
ules and renewed into the electrical energy (d.c. voltage). This volt-
age can be directly applied to power the WSN node load or can
be stored in a rechargeable battery for later on utilization. This
d.c. power obtained from solar energy is unregulated, therefore we
need voltage regulation/power conditioning circuits.
In summary, the contributions of this work are:
• A new innovative idea of solar energy harvesting in WSN pro-
posed to increase the network lifetime.
• From our simulation results, it is proved that the WSN lifetime
can be increased up to infinite time theoretically.
• Network throughput (bits/s.) also improved due to solar energy
harvesting.
• Other researchers work in the same field of SEH-WSNs is com-
pared to validate our simulated results.
• Future work is discussed with reference to our work in the
SEH-WSNs.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows:
Section 1 provides the introduction to WSN. Section 2 gives
details about smart agriculture monitoring. The network model is
presented in Section 3. Section 4 provides an energy harvesting
model. The problem formulation and network lifetime calcula-
tions are provided in Section 5. Section 6 presents simulation
 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966
experiment parameters, Section 7 provides simulation results
analysis. Finally, Section 8 provides the conclusion.
2. Related work
In the literature survey of SEH-WSN, Ahmed et al. [4] has
proposed smart agriculture monitoring using IoT in rural areas.
Wang, et al. [14] has joined the Solar Energy Harvesting with
Wireless battery charging for Hybrid WSN. Lei et al. [15] have
performed Optimal Reliability analysis of Energy Harvesting Indus-
trial Wireless Sensor Networks. Galmes et al. [16] has developed
a logical prototype for the duty cycle in solar powered WSN for
Green Monitoring application. Voigt [17] has proposed Solar-aware
Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks. In this paper, the author has
proposed a direction-finding protocol for WSNs that first routes
traffic via solar-powered nodes. Fang et al. [18] has proposed
Energy-utilization Aware Sleep Scheduling algorithm in Green
WSNs for Sustainable Throughput. Seyedi [19] has performed
Modeling and Analysis of Energy Harvesting Nodes in Wireless
Sensor Networks. Chien [20] has proposed a Simple SEH-WSN sys-
tem. Schiller [21] has proposed Scatter Web - Low Power Sensor
Nodes and Energy Aware Routing. Abbas [22] has proposed Solar
Energy Harvesting and Managing in WSNs. Hong [23] has per-
formed the Imitation and real-life construction of SEH-WSN. Sha
et al. [24] has proposed the modeling of the Lifetime of Wireless
Sensor Networks. Sharma et al. [25] has performed the survey of
SEH-WSN nodes at four levels i.e. sensing level, computation level,
communication level, and energy harvesting level. Johan et al.
[26] has proposed smart soil parameters estimation system using
WSN with dynamic power management features. Daskalakis et al.
[27] has proposed a Backscatter–Morse–Leaf Sensor for Low-Power
Agricultural WSNs.
3. Smart agricultural monitoring
There are many monitoring and control operations in agricul-
tural fields like measurement of moisture level in soil and plants,
watering of the plants, pesticide distribution, crops harvesting,
waste management, animal control, etc. For example, in a humidity
level measurement scenario, the sensors sense the humidity level
in the crops or soil and send data to the remote gateway loca-
tion wirelessly [26]. Depending upon the predefined threshold val-
ues, necessary actuators can be activated like motor pump speed
control, On–Off of the water pump motor, Crops harvesting, Crops
seeding, pesticide distribution over the crops, etc. [27]. The basic
block diagram of Smart Agriculture Monitoring using Energy Har-
vesting Internet of Things (EH-IoT) is shown in Fig. 3. Here, the
sensor module measures the humidity and temperature of the soil.
This sensed data is sent to the wireless ZigBee transceiver module
(IEEE 802.15.4 standard). The measured data is sent to the Internet
of Things (IoT) Cloud. From the IoT Cloud, the measured data is
sent to GSM mobile and or Wi-fi router. The user can observe the
measured data using monitoring and control application running
on their mobile phone or Personal Computer (PC).
A flow chart is shown in Fig. 4 which shows the system
methodology for complete process in agriculture fields monitoring
using energy harvesting Internet of things (EH- IoT) or energy
harvesting WSN (EHWSN). Here, the first step is to measure the
various environmental parameters of the agricultural fields using
sensors. The measured data is sent over the IoT cloud using
microcontroller (Arduino Uno board) and Zig-Bee module. Simul-
taneously, the energy required to operate the IoT sensor node
is harvested from the solar panels and can be directly used to
power the sensor node. The harvested energy can also be stored
in a battery to operate the IoT node during night-time when solar
energy is not available. The user sitting at a remote place can
3
observe & control the data (temperature, humidity, video signal,
etc.) from anywhere across the world using a mobile phone or
personal computer. Also, the user (farmer) can generate necessary
control actions to regulate the agricultural farming processes like
watering of the plants, pesticide distribution, crops harvesting,
waste management, animal control etc. The power consumption
of MICAz WSN nodes in different modes of operation is shown in
Table 1. Here, the processor power consumption is 8 mA and RF
transceiver power consumption is 20 mA.
4. Network model
The SEH-WSN network model consisting of 20 WSN nodes is
shown in Fig. 2. The theoretical network model of Fig. 2 has been
implemented in Fig. 6 using Netsim simulator. in Here, all WSN
nodes are powered by solar energy harvesting. A battery charg-
ing circuit and small size solar panels are attached to each WSN
node. All the WSN node performs the sensing operation at a rate
depending on the duty cycle. The sensed data (humidity/ tempera-
ture/ pesticide level etc.) is sent to Gateway or Sink node. All WSN
nodes are placed at a fixed location in a geographical area at a re-
mote location. The Sink node is powered by the mains supply. All
the WSN nodes utilize a multi-hop routing technique to send the
data to the nearest relay node. The relay nodes convey the sensor
data to the gateway node. The gateways node is capable of com-
municating directly with all the sensors in the network. The maxi-
mum data rate of WSN is 250 kbps. Each node is assigned a unique
node identification number and an IP address in the network.
5. Solar energy harvesting model
The solar energy harvester for a WSN node consists of a
solar panel, a DC–DC Converter [29,30] a rechargeable battery
and power management circuits like pulse width modulation
(PWM) control or maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control
circuits [31]. The WSN node is connected at the output of solar
energy harvester as the d.c. load as shown in Fig. 5. In general
consumer applications, the rechargeable AA-size alkaline batteries
have ratings of 1.5 V, 250 mAh. Our WSN nodes use two batteries
to provide 3 V supply (2 × 1.5 = 3.0 V). As shown in Table 2,
the Nickle Cadmium (NiCd) and Nickle Metal hydride (NiMH)
batteries are rated at 1.20 V/cell or 1.25 V/cell with 500–2850 mAh
ratings. The series combination of three NiCd/NiMH batteries can
provide 3.6 V supply (3 × 1.2 = 3.6 V) for WSN nodes. Generally,
the nominal voltage of a single lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is
3.60 V/cell with 600–850 mAh ratings. Thus, a single Li-ion battery
is sufficient for supplying power to WSN nodes.
6. Problem formulation
In WSNs, the network lifetime is defined as the time period
from the starting time (t1 ) to the time instant (t2 ) when the
network becomes non- operational [32,33]. Generally, the WSN
lifetime depends upon the type of application e.g. temperature
measurement, object detection, forest monitoring, environmental
monitoring, etc. The WSN scenario can be considered as non-
operational when the first sensor node dies, a percentage of sen-
sors nodes die, the network partitions or the loss of reporting is
observed.
For a WSN the network lifetime formula [34] is given as initial
energy E0 , minus expected wasted energy E (Ew ) divided by the
power consumption plus average packet arrival rate, multiplied by
sensor energy as:
E0 − E ( Ew )
E (L ) = ; days (1)
En
4 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966

