PMFIAS Science Technology Part 1

Science & Technology Compilation by Pmfias.
com – Part I
PDF – Contents
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Laws & Rules that govern Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ........................................................................................ 7
Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) ................................................................................................... 7
Types of Intellectual Property .......................................................................................................................................... 8

Patents ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020 ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Industrial Designs ............................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Copyright ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Trademarks ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Geographical Indications ................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Trade secrets ................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Plant Variety Protection .................................................................................................................................................................. 14
National IPR Policy, 2016................................................................................................................................................ 15

Objectives under policy are ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Intellectual Property Rights Issues: The Five Major Challenges Faced ....................................................................... 16
Patent Evergreening Prevention ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
Subsidies & IPR Issues ..................................................................................................................................................................... 17
The Product Patents Process ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
Protecting traditional knowledge.................................................................................................................................................... 17
Compulsory Licensing & Drug Price Control Order ......................................................................................................................... 18
Some other issues ........................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Related Topics .................................................................................................................................................................. 18

Cell for IPR Promotion & Management (CIPAM) ............................................................................................................................ 18
IP Nani ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 19 1
Contemporary Technologies and Their Applications ....................................................................................................... 19

PMF IAS – Learn Smart
3D Printing ....................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Artificial Intelligence ....................................................................................................................................................... 21

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? .................................................................................................................................................. 22
Categories of Artificial Intelligence ................................................................................................................................................. 23
Significance of Artificial Intelligence ............................................................................................................................................... 24
India & AI ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Challenges before AI in india ........................................................................................................................................................... 26
FASTag .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
RFID ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Fuel Cell ............................................................................................................................................................................ 28

Fuel Cell Mechanism ....................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Advantages of fuel cells................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Disadvantages of fuel cells .............................................................................................................................................................. 29
Nuclear Fusion – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) ............................................................ 29

Nuclear Fission vs. Nuclear Fusion .................................................................................................................................................. 33
Lithium-ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs ..................................................................................................... 34

Lithium-ion battery ......................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Lithium ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Cobalt .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles vs. Electric Vehicles ............................................................................................................. 38
Economies of EV .............................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Nanoparticles ................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Gold Nano Particles (GNP) .............................................................................................................................................................. 41
Param Siddhi Supercomputer ........................................................................................................................................ 42

National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) ....................................................................................................................................... 42
The speed of a Supercomputer ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
Reverse osmosis (RO) ...................................................................................................................................................... 44

Basics ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Reverse Osmosis (RO) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Superconductor ............................................................................................................................................................... 48
Maglev trains ................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Information and Communication Technologies ............................................................................................................... 49
5G ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 49 2
5G will enable .................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Health concerns associated with 5G networks ............................................................................................................................... 50
Challenges in commercialization of 5G ........................................................................................................................................... 50
Fibre Optics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Internet of Things (IoT) ................................................................................................................................................... 55

NB-IoT.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 55
Internet of Things ............................................................................................................................................................................ 56
Project Loon & Starlink ................................................................................................................................................... 56
Project Loon .................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Starlink ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 57
Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) ............................................................................................................................................... 58

How does Voice over Wi-Fi benefit the mobile network operator (MNO)? ................................................................................... 58
How does VoWifi benefit the end user? ......................................................................................................................................... 59
How is VoWifi different from OTT calling? ...................................................................................................................................... 59
How is VoWifi different from VoLTE?.............................................................................................................................................. 59
Why are MNOs adopting VoWifi technology now? ........................................................................................................................ 59
Privacy and Data Protection Related Topics ..................................................................................................................... 59
Data Localization and Data Protection .......................................................................................................................... 59

What is Data Localization? .............................................................................................................................................................. 60
B.N Shrikrishna report on Data Protection ..................................................................................................................................... 60
GDPR vs Data Protection Bill ........................................................................................................................................................... 63
Virtual Private Network (VPN) ....................................................................................................................................... 64

VPN and privacy .............................................................................................................................................................................. 65
India Space Programmes and Related Concepts .............................................................................................................. 66
Terms and Concepts related to Satellite Launches and Satellite Orbits ..................................................................... 66
Kepler's laws of planetary motion (applicable to satellites also) .................................................................................................... 66
Perigee and Apogee ........................................................................................................................................................................ 67
Why satellites revolve rather than staying still in space? ............................................................................................................... 68
Low Earth Orbit (LEO: 200-2000 km) .............................................................................................................................................. 68
Highly Elliptical Orbits ..................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Geosynchronous Orbits (GSO) ........................................................................................................................................................ 72
Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit (GEO) ................................................................................................... 72
Geostationary vs Geosynchronous ................................................................................................................................................. 73
Medium Earth Orbits (MEO: 2000-36,000 km) ............................................................................................................................... 74
Polar Orbits (PO) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 75 3
Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO) ......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Parking Orbit ................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Hofmann transfer orbit ................................................................................................................................................................... 76

Geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) ............................................................................................................................................. 76
Escape velocity ................................................................................................................................................................................ 77
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) .............................................................................................................................................. 77
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) ........................................................................................................................... 78
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-III) ......................................................................................................... 79
Chandrayaan-2 ................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Gaganyaan Mission ......................................................................................................................................................... 81
GEMINI: Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation & Information ......................................................... 83
The need for GEMINI ....................................................................................................................................................................... 83
How GEMINI works? ....................................................................................................................................................................... 83
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) ....................................................................................................... 83

Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) ............................................................................................................................... 84
India’s Communication Satellites ................................................................................................................................... 84

Why are the Geostationary satellites launched from east coast in eastward direction and from locations that are close to the
equator? .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
NavIC Navigation System ............................................................................................................................................... 89

Countries are working on building their navigation systems .......................................................................................................... 90
NavIC (IRNSS) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Additional Reading .......................................................................................................................................................................... 92
Private Sector Participation in Space Sector ................................................................................................................. 93

IN-SPACe ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
About ISRO ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Indian Missile Systems ........................................................................................................................................................ 95
Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile ................................................................................................................................... 95

Ballistic Missiles ............................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Cruise missile ................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile ................................................................................................................ 97
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) .................................................................................. 97

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) ................................................................................................................................... 98
India’s Missiles ................................................................................................................................................................. 98

Prithvi Missiles ................................................................................................................................................................................ 99
Agni Missiles .................................................................................................................................................................................. 100
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Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) ....................................................................................................................................................... 101
Brahmos Missiles........................................................................................................................................................................... 101
Shaurya Missile ............................................................................................................................................................................. 102
Space and Astronomy Related Concepts ......................................................................................................................... 103
Asteroids ........................................................................................................................................................................ 103

Hayabusa Mission 2....................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Closest stars to the Sun ................................................................................................................................................. 106

Gravitational waves ....................................................................................................................................................... 107
LIGO ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Northern Lights ............................................................................................................................................................. 112

Magnetosphere ............................................................................................................................................................................. 113
Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA) ........................................................................................................................ 114

Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) ............................................................................................................................................................ 114
Potentially Hazardous Objects (PHO) ............................................................................................................................................ 116
Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA) ............................................................................................................................ 118
Superhabitable Planets ................................................................................................................................................. 119

What are Exoplanets? ................................................................................................................................................................... 119
What is Dark Energy? .................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Dark Matter ................................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Superhabitable Planet ................................................................................................................................................................... 120
Biotechnology Related Concepts ..................................................................................................................................... 121
Bioweapons .................................................................................................................................................................... 121

Bacillus Anthracis (Anthrax) .......................................................................................................................................................... 121
Australia Group ............................................................................................................................................................................. 122
Multilateral Export Control Regime (MECR) ................................................................................................................................. 122
IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project ............................................................................................................. 123

Key Terms ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 124
Difference between DNA vs RNA .................................................................................................................................................. 124
Genome ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Genome Sequencing ..................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Stem Cell or Cord Blood Banking ................................................................................................................................. 127

Stem Cells ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Digital India Project........................................................................................................................................................... 129
Optical-Fibre Connectivity ............................................................................................................................................ 129 5

National Digital Health Mission ................................................................................................................................... 130
National Health Policy 2017 .......................................................................................................................................................... 130
Cybersecurity Policy 2020 ............................................................................................................................................. 131

National Cyber Security Strategy 2020 (NCSS 2020) ..................................................................................................................... 131
Objectives of National Cyber Security Policy ................................................................................................................................ 132
Diseases and Related Topics that are Frequently in News ............................................................................................. 132
Antimicrobial resistance (AR) ....................................................................................................................................... 132
2019-05: World’s rivers loaded with antibiotics waste ................................................................................................................. 133
2019-07: Colistin banned in animal food industry ........................................................................................................................ 133
Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) ................................................................................................................. 134

Vaccines provided under UIP ........................................................................................................................................................ 134
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) ............................................................................................................................. 136

The link between hypoglycaemic encephalopathy (HE) and litchi ................................................................................................ 136
Diabetes .......................................................................................................................................................................... 137

Type 1 diabetes ............................................................................................................................................................................. 137
Type 2 diabetes ............................................................................................................................................................................. 137
Gestational diabetes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) ............................................................................................................................................. 138
Hepatitis ......................................................................................................................................................................... 139
Influenza (Flu) ................................................................................................................................................................ 140

Nipah virus ..................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Nipah virus infection ..................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Plasmodium Vivax Malaria ........................................................................................................................................... 142

Pneumonia ..................................................................................................................................................................... 143
Rotavirus ........................................................................................................................................................................ 143
Sickle Cell Anemia ......................................................................................................................................................... 143

What is Thalassemia? .................................................................................................................................................................... 143
What is Sickle Cell Disease? .......................................................................................................................................................... 144
Tuberculosis (TB) ........................................................................................................................................................... 145

TB Treatment ................................................................................................................................................................................ 145
Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) .................................................................................................................................................. 146
Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) ......................................................................................................................................... 146
Causes of multidrug resistant-TB .................................................................................................................................................. 146
Treatment for drug-resistant TB ................................................................................................................................................... 146 6
The goal to end TB by 2025 ........................................................................................................................................................... 146
National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) ................................................................................................................................. 147
Typhoid fever ................................................................................................................................................................. 148
Miscellaneous Topics......................................................................................................................................................... 148
Criticality ........................................................................................................................................................................ 148

Graphene ........................................................................................................................................................................ 149
Malware (malicious software) ...................................................................................................................................... 150
Different types of malware ........................................................................................................................................................... 151
Super Apps ..................................................................................................................................................................... 151

Trans-Fat ........................................................................................................................................................................ 152
Fats ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 152
Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans Fat .............................................................................................................................. 153
This file covers Science and Technology related concepts that are repetitive in nature.
You should focus on the relevant topics only when they are in news.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
• Intellectual property is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.
• In simple terms, it refers to creations of the mind, such as
✓ inventions
✓ literary & artistic works
✓ designs & symbols,
✓ names & images used in commerce.
• The main purpose of intellectual property law is to
✓ encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods &
✓ strike the right balance between the interests of innovators & wider public interest.
Laws & Rules that govern Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
• The importance of IPR was first recognized in the

1. Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) &
2. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary & Artistic Works (1886).
• Both are administered by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
• IPRs have been outlined in Article 27 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
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• WTO governs IPR through Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).
Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
• TRIPS is an international agreement on intellectual property rights.

• The Agreement covers most forms of intellectual property including
✓ patents,
✓ copyright,
✓ trademarks,
✓ geographical indications,
✓ industrial designs,
✓ trade secrets, &
✓ exclusionary rights over new plant varieties.
• It came into force in 1995 & is binding on all members of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Types of Intellectual Property
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PMF IAS – Learn Smart 9
Patents
• A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a new product or process that meets
conditions of
✓ novelty,
✓ non-obviousness, &
✓ industrial use.
• A patent provides the owner with the right to decide how - or whether - the invention can be used by others.
Criteria for issuing Patents in India
1. Novelty: it should be new (not published earlier + no prior Public Knowledge/ Public Use in India)
2. Non obviousness: It must involve an inventive step (technical advanced in comparison to existing
knowledge + non‐obvious to a person skilled in the relevant field of technology)
3. Industrial use: It should be capable of Industrial application
• Patents in India are governed by “The patent Act 1970” which was amended in 2005 to make it compliant 12
with TRIPS.
What cannot be patented?
• Frivolous Invention: Invention that harms public order/Morality/ health of animals, plants & humans
• Methods of agriculture or horticulture
• Traditional Knowledge
• Computer Program
• Inventions related to Atomic Energy
• Plants & Animals
• Mere discovery of scientific principle
Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020
• The central government has published amended Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020.
• The new rules have amended the format of a disclosure statement that patentees & licensees are re-
quired to annually submit to the Patent Office.
• Format contains disclosing the extent to which they have commercially worked or made the patented in-
ventions available to the public in the country.
• The disclosure is to be made in the Form 27 format as prescribed under the Patent Rules, 2003.
• The patentees & licensees as well as the Patent Office have blatantly disregarded this statutory requirement.
• There has been significant pressure from MNCs & the U.S. to do away with this requirement.
Criticism of Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020
• The amendment has significantly weakened the requirement of submitting information in the disclosure.
• This could hamper the effectiveness of India’s compulsory licensing regime which depends on full dis-
closure of patent working information.
• This in turn could hinder access to vital inventions including life-saving medicines.
Industrial Designs
• An industrial design constitutes the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article/object.

• A design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or of two-
dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or colors.
• Industrial Designs in India are governed by “The Designs Act 2000”.
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Copyright
• Copyright is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over their literary & artistic works.
• Works covered by copyright range from books, music, paintings, sculpture & films, to computer programs,
databases, advertisements, maps & technical drawings.
• Copyrights in India are governed by “The Copyright Act, 1957”.
Trademarks
• A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of
other enterprises.
• Trademarks date back to ancient times when artisans used to put their signature or "mark" on their products.
• Trademarks in India are governed by Trade Marks Act 1999 which was amended in 2010.
Geographical Indications
• A GI tag is a legal recognition given primarily to an agricultural, natural or a manufactured product (handi-
crafts & industrial goods) originating from a definite geographical territory.
• GI tag conveys an assurance of quality & distinctiveness of a product, which is essentially attributable
to the place of its origin.
• Most commonly, a geographical indication includes the name of the place of origin of the goods.
• Once the GI protection is granted, no other producer can misuse the name to market similar products.
• It also provides comfort to customers about the authenticity of that product.
• Geographical Indicators in India are governed by “The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registra-
tion & Protection) Act, 1999”.
What is the difference between a Geographical Indication (GI) & a Trademark?
• A trademark is a sign/word/phrase used by an entity to distinguish its goods & services from those of others.
• A geographical indication tells consumers that a product is produced in a certain place & has certain
characteristics that are due to that place of production.
• A trademark gives the entity the right to prevent others from using the trademark.
• On the other hand, GI may be used by all producers who make their products in the place designated by
a geographical indication.
Trade secrets 14
• Trade secrets are IP rights on confidential information which may be sold or licensed.
• The unauthorized acquisition use or disclosure of such secret information by others is regarded as an unfair
practice & a violation of the trade secret protection.
• There is no specific law.
Plant Variety Protection

• It refers to the protection granted for plant varieties.
• These rights are given to the farmers & breeders to encourage the development of new varieties of plants.
• Plant variety protection in India is governed by “The Protection of Plant Varieties & Farmers’ Rights
(PPV&FR) Act, 2001”.
Protection of Plant Varieties & Farmers’ Rights (PPVFR) Act, 2001
• PPVFR Act, 2001 has been enacted in India for giving effect to the TRIPS Agreement.
• The PPVFR Act retained the main spirit of TRIPS viz., IPRs as an incentive for technological innovation.
• However, the Act also had strong provisions to protect farmers’ rights.
• The act allows farmers to plant, grow, exchange & sell patent-protected crops, including seeds, & only
bars them from selling it as “branded seed”.
• It recognised three roles for the farmer: cultivator, breeder & conserver.
1. As cultivators, farmers were entitled to plant-back rights.
2. As breeders, farmers were held equivalent to plant breeders.
3. As conservers, farmers were entitled to rewards from a National Gene Fund.
• After joining WTO in 1995, the choice before India was to either enact a law or to accept the plant breed-
ers’ rights given by the International Union for Protection of New Plant Varieties (UPOV Convention).
• UPOV option was earlier rejected because it denied the farmers the freedom to re-use farm saved
seeds & to exchange them with their neighbours.
• However, in 2002, India joined the UPOV convection.
Objectives of the PPVFR Act
• Facilitate an effective system for protection of plant varieties & the rights of farmers.
• Encourage the development of new varieties of plants.
• Protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution in conserving plant genetic resources.
• Facilitate the growth of the seed industry which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds.
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Criticism of PPVFR Act, 2001
Discourages research & innovation: PPVFR Act allows farmers to use patented varieties & hence private
•
companies are not keen to bring new technology.
• India neither invests in public sector nor respects private & foreign players’ IPR (bad for business).
National IPR Policy, 2016

• The Policy aims to push IPRs as a marketable financial asset, promote innovation & entrepreneurship, while
protecting public interest.
• The plan will be reviewed every five years in consultation with stakeholders.
• To have strong & effective IPR laws, steps would be taken — including review of existing IP laws — to update
& improve them or to remove anomalies & inconsistencies.
• The policy is entirely compliant with the WTO’s agreement on TRIPS.
• Department of industrial policy & promotion (DIPP) is the nodal agency for all IPR issues.
• The policy retains the provisions on Compulsory Licensing (CL) as well as preventing ever-greening of
drug patents (Section 3(d) of India's Patents Act).
• Under Indian Patents Act, a CL can be issued for a drug if the medicine is deemed unaffordable, among
other conditions, & the government grants permission to qualified generic drug makers to manufacture it.
Objectives under policy are
16
Intellectual Property Rights Issues: The Five Major Challenges Faced

• There are many IPR issues that one faces while getting IP rights in India. The issues are as follows:
Patent Evergreening Prevention
• One of the most important intellectual property rights issues challenges is the prevention of the evergreen-
ing of the patents for multinational companies.
• Evergreening is strategy for extending the term of granted patent which is about to expire without in-
creasing therapeutic efficacy in order to retain royalties.
• As we know, the companies cannot evergreen their patents simply by making minor changes.
• So, section 3(d) in the Indian Patent Act (IPA) possess as one of the biggest issues with regards to IPR.
• This act bars the grant of patents to new forms of substances.
• This has discouraged investments from western countries.
Subsidies & IPR Issues
• A major form of subsidies includes food subsidy, fertilizer subsidy, education subsidy, etc.
• For the complete implementation of TRIPS agreements, one needs to reduce or eliminate these subsidies.
• Thus, GOI needs to create a balance between providing subsidies & providing IP rights in India.
The Product Patents Process
• A product patent protects a product.

• It offers high protection to the original inventor to reduce the competition for the same product.
• Whereas a process patent protects the process through which one manufactures the product & not
the product.
• It reduces the element of monopoly in the market.
• As India is a part of the TRIPS agreement, the agreement requires all its members to shift their patent
regime from process to product patent.
• This remains a challenge for India, as process patent would be more helpful to a country like India. 17
• This is since India is a developing country & ordinary people are struggling with basic necessities like food.
Protecting traditional knowledge
• Traditional knowledge, especially in the field of medicine, is like a gold mine.

• GOI is bound to protect traditional knowledge by not allowing MNC’s to get patents on traditional culture.
• Above all, the government has created a Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) to prevent the
patenting of traditional knowledge.
• So, this is one of the intellectual property rights issues in India.
Compulsory Licensing & Drug Price Control Order
• One of the most important intellectual property rights issues that the government needs to address is the
use of compulsory licensing.
• Compulsory licenses are authorizations given to a third-party by the Government to make, use or sell a
particular patented product without the need of the permission of the patent owner.
• The provisions regarding compulsory licenses are given in the Indian Patents Act, 1970 & in the TRIPS (Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) Agreement.
• It is a relaxation available to the developing countries under the TRIPS agreement, something which organ-
izations misuse sometimes.
• Moreover, under section 84 of the IPA, a company can acquire a compulsory license for “private commer-
cial use” under certain circumstances.
• With the Drug Price Control Order, the company needs to justify the price of the drug with regards to in-
vestments.
• If someone plays foul, then the government has the right to intervene.
• Multinationals are asking the government to revoke this provision.
• However, the government is not ceding the demands to protect the interest of the masses.
Some other issues
• Trademark Violations: India has very high level of trademark counterfeiting against which the authorities
in India do not take proper actions.
• Enforcement of IPR regulations is quite weak in the country because of two important reasons
1. India is key exporter of counterfeit fake products such as foodstuffs, textiles, shoes, electronics etc
2. Judicial delays in IPR disputes
• India maintains high custom duties on IP intensive products as advocated by western countries impacting 18
the investment (US puts India into priority watch list i.e., special 301 report).
Related Topics
Cell for IPR Promotion & Management (CIPAM)
• CIPAM has been created as a professional body under the aegis of DIPP to take forward the implementation
of the National IPR Policy 2016.
• Functions:
✓ CIPAM is working towards creating public awareness about IPRs in the country,
✓ Promoting the filing of IPRs through facilitation.
✓ Providing inventors with a platform to commercialize their IP assets &
✓ Coordinating the implementation of the National IPR Policy in collaboration with Government Min-
istries/Departments & other stakeholders.
IP Nani
• IP Nani was launched by Ministry of Commerce & Industry in 2018.

• It is a tech-savvy grandmother who helps the government & enforcement agencies in combating IP crimes
with the help of her grandson “Chhotu” aka Aditya.
• The IP mascot will spread awareness about the importance of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) among peo-
ple, especially children, in an interesting manner.
Contemporary Technologies and Their Applications
3D Printing
• 3D printing (additive manufacturing), is the construction of a three-dimensional object from a Com-

puter Aided Design (CAD) model or a digital 3D model.
• The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes.
• In an additive process, an object is created by laying down successive layers of material.
• Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced cross-section of the object.
• 3D printing is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing which is cutting (hollowing) out an object.
• 3D printing enables production of complex shapes using less material than traditional manufacturing.
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Source & Credits | Source & Credits

Envisaged time and money saving applications of 3D printing
• Affordable housing: 3D printing will slash time and cost of construction required, by a significant amount.
• Faster prototyping of ideas and designs in jewellery, automobile and construction industries.
• Bioprinting: Biomaterials such as cells and growth factors are combined to create tissue-like structures imi-
tating their natural counterparts.
• Orthopaedic implants and medical devices: Due to 3D printing’s capabilities for creating porous surfaces,
these types of implants more easily integrate with the patient’s own natural bones.
• 3D selfies: generates 3D selfie models from 2D pictures of customers.
Issues with 3D printing
• Potential for misuse: 3D printing can be used to manufacture parts of guns and weapons if a 3D CAD model
for the part is available.
• Reduction in Manufacturing Jobs since most of the production is automated and done by printers.
Artificial Intelligence
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What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
• Artificial intelligence (AI) is wide-ranging branch of computer science concerned with building smart ma-
chines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence.
• AI uses a set of algorithms & intelligence to try to mimic, complement & supplement human intelligence.
• Machine learning is one of the AI techniques, & deep learning is one of those machine learning techniques.
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• AI powered intelligent machines perform high-level cognitive processes like thinking, perceiving, learning,
problem solving & decision-making using data, analytics & computer processing power.
• Artificial Intelligence encompasses of:
1. Machine Learning
2. Deep Learning
3. Pattern Recognition
4. Big Data
5. Self-Algorithms
Categories of Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial intelligence generally falls under Two (2) broad categories:
Artificial Narrow Intillegnece (ANI)
• This kind of artificial intelligence operates within a limited context & is a simulation of human intelligence.
• Narrow AI (Weak AI) is often focused on performing a single task extremely well.
• That is, in Narrow AI (ANI), technology outperforms humans in some very narrowly defined task.
23
• Unlike general artificial intelligence, narrow artificial intelligence focuses on a single subset of cognitive abil-
ities & advances in that spectrum.
• Examples of narrow AI:

✓ devices like Alexa, Google Assistant, Siri, & Cortana
✓ Self-driving cars
✓ Facial recognition tools that tag you in pictures
✓ Customer service bots
✓ Google’s page-ranking technology that determines which websites appear at the top of the search
✓ Recommendation systems showing products based on browsing history
✓ Spam filters that keep your inbox clean through automated sorting
Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
• AGI, or “Strong AI,” allows a machine to apply knowledge & skills in different contexts.
• AGI closely mirrors human intelligence by enabling autonomous learning & problem-solving.
• The Next Generation AGI is a machine with general intelligence and, much like a human being, it can apply
that intelligence to solve any problem.
Examples of Artificial Intelligence
• Smart assistants (like Siri & Alexa)

• Manufacturing & drone robots
• Optimized, personalized healthcare treatment recommendations
• Conversational bots for marketing & customer service
• Robo-advisors for stock trading
• Social media monitoring tools for dangerous content or false news
• Song or TV show recommendations from Spotify & Netflix
• Robot drones adjusting pesticide spray in precision farming
• Autonomous vehicles that rely on AI can for smart warnings & preventive & defensive techniques.
Significance of Artificial Intelligence
• It has potential to overcome the limitations of capital & human resources.

• AI has potential to drive growth. E.g. automate complex physical world tasks like manufacturing.
• Role in socio economic development i.e. increase in healthcare, education etc.
• Advisory to farmers in increasing productivity.
24
• Smart & efficient cities (mobility).
• Exponentially growth of data constantly feeds AI & vice versa.
• AI helps in data analysing.

• AI for efficient use of resources.
• Increases accessibility & affordability of services.
• AI helps in ease of doing business, strengthening ‘make in India ‘initiatives i.e. making manufacturing hub
with AI Assisted tech.
India & AI
• Recognising AI’s potential to transform economies, the Finance Minister’s budget speech for 2018 – 2019,
mandated NITI Aayog to establish the National Program on AI, with a view to guiding the research &
development in new & emerging technologies.
• In pursuance of the above, NITI Aayog has adopted a three-pronged approach –
1. Undertaking exploratory proof-of-concept AI projects in various areas,
2. Crafting a national strategy for building a vibrant AI ecosystem in India &
3. Collaborating with various experts & stakeholders.
• NITI Aayog has decided to focus on five sectors that are envisioned to benefit the most from AI in solving
societal needs:
✓ Healthcare: increased access & affordability of quality healthcare (analyzing complex medical data can
help researchers make new discoveries ad offer better treatment with least human intervention), 25
✓ Agriculture: enhanced farmers’ income, increased farm productivity & reduction of wastage,
✓ Education: improved access & quality of education,
✓ Smart Cities & Infrastructure: efficient connectivity for the burgeoning urban population, and
✓ Smart Mobility & Transportation: smarter & safer modes of transportation & better traffic & conges-
tion problems.
• #AIforAll: the brand proposed for India implies inclusive technology leadership, where the full potential of
AI is realised in pursuance of the country’s unique needs & aspirations.
• It has been estimated that by 2030, the global AI market is likely to be in the range of $15-15.5 trillion, out
of which India’s share will be close to $1 trillion.
Centre of excellence in AI created by NIC
• This is the official website of National Informatics Centre, the premier ICT Organization of GOI.
• The website provides Information about the various projects, products, services rendered by NIC Headquar-
ters, State & District Units.
Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI)
• India joins GPAI as founding member to support responsible, human-centric development, use of AI.
• GPAI will be supported by a Secretariat, to be hosted by the OECD in Paris, as well as by two Centers of
Expertise - one each in Montreal & Paris.
• GPAI is an international & multi-stakeholder initiative to guide the responsible development & use of AI,
grounded in human rights, inclusion, diversity, innovation, & economic growth.
National AI Portal
• Govt. Launched National AI Portal & Skilling Programme to Strengthen AI Game in the Country.
• Developed by the Ministry of Electronics & IT & IT Industry, National e-Governance Division of Ministry of
Electronics & IT & NASSCOM, it aims to boost AI developments in India.
• It will enable sharing of resources such as articles, startups, investment funds in AI, resources, companies &
educational institutions related to AI in India.
Responsible AI for Youth Programme
• National e-Governance Division, Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology, Government of India &
Intel India have designed a National Program for Government Schools: Responsible AI for Youth.
• The aim of this program is to empower youth to become ‘AI ready’ & help reduce the AI skill gap in India.
26
• The Program is designed to reach out to students from the government schools pan India & provide them
with an opportunity to become part of the skilled workforce in an inclusive manner.
• The National Programme is open to students of classes 8-12 from Central & State government-run schools
(including KVS, NVS, JNV) from across the country.
Challenges before AI in india
• Lack of broad-based expertise in research & application of AI.

• Absence of enabling data ecosystems – access to intelligent data.
• Most of India’s data is located outside India.
• High resource cost & low awareness for adoption of AI.
• Privacy & security, including a lack of formal regulations around anonymisation of data.
• Difficulty in access to industry-specific data required to build customised platforms.
• High cost & low availability of computing infrastructure required.
• Lack of capital & infrastructure for AI based start-ups.
• AI outside the reach of Indian researchers in government labs & many industries ie difficulties in making
technologies from lab to market.
• India lacks opportunities for formal education in data science but slowly trying to encourage the adoption of
AI in educational institutions.
• Lack of broad-based expertise in research & application of AI i.e. human resources are less (Human resources
are required for coding & algorithms & various applications).
• Lack of data: AI works on historical data and a lot of data is with the government & not in public domain.
• Indian technical universities are not doing enough to strengthen AI ecosystem unlike their global counter-
parts.
FASTag
• FASTag is an electronic toll collection system.