Fig. 3. Proposed framework for smart agriculture monitoring using SEH-WSNs.

Or, per day energy consumption depends upon the type of data traffic,
( E0 − E ( Ew ) ) an average of power consumption of sensor node in transmit, re-
E (L ) = ; days (2) ceive, idle and sleep modes. Generally, the power consumption of
(Pc + λ.E (Es ))
the nodes is (20 Mw × 5 nodes = 100 mW), packet arrival rate (λ)
where E (L) = Average Network Lifetime of the WSN network (in is 250 kbps for IEEE 802.15.4 standard for ZigBee communication
days), protocol and sensor energy consumption depends upon the sens-
E0 = Initial Energy of the Network (Joules), ing duty cycle.
E (Ew ) = Expected wasted (unused) energy in the network when
it dies (Joules),
En = Energy Consumed by the network/ day (Joules) given as: 6.1. Initial network energy (E0 ) calculation

En = PC + λ .E (Es ) (3)
The power consumption of a MICAz WSN node is determined
where Pc is power consumed by all sensors, λ is packet arrival from the manufacturer specification sheets [28]. The crossbow
rate, and E (Es ) is called expected sensor energy consumption. The technology, USA MI- CAz motes have a nominal voltage of 3.3 V
 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966 5

Table 2
Rechargeable battery specifications.

S. no. Type of battery Voltage rating (V) Current rating (mAh)

1 Alkaline Battery 1.5 250–1000

2 NiCd and NiMH Battery 1.2 500–2850
3 Li-Ion Battery 3.6 600–850

One WSN node is having maximum energy of 7200 J. The 70% of

7200 J is calculated as [(70 × 720 0 J)/10 0] = 5040 J. Thus each sen-
sor node is considered as died if its battery energy reaches less
than 5040 J or 70% SoC. For the 20 WSN nodes network scenario,
5040 J × 20 = 10 0,80 0 J. So the expected wasted energy when the
network dies is 10 0,80 0 J.
Furthermore, if anyone or two nodes energy goes below from
predefined minimum threshold level (70%) to any other lower
value (say 20% SoC, or 1440 J) then these nodes are considered
as “dead”. Such “dead” do not participate in the network and wait
for their battery charging by solar energy harvesting autonomously.
Now, the information packets are routed from the next nearest
neighborhood nodes and network still continues to work and keeps
on sending the data to the gateway. When the battery SoC of dead
nodes regains its sufficient values from solar energy harvesting
battery charging (i.e. >70%), then they again become “alive” and
start participating in the network automatically. Thus network life-
time becomes infinite (ideally) and network never dies completely.
All above numerically calculated values have been summarized in
Fig. 4. System methodology flowchart for smart agriculture monitoring using SEH-
WSNs. Table 3.

6.3. Network lifetime calculation

Let the average power consumption in one sensor node is

20 mW or 20 mJ/s. For the entire network of twenty WSN nodes, it
becomes 20 mW × 20 = 400 mW or 400 mJ/s. The number of secs-
rounds in one day is 24 h × 60 min × 60 s equals to 86,400 s. When
the WSN node is operated for 1 day (86,400 s) then energy con-
sumed by the WSN nodes for various duty cycles is calculated as
Fig. 5. Solar energy harvesting model. follows:
Table 1 • Network Lifetime for 1 % Duty Cycle
Power consumption of each WSN node [28].