• It is operated by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI).
• The device employs Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology for payments directly from the pre-
paid or savings account linked to it.
• It is affixed on the windscreen, so the vehicle can drive through plazas without stopping.
• It is valid for five years & can be recharged as & when required.
• It was launched in 2016.
• As per the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989, since December 1, 2017, FASTag had been made mandatory 27
for registration of new four-wheelers.
• It has also been mandated that renewal of the fitness certificate of a vehicle will be done only if it has
the electronic tag.
RFID
• RFID is an acronym for “radio-frequency identification” & refers to a technology whereby digital data en‐
coded in RFID tags or smart labels are captured by a reader via radio waves.
• RFID belongs to a group of technologies referred to as Automatic Identification & Data Capture (AIDC).
• AIDC methods automatically identify objects, collect data about them, & enter those data directly into com-
puter systems with little or no human intervention.
• RFID tags contain an integrated circuit & an antenna, which transmit data to the RFID reader (interrogator).
• The reader then converts the radio waves to a more usable form of data.
• Information collected from the tags is stored in a database & analysed.
• RFID is like barcoding in that data from a tag is captured by a device that stores the data in a database.
• RFID, however, has several advantages over systems that use barcode asset tracking software.
• The most notable is that RFID tag data can be read outside the line-of-sight, whereas barcodes must be 28
aligned with an optical scanner.
Fuel Cell
• A fuel cell uses electrochemical reactions to generate electrical energy.

• A fuel cell requires a continuous input of fuel and an oxidizing agent in order to sustain the reaction.
• Hydrogen is the most common fuel used.
• They were initially used by NASA to power space capsules and satellites.
Fuel Cell Mechanism
• A fuel cell consists of a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte.

• The electrolyte enables the movement of the ions between the electrodes.
• At the anode, catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation and generates +ve charged ions and electrons.
• The ions move from the anode to the cathode and the same time, the electrons flow from the anode to the
cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity.
• At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water as by-product.
• The reaction rate of this electrochemical reaction is quite low.
• The reaction rate between the fuel and the oxidizing agent is quite low.
• Catalysts such as platinum or palladium or gold are used speed up the reaction.
Advantages of fuel cells
• Fuel cells are more efficient than thermal power plants (thermal energy ➔ mechanical energy ➔ electrical
energy) as there is direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
• Hydrogen fuel is abundantly available.
• The by-product of fuel cells are water and non-toxic products that pose no risk to our climate.
Disadvantages of fuel cells
• They are very expensive to produce (platinum, palladium catalysts are expensive).
• As of now, there is no simple means of producing hydrogen fuel in a cost effective way.
• Hydrogen itself is very prone to catching on fire, or even exploding.
• In order to actually generate hydrogen fuel, fossil fuels are needed.
Nuclear Fusion – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)

29
30
• ITER is an international nuclear fusion research & engineering megaproject.

• It was launched in 1985.
• It is an experimental Tokamak Nuclear Fusion Reactor that is being built in southern France.
• The ITER reactor has been designed to create a plasma of 500 megawatts for around twenty minutes on
an input of 50 megawatts of thermal power (ten–fold gain of plasma heating power).
• ITER will be the first fusion device to produce net energy.
• Net Energy: When the total power produced during a fusion plasma pulse surpasses the thermal power
injected to heat the plasma.
ITER Members
• China, the EU, India, Japan, Korea, Russia and the United States (collaboration of 35 nations).
• They are collaborating to build the world's largest tokamak.
• They are engaged in a 35-year collaboration to build and operate the ITER experimental device, and together
bring fusion to the point where a demonstration fusion reactor can be designed.
Tokamak
• It is a magnetic fusion device that has been designed to prove the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale
and carbon-free source of energy based on the same principle that powers our Sun and stars.
HL-2M Tokamak
• The HL-2M Tokamak reactor is China’s largest and most advanced nuclear fusion research device.
• Scientists hope that the device can potentially unlock a powerful clean energy source.
• It uses a powerful magnetic field to fuse hot plasma and to contain & control the hot plasma.
• It can reach temperatures of over 150 million degrees Celsius — ten times hotter than the core of the sun.
• Located in Sichuan province, the reactor is often called an “artificial sun” on account of the enormous
heat and power it produces.
India & ITER
31
• India formally joined the ITER Project in 2005.
• The ITER Agreement between the partners was signed in 2006.
• ITER Organization (IO) is the central team responsible for site construction & operation.
• ITER partners created their own domestic agencies to deliver their commitments to ITER. 32
• ITER–India is the Indian domestic agency, a specially empowered project of the Institute for Plasma Re-
search (IPR), an aided organization under Dept. of Atomic Energy.

• ITER–India is responsible for delivery of the following ITER packages:
✓ ITER India has shipped the base, upper cylinder & lower cylinder for the cryostat.
✓ Cryostat is a cylindrical vessel which will act has a huge refrigerator & provide cooling to the fusion
reactor that will attempt to harness the energy produced by fusion of atoms.
Funding of Project
• The project is funded & run by seven member entities:

1. The European Union,
2. China,
3. India,
4. Japan,
5. Russia,
6. South Korea and
7. The United States.
Nuclear Fission vs. Nuclear Fusion
• Nuclear Fusion and Nuclear Fission are different types of reactions that release energy due to the presence
of high-powered atomic bonds between particles found within a nucleus.
• In fission, an atom is split into two or more smaller, lighter atoms.
• In fusion, two or more smaller atoms fuse together, creating a larger, heavier atom.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Definition • Fusion is the fusing of two or more lighter atoms

• Fission is the splitting of a large
into a larger one.
atom into two or more smaller
ones.
Natural oc- • Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun.

• Fission reaction does not normally
currence of
occur in nature.
the process
By-products
• Fission produces many highly radi- • Few radioactive particles are produced by fu-
of the reac-
oactive particles (nuclear waste). sion reaction, but if a fission "trigger" is used, ra-
tion
dioactive particles will result from that. 33
Conditions • High density, high temperature environment

• Critical mass of the substance and
is required.
high-speed neutrons are required.
Energy Re- • Extremely high energy is required to bring

• Takes little energy to split two at-
quirement two or more protons close enough that nu-
oms in a fission reaction.
clear forces overcome their electrostatic
repulsion. (This is what makes developing a Nu-
clear Fusion Reactor so challenging)
Energy Re- • The energy released by fusion is three to four

• The energy released by fission is a
leased times greater than the energy released by fis-
million times greater than that re-
sion.
leased in chemical reactions, but
lower than the energy released by
nuclear fusion.
Nuclear • One class of nuclear weapon is the hydrogen

• One class of nuclear weapon is a
weapon bomb, which uses a fission reaction to "trigger"
fission bomb, also known as an
a fusion reaction.
atomic bomb or atom bomb.
Energy pro- • Fusion is an experimental technology for pro-

• Fission is used in nuclear power
duction ducing power.
plants.
Fuel • Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium and Tritium)

• Uranium is the primary fuel used
are the primary fuel used in experimental fusion
in power plants.
power plants.
Reactions • There is no chain reaction involved.

• It involves a chain reaction, which
can lead to dangerous meltdowns
Waste • There is no nuclear waste.

• Nuclear waste, a by-product of
fission, is an environmental chal-
lenge.
Lithium-ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs
Lithium-ion battery
34
Schematic of a rechargeable battery (Image Credits)
• Anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator are the main components of a lithium ion (rechargeable) battery.
• The two electrodes are immersed in the electrolyte and are separated by the separator.
• The anode is usually made up of graphite (carbon).
• Carbon graphite has a layered structure that can store the lithium ions in between its layers.
• The cathode is made up of a combination of lithium-cobalt.
• Lithium is unstable in the element form; hence the combination lithium-cobalt oxide is used for cathode.
• Cathode plays an important role in determining the energy density of a Li-ion battery.
• The higher amount of lithium, bigger the capacity.
Working of a typical lithium-ion battery
• Both electrodes in a li-ion battery can intercalate or ‘absorb’ lithium ions.

• When the battery is being charged, lithium ions are absorbed (stored) in the anode.
• During discharge, lithium ions naturally flow back to the cathode through the electrolyte.
• This creates free electrons in the anode which move along the wire generating electricity.
35
• The process (to and fro movement of lithium ion) repeats with each charge and discharge cycles.
• Charge Process: Positive electrode (cathode) is oxidized (loses electrons) and Li+ ions pass across the
electrolyte and are intercalated (insert between layers) in negative electrode (anode – graphite).
• Discharge Process (opposite of charge process): An oxidation reaction occurs at the anode (-ve), Li+
ions are de-intercalated and migrate across the electrolyte to be re-intercalated into the cathode material.
• Electrolyte (lithium salt) enables the movement of lithium ions between the electrodes.
• The separator functions as a physical barrier keeping cathode and anode apart.
• It prevents the direct flow of electrons and lets only the ions pass through.
• While the cathode determines the performance of a battery, electrolyte and separator determines its safety.
• Permeable polymer membranes such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are used as separators.
Why lithium?
• Lithium is the lightest metal and a powerful reducing agent (willing to donate its electrons).
• Lithium ion batteries capitalize on the strong reducing potential of lithium ions to power the redox reaction
— reduction at the cathode, oxidation at the anode.
Comparison: Lead-acid battery & Lithium ion battery
Lead-acid battery Lithium ion battery

Comparison table
Electrolyte Sulphuric acid Lithium salt (Lithium hexafluorophosphate)
Anode Lead Carbon (graphite)
Cathode Lead dioxide Lithium-Cobalt Oxide
(Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt Oxide)
Applications Inverters, automobile batteries, solar batteries Mobile, laptop, electric vehicle batteries
Energy Density (Wh/kg) 30 to 40 350
Weight and Space Heavy and occupies more space Comparatively lighter and occupies less
space
Lifecycle Low (2-4 years) High (6-8 years)
Maintenance Yes No
Reliability Low (full discharge damages battery) High
Initial cost Low High
Lifecycle cost High Low
Toxicity High Low
36
Lithium
Among twelve minerals identified as strategic minerals, Lithium and Cobalt are significant.
• Lithium is lightest known metal. It has a density of 0.534 g/cm3 (half as dense as water).
• It's light and soft and has lowest melting points of all metals and a high boiling point.
• Lithium-ion batteries are key to lightweight, rechargeable power for laptops, phones, electric vehicles.
• Lithium and another battery component, cobalt, could become scarce as demand increases.
• China controls most of the lithium supply across the world.
World’s Lithium Production in Thousand Tons

World’s Lithium Reserves in Million Tons
Country Reserves Country Production
Chile 7.5 47% Australia 18.7 43%
China 3.2 20% Chile 14.1 33%
Australia 2.7 17% Argentina 5.5 13%
Argentina 2 13% China 3 7%
World total 16 MT World total 43 TT
Cobalt
• Cobalt is an important ferromagnetic alloying metal having irreplaceable industrial applications.

• Cobalt is extracted as a by-product of copper, nickel, zinc or precious metals.
• Super alloys made of cobalt are wear & corrosion-resistant at elevated temperatures.
Role of cobalt in Lithium ion batteries
• Lithium-cobalt-oxide is used as cathode in rechargeable batteries.

• Lithium-cobalt-oxide is an intercalation compound with the lithium, cobalt and oxygen arranged in layers.
• Cobalt is indispensable to assure the rate performance (rate of charging & discharging occurs).
• When the lithium ion arrives or departs from cathode, cobalt changes its oxidation state (compensates for
the gain/loss of charge) so that the lithium-cobalt-oxide stays electrically neutral.
• Cathodes are commonly oxides made from transition metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, etc.
• Replacing the costly cobalt with significantly cheaper nickel can be a fire hazard.
• Aluminium & manganese can be added to stabilize, but it lowers the capacity of the cell by a small amount.
Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India and the World

37
Reserves in MT Region with reserves
State
1. Odisha 69% Kendujhar and Jajpur districts

31
2. Jharkhand 20% Singhbhum district

9
3. Nagaland 11% Tuensang district

5
Total 44.9 MT Presently, there is no production of cobalt from cobalt resources.

• India is aggressively pushing electric mobility. All electric vehicles at present use Lithium ion batteries.
• Hence, India has to aggressively push to secure lithium and cobalt (strategic minerals) resources both
internally and externally.
• China has already taken a substantial lead in the race by aggressively procuring these minerals from Congo.
• The demand for cobalt is usually met through imports.

• Recycling technologies for recovery of cobalt from waste Li-ion batteries have been an evolving process.
• Imports of cobalt and alloys were at 875 tonnes in 2017-18.
• Imports were mainly from USA & Canada (13% each), Belgium (12%), Norway & UK (9% each) and China
(8%) & Morocco (7%).
World’s Production of Cobalt Content in 2017 (in TT)

World’s Reserves of Cobalt Content (in TT)
Country Reserves Country Production
Congo (Kinshasa) 3400 49% Congo 82.5 59%
Australia 1200 17% New Caledonia 9.4 7%
Cuba 500 7% China 9 6%
World Total 6900 TT Total 139 TT
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles vs. Electric Vehicles
Mains Practise: “The Internal Combustion Engine Is A Dead Man walking.” Critically analyse this state-
ment.
Mains Practise: “The age of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is over. Electric cars are the future.”
Critically analyse this statement.
EVs are a lot better than ICEVs
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Electric Vehicles (EV) Winner
(ICEV)
38
Major IC engine, Transmission System. DC/AC motor, digital controller, battery pack. EV
Components
Image Credits
Weight Comparatively heavier. Comparatively lighter. EV
Heavy due to large and heavy metallic Motor engines are relatively lighter as they EV
engines with complicated design. have fewer components and simplistic design.
Space occupied Comparatively more because of large Comparatively less ➔ more space for seating EV
by components engines. ➔ good for congested countries like India
Efficiency Less efficient because of loss of energy More efficient as the loss of energy in the form EV
in the form of heat in IC engines and of heat is very low (not many moving parts in
due to friction between transmission motors) and transmission losses are minimum
systems (rotatory motion has to be (the motor engine shaft transmits rotatory
transmitted using a complex set of motion either directly to the wheels or with
bearings and shafts). the help of fewer bearings and shafts).
Maintainance More maintenance (frequent, oil Less maintenance as the battery is the only EV
change, components replacement) is major component to be replaced. (low

required as there are many moving recurring cost)
parts.
The initial cost Comparatively low as the technology is High as the technology is still evolving. IC
of development in place for a century now.
and ownership
Total lifecycle High Low (electricity cost associated with operating EV
economic cost an EV over a distance of 1 km is significantly

lower than the petrol/diesel cost required to
operate a comparable IC vehicle)
Acceleration Comparatively less as there many states EVs are much faster as the transmission of EV
and speed like ignition, four stages of IC engine, power, and rotatory motion is almost instanta-
control transmission, etc. neous.
Environmental High Comparatively low (EV are more efficient)

footprint
Range Once the tank is full ICEVs can travel The range of EVs at present is only a few hun- IC
39
non-stop for hundreds of km dred km.
Fuelling Done in a few minutes. Charging batteries take a few hours IC

Infrastructure Filling stations and other infrastructure Charging stations are slowly popping up. IC
is in place.
Resale value Resale value is falling as EVs are the fu- Better EV
ture
Import-substitu- Heavy dependence on imported fuels. Clean electricity can replace fossil fuels. EV
tion. India now generates 22% (79 GW) of its elec-
tricity from renewable sources alone.
Share of major fuels in Power Generation in India
Total Installed Capacity (As on 31.05.2019)
Fuel Giga Watt % share
Thermal Total Thermal 226.3 63.2%
Coal 194.5 54.3%
Lignite 6.3 1.7%
Gas 24.9 7.0%
Oil 0.64 0.2%
Hydro (Renewable) 45.4 12.7%
Nuclear 6.8 1.9%
Renewable 79.3 22.0%
Total 357.9
Demand for EVs is rising rapidly
Electric car battery life is increasing
• One major factor that turned into a bottleneck in adopting EVs is the battery life.
• At present lithium ion batteries in EVs have a lifecycle of 6-8 years which is decent.
• With improving technologies, this is only set to go up.
Battery capacity is increasing, and prices are falling
• Lithium-Ion batteries are increasing in energy density at a rate of 5-8% per annum.
• Battery Costs are falling: The main cost of an electric vehicle is the cost of the battery. Lithium-Ion batteries
cost $1,000 per kWh in 2010. By 2017 that cost had fallen to $200 per kWh, and it won't stop there. 40
Favourable policy
• China and India are aggressively pushing for electric mobility with a slew of measures.
• India reduced GST on EVs from 12% to 5%. Introduced schemes like FAME, FAME II.
Economies of EV
• NITI Aayog has proposed to ban all IC (internal combustion) engine powered two-wheelers (below
150cc) and three-wheelers in India starting in 2025 for two-wheelers and in 2023 for three-wheelers.
• The automobile industry had objected to the proposal as EVs are still not financially viable.
The battery pack takes up nearly half the cost of an average electric vehicle
• For EVs to be viable, the cost of battery packs needs to reduce significantly.
• The predominant battery chemistry used in EVs is lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion).
• The key-components of the battery contribute the most (60%) to the total cost.
• Labour charges, overheads and profit margins account for the rest.
• Any reduction in the cost of the battery pack will have to come from a reduction in battery materials cost.
Can costs be further decreased?
• The price of Li-ion battery packs has consistently fallen over the past few years.
• This decrease is in part due to technological improvements, economies of scale and increased demand.
• Given that raw materials account for 60% of the cost of the battery pack, the room for further cost reduction
is limited.
What does it mean to India?
• India needs to manufacture Li-ion cells in-house and recycle existing Li-on batteries to bring down costs.
• However, the government has not taken any significant steps in this direction.
Nanoparticles
• A Nanoparticle is a small particle that ranges between 1 to 100 nanometres (nm) in size.
• Undetectable by the human eye, nanoparticles can exhibit significantly different physical & chemical
properties to their larger material counterparts.
• Nanoparticles (NPs) have wide variety of potential applications in the fields of biomedical, optical & elec-
tronics research. 41
What is Nanotechnology?
• Nanotechnology is science, engineering, & technology conducted at the nanoscale (1 to 100 nanometres).
• Nanoscience & nanotechnology can be used across all the other science fields.
Gold Nano Particles (GNP)

• Gold Nano Particles (GNP) are a small gold particle with a diameter of 1 to 100nm which, once dispersed in
water, are also known as colloidal gold.
• The versatile surface chemistry of gold nanoparticles allows them to be coated with small molecules, poly-
mers, & biological recognition molecules, thereby extending their range of application.
• The morphology of gold nanoparticles is spherical, & they appear as a brown powder.
Applications of Gold Nano Particles (GNP)
• GNPs can be used as a composite therapeutic agent clinical trials, especially in Anti–cancer, Anti–Viral, anti–
diabetic, & cholesterol–lowering drugs.
• Researchers have coated gold particles with DNA & injected them into plant embryos or plant cells. This will
ensure that some genetic material will enter the cells & enhances plant plastids.
• Gold nanoparticles are used to detect breast cancer.
• Photodynamic therapy: when light is applied to a tumour containing gold nanoparticles, the particles rap-
idly heat up, killing tumour cells.
• It was also discovered that the nanoparticles could detect toxins & pathogens.
• The scattered colours of gold nanoparticles are currently used for biological imaging applications.
• The optical–electronics properties of gold nanoparticles are being explored widely for use in high technol-
ogy applications.
Param Siddhi Supercomputer
• It is the-high performance computing-artificial intelligence (HPC-AI) supercomputer established under

National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) at C-DAC.
• The supercomputer has Rpeak of 5.267 Petaflops and 4.6 Petaflops Rmax.
• Rmax and Rpeak are scores used to rank supercomputers based on their performance.
National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) 42
• NSM was set up to provide the country with supercomputing infrastructure by manufacturing supercomput-
ers indigenously in India.

• NSM is steered jointly by the
✓ Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) and

✓ Department of Science and Technology (DST).
• It is implemented by the
✓ Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune and

✓ Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
• The target of the mission was set to establish a network of supercomputers ranging from a few Tera Flops to
greater than or equal to 3 Peta Flops (PF) in institutions of National importance across the country by 2022.
• This network of Supercomputers envisaging a total of 15-20 PF was approved in 2015 and was later revised
to a total of 45 PF (45000 TFs).
• Supercomputer PARAM 8000 (made by C-DAC) launched on July 1, 1991 is considered India's first super-
computer. It was indigenously built in 1991 by C-DAC.
• National Supercomputing Mission's first indigenously build supercomputer is called ‘Param Shivay’
• Param Shivay was followed by Param Shakti and Param Brahma supercomputers.
Focus of the mission
• The Mission envisages empowering national academic and R&D institutions spread over the country by in-
stalling a vast supercomputing grid comprising of more than 70 high-performance computing facilities.
• These supercomputers will also be networked on the National Supercomputing grid over the National
Knowledge Network (NKN).
• The NKN is another programme of the government which connects academic institutions and R&D labs over
a high speed network.
Significance of supercomputers
• Most to the supercomputers across the world are dedicated for weather and climate research.
• Weather prediction has reached accuracy of forecast as well as real time tracking of natural phenomenon.
• Timely warning of cyclones in the recent past have saved many lives and property.
The speed of a Supercomputer 43
• The average computer’s processor performance is measured by megahertz (MHz) units to calculate its clock
speed.
• Since supercomputers are far more capable, the performance is calculated in Floating-point operations per
second, or FLOPS which is of a considerably larger scale.
 1 billion flops = 1 giga flops (109)
 1000 giga flop = 1 tera flop (1012)
 1000 tera flop = 1 peta flop (1015)
• Param 8000 supercomputer had a maximum speed of one giga flop.
• PARAM SHIVAY (February 2019) ➔ 833 TFLOPS
• PARAM Brahma (September 2019) ➔ 0.85 PFLOPS
• Pratyush and Mihir (fastest supercomputers in India) ➔ 6.8 PetaFlops
• The most advanced supercomputer Summit (U.S.) ➔ ~150 PFLOPS.
Reverse osmosis (RO)
• NGT has recently passed an order prohibiting the use of reverse osmosis (RO) purifiers where total dissolved
solids (TDS) in the supplied water are below 500 mg per litre.
• The NGT had ordered the ban on the grounds that RO filters often deprived drinking water of essential salts
(affecting the nutritional security) and were also wasting a lot of water and power.
• Current BIS regulations consider 500 mg/litre to 1,200 mg/litre of total dissolved solids, which consist of salts
and some organic matter, as acceptable.
• MoEF has recently issued a draft notification that seeks to regulate membrane-based RO water filtration
systems in areas where the source of water meets drinking water norms of the Bureau of Indian Standards.
Basics
Solution
• In chemistry, a solution is homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances.

• In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.
• For example, in salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent.
Diffusion
• Diffusion is a spontaneous movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low
44
concentration.
• Diffusion through a permeable membrane moves a substance (solute) from a region of high solute concen-
tration (hypertonic solution) to a region where its concentration is low (hypotonic solution).
• In living organisms, diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the
cell and its external environment.
• Exchange of O2 & CO2 in alveoli (millions of tiny, balloon-shaped air sacs in lungs) is an example of diffusion.
45
• In a person suffering from pneumonia, the air sacs may fill with fluid or pus. This prevents diffusion of O2 &
CO2 in alveoli (breathing issues in Coronavirus patients).
Osmosis
• Water obeys the law of diffusion.

• Osmosis is the passage of water (diffusion of molecules of a solvent) from a region of low solute con-
centration (hypotonic) through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of high solute concentration
(hypertonic).
• Semi permeable means that the membrane will allow small molecules and ions to pass through it but acts
as a barrier to larger molecules or dissolved substances.
• Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.

• Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through osmosis.
• Absorption of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
• Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane to remove
larger particles from drinking water.
• In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure so that pure water flows
from a region of high solute concentration (hypertonic) through a semi-permeable membrane to a
region of low solute concentration (hypotonic).
46
Note: In NCERT Biology Compilation, I have given a wrong explanation for both Osmosis and Reverse
Osmosis. What I have given here is the correct explanation.
Application of Reverse Osmosis (RO)
• RO was originally a technology devised in the late 1950s to desalinate sea water.
• At present, it is possible to deploy a wide array of membranes and multiple stages of filters to filter a wide
variety of solutes — arsenic, fluoride, hexavalent chromium, nitrates, bacteria.
• This has led to an industry of home-RO systems for drinking water.
• To create external pressure, RO relies on a pump and electric motors.
• It uses “activated carbon” components, such as charcoal and carbon black that can filter out contami-
nants as well as organic substances such as bacteria (UV light is also used to kill bacteria).
• It all depends on the filtering material and the number of filters that incoming tap water must pass through.
47
Problem with RO water purifiers

• In making tap water pass through multiple stages of cleaning, RO systems end up wasting a lot of water.
• Anywhere between three-five times more water is wasted by them (high carbon footprint).
• RO system filters out essential micronutrients such as calcium, zinc, magnesium. Drinking such water over
time could be harmful.
• However, many manufacturers claim to overcome this challenge by “post-treatment” (added minerals).
• RO system only reduces Total Dissolved Solids, ensure water is odourless and has a pH from 6.5-8.5.
• The National Institute of Virology (NIV) claimed that most RO methods did not eliminate Hepatitis E virus.
• However, a combination of filtration systems can eliminate most contaminants (more power consumption).
• RO systems reduce the incentive for public-funded water distribution systems and vast majority of the coun-
try can ill-afford such systems.
• In case of sea water desalinization, deposition of brine (highly concentrated salt water) along the shores
affects plankton, which is the main food for small fish species.
How is the quality of piped water in the country?
• Under the Jal Jeevan Mission, GOI has committed to provide tap water to the entire country by 2024.
• However, studies show that the existing quality of piped water is deficient in much of India.
• In Delhi, all tap water samples drawn from various places did not comply with the BIS’s requirements.
• The case is the same with a lot of other cities.
What is the quality of water globally?
• Countries with a high development index tend to have good quality tap water.
• Finland, Denmark, Germany, UK have access to freshwater lakes or glacier melt (clean and mineral rich).
• Singapore and Israel rely on extensive recycling and even making sewage water fit for drinking.
• But for much of the world, access to clean piped water from the public supply remains a challenge.
Superconductor
48
• A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity (transport electrons) with zero resistance.
• This means no heat, sound or any other form of energy would be released from a superconductor.
• Hence, superconductors will help build highly efficient devices leading to huge energy savings.
• Critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature at which the material becomes superconductive.
• Critical temperature (Tc) for the currently developed superconductive materials is much below 0 °C.
• Currently, a lot of energy must be used in the cooling process making superconductors uneconomical.
• Applications: Maglev trains (in use), lossless long distance electrical transmission (futuristic application).
Maglev trains
• Maglev (magnetic levitation) trains use superconducting magnets to achieve levitation.

• Superconducting magnets are electromagnets that are cooled to extreme temperatures during use.
• They dramatically increase the power of the magnetic field.
• In maglev trains, superconducting magnets suspend a train car above a concrete guideway.
• Like ordinary magnets, these magnets repel one another when matching poles face each other.
• The magnets employed (superconducting) and they can generate magnetic fields up to 10 times stronger
than ordinary electromagnets, enough to suspend (levitate) and propel a train.
Maglev Train and Track (Source)
• One great advantage of maglev trains is that they are least noisy as there is no physical contact between the
track and the train. Also, there are no moving parts except for the train.
Information and Communication Technologies
5G
• 5G wireless internet network is 50 times faster than 4G.

• It enables superfast data transfer with minimal delay (a latency as low as 1 millisecond).
49
• The US and South Korea have already rolled out the network on a trial basis.
• In May 2018, five Nordic countries—Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland and Iceland—announced their plan
to create the world’s first interconnected 5G region.