S. no. Component Power consumption
1. Processor 8 mA (Active mode)
board 15 μA (Sleep Mode)
2. RF 20 mA (Transmit / Receive mode)
transceiver 20 μA (Idle mode)
but can work from 2.3 V to 3.6 V also. The initial energy of one
WSN nodes having AA size, alkaline 1.5 V battery and capacity as
10 0 0 mAh or 1 Ah can be calculated as: To convert mille Ampere
Hour (mAh) into Joules the unit conversion factor is 3600. So to
find the energy of the battery in joules unit, we multiply the ca-
pacity (mAh) with a factor of 3600. Now the initial energy of one
battery is obtained as 1 Ah × 3600 = 3600 J. Each node consists of
two AA size batteries. Therefore, the initial energy of each WSN
node having two AA size, alkaline batteries are 3600 J × 2 = 7200 J.
Now the total energy of the network can be easily calculated by
multiplying one WSN node energy to the total number of nodes
present in the network (i.e. 20 nodes). So the initial energy of a
network having 20 nodes is 7200 J × 20 = 144,000 or 144 K J.
6.2. Wasted network energy E (Ew ) calculation
Let us assume that the battery SoC is considered as zero when
battery energy is reduced to 70% of its maximum rated energy.
For the 1 % duty cycle, the WSN node is powered up for 864 s
out of 86,400 s in 24 h. Therefore, the energy consumed by one
WSN node for 1% duty cycle is 20 mJ/s × 864 s = 17.28 J/ day.
Now, for 20 WSN nodes, we can calculate the energy consump-
tion (En ) as 17.28 J × 20 = 345.6 J/ day. Now, the Network Lifetime
is calculated as: initial network energy (E0 = 144 K J) minus wasted
network energy (E (Ew ) = 10 0,80 0 J) divided by the daily energy
consumption of the 20 nodes network (En = 345.6 J) i.e. (144 KJ–
10 0,80 0 J)/345.6 J = 43,200 J/345.6 J = 125 days. Thus the sensor
network lifetime at 1% duty cycle is 125 days or four months five
days only.
Using the same calculation method as 1% duty cycle, the net-
work lifetime for various duty cycles (5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, and 100%)
is be calculated and shown in Table 4.
In Table 4, the WSN lifetime for various duty cycles is shown.
Here, for 1% duty cycle, the energy consumption of the network is
minimum i.e. 345.6 J/day. Therefore, the network lifetime is maxi-
mum i.e. 125 days. However, if we keep on increasing the duty cy-
cle, then energy consumption keeps on increasing. Finally, at 100%
duty cycle the energy consumption of WSN is maximum (34,560 J)
and hence network lifetime is minimum (1.25 days). Therefore, we
can say that the network lifetime (day) is inversely proportional
to the daily energy consumption (J) of the network. If energy con-
sumption per day of the network is increased then its lifetime de-
creases and vice versa.
6 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966

Table 3
Energy consumption.

S. no. Performance parameters Energy consumption of a WSN node Energy consumption of 20 WSN nodes

1 Initial Energy of each WSN 7200 J 144 K J

node having two 1.5A,
1000 mAh batteries
2 Operating Voltage 2.3–3.3 V 46–66 V
3 Unused (wasted) Voltage < 2.3 V <46 V
4 Remaining (wasted) Energy 5040 J 100,800 J

Table 4
Lifetime w.r.t duty cycle.

S. no. Duty cycle Energy consumption/day (J) Network lifetime (no. of days)

1 1% 345.6 125
2 5% 1728 25
3 10% 3456 12.5
4 25% 8640 5
5 50% 17,280 2.5
6 100% 34,560 1.25

Fig. 6. Twenty WSN node deployed for smart agriculture monitoring scenario in Netsim simulator.