• In March 19, Germany began auctions of 5G bandwidth spectrum in Bonn.
• India plans to begin trials by 2020. India has not yet allocated spectrum for 5G.
5G will enable
• Development of new services for smart mobility and automated transport, accelerating automation of
the whole transport sector from maritime to road to air.
• Deeper penetration of artificial intelligence (AI)-based technologies (E.g. Amazon’s Alexa, Google’s
Google Home, Apples’ Siri, etc.).
• Internet of Things (which includes smart wearables and virtual reality headsets).
• Commercial application of driverless autonomous vehicles (they can become usable only if they communi-
cate with other vehicles and traffic signals).
• Low-latency applications, including industrial robots to remote surgery.
• Inter-working of different technologies and networks and machine to machine communications.
• Integration of satellites in 5G networks for new applications in domains such as agriculture, emergency re-
sponse for communities living in rural areas, etc.
Health concerns associated with 5G networks
• All artificial electromagnetic radiations are bad because our biological systems are not adapted to it.
• 5G will promote cell phone use, and therefore human exposures from phones and base stations.
• 5G requires Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) radiation between 600 MHz and 86 GHz.
• Typically, RF radiations are nonionizing and cause only dielectric heating effects (unlike ionising radiations
like X-rays and gamma rays).
• The higher frequencies will concentrate the radiation in a smaller portion of the human body, and children
are particularly vulnerable to its effects.
• Higher frequencies of 5G will also penetrate much deeper into the human body because of a phenomenon
called beam-forming unique to the technology.
• Beam forming brings together electromagnetic signals from multiple antennas to create signals with greater
intensity and better reach.
• In 2011, WHO’s studies detailed the effects of RF-EMF radiations (from 30 kilohertz to 300 gigahertz) on
humans as well as rats and concluded that the radiations are “possibly carcinogenic to humans”. 50
• In 2018, a report published in US found RF-EMF of 900 megahertz, used by 3G and 4G networks, led to
incidences of malignant heart schwannomas (cancer that attacks nerve tissues) in male and female rats.
• Scientists have so far linked 5G to at least 20 ailments, including heart diseases, type-2 diabetes and mental
disturbances such as depression, anxiety and suicidal tendencies.
Challenges in commercialization of 5G
• Businesses and services exploiting its potential are not fully evolved.
• Greater power in the hands of corporations and governments for surveillance.
• Internet governance is not evolving to safeguard security and privacy of data.
• RF-EMF generated as a consequence of 5G will have a wide range of health impacts.
• Loss of employment opportunities in the manufacturing sector due to automation.
• More satellites are required, which means rapidly accumulating space junk/debris.
• Some scientists suggest designing networks based on fibre optic cables (2 crore times faster than 5G).
Fibre Optics
• Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the medium & the technology associated with the transmission of
information as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber.
• Fiber optics is used in long-distance & high-performance services such as internet, television & telephones. 51
• Advantages over copper cables:

✓ Optic fibres have higher bandwidth & transmit speeds.

✓ Optic fibres are not affected by electromagnetic interference (reduces speed of transmission).
How Fiber optics works?
• Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles -or photons - that pulse through a fiber optic cable.
• The glass fiber core & the cladding each have a different refractive index that bends light at an angle.
• When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core & cladding in a series
of zig-zag bounces, adhering to a process called total internal reflection.
• The light signals travel 30% slower than the speed because of the denser glass layers.
• To renew, or boost, the signal, fiber optics transmission sometimes requires repeaters at distant intervals.
Total Internal Reflection
• When light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium at the interface, it is partly reflected
back into the same medium & partly refracted to the second medium.
• This reflection is called the internal reflection.
• In total internal reflection, there is no refraction & the entire incident ray will get reflected.
Conditions for Total Internal Reflection:
1. The incident ray must be in optically denser medium.

2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for the pair of
media in contact.
52
Internet of Things (IoT)
• Context: BSNL to come up with satellite-based narrow band-Internet of things (NB-IoT).

• It will be world’s largest NB-IoT system.
• It will be helpful for Industries, including agriculture, Railways & fisheries, construction,etc.
NB-IoT
• NB-IoT is a radio technology deployed over mobile networks which is especially suited for indoor cover-
age, low cost, long battery life, & large number of devices.
• Simply put it is new designed mobile, wireless network specially for IoT.
• It operates at narrow band of the spectrum.
• It supports very few kilobytes per seconds (since IoT devices are small & have simple sensors).
• NB-IoT significantly improves the power consumption of user devices, system capacity & spectrum efficiency.
Source & Credits
55
Source & Credits

Applications of NB-IoT
• Connected cities (Smart Waste, Smart Parking, smart streetlights etc).

• Connected Agriculture (crop/animal/soil monitoring).
• Smart wearables (smart watches etc)
• Smart cars
• Security (smart intruder alarms, smart fire alarms ,smart home alarms).
• Smart metering (smart gas, electricity & water metering).
Internet of Things
• The Internet of Things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical & digital ma-
chines, objects, animals, or people.
• They are provided with unique identifiers (UIDs).
• They transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
• A thing on the internet of things can be:
1. A person with a heart monitor implant,
2. A farm animal with a biochip transponder,
3. An automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire pressure is low or any other natural,
4. A human-made object that can have an Internet Protocol (IP) address & is able to transfer data.
• IoT devices share the sensor data they collect by connecting to an IoT gateway where data is either sent to
the cloud to be analysed or analysed locally.
• IoT can also make use of artificial intelligence (AI) & machine learning to aid in making data collecting pro-
cesses easier & more dynamic.
Project Loon & Starlink
Project Loon
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• It is a project under a Google subsidiary.
• It consists of a network of stratospheric balloons designed to bring Internet connectivity to rural & re-
mote communities worldwide.

• The project involves helium-filled balloons that remain in the stratosphere & create aerial networks.
Starlink
• It is a satellite internet constellation being constructed by SpaceX with the aim to bring internet access to
rural & underserved areas around the world.
• The constellation will consist of 1600 thousand small satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO).
What is Starlink system trying to solve?
1. SpaceX wants to cut that long-distance lag.

2. It wants to provide internet access almost anywhere in the world.
• The company plans to do this through an unprecedented network of satellites in LEO.
57
Major problem with the current systems – high latency over long distances
• Optic fibre cables have a speed limit — light signals travel 30% slower because of the denser glass layers.
• This is not an issue for normal browsing. But over international distances, it leads to high latency, or lag.
• The time delay is especially pronounced in long-distance videoconferencing & calls.
• Latency also matters to financial institutions.
• With markets that move billions in fractions of a second, any delay can lead to big losses over a competitor.
• Data beamed over current satellites also has high latency (~0.5 seconds!).
• That is because nearly all those spacecraft orbit Earth from about 35,786 kilometres high (GSO).
Concerns with Starlink like projects
• With so many new satellites in orbit, spaceflight experts are concerned about the potential for creating space
junk that can damage or maim other spacecraft.
Starlink cannot be better & cannot compete in price with optic fibre
• Over short distances fibre-optic will always win as it can carry much more data at low cost.
• The advantages of Starlink improve only over long distances (it reduces latency) & in remote areas.
• Starlink cannot handle high load akin to a cell tower being overloaded with too many users.
Q. 'Project Loon', sometimes seen in the news, is related to (UPSC Prelims 2016)
a) Waste management technology

b) Wireless communication technology
c) Solar power production technology
d) Water conservation technology
Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi)

58
• Bharti Airtel has introduced Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) which is a first for India.
• VoWiFi calling makes use of high speed Internet to make and receive HD voice calls to any mobile or landline
number across operators.

• Wi-Fi calling can be configured on compatible smartphones that supports Wi-Fi calling.
How does Voice over Wi-Fi benefit the mobile network operator (MNO)?
• Employing VoWiFi enables MNOs to quickly and easily extend their coverage or service range without having
to setup extra radio access network (RAN) infrastructure.
• There is no need for new licensed spectrum or engaging in complex roaming agreements.
How does VoWifi benefit the end user?
• The end user will be able to make uninterrupted calls independent of the network’s cellular coverage.
• Where possible, VoLTE calls can be seamlessly handed over between LTE and Wi-Fi and vice versa.
• VoWif will improve voice calling in areas with weak cellular signals but stable WiFi connection.
• It will particulary benefit rural areas, areas with tall structures where cellular network is poor, mountainous
areas and indoors.
How is VoWifi different from OTT calling?
• VoWifi is not much different from a voice call using WhatsApp or any other over-the-top (OTT) messaging
platform, but the call is from one number to another, and not using an app.
How is VoWifi different from VoLTE?
• In Voice over LTE (VoLTE), a MNO’s licensed spectrum (i.e. 4G LTE) is used to carry packetized voice.
• In VoWifi, packetized voice is carried over high speed internet.
• That is, in VoWifi calling cellular packets from the smartphone are transferred to the carrier over the internet
and then injected back into the cellular network.
Why are MNOs adopting VoWifi technology now?
• VoWifi technology has been in place since a long time.

• However, MNOs were hesitant to use VoWifi technology as that would hurt their voice-related revenue in-
cluding revenue from roaming charges.
• However, with the advent of VoLTE, MNO’s revenue base started shifting from voice & roaming charges to 59
data charges.
• Moreover, OTT applications like Whatsapp are eating out into MNO’s market share.
• Hence, MNOs are taping into the VoWifi technology to regain the lost ground and stay relevant.
Privacy and Data Protection Related Topics
Data Localization and Data Protection

What is Data Localization?
• Data localisation is the act of storing data on any device physically present within the borders of a country.
• Localisation mandates that companies collecting critical data about consumers must store & process them
within the borders of the country.
Why is it important?
• The main intent behind data localisation is to protect the personal & financial information of the country’s
citizens from foreign surveillance.
• Storing of data locally is expected to help law–enforcement agencies to access information that is
needed for the detection of a crime or to gather evidence.
• On–shoring global data could also create domestic jobs & skills in data storage & analytics too.
• Where data is not localised, the agencies need to rely on mutual legal assistance treaties (MLATs) to obtain
access, delaying investigations.
• Technologies like machine learning, Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Internet of Things (IoT) can produce tre-
mendous value out of various data. It can be disastrous if data is not contained within boundaries.
• To curtail the threatening of unregulated & arbitrary use of personal data, data localization is necessary.
B.N Shrikrishna report on Data Protection
• The SC in 2017 declared “privacy” a fundamental right.

• A committee headed by retired SC Judge BN Srikrishna was constituted by GOI in 2017, to deliberate on a
"Data Protection Framework".
• The report has emphasized that interests of the citizens & the responsibilities of the state have to be pro-
tected, but not at the cost of trade & industry.
• The committee proposed a draft Personal Data Protection Bill.
Highlights of the report and the proposed Personal Data Protection Bill 60
Link: Source & Credits
Individual Consent
• The bill makes individual consent the centrepiece of data sharing, awards rights to users, imposes obliga-
tions on data fiduciaries (person or organization that acts on behalf of another person, including the State).
• It will make the data fiduciary liable for harms caused to the data principal.
• It also calls for privacy by design on part of data processors, & defines terms like consent, data breach, etc.
Right to be forgotten
• It refers to the ability of individuals to limit, delink, delete, or correct the disclosure of personal information
on the internet that is misleading, embarrassing, irrelevant, etc.
Data Protection Authority

61
• The law will set up a Data Protection Authority (DPA), which will be an independent regulatory body re-
sponsible for the enforcement & effective implementation of the law.
Personal Data
• The law will cover processing of personal data by both public & private entities.
• The law will have jurisdiction over the processing of personal data if such data has been used, shared, col-
lected or otherwise processed in India.
• It has proposed that critical personal data of Indians be processed in centres located within the country.
• Additionally, personal data processed by companies incorporated under Indian law will be covered, irre-
spective of where it is actually processed in India.
Sensitive personal data
• Sensitive personal data will include financial data, health data, sex life, sexual orientation, biometric & ge-
netic data, caste, tribe, religious or political beliefs or affiliations of an individual.
• DPA will be given the residuary power to notify further categories in accordance with the criteria set by law.
Data Storage
• The Bill makes it mandatory for a copy of personal data to be stored in India.
Appellate Tribunal
• The Central Government shall establish an appellate tribunal or grant powers to an existing appellate tribu-
nal to hear & dispose of any appeal against an order of the DPA.
Penalties
• Penalties may be imposed for violations of the data protection law.

• The penalties paid by violating entities will be deposited to a Data Protection Fund, which will, among
other purposes, finance the functioning of the Data Protection Authority.
Obligations on Fiduciaries
• Obligations would include “purpose limitation” where data will be used only for clear, specific & lawful
purposes & “collection limitation” where only data necessary for the purpose would be collected.
Impact on allied laws
• The report has also listed the impact of the proposed data protection framework on allied laws, including 62
the Aadhaar Act & the RTI Act.
• The committee has noted that the Aadhaar Act is silent on the powers of the Unique Identification Author-
ity of India (UIDAI) to take enforcement action against errant companies in its ecosystem.
• The report has also recommended amendments to the RTI Act, pointing out that disclosure of information
from public authorities may lead to private harm being caused.
Exceptions
• The state can process data without consent of the user on ground of public welfare, law & order and
emergency situations.
• Processing of data for certain interests such as security of the State, legal proceedings, research & journal-
istic purpose, may be exempt from certain obligations of the proposed data protection law.
Cross border data transfers
• Cross border data transfers of personal data will be through model contract clauses.
• Personal data determined to be critical will be subject to the requirement to process only in India (there will
be a prohibition against cross border transfer for such data).
Data of Children
• Committee has made specific mention of the need for separate & more stringent norms for protecting the
data of children.
Limitations
• The Bill proposes that personal data of individuals can be processed for any function of the state.
• This runs directly counter to the SC’s articulation of informed consent as central to informational privacy.
• There is very little legislative & judicial oversight on surveillance activities and even the bill doesn’t include
any safeguards concerning surveillance activities.
GDPR vs Data Protection Bill
• GDPR stands for General Data Protection Regulation that is in effect in EU since 2018.
• It is a new set of rules designed to give EU citizens more control over their personal data.
• GDPR framework applies to organisations in all EU member-states.
• GDPR has almost become a common noun for personal data protection regulation.
• Justice BN Srikrishna committee has referred to GDPR repeatedly.
63
The key differences between GDPR and Data Protection Bill
• GDPR is not an Act; individual member nations have enacted their own legislations based on GDPR.
• Unlike in GDPR, Indian draft legislation does not require the data fiduciary to share the names and catego-
ries of other recipients of the personal data with the data principal.
• There is no obligation on data fiduciary to share with the data principal for how long the data will be stored
while collecting or at any time, as GDPR mandates.
• The data fiduciary does not need to share the source of the personal data to the data principal in case the
data has not been collected from him/her which is an explicit requirement in GDPR
• Unlike GDPR, there is no requirement that the data fiduciary share with the data principal the existence of
automated decision making, including profiling.
• In India, a citizen has not been given the right to demand his/her data to be erased. Data erasure,
which is an article in itself in GDPR does not even find a mention in the Indian draft bill.
• In case of a breach, there’s no requirement by Indian draft bill to share it with the data principal. This
is also in contrast to GDPR provisions.
• In India, every data fiduciary should ensure the storage of personal data locally. GDPR leaves this to spe-
cific countries most of which have chosen to allow free flow of data.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• VPNs is a tool designed for large organisations to securely share their resources with their employees, as well
as connect their employees and branches in a reduced-risk environment.
• To ensure security, the VPN connection is established using an encrypted layered tunnelling protocol and
users can use a host of authentication methods like passwords, certificates, to gain access to the network.
64
• Since the line is encrypted between the network and the device connected to it, the traffic remains private.
• VPN technology can check whether a connected device meets certain security requirements, thus making the
connections secure.
VPN and privacy
• VPN is also a good tool to circumvent censorship. 65

• We can connect securely to a proxy network via a VPN which, in turn, will connect to a destination website.
• Whenever you are connected to the Internet, you are assigned an IP address – a numerical combination that
is essentially similar to a regular street address.

• With an IP address, you can be tracked down as easily as with a regular street address.
• VPN replaces a user’s real IP addresses with the IP address of the gateway, which can be located in a
different country.
You may need a VPN it in the following cases
• You do not want anyone to have access to the data you submit to the internet.
• You do not want your ISP (Internet Service Provider) to know and log your internet activity.
• You do not want various government agencies to track you and your actions on the internet.
• You do not want various sites that you visit, and programs installed on your computer, to collect and send
marketing information about you and about what you are doing on the internet.
India Space Programmes and Related Concepts
Terms and Concepts related to Satellite Launches and Satellite Orbits
• The terms like Kepler’s laws, geosynchronous orbit, geostationary orbit, polar orbit, PSLV, GSLV, etc. keep on
appearing in the news columns whenever there is a satellite launch.
• So, I thought it is better to keep all the related concepts at one place.
Titbit: Russia's Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite, was launched in 1957.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion (applicable to satellites also)
• Kepler’s First Law: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
• Kepler’s Second Law: A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal
intervals of time.
• In simple words, the speed of the planet increases as it nears the sun and decreases as it recedes from
the sun.
66
The varying orbital speed of the earth (in the figure, the orbit of the earth is exaggerated)
• Kepler’s Third Law: The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit.
Hankwang, Wikipedia
Orbital period (T): time taken by a plant to complete one revolution around the sun.
Semi Major Axis (a1 and a2): half of the major axis of the ellipse.
T12/a13 = T22/a23
• In simple terms, the distance of a planet from the sun determines the time it takes for that planet to revolve
around the sun (farther the planet is, greater the orbital period).
Orbital Period (T) in years Average Distance (R) in AU T2/R3

Planet
Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
Venus .615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
Perigee and Apogee
• Most satellites orbit the earth in elliptical patterns. 67
• When a satellite is at its farthest point from the earth, it is at the apogee of the orbit.
• When a satellite is at its closest point to the earth, it is at the perigee of the orbit.
• In accordance with Kepler’s second law, the satellites are fastest at the perigee and slowest at the apogee.
Why satellites revolve rather than staying still in space?
• There are two important forces acting on the satellite:

1) the gravitational force which will pull the satellite towards earth and
2) the centrifugal force (due to revolution) which counters the gravitational pull.
Source
• Revolution causes centrifugal force (the object tends to move away from the centre).
• Higher the speed of the revolving satellite (orbital velocity), higher the centrifugal force.
• Thus, by varying the speed (orbital velocity) of the satellite, we can make the satellite
1) fall back to earth by decreasing the orbital velocity (centrifugal force < gravitational force) 68
2) stay in its orbit by adjusting the speed so that the centrifugal force balances the gravitational pull
(centrifugal force = gravitational force). (Lower the orbit, higher should be the orbital velocity).
3) escape earth’s influence by keeping the orbital velocity above the required speed (centrifugal force >
gravitational force).
Low Earth Orbit (LEO: 200-2000 km)

• International Space Station (400 km), the Hubble Space Telescope (560 km) and some observation sat-
ellites are all rotating the earth in Low Earth Orbit.
• LEO is high enough to significantly reduce the atmospheric drag yet close enough to observe the earth (re-
mote sensing).
• In LEO, the satellite’s orbital period is much smaller than the earth’s rotational period (24 hours).
• That is, the satellites in LEO complete multiple revolutions in 24 hours (Lower the orbit, higher should be
the speed).
Source
What is the speed required to keep a satellite in LEO?
• The speed is dependent on the distance from the centre of the Earth.
• At an altitude of 200 km, the required orbital velocity is a little more than 27,400 kmph.
• In the case of the space shuttle, it orbits the Earth once every 90 minutes at an altitude of 466 km.
Advantages of LEO 69
• Low Earth Orbit is used for things that we want to visit often, like the International Space Station, the Hubble
Space Telescope and some satellites (usually spy satellites and other observation satellites).
• This is convenient for installing new instruments, experiments, and return to earth in a relatively short time.
Disadvantages of LEO
• Atmospheric drag will lead to more fuel consumption and constant speed adjustments.
• A satellite traveling in LEO do not spend very long over any one part of the Earth at a given time.
• Hence, satellites in LEO are not suitable for communication and weather observation and forecasting.
Solution
• One solution is to put a satellite in a highly elliptical orbit (eccentric orbit ― non-geosynchronous).
• The other is to place the satellite in a geosynchronous orbit.
Highly Elliptical Orbits
• Kepler's second law: an object in orbit about Earth moves much faster when it is close to Earth than when it
is farther away.
• Perigee is the closest point and apogee is the farthest.
• If the orbit is very elliptical, the satellite will spend most of its time near apogee (the furthest point in its orbit)
where it moves very slowly.
• Thus, it can be above a specific location most of the time.
70
Disadvantages of Highly Elliptical Orbits
• In a highly elliptical orbit, the satellite has long dwell time over one area, but at certain times when the satellite
is on the high speed portion of the orbit, there is no coverage over the desired area.
Solution
• We could have two satellites on similar orbits but timed to be on opposite sides at any given time.
• In this way, there will always be one satellite over the desired coverage area at all times.
71
• If we want continuous coverage over the entire planet at all times, such as the Global Positioning System
(GPS satellites are in Medium Earth Orbit though), then we must have a constellation of satellites with orbits
that are both different in location and time.
• In this way, there is a satellite over every part of the Earth at any given time.
Satellite constellation (Source)
Geosynchronous Orbits (GSO)
• Another solution to the dwell time problem is to have a satellite whose orbital period is equal to the
period of rotation of the earth (24 hrs) (satellite’s revolution is in sync with the earth’s rotation).
• In this case, the satellite cannot be too close to the Earth because it would not be going fast enough to
counteract the pull of gravity.
• Using Kepler's third law it is determined that the satellite has to be placed approximately 36,000 km away
from the surface of the Earth (~42,000 km from the centre of the Earth) in order to remain in a GSO orbit.
• By positioning a satellite so that it has infinite dwell time over one spot on the Earth, we can constantly
monitor the weather in one location, provide reliable telecommunications service, etc.
• The downside of a GSO is that it is more expensive to put and maintain something that high up.
Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit (GEO)
• A geostationary orbit or geosynchronous equatorial orbit is a circular geosynchronous orbit above

Earth's equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation.
• Because the satellite stays right over the same spot all the time, this kind of orbit is called "geostationary." 72
Geostationary vs Geosynchronous
Geosynchronous Orbit
Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous Equa-
torial Orbit (GEO)
• They are both geosynchronous orbits (orbital period = 24 hours).

• Line of sight transmission 73
• Orbital path is circular. • Orbit is an inclined circle or an inclined ellipse.
• Orbital tilt is zero. • The orbital tilt is non-zero (inclined orbit)

• An observer on the ground would not perceive • A person on a point on Earth, will see a satellite in this
the satellite as moving and would see it as a orbit in the same place in the sky at the same time of
fixed point in the sky the day, every day.
• Since the orbit has some inclination and/or eccen-
tricity, the satellite would appear to describe a more
or less distorted figure-eight in the sky and would rest
above the same spots of the Earth's surface once per
day.
• There are a limited number of positions avail- • There are more orbital planes and positions available
able (traffic jam, interference of signals due to to satellites using this technique
more satellites in the same orbit and risk of
damage due to space debris) in this orbit due
to safety and manoeuvring limits.
• Can receive signals with a simple antenna as • Requires a parabolic antenna as the satellite’s position
the satellite is in relatively same position (DTH, slightly changes longitudinally.
VSAT services).
• (Parabolic antenna is used to nullify the effect
of atmospheric distortions)
• Steering the antenna is not required. • It may sometimes require steering the antenna to
achieve line of sight
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Medium Earth Orbits (MEO: 2000-36,000 km)

• Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) range in altitude from 2,000 kms up to the geosynchronous orbit at 36,000 km
which includes part of the lower and all of the upper Van Allen radiation belts.
• The Van Allen Radiation Belt is a region of high energy charged particles moving at speeds close to that of
light encircling the Earth which can damage solar cells, circuits, and shorten the life of a satellite or spacecraft.
• Practical orbits therefore avoid these regions.
Polar Orbits (PO)
• Satellites in these orbits fly over the Earth from pole to pole in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
• This orbit is used in surface mapping and observation satellites since it allows the orbiting satellite to take
advantage of the earth's rotation below to observe the entire surface of the Earth as it passes below.
• Pictures of the Earth's surface in applications such as Google Earth come from satellites in polar orbits.
Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO)
• Polar orbit and sun-synchronous orbits are low earth orbits.

• Sun-synchronous orbit is a near polar orbit in which the satellite passes over any given point of the planet's
surface at the same local mean solar time.
• When a satellite has a sun-synchronous orbit, it means that the satellite has a constant sun illumination.
• Because of the consistent lighting, the satellites in sun-synchronous orbit are used for remote sensing 75
applications (image the Earth's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths) like imaging, spying, etc.
Parking Orbit
• It is not always possible to launch a space vehicle directly into its desired orbit.
• The launch site may be in an inconvenient location or the launch window may be very short.
• In such cases the vehicle may be launched into a temporary orbit called a parking orbit.
• The parking obit provides more options for realising the ultimate orbit.
• For manned space missions the parking orbit provides an opportunity to recheck the systems.
Hofmann transfer orbit
• The transfer orbit is the orbit used to break out of the parking orbit and break into the geosynchronous or
geostationary orbit.
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Geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)
• A geosynchronous transfer orbit is a Hohmann transfer orbit — an elliptical orbit used to transfer between
two orbits in the same plane — used to reach geosynchronous or geostationary orbit.
Escape velocity
• Escape velocity is the minimum launch velocity (assuming the object is launched straight up) required for
an object to escape earth’s gravitational pull (it doesn’t fall back to earth).
• One condition is that once launched the object is not supplied with any additional energy nor hindered by
external force (like atmospheric drag) other than earth’s gravity.
• The escape velocity required for an object to escape earth’s gravitational pull is ~11.2 m/s (40,000+ kmph).
• It is neither feasible (atmospheric friction will turn it into ash) nor desirable (cannot place satellites in desired
orbit) to launch rockets at escape velocity.
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
• PSLV is an indigenously-developed expendable launch system.
Expendable launch system ➔ used only once to carry a payload into space. E.g. PSLV, GSLV, etc.
Reusable launch system ➔ system intended to allow for recovery of the system for later reuse. E.g. NASA's space
shuttles, SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket (reusable first stage and expendable second stage), etc.
• PSLV was developed in 1990s by ISRO to place satellites (mostly remote sensing satellites) in polar and near
polar (e.g. sun-synchronous orbit) Lower Earth Orbits.
• However, over the last decade, several PSLV missions were successful in sending satellites towards geosyn- 77
chronous transfer orbit.

• E.g. Chandrayaan-1 – 2008 and Mars Orbiter Mission or Mangalyaan – 2014 were launched using PSLV.
• PSLV can fly in different configurations depending on the mass of its payload and the target orbit.
• These configurations vary the number and type of solid rocket boosters attached to the rocket’s first stage,
while the four core stages remain the same across all configurations.
• PSLV’s first stage and third stage are solid-fuelled stages.
• PSLV’s second stage and forth stage are liquid-fuelled stages.
• The second stage engine, Vikas, is a derivative of France’s Viking engine.
• The PSLV-C (PSLV Core Alone) version of the rocket does not use additional boosters, while the PSLV-DL,
PSLV-QL and PSLV-XL use two, four and six boosters respectively.
The Workhorse of India’s space program
• PSLV earned its title 'the Workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various satellites to Low Earth
Orbits, particularly the IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) series of satellites.
• PSLV Payload Capacity to SSO: 1,750 kg
• PSLV Payload Capacity to Sub-GTO: 1,425 kg
• In forty-seven launches to date, PSLV has achieved success forty-four times.
• Despite the failure of its maiden flight, PSLV went on to record thirty-six consecutive successful launches from
1999 to 2017.
• PSLVs were used to place the IRNSS satellite constellation (3 in GEO and 4 in GSO) in orbit.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
• GSLV is also an expendable launch system.

• The GSLV project was initiated to launch geosynchronous satellites (most of them are heavy for PSLV).
• GSLV uses solid rocket booster and the liquid-fuelled Vikas engine, similar to those in PSLV.
• GSLV has solid-fuelled first stage, liquid-fuelled second stage and a cryogenic third stage.
• A Cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and provides more thrust.
• However, cryogenic stage is technically a very complex system due to its use of propellants (liquid oxygen
― minus183 °C and liquid hydrogen ― minus 253 °C) at extremely low temperatures.
• India had to develop cryogenic technology indigenously as the US objected to Russia’s involvement citing
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) May 1992.
• A new agreement was signed with Russia for cryogenic stages with no technology transfer.
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• GSLV rockets using the Russian Cryogenic Stage (CS) are designated as the GSLV Mk I.
• GSLV rockets using the indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) are designated the GSLV Mk II.
• GSLV Payload Capacity to LEO: 5,000 kg

• GSLV Payload Capacity to GTO: 2,500 kg
• GSLV's primary payloads are heavy communication satellites of INSAT class (about 2,500 kg) that operate
from Geostationary orbits (36000 km) and hence are placed in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
• The satellite in GTO is further raised to its final destination by firing its in-built on-board engines.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-III)
• GSLV-III is designed to launch satellites into geostationary orbit and is intended as a launch vehicle for crewed
missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme.
• The GSLV-III has a higher payload capacity than GSLV.
• GSLV-III Payload Capacity to LEO: 8,000 kg
• GSLV-III Payload Capacity to GTO: 4000 kg
Chandrayaan-2
• Chandrayaan-2 has three modules namely Orbiter, Lander (Vikram) & Rover (Pragyan). 79
• Chandrayaan 2 will be launched using GSLV Mark III rocket.
• GSLV MK-III is a three-stage launch vehicle designed to carry four-tonne class satellites into Geosynchro-
nous Transfer Orbit (GTO). (The Chandrayaan-1 was launched on board a PSLV).
• The GSLV Mark III rocket will first launch the spacecraft into an Earth Parking Orbit (170 km X 40,400 km).
• Then the orbit will be enhanced until the spacecraft can reach out to the Lunar Transfer Trajectory.
• On entering the moon’s sphere of influence, it will be eased into a circular orbit (100 km X 100 km).
• Subsequently, Lander will separate from the Orbiter (100 km orbit) & soft land close to lunar South Pole.
• The Rover will be carrying out scientific experiments on the lunar surface.
• The instruments will collect scientific information on lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance,
lunar exosphere & signatures of hydroxyl & water-ice.
• The 3.84 lakh km journey will take five days, but the spacecraft must orbit the moon for about 28 days before
the lander separates itself from the orbiter.
• The mission life of the Orbiter is one year, & the rover has an expected life of 14 Earth days (one lunar
day = 14 earth days; after 14 days it will be lunar night & hence the rover will be deprived of solar power).
• If the landing is successful, it will make India only the fourth country to soft-land on the lunar surface.
• The erstwhile Soviet Union, the U.S & China are the only countries to have achieved lunar landings.
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Source & Credits: The Hindu
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Gaganyaan Mission
• Gaganyaan is the 1st human space flight programme of ISRO.
• Under this mission Indian astronauts will go into space (low earth orbit) by 2022.
• This will be done by using its own capabilities.
• This crewed orbital spacecraft is expected to carry 3 peoples into space for 7 days.
• A GSLV-Mk III launch vehicle will lift them to their orbit.
• India has signed agreements with Russia & France for cooperation on the Gaganyaan mission.
• Recently Human space flight centre was inaugurated to coordinate Indian human space flight programme,
it will also be responsible to implement the project.
• Until now, only Russia, US & China have managed to send manned missions to outer space.
Challenges for Astronauts
• The astronauts will have to adapt to the change in gravitational field.