7. Simulation network scenerio and parameters

Table 5
Simulation parameters.
The performance analysis can be done by using the batch ex-
Performance parameters Values
periment in Netsim network simulator [35] developed by Tetcos
Company, Bangalore, India. Here, a batch experiment of 20 WSN No. of Sensor Nodes 20
nodes and one gateway Node, is performed as shown in Fig. 6. The No. of Gateway Nodes (Sink Node) 1
Sensing Parameter (Agent) Temperature (K)
IP addresses have been assigned to each WSN node ranging from
Physical and MAC layer IEEE 802.15.4
10.0.0.1 to 10.0.0.20. A sensing agent senses the physical quantity communication Protocol Standard protocols
like temperature, humidity, acceleration, pressure, etc. in the agri- Network Layer Protocol Dynamic System Routing (DSR)
culture fields and sends the data to all sensor nodes. The simula- Wireless Sensor Node (WSN) Platform MICAz Platform
Distance / Area of Nodes Deployment 20 × 50 m2
tion parameters are shown in Table 5. There are 20 WSN nodes
Type of Energy Harvesting Source Solar PV energy
having the capability to operate as both with energy harvesting Battery Charging Current 20 mA
(EH) feature or without energy harvesting (EH) feature. The duty Battery Capacity (mAh) 1000
cycle of a WSN depends upon the type of application scenario Duty Cycle (D) 25%
 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966
e.g. industrial monitoring, agriculture monitoring, forest monitor-
ing, smart car parking etc. In traditional non- rechargeable battery
based WSNs, the designers generally keep very low duty cycle (say
< 5%) to save the power consumption of WSN nodes. But, in SEH-
WSN the duty cycle can be increased as the nodes are not energy
limited now. So we have kept at 25% i.e. one message is sent after
every 4 s to the gateway node by the network for better monitor-
ing in smart agriculture application.
8. Simulation results
The simulation results without energy harvesting and with en-
ergy harvesting have been shown.
8.1. Network layer performance analysis
From the simulation results shown in Table 6, it is observed
that all the parameters value increases with Energy Harvesting
(EH) in sensor network nodes. The number of data packets trans-
mitted increases from 64,428 to 2,005,897. Thus, the data rate in-
creases 31.31 times higher with energy harvesting in WSNs. Sim-
ilarly, the number of control packets transmitted also increases
from 83,572 to 2,726,126. Therefore, the overall data traffic or net-
work throughput (bits/s) also increased by 32.62 times in using
energy harvesting in WSNs. The data and control packets colli-
sion is also increased 7.15 times and 29.90 times respectively. The
packet collision is negative performance parameter for an ad-hoc
network and it should be reduced. An alternate future research di-
rection in EHWSNs can be “how to reduce packets collision rate in
EHWSNs?”. Similarly, the total number of bytes transmitted, pay-
load bytes, and overhead bytes are also increased by 31.15, 33.67
and 30. 47 times respectively. The Fig. 7 shows a graphical repre-
sentation of Network Layer Performance parameters results.
Table 6
Network layer performance parameters.
S. no. Performance parameters Without EH (X)
1 No. of Data Packet Transmitted 64,428
2 No. of Control Packet Transmitted 83,572
3 No. of Data packets collided 8580
4 No. of Control packet collide 13,003
5 Total No. of Bytes Transmitted 6,466,573
6 No. of Payload Bytes 1,369,294
7 No. of Overhead Bytes 5,097,279
Fig. 7. Network layer performance parameters.
7
8.2. IEEE 802.15.4 standard performance analysis
The IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines the Physical and Medium
Access Control (MAC) layer parameters for Wireless Sensor Net-
works (WSNs). From the simulation scenario, as shown in Fig. 6, it
is observed there are 20 EHWSN nodes with device ID range 1–20,
Sensing agent ID 21 and the Gateway node ID is 22. Now, to calcu-
late the entire network performance, we have summed the value
each parameter of all 20 sensor nodes (i.e. complete network) as
shown in Table 7. Here, the improvement in various network layer
performance parameters is also summarized. From Table 7, it is
observed that the no. of packets transmitted in the entire net-
work without EH is 66,657 whereas with EH is 2,096,595. This
shows 31.45 times improvement in network throughput (bits/s.).
The acknowledgments (ACK) received by the neighbor nodes with-
out EH is 54,584 and with EH is 1,986,479. This shows 36.39
times improvement in ACK received. The successful CCA attempts
without EH are 168,579 and with energy harvesting is 5,462,579.
This shows a 32.40 times increase in the number of the suc-
cessful attempt which is the good network performance indicator.
Fig. 8 shows a graphical representation of IEEE 802.15.4 Standard
Performance Parameters simulation results.
8.3. Network energy consumption performance analysis
In Table 8, energy parameters at the physical layer are shown.
Here, the network consists of 20 EHWSN nodes. Here, the trans-
mission mode energy consumed by all 20 sensor nodes in the net-
work without EH is 7865 mJ, whereas with EH is 247,338 mJ. The
receiving mode energy consumed by the complete network with-
out EH is 7560 mJ and with EH is 217,134 mJ. The idle mode
energy consumption without EH is 114,175 mJ and with EH is
2,208,608 mJ. Sleep energy consumption in both cases is zero mJ.
Finally, the total sum of all energies consumed in all modes of
With EH (Y) Performance improvement factor (Z = Y/X)
2,005,897 31.31
2,726,126 32.62
61,404 7.15
388,908 29.90
201,465,858 31.15
46,112,755 33.67
155,353,103 30.47
8 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966
Table 7
IEEE 802.15.4 parameters performance improvement.
Performance parameters Without EH (X)
Number of Packets Transmitted (bits/s) 66,657
Number of Packets Received 68,505
ACK Transmitted 54,584
ACK Received 55,280
CCA Attempts 260,290
Successful CCA 168,579
Table 8
Network energy consumption parameters.
S. no. Performance parameters Without EH (mA) (X)
1 Transmission Mode Energy Consumed (mJ) 7865
2 Receiving Mode Energy Consumed (mJ) 7560
3 Idle Mode Energy Consumed (mJ) 114,175
4 Sleep Mode Energy Consumed (mJ) 0 0
5 Total all Modes Energy Consumed (mJ) 129,600
Fig. 8. IEEE 802.15.4 standard performance parameters.
operation without EH is 129,600 mJ and with EH is 2,673,080 mJ
in the entire network. This result shows that the overall energy
consumption of the network is increased by 20.62 times with en-
ergy harvesting. This is a negative performance indicator in WSNs.
The energy consumption of the WSNs should always be minimized
even if there is an infinite energy source like Sun is available. Be-
cause, it can cause heating effects which can results into leak-
age problems in the semiconductor devices mounted inside sen-
sor nodes. From here, we can originate a new research problem as
“How to minimize the energy consumption in SEH-WSN nodes?”.
Using ideal semiconductor devices, we can ignore the heating ef-
fects and thereby allow more energy consumption of WSN nodes
also. The sun is ideally, an infinite energy source and if we are able
to successfully utilize this solar energy, then we can provide infi-
nite lifetime for WSN nodes. This would be a game-changing so-
lution for WSN nodes in the near future. Fig. 9 shows a graphical
representation of energy consumption performance parameters re-
sults.
8.4. Dynamic source routing (DSR) metrics analysis
In a WSN scenario, when the source node wants to send a
message to a destination node which is not present in its Rout-
ing Table 9, then it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ) in the en-
tire net- work. When the destination node receives RREQ message
then it sends a reply message known as Route Reply (RREP) to the
With EH (Y) Performance improvement factor (Z = Y/X)
2,096,595 31.45
2,198,642 32.09
1,986,479 36.39
1,990,153 36.00
6,226,529 23.92
5,462,579 32.40
With EH (mA) (Y) Performance degrading factor (Z = Y/X)
247,338 31.44
217,134 28.72
2,208,608 19.34
Not Applicable
2,673,080 20.62
source node. As shown in Table 9, there is almost similar num-
ber of RREQ i.e. 27,706 and 27,532 without EH and with EH WSN
respectively. But, due to the better performance of EH-WSN, the
number of Rout reply (RREP) is more in EH-WSN. Similarly, the
number of network packets transmitted is increased to 35 times as
2,065,041 packets with EHWSNs as compared to 58,931 packets in
with- out EH WSNs. Furthermore, the number of packets dropped
is reduced to 65% with EHWSN (i.e. 128,260) as compared to with-
out EHWSNs (i.e. 195,285). Fig. 10 shows a graphical representation
of Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) metrics simulation results.
8.5. Overall network throughput (bits/s) & lifetime (days) analysis
8.5.1. Overall throughput without energy harvesting(EH)
As shown in Fig. 11, the average network throughput with-
out EH is 100 Kbps. After 500,000 s, the throughput goes below
100 Kbps and keeps on decreasing. The throughput becomes unsta-
ble and keeps on reducing because the WSN node battery state of
Charge (SoC) decreases continuously w.r.t time. After a certain time
period, the network throughput goes below the certain minimum
cut-off level of the network. In our simulation results of Fig. 11, the
network lifetime is around 50 0,0 0 0 s. This means that network is
operational for 50 0,0 0 0 divided by 360 0 s equals to 138 h or 5.75
days approximately. After 5.75 days, the network throughput goes
down and the networks become non-operational.
 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966 9

Fig. 9. Energy consumption performance parameters.

Fig. 10. Dynamic source routing (DSR) metrics.

Table 9
Dynamic source routing (DSR) metrics.

S. no. Performance parameters Without EH (X) With EH (Y) Performance Improvement factor (Z = Y/X)

1 RREQ Sent 27,532 27,706 1.00

2 RREP Sent 519 8533 16.44
3 RERR Sent 484 7386 15.26
4 RREQ forwarded 785 15,155 19.30
5 Route Break 1554 23,133 14.88
6 Packet Originated 14,259 514,235 36.06
7 Packet Transmitted 58,931 2,065,041 35.04
8 Packet Received 54,057 1,977,635 36.58
9 Packet Dropped 195,285 128,260 0.65

8.5.2. Overall throughput with energy harvesting (EH)
As shown in simulation result Fig. 12, the average network
throughput is 160 Kbps till 10,0 0 0,0 0 0 s. It tries to remains con-
stant and stable. Therefore, the network does not fail and all SEH-
WSN nodes keep on communicating with each other till infinite
time. The throughput remains constant because the WSN node bat-
tery state of Charge (SoC) does not go below towards minimum
levels due to continuous battery charging by the solar energy har-
vesting techniques. All EHWSN nodes always participate in the net-
work and do not die theoretically.
Furthermore, in Fig. 12, the network lifetime is 10,0 0 0,0 0 0 s
and keeps going on towards infinite time. As the simulation soft-
ware cannot show the results up to infinite time, the maximum
limit is shown up to 10,0 0 0,0 0 0 s only. This means the network is
operational for 10,0 0 0,0 0 0 divided by 3600 s equals to 2778 h or
115.75 days and remains continue for an infinite time. Thus we get
infinite network operation lifetime in EHWSNs.
Table 10 shows network throughput and network lifetime val-
ues up to the maximum capacity of the simulation software.
Fig. 13 shows the comparison of Network Throughput with EH and
10 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966

Fig. 11. Overall network lifetime & throughput without EH.

Fig. 12. Overall network lifetime throughput with EH.

Table 10
Overall network throughput (bits/s) & lifetime (days).

S. no. Performance parameters Without EH (X) With EH (Y) Performance improvementFactor (Z = Y/X)

1 Network Throughput (Bits/s) 100 Kbps (decreasing) 160 Kbps (constant) 1.6 times increased & remain constant
2 Network Lifetime (days) 5.75 days (decreasing) 115.75 days (increasing) 20.13 times increased and increasing till the infinite time
 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966 11

Fig. 13. Overall network throughput comparison.

Fig. 14. Network lifetime comparison.