• The change in gravity affects hand-eye & head-eye coordination.
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• Bones may lose minerals adding to the risk of osteoporosis related fractures.
• Lack of exercise & improper diet make them lose muscle strength & cause develop vision problems.
• Once they are in space, astronauts will receive over 10 times more radiation than what people are sub-
jected to on earth.
• It can cause cancer, nervous system damage & trigger nausea, vomiting, & anorexia & fatigue.
• Without pressure, human blood heats up.
• Despite the training, behavioural issues may crop up due to isolation leading to depression.
GEMINI: Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation & Information
• For dissemination of information on disaster warnings, Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ) and Ocean States
Forecasts (OSF) to fishermen, GOI launched GEMINI device and mobile application.
The need for GEMINI
• PFZ forecasts, developed by INCOIS, will provide advisories on PFZ to fishermen 3 days in advance.
• Ocean State Forecasts include the forecasts on winds, waves, ocean currents, water temperature, etc.
• However, PFZ & OSF advisories do not reach fishermen when they move 10-12 km away from the coast.
• The communication gap puts the life & property of those involved in deep sea fishing in Indian Ocean at risk.
• To overcome this difficulty, GEMINI portable device was developed.
How GEMINI works?
• GEMINI device utilizes the GAGAN system to transmit the PFZ, OSF and disaster warnings to user’s cell phone.
• The GEMINI app on the cell phone decodes the signals from GEMINI device and alerts the user on imminent
threats like cyclones, high waves, strong winds along with PFZ and search and rescue mission.
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
• GAGAN is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) for the Indian Airspace.
• It provides the additional accuracy and integrity necessary for all phases of flight.
• ISRO and Airports Authority of India (AAI) have implemented the GAGAN project.
• GAGAN is operational through GSAT-8, GSAT-10 satellites & GSAT-15 satellites.
• The system is inter-operable with other international SBAS systems like US-WAAS, European EGNOS, etc.
• GAGAN footprint extends from Africa to Australia.
GAGAN though primarily meant for aviation, will provide benefits beyond aviation to many other segments
•
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such as intelligent transportation, maritime, railways, etc.

Source: ISRO
Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
• The performance of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) can be improved by regional Satellite-based
Augmentation Systems (SBAS), such as GAGAN.
• SBAS improves the accuracy and reliability of GNSS information by correcting signal measurement errors.
Examples of Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
• USA: Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)

• EU: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS)
• India: GPS and GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
Examples of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs)

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• Global Positioning System (United States)
• GLONASS (Russia)
• Galileo (EU)
• BeiDou (China)
• IRNSS ― NAVIC (India)
India’s Communication Satellites

• Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)
• GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites)
Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)
• INSAT, is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO.

• Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, the INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in
the C, Extended C and Ku-bands provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite
newsgathering, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.
GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites)
• The new generation INSATs are now named as GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites).
• The GSAT satellites are used for digital audio, data and video broadcasting.
Transponder
• In a communications satellite, a satellite transponder receives signals over a range of uplink frequencies,
usually from a satellite ground station.
• The transponder amplifies them and re-transmits them on a different set of downlink frequencies to receivers
on Earth, often without changing the content of the received signal or signals.
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Satellite frequency bands
Source and Credits: ESA
L-band (1–2 GHz)
• Used by Global Positioning System (GPS) carriers and satellite mobile phone communication devices.
S-band (2–4 GHz)
• Used by weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites.
C band (4–8 GHz)
• Used for satellite communications, for full-time satellite TV networks.

• Ssed in areas that are subject to tropical rainfall (less susceptible to signal degradation than Ku band).
• Because of the low frequencies, C band waves have longer wavelengths.
• Because of bigger wavelengths, a bigger dish is required to receive such frequencies.
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X-band (8–12 GHz)

• Primarily used by the military.
• Sub-bands are used in civil, military and government institutions for weather monitoring, air traffic control,
maritime vessel traffic control, defence tracking and vehicle speed detection for law enforcement.
Ku-band (12–18 GHz)
• Used for satellite communications, most notably the downlink used by DTH television.
• Because of the higher frequencies, Ku band waves have shorter wavelengths.
• Shorter wavelengths mean that you need a smaller dish to receive these frequencies.
K-band (18–26 GHz)
• Due to the 22 GHz water vapor absorption line this band has high atmospheric attenuation and is only useful
for short range applications.
Ka-band (26–40 GHz)
• Used for communications satellites with high-resolution, close-range targeting radars on military aircraft.
Why are the Geostationary satellites launched from east coast in eastward direction and
from locations that are close to the equator?
87
• If you observe the location of all the launch centers like Sriharikota, Kennedy Launch Center (USA: Florida),
Guiana Space Centre etc., all are located on the East coast of the continent and are close to the equator.
• The location of Kennedy Space Center and Satish Dawan Space Center makes them particularly vulnerable to
tropical cyclones and other weather “events”.
• However, they are good locations for rocket launches as thay are on the east coast and close to the equator.
• Also, the islands are less densely populated, making them safer to carry out launches.
Why in eastward direction?
• As the earth rotates from west to east, a satellite launched in the east direction will get an initial boost equal
to the velocity of Earth surface.
Why at equator?
Reason 1:
• Earth’s rotational velocity is maximum at the equator (on earth, centrifugal force is maximum at the equator).
• Hence for maximum initial boost, the launch site needs to be closer to the equator.
• Anything on the surface of the Earth at the equator is already moving at 1670 kilometers per hour (rotational
velocity of earth).
• But this benefit can be taken only for such satellites which are placed in geo-stationary orbit or which circle
the Earth parallel to the equator.
Reason 2:
• Communication satellites are put into geostationary orbit above the equator with zero inclination to the
equatorial plane.
• The ideal place to launch to geostationary orbit is, obviously, on the equator.
• Equatorial launches only require the vehicle to bring the payload to orbital speed and do not require inclina-
tion changes.
• For launches that are not on the equator, the vehicle must perform a complex adjustment burn in the GTO
(geostationary transfer orbit) phase of the mission to bring the vehicle an inclination of 0º.
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• The vehicle first reaches low earth orbit (green circle), then makes a burn to geostationary transfer orbit (the
red ellipse), then makes a second burn to circularize the orbit into geostationary orbit (orange circle).
• When a vehicle is launched from the equator, the three orbits shown are planar (they lie in the same plane).
• If the vehicle is launched from a non-equatorial launch site, the green circle and the orange circle are non-
planar, thus requiring the red ellipse to bridge the two orbits (More fuel will be required = high costs).
• This maneuver consumes propellant and thus decreases the payload. That's another reason why equatorial
launches (or as close as possible) are preferred.
What about polar satellites (remote sensing and earth observation satellites)?
• Such satellites are usually communication satellites or satellites used for scientific research such as ISS.
• There are other satellites which are placed in polar orbits moving across the equator in north south direction
and used mainly for mapping or sometimes for spying.
• Such satellites are generally launched in south ward or north ward direction and therefore cannot take ad-
vantage of the Earth’s rotation. 89
Why are launch sites on the east coast?

• Launching stations are generally located near eastern coastline so that, just in case of failure of the launch,
the satellite does not fall on built-up hinterland.
NavIC Navigation System

Countries are working on building their navigation systems
• GPS ➔ owned by the US government and operated by the US Air Force.

• GLONASS ➔ Russia
• Galileo ➔ European Union (EU)
• BeiDou ➔ China
• Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) ➔ Japan (regional navigation system still under construction)
• India’s navigation system is called Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) — previously known
as Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
Link: Source and Credits
NavIC (IRNSS)
• IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India (ISRO).
• It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extend-
ing up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area.
IRNSS is a regional and not a global navigation system.
•
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• An Extended Service Area lies between primary service area and area enclosed by the rectangle from-
1. Latitude 30 deg South to 50 deg North,

2. Longitude 30 deg East to 130 deg East.
• IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely-
1. Standard Positioning Service (SPS) which is provided to all the users and
2. Restricted Service (RS), which is an encrypted service provided only to the authorised users.
• The IRNSS System is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service
area.
• Some applications of IRNSS are:
✓ Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation
✓ Disaster Management
✓ Vehicle tracking and fleet management
✓ Integration with mobile phones
✓ Precise Timing
✓ Mapping and Geodetic data capture
✓ Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
✓ Visual and voice navigation for drivers
• ISRO has built a total of nine satellites (earlier 7) in the IRNSS series of which eight are currently in orbit.
• Three of these satellites are in geostationary orbit (GEO) while the remaining in geosynchronous orbits
(GSO) that maintain an inclination of 29° to the equatorial plane.
• The IRNSS constellation was named as “NavIC” (Navigation with Indian Constellation).
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Basics: https://www.pmfias.com/keplers-laws-satellite-orbits-pslv-gslv/
Additional Reading
How Navigation System Works?
• Satellite Navigation is based on a global network of satellites that transmit radio signals.
• The working of the navigation system is based on the 'trilateration' & ‘triangulation’ principle.
• A navigation system device uses data from satellites to locate a specific point on the Earth in a process
called trilateration.
• To trilaterate, a GPS receiver measures the distances to satellites using radio signals.
• Trilateration is similar to triangulation, which measures angles, depicted in this illustration.
Triangulation
• Triangulation works with line-of-sight.

• Triangulation Measures Angles, Not Distance. 92
Trilateration
• Three signals put you at one of two points on that circle—and that's usually enough to figure out where
you are, because one of the points might be up in the air or in the middle of the ocean.
• With four signals, you know your position precisely.
• Finding your location this way is called trilateration.
• GPS Receivers Use Trilateration.
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Private Sector Participation in Space Sector
PIB | GS3 > Space Technology

• Context: Government has created Indian National Space, Promotion & Authorization Centre (INSPACe),
under Department of Space to encourage the private sector for their participation in Space Sector.
IN-SPACe
• Private players will also be able to use ISRO infrastructure through INSPACe.
• The role of New Space India Limited (NSIL) in the post reformed space sector would be to build launch
vehicles, providing launch services, build satellites, providing space-based services, technology transfers, etc.
• The broad areas and sectors covered by private companies are- providing materials, mechanical fabrication,
electronic fabrication, system development, integration, etc.
• IN-SPACe is supposed to be a facilitator, and also a regulator.
• It will act as an interface between ISRO and private parties, and assess how best to utilise India’s space
resources and increase space-based activities.
• IN-SPACe will have a Chairman, technical experts for space activities, Safety expert, experts from Academia
and Industries, members from PMO and MEA of Government of India.
• IN-SPACe is the second space organisation created by the government in the last two years.
• In the 2019 Budget, the government had announced the setting up of a New Space India Limited (NSIL),
a public sector company that would serve as a marketing arm of ISRO.
• Its main purpose is to market the technologies developed by ISRO and bring it more clients that need space-
based services.
• That role, incidentally, was already being performed by Antrix Corporation, another PSU working under the
Department of Space, and which still exists.
About ISRO
• The Indian Space Research Organisation is the space agency of the Government of India and has its
headquarters in the city of Bangalore (also known as Bengaluru).
• Its vision is to "harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research & 94
planetary exploration".
• The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established by Jawaharlal Nehru
under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1962, with the urging of scientist Vikram Sarabhai recog-
nising the need in space research.
• INCOSPAR grew and became ISRO in 1969, also under the DAE.
• ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975.
Organisation Structure and Facilities
• ISRO is managed by the Department of Space (DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself falls under the
authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes:
1. Indian Space Research Organisation
2. Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bangalore.
3. Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad.
4. National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra pradesh.
5. New Space India Limited - Commercial wing, Bangalore.
6. North-Eastern Space Applications Centre (NE-SAC), Umiam.
7. Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali.
8. Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space uni-
versity.
Indian Missile Systems
Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile
Ballistic Missiles
• Follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or more warheads on a predetermined target.

• A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that is launched but has no active propulsion during its actual
flight (these weapons are only guided during relatively brief periods of flight).
• Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined by a given initial velocity, effects of gravity, air resistance,
and motion of the earth (Coriolis Force).
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Image Credits: Wikipedia
• Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth's atmosphere.