without EH scenario. Here, the network throughput is higher
(1,60,0 0 0 bits/s.) using energy harvesting in WSNs. In the same
way, Fig. 14 shows a comparison of Network lifetime with EH and
without EH scenario. Here, the network lifetimes with energy har-
vesting is more 115.75 days as compared to without energy har-
vesting WSN (i.e. 5.75 days).
9. Comparison of other researchers work in SEH-WSN
In this section, we compare our proposed framework for SEH-
WSNs with other researchers. Table 11, shows that Yi et al.
[36] have proposed a new energy harvesting model for SEH-WSN
using solar Castalia simulator. Castagnetti et al. [37] have proposed
two new Power Management policies for SEH-WSNs using
TI EZ430 solar energy harvesting platform. Dondi et al.
[38] have proposed a Solar Energy Harvester with MPPT for in-
door applications and a 50 % improvement in the overall system
has been reported. Jackson et al. [39] have proposed a low cost
moving solar tracker for Environment Monitoring with 99 % har-
vester efficiency. Bader et al. [40] have proposed two storage so-
lutions as Double Layer Capacitors & thin Film batteries for Aca-
demic & Industrial applications. Sanchez et al. [41] have proposed,
a numerical energy harvesting simulation model (SIVEH) based on
current (I) and voltage (V) tracking.
10. Overall results summary of SEH-WSN
The overall summary/conclusion of the advantages of energy
harvesting in WSN has been outlined in Table 12. Here, the tra-
ditional WSN network lifetime @25% duty cycle is limited to only
5.75 days whereas in EHWSN the network lifetime is 115.75 days
and still continue towards infinite time. But practically, the EHWSN
network lifetime is limited to various another constraint also like
solar panel lifetime, battery charge–discharge cycles, aging of elec-
tronics components, leakage currents, etc.
The network energy consumption is increased from 129,600 mJ
to 2,673,080 mJ which is a poor performance indicator in case of
tradition WSN network (without EH). But here, we have infinite so-
lar energy available for battery charging of WSN nodes. Thus, the
increased energy consumption parameter can be ignored in SEH-
WSN. The performance of IEEE 802.15.4 standard is also increased.
Here, the no. of packets transmitted in the entire network without
EH is 66,657 and with EH is 2,096,595. This shows a 31.45 times
improvement in network throughput (bits/s). Next, at the rout-
ing layer, the packet drop rate is also decreased from 195,285 to
12 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966

Table 11
Comparison of other researchers work in SEH-WSN.

Authors (Ref.) Proposed Simulation No. of Area of MAC and IEEE Throughput WSN WSN Results
framework/solution software/ nodes deployment routing standard (data rate) lifetime application
platform layer 802.15.4 analysis analysis
protocols analysis (bits/S)

Wang et al. [14] A hybrid Yes, Nodes 10 No No No No Low power 90% energy
framework for placement electronics harvesting
Solar Powered and algorithms applications efficiency
Wireless RF Energy
powered WSN
nodes
Yi et al. [36] A new energy Solar 12 25 × 25 GPSR and No No No Not reported Design of a
harvesting model Castalia meter ODMAC new
for WSNs SEH-WSN
simulator
Castagnetti et al. Two New Power TI EZ430 5 Indoor en- CSMA/CA No Yes,(100 No Not reported 50%
[37] Management solar vironment bits/s) improvement
policies for energy overall
SEH-WSNs harvesting system
platform
Dondi et al. [38] A Solar Energy Yes 1 No No No No No Embedded 85%
Harvester with porTable harvester
MPPT Application efficiency
Jackson et al. [39] A low cost moving Yes, energy 3 No No No No No Environment 99 %
solar tracker maximiza- Monitoring harvester
tion efficiency
algorithm
Bader et al. [40] Two storage No 4 No No No No No Academic & Super
solutions as Industrial capacitors
Double Layer applications are better
Capacitors & thin viable
Film batteries options for
WSNs
storage
Sanchez et al. [41] SIVEH, A numerical NS-3 1 Not Not No No No No No
energy harvesting Network reported reported
model based on IV Simulator
tracking
Our work (Sharma Comparison of NETSIM 20 40 × 20 CSMA/CA yes Yes yes Temperature 95 %
et al.) SEH-WSNs & v11, meter & Humidity Efficiency
Traditional WSNs Network Monitoring
Simulator, in Smart
Agriculture

Table 12
Overall results summary of SEH-WSN.

S. no. WSN performance parameters Without EH (X) With EH (Y) Performance improvement factor (Z = Y/X)

1. Network Lifetime (days) @25% duty cycle 5.75 days 115.75 days and higher (Ideally, Infinite) 20.13 times and increasing (Ideally, Infinite)
2. Overall Network Throughput (Bits/sec.) 100 Kbps (decreasing) 160 Kbps (constant) 1.6 times increased & remain constant
3. IEEE 802.15.4 Standard Performance:
• No. of Packets transmitted 66,657 2,096,595 31.45
• No. of Packets Received 68,505 2,198,642 32.09
• ACK Transmitted 54,584 1,986,479 36.39
• ACK Received 55,280 1,990,153 36.00
• No. of CCA Attempts 260,290 6,226,529 23.92
• Successful CCA Attempts 168,579 5,462,579 32.40 times increased
4. No. of Packet Dropped at Routing Layer 195,285 128,260 0.65 times decreased
5. Network Energy Consumption (mJ) 129,600 2,673,080 20.62 times Increased

128,260 packets. This shows an improvement of 0.65 times fewer
drops of packets. This happened because of good battery SoC avail-
ability of all WSN nodes due to solar energy harvesting. Finally,
the network throughput (bits/s) also increased i.e. from 100 K bits/s
to 160 K bits/s. Thus the energy harvesting increases the overall
network throughput (bits/s) by 1.6 times also. Furthermore, the
throughput remains constant throughout the network lifetime.
11. Conclusion & future work
In this paper, we have proposed a framework for infinite life-
time SEH-WSN for smart agriculture monitoring applications. Our
work is directly useful for the peoples, researchers, and farmers
working in the agriculture domain to reduce their physical work
and cost for management, control & monitoring of crops. We have
 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966
extended the WSN lifetime @ 25 % duty cycle up to 115.75 days
and higher (ideally, up to infinite time) as compared to only 5.75
days by using solar energy harvesting. In real life, the operational
age of electronics components inside WSN nodes is almost limited
to a maximum of 50–100 years only. Furthermore, the network
throughput (bits/s) is also increased up to 1.6 times (100 Kbps to
160 Kbps) and remains constant in SEH-WSNs. The performance of
DSR protocol also increases due to very fewer packet drops. The
utilization of solar energy harvesting can be a boon for designing
of traditional energy constrained WSN deployed for smart agricul-
tural monitoring. From the simulation results, it is proved that the
WSN network lifetime can be increased to ideally infinite time by
using solar energy harvesting.
In future, this research work can be extended in many direc-
tions such as (1) Designing of Solar energy harvesting aware MAC
and routing layer protocols, (2) development of algorithms to re-
duce the energy consumption of SEH-WSN nodes, (3) designing
of integrated circuit (IC) level solutions for power management
of SEH-WSNs, (4) proposing a more realistic framework for smart
agriculture monitoring using renewable energy based internet of
things (IoT), 5) applying Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning (ML) based algorithms for SEH-WSNs in smart agriculture
scenarios etc.
Conflict of interest
None.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful for the Advanced Power Electron-
ics Lab, Electrical Engineering Department, Jamia Millia Islamia, (a
Central Government University), New Delhi, India.
References
[1] E. Sardini, M. Serpelloni, Self-powered wireless sensor for air temperature and
velocity measurements with energy harvesting capability, IEEE Trans. Instrum.
Meas. 60 (May (5)) (2011) 1838–1844.
[2] M. Magno, T. Polonelli, L. Benini, E. Popovici, A low cost, highly scalable wire-
less sensor network solution to achieve smart LED light control for green
buildings, IEEE Sens. J. 15 (May (5)) (2015) 2963–2973.
[3] H. Yang, Y. Qin, G. Feng, H. Ci, Online monitoring of geological CO2 storage
and leakage based on wireless sensor networks, IEEE Sens. J. 13 (February (2))
(2013) 556–562.
[4] N. Ahmed, D. De, Internet of things (IoT) for smart precision agriculture
and farming in rural areas, IEEE Internet Things J. 5 (December (6)) (2018)
4890–4899.
[5] A. Zanella, N. Bui, A. Castellani, Internet of things for smart cities, IEEE Internet
Things J. 1 (February (1)) (2014) 22–32.
[6] IEEE Standard for Local and metropolitan area networks— Part 15.4: Low-Rate
Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs), 2015. [Available online: https:
//standards.ieee.org/standard].
[7] ZigBee Green Power User Guide for Home Automation, NXP Laborato-
ries, UK, 2016. [Available online] https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/user-guide/
JN- UG- 3095.pdf.
[8] C. Williams, ZigBee Green Power White Paper, Zigbee Alliances, USA, 2017.
[9] EH300/301 EPAD Energy Harvesting Modules for Low Power Applications Data
Sheets, Advance Liner Devices Inc., (ALD), USA, 2007 Available online:http://
www.aldinc.com/pdf/EH300.pdf.
[10] Cypress Semiconductor, S6AE101A Energy Harvesting Power Management IC
(PMIC) for Wireless Sensor Node Data Sheets, 2017 Available online:http://
www.cypress.com/products/energy-harvesting-pmics.
[11] Maxim Integrated MAX17710 Energy-Harvesting Charger and Protector IC Data
Sheets, 2012 Available online:https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/products/
power/battery-management/MAX17710.
[12] Linear Technology Corp, LTC 3105, 400 mA Step-Up DC/DC Converter IC with
MPPT and 250 mV Start-Up Data Sheets, 2017 Available online:http://www.
linear.com/purchase/LTC3105.
[13] Texas Instruments (TI), Ultra Low Power Boost Charger IC bq25505 with Bat-
tery Management and Autonomous Power Multiplexor for Primary Battery in
Energy Harvester Applications Datasheets, 2015 Available online:https://store.
ti.com/BQ25505.
13
[14] C. Wang, J. Li, Y. Yang, Combining solar energy harvesting with wireless charg-
ing for hybrid wireless sensor networks, IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput. 17 (March
(3)) (2018) 560–576.
[15] L. Lei, Y. Kuang, Optimal reliability in energy harvesting industrial wire-
less sensor networks, IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun. 15 (August (8)) (2016)
5399–5413.
[16] S. Galmes, S. Escolar, Analytical model for the duty cycle in solar-based
EH-WSN for environmental monitoring, Sens. J., MDPI 18 (2499) (2018)
1–34.
[17] T. Voigt, H. Ritter, J. Schiller, Solar-aware routing in wireless sensor networks,
in: IFIP International Conference on Personal Wireless Communications, (PWC),
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2775, Berlin, Heidelberg, SPRINGER, 2003,
pp. 847–852.
[18] W. Fang, Z. Zhang, M. Mukherjee, L. Shu, Z. Zhou, Energy-utilization aware
sleep scheduling in green WSNs for sustainable throughput, IECON 2017
- 43rd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society,
October 2017.
[19] A. Seyedi, B. Sikdar, Modeling and analysis of energy harvesting nodes in wire-
less sensor networks, in: Forty-Sixth IEEE Annual Allerton Conference, Illinois,
USA, 2008, pp. 67–71. September 23–26.
[20] L.J. Chien, M. Drieberg, P. Sebastian, A simple solar energy harvester for wire-
less sensor networks, IEEE International Conference on Intelligent and Ad-
vanced Systems (ICIAS), 2016.
[21] J. Schiller, A. Liers, H. Ritter, R. Winter, T. Voigt, Scatterweb - low power sensor
nodes and energy aware routing, in: System Sciences, Proceedings of the 38th
Annual Hawaii International Conference, 2005. 9 pages.
[22] M. Abbas, M. Tawhid, K. Saleem, Z. Muhammad, N. Saqib, H. Malik, H. Mah-
mood, Solar energy harvesting and management in wireless sensor networks,
Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw. 10 (7) (2014) 436107.
[23] T. Hong, M. Drieberg, B. Singh, Simulation and hardware implementation of
solar energy harvester for wireless sensor networks, in: Proceedings - 2014
IEEE Conference on System, Process, and Control, Malaysia, ICSPC, 2014, pp.
84–89.
[24] K. Sha, W. Shi, Modeling the lifetime of wireless sensor networks, Sens. Lett. 3
(2) (2005) 126–135.
[25] H. Sharma, A. Haque, Z.A. Jaffery, Solar energy harvesting wireless sensor net-
work nodes: a survey, J. Renew. Sustain. Energy, Am. Inst. Phys. (AIP), USA 10
(March (2)) (2018) 1–33.
[26] J.J. Estrada-López, A.A. Castillo-Atoche, J. Vázquez-Castillo, E. Sánchez-Sinencio,
Smart soil parameters estimation system using an autonomous wireless sen-
sor network with dynamic power management strategy, IEEE Sens. J. 18 (21)
(2018) 8913–8923.
[27] S.N. Daskalakis, G. Goussetis, A uW backscatter-morse-leaf sensor for
low-power agricultural wireless sensor networks, IEEE Sens. J. 18 (October (9))
(2018) 7889–7898.
[28] Crossbow Technology, Product Datasheet, 2008, pp. 4–5. Available at:www.
xbow.com.
[29] H. Sharma, C. Sharma, M. Sharma, A. Haque, Z.A. Jaffery, Performance analysis
of solar powered DC-DC buck converter for energy harvesting IoT nodes, IEEE
International Conference on Power Electronics and Its Impact on Humanity,
KIET Ghaziabad, CIPECH, 1 November 2018.
[30] O. López-Lapeña, M.T. Penella, M. Gasulla, A new MPPT method for low-power
solar energy harvesting, IEEE Trans. Indust. Electron. 57 (September (9)) (2010)
3129–3138.
[31] H. Sharma, A. Haque, Z.A. Jaffery, Modelling and optimization of a solar energy
harvesting system for wireless sensor network nodes, J. Sens. Actuator Netw.,
MDPI, USA 7 (September (3)) (2018) 1–19.
[32] M. Halgamuge, M. Zukerman, K. Ramamohanarao, An Estimation of sensor en-
ergy consumption, Electromagn. J. 12 (2009) 259–295.
[33] F. Mansourkiaie, L.S. Ismail, Maximizing lifetime in wireless sensor network for
structural health monitoring with and without energy harvesting, IEEE Acess 5
(2017) 2383–2395.
[34] Y. Chen, Q. Zhao, On the lifetime of wireless sensor networks, IEEE Commun.
Lett. 9 (November (11)) (2005).
[35] Netsim Simulator available at www.tetcos.com.
[36] J. Yi, M.J. Kang, D.K. Noh, Solar Castalia: solar energy harvesting wireless sen-
sor network simulator, International Journal of Distributed Sens.or Networks,
Hindawi Publishing Corporation (2015) 1–10.
[37] A. Castagnetti, A framework for modeling and simulating energy harvesting
WSN nodes with efficient power management policies, EURASIP J. Embed.
Syst., Springer J. 8 (1) (2012).
[38] D. Dondi, A. Bertacchini, D. Brunelli, Modelling and optimization of a solar en-
ergy harvester system for self-powered wireless sensor networks, IEEE Trans.
Indust. Electron. 55 (July (7)) (2008).
[39] G. Jackson, S. Ciocoiu, J.A. McCann, Solar energy harvesting optimization for
wireless sensor networks, GLOBECOM 2017 - 2017 IEEE Global Communica-
tions Conference, 2017.
[40] S. Bader, B. Oelmann, Short-term energy storage for wireless sensor networks
using solar energy harvesting, 2013 10th IEEE International Conference on Net-
working, Sensing, and Control (ICNSC), June 2013.
[41] A. Sanchez, S. Blanc, S. Climent, SIVEH: numerical computing simulation
of wireless energy-harvesting sensor nodes, MDPI Sens. J. 13 (9) (2013)
11750–11771.
14 H. Sharma, A. Haque and Z.A. Jaffery / Ad Hoc Networks 94 (2019) 101966

Himanshu Sharma, student member IEEE, received the
B.Tech. Degree in 2008 and M.Tech., degree in 2014 from
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Technical University (AKTU), Luc-
know, U.P., India. He is a Ph.D. Research Scholar at De-
partment of Electrical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia
(a Central University), New Delhi, India. His research in-
cludes Renewable Energy, Embedded Devices, Wireless
Sensor Networks, and wireless communications. He has
published various research papers in many SCI and Sco-
pus index Journals & conferences including IEEE explore.
Zainul Abdin Jaffery, senior member IEEE, is Professor at
Department of Electrical Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia
(a Central University), New Delhi, India. He did B.Sc. and
M.Sc. from AMU, Aligarh. He completed his Ph.D. from
Jamia Millia Islamia in 2004. He has guided many Ph.D.
scholars and has completed various research projects. He
has published and presented his research papers at many
International conferences & SCI indexed Journals includ-
ing IEEE Journals and Springer Journals.

Ahteshamul Haque, senior member IEEE, is Asst. Profes-

sor at Department of Electrical Engineering, Jamia Mil-
lia Islamia (a Central University), New Delhi, India. His
area of research is Power Electronics and its application
in Renewable Energy, smart grids, wireless power trans-
fer, smart cities, etc. He did B.Tech in Electrical Engineer-
ing from AMU, Aligarh, and M.Tech from Indian Institute
of Technology (IIT), Delhi. He completed his Ph.D. from
Jamia Millia Islamia in the area of power electronics and
renewable energy. He has published various research pa-
pers in many SCI and Scopus index Journals & conferences
including IEEE explore. He has published four USA patents
and three Indian patents.