• Longer-ranged intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), are launched on a sub-orbital flight trajectory and
spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere.
Types of ballistic missiles based on range
• Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between 300 km and 1,000 km.
• Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM): 1,000 km to 3,500 km.
• Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic missile (IRBM or LRBM): 3,500 km and 5,500 km.
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• Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): 5,500 km +
Cruise missile
• A cruise missile is a guided missile (target has to be pre-set) used against terrestrial targets.
• It remains in the atmosphere throughout its flight.
• It flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed.
• Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision.
• Modern cruise missiles are capable of travelling at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self-navigating,
and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory.
Types of cruise missiles based on speed
• Hypersonic (Mach 5): these missiles would travel at least five times the speed of sound (Mach 5). E.g.
BrahMos-II.
• Supersonic (Mach 2-3): these missiles travel faster than the speed of sound. E.g. BrahMos.
• Subsonic (Mach 0.8): these missiles travel slower than the speed of sound. E.g. Nirbhay.
Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile
Cruise Missile
Ballastic Missile
• It is propelled only for a brief duration after the • Self-propelled till the end of its flight.
launch.
• Similar to rocket engine. • Similar to jet engine.
• Long range missiles leave the earth’s atmosphere • Flight path is within the earth’s atmosphere.
and reenter it.
• Low precision as it is unguided for most of its path • Hits targets with high precision as it is constantly
and its trajectory depends on gravity, air resistance propelled.
and Coriolis Force.
• Can have a very long range (300 km to 12,000 km) • The range is small (below 500 km) as it needs to
as there is no fuel requirement after its initial tra- be constantly propelled to hit the target with high
jectory. precision.
• Heavy payload carrying capacity. • Payload capacity is limited.
• Can carry multiple payloads (Multiple Inde- • Usually carries a single payload.
pendently targetable Re-entry Vehicle)
• Developed primarily to carry nuclear warheads. • Developed primarily to carry conventional war- 97
heads.
• E.g. Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush • E.g. BrahMos missiles
missiles.
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)
• IGMDP was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam to enable India attain self-sufficiency in missile technology.
• IGMDP was conceived in response to Missile Technology Control Regime that decided to restrict access to
any technology that would help India in its missile development program.
• To counter the MTCR, the IGMDP team formed a consortium of DRDO laboratories, industries and academic
institutions to build these sub-systems, components and materials.
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
• MTCR an informal grouping established in 1987 by Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United King-
dom and the United States to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology.
• The MTCR seeks to limit the risks of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).
• MTCR places particular focus on rockets and unmanned aerial vehicles capable of delivering a payload of
at least 500 kg to a range of at least 300 km.
• The MTCR is not a treaty and does not impose any legally binding obligations.
• IGMDP was started in 1983 and completed in March 2012.

• Keeping in mind the requirements of various types of missiles by the defence forces, development of five
missile systems was taken up.
1. Prithvi: Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile (Prithivi means Earth ➔ Surface to Surface)
2. Agni: Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile
3. Trishul: Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile
4. Akash: Medium-range surface-to-air missile (Akash means Sky ➔ Surface to Air)
5. Nag: Third generation anti-tank missile (Nag means Snake ➔ Nag slithers like a Snake to hit a tank!)
• After its success, Agni missile program was separated from the IGMDP upon realizing its strategic importance.
India’s Missiles
Name Type Range
Astra air-to-air 80 km
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Trishul surface-to-air 9 km
Akash 30 km
Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) 2000 km
Nag surface-to-surface Anti-tank missile 4 km
Prahaar surface-to-surface SRBM 150 km
BrahMos land, naval, air Supersonic Cruise Missile 300 km

Nirbhay land, naval, air Subsonic Cruise Missile 1000 km
K-15 Sagarika underwater-to-surface SLBM 700 km
Dhanush sea-to-sea/surface SRBM 350 km
Shaurya surface-to-surface SLBM 1900
SLBM: Sub-marine launched ballistic missile.
Name Features
Astra • Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile (AAM).

• In terms of size and weight, the Astra is the smallest missile developed by the DRDO.
• It was envisaged to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds.
Trishul • Used as anti-sea skimmer (to fly low to avoid radar) from ships against low-flying attacks.
Akash • It has the capability to "neutralize aerial targets like fighter jets, cruise missiles and air-to-
surface missiles" as well as ballistic missiles.
PAD • Anti-ballistic missile developed to intercept incoming ballistic missiles outside the atmos-
phere (exo-atmospheric).
Nag • 3rd generation anti-tank ‘fire and forget’ guided missile (lock-on before launch system)
where the target is identified and designated before the weapon is launched.
Prahaar • High maneuverability.

• Primarily a battlefield support system for the Army.
BrahMos • It is a supersonic cruise missile developed as a joint venture between Indian and Russia.
• It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in the world.
• It is the world's fastest anti-ship cruise missile in operation.
Nirbhay • Subsonic missile which is ancillary (providing necessary support) to the BrahMos range.
K-15 Sagarika • It forms the crucial third leg of India’s nuclear deterrent vis-à-vis its submarine-launched
ballistic missile (SLBM) capability.
• It was subsequently integrated with India’s nuclear-powered Arihant class submarine.
Dhanush • It is capable of carrying nuclear warheads. 99
• It carries forward the legacy of the K-15 Sagarika.

Shaurya • Surface-to-surface ballistic missile (SSM) variant of the K-15 Sagarika.

• The nuclear capability of the missile enhances India’s second strike capability.
• It reduces the dependence on the K-15 which was built with Russian assistance.
Prithvi Missiles
All the Prithvi variants are surface-to-surface SRBMs.
Name Version Range Payload in kg
Prithvi I Army version 150 km 1000
Prithvi II Air force version 350 km 500
Prithvi III Naval version 600 km 1000
Agni Missiles
Type Range Payload in kg

Name
Agni-I MRBM 700 – 900 km 1,000
Agni-II MRBM 2,000 – 3,000 km 750 – 1,000
Agni-III IRBM 3,500 – 5,000 km 2,000 – 2,500
Agni-IV IRBM 3,000 – 4,000 km 800 – 1,000
Agni-V ICBM 5,000 – 8,000 km (Testing) 1,500 (3 – 10 MIRV)
Agni-VI ICBM 8,000 – 10,000 km (Under development) 1,000 (10 MIRV)
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Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT)
• In March 2019, India successfully tested its ASAT missile.

• The ASAT missile destroyed a live satellite in Low Earth orbit (283-kilometre).
• As per DRDO, missile was capable of shooting down targets moving at a speed of 10 km per second at an
altitude as high as 1200 km.
Brahmos Missiles
• Brahmos is a multiplatform i.e. it can be launched from land, air, & sea & multi capability missile with
pinpoint accuracy that works in both day & night irrespective of the weather conditions.
• It has an indigenous booster & air frame sector, along with other sub-systems made within the country.
• The supersonic missile is one of the prime precision-strike missiles used by all three forces, the Army, Navy
& the Air Force.
• BRAHMOS is a joint venture between the Defence Research & Development Organisation of India
(DRDO) & the NPOM of Russia.
• Brahmos is named on the rivers Brahmaputra & Moskva.
• It operates on the "Fire & Forgets" principle i.e it does not require further guidance after launch.
• It is supersonic cruise missile.
• Brahmos is one of the fastest cruise missile currently operationally deployed with speed of Mach
2.8, which is 3 times more than the speed of sound.
• Brahmos is the heaviest weapon to be deployed on Su-30 MKI fighter aircraft, with a weight of 2.5
tonnes.
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Suggested reading: Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile, India’s Missile Systems, IGMDP
Shaurya Missile
• These ballistic weapons belong to the K Missile Family.

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The K Family of Missiles

• The K family of missiles are primarily Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), which have been
developed by DRDO & are named after Dr Kalam.
• The development of these naval platform launched missiles began as a step towards completing India’s
nuclear triad — the capability of launching nuclear weapons from land, sea & air-based assets.
• Because these missiles are to be launched from submarines, they are lighter than their land-based counter-
parts, the Agni missiles which are medium & intercontinental range nuclear capable ballistic missiles.
• While K family are primarily submarine-fired missiles to be fired from India’s Arihant class nuclear powered
platforms, the land & air variants of some of its members have also been developed by the DRDO.
• Shaurya, whose user trial was conducted, is a land variant of short range SLBM K-15 Sagarika, which has
a range of at least 750 kilometers.
• India has also developed & successfully tested multiple times the K-4 missiles from the family which has a
range of 3500 km.
• It is reported that more members of K-family — reportedly to have been codenamed K-5 & K-6 — with
ranges of 5000 & 6000 km are also under development.
The strategic importance of SLBMs
• The capability of being able to launch nuclear weapons submarine platforms has great strategic importance
in context of achieving a nuclear triad, especially in the light of ‘no first use’ policy of India.
• The sea-based underwater nuclear capable assets significantly increase the second-strike capability of a
country & thus boosts its nuclear deterrence.
• These submarines can not only survive a first strike by the adversary but also can launch a strike in retaliation
thus achieving Credible Nuclear Deterrence.
Space and Astronomy Related Concepts
Asteroids
• Asteroids are rocky objects that orbit the Sun, much smaller than planets.
• They are also called minor planets.
• Asteroids are divided into three classes.
1. First group, those found in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. 103
2. The second group is that of trojans, which are asteroids that share an orbit with a larger planet.
✓ Presence of Jupiter, Neptune, and Mars trojans.
✓ In 2011, they reported an Earth trojan as well.

3. The third classification is Near-Earth Asteroids (NEA), which have orbits that pass close by the Earth.
✓ Those that cross the Earth’s orbit are called Earth-crossers.
✓ More than 10,000 such asteroids are known, out of which over 1,400 are classified as potentially haz-
ardous asteroids (PHAs).
• Ryugu is also classified as a PHA and was discovered in 1999 and was given the name by the Minor Planet
Center in 2015.
• It is 300 million kilometres from Earth and it took Hayabusa2 over 42 months to reach it.
Hayabusa Mission 2
• The Hayabasu2 mission was launched in December 2014.

• The spacecraft was sent on a six-year-long voyage to study the asteroid Ryugu and collect samples to
bring back to the Earth.
• The spacecraft arrived at the asteroid in mid-2018.
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Closest stars to the Sun
• Alpha Centauri is the third brightest star in the sky (4.37 light-years away).
• Alpha Centauri is not one star, it is a system of three stars ― Alpha Centauri A & B and Proxima Centauri.
• Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B are a binary pair, orbiting a common centre of gravity.
• Alpha Centauri A is a little more massive than the Sun, & Alpha Centauri B is slightly less massive.
• Proxima Centauri is the faint red dwarf star, and it is the closest star to our Sun (4.24 light-years away).
• Proxima Centauri has been the nearest star for about 32,000 years.
• After 33,000 years from now, the nearest star will be Ross 248.
• Alpha Centauri is only visible in the Southern Hemisphere.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, the closest visible star is Barnard’s Star, another red dwarf which is too dim
just like Proxima Centauri to see with the unaided eye.
• The closest star that you can see with the naked eye in the Northern Hemisphere is Sirius (Dog Star).
• Sirius is the second brightest star when viewed from the earth, the brightest being the sun.
Closest Stars
1. Proxima Centauri (Alpha Centauri system – 4.2 light years)

2. Barnard’s Star – 5.9 light years
3. Luhman 16 – 6.5 light years
Brightest Stars from Earth
1. Sun
2. Sirius
3. Alpha Centauri
Gravitational waves
• Gravitational waves are 'ripples' in the fabric of space-time caused by some of the most violent and
energetic processes in the Universe. (Spacetime: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sryrZwYguRQ)
• Travelling at the speed of light, gravitational waves squeeze and stretch anything in their path.
• These ripples travel at the speed of light, carrying with them information about their origins. 107
• Gravitational waves were proposed by Albert Einstein in his General Theory of Relativity.
• It was only in 2015, however, that the first gravitational wave was actually detected by LIGO.
• Since then, there have been a number of subsequent detections of gravitational waves.
Gravitational waves (NASA)
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Source and Credits
• While the processes that generate gravitational waves can be extremely violent and destructive, by the time
the waves reach Earth, they are billions of times smaller.
Einstein’s theory of general relativity
• In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating
observers and that the speed of light in a vacuum was independent of the motion of all observers.
• As a result, he found that space and time were interwoven into a single continuum known as space-
time.
• Events that occur at the same time for one observer could occur at different times for another. This
was the theory of special relativity.
• In 1915, Einstein published his theory of general relativity. In it, he determined that massive objects distort
space-time, which is felt as gravity.
• Gravitational lensing and gravitational waves are strong evidence for Einstein’s theory of general rela-
tivity.
Gravitational lensing
• Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing it to act as a lens for the things
that lie behind it.
Source: space.com
Importance of gravitational waves
• The gravitational waves can work as sirens to measure the expansion rate of the universe and to under-
stand the origin and the future of the universe.
LIGO
• The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) was designed to open the field of 110
gravitational-wave astrophysics through the direct detection of gravitational waves predicted by Einstein’s
General Theory of Relativity.
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Source and Credits

LIGO-INDIA
• It is the first LIGO LAB outside US.

• It aims to create a gravitational-wave detector in India.
• It is a collaboration between LIGO Laboratory and the LIGO-India consortium: Institute of Plasma Re-
search, Gandhinagar; IUCAA (Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics), Pune and Raja
Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore.
• A site near Aundha Nagnath in the Hingoli district of Maharashtra has been selected.
Northern Lights
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is produced
by charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet’s magnetosphere.
• Northern Lights, also known as aurora borealis, are usually witnessed far up in the polar regions or the high
latitude regions of Europe, like in Norway.
• While flowing toward Earth, the fast-moving solar wind carries with it the Sun’s magnetic field, which dis‐
rupts the magnetosphere.
• Magnetosphere is the region of space around Earth in which the magnetic field of our planet is dom-
inant.
• When the Sun’s magnetic field approaches Earth, the protective magnetic field radiating from our planet’s
poles deflects the former, thus shielding life on Earth.
• However, as this happens, the protective fields couple together to form funnels, through which charged
solar wind particles are able to stream down to the poles.
• At the north & south poles, the charged particles interact with different gases in the atmosphere, caus-
ing a display of light in the sky.
• This display, known as an aurora, is seen from the Earth’s high latitude regions (called the auroral oval), &
is active all year round.
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Visual Explanation > Aurora (Must see)
• In the northern part of our globe, the polar lights are called aurora borealis or Northern Lights, & are
seen from the US (Alaska), Canada, Iceland, Greenland, Norway, Sweden & Finland.
• In the south, they are called aurora australis or southern lights, & are visible from high latitudes in Ant-
arctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand & Australia.
• Generally, the auroral oval is confined to the polar regions.
• But occasionally, the oval expands, & the lights become visible at lower latitudes.
• This happens during periods of high solar activity, such as the arrival of solar storms.
Magnetosphere
• The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth’s mag-
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netic field in space.
• It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space, protecting the Earth from the charged par-
ticles of the solar wind & cosmic rays.

• It would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar system by the Sun’s magnetosphere called heliosphere.
Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA)
Near-Earth Objects (NEOs)
• NEOs are comets and asteroids whose orbits are brought close to the earth’s neighbourhood by the gravi-
tational influence of the nearby planets.
Asteroids
• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation that circle the Sun in a zone lying between Mars & Jupiter.
• The circular chain of asteroids between Mars and Jupiter is called the asteroid belt.
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• Asteroids (planetoids) are composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice.
• Asteroids range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic.
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid (946 km in diameter), a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet.
Comets
• A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, heats up due to the effects of
solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus and begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere
or coma, and sometimes also a tail.
• Comets have highly elliptical orbits, unlike the planets which have near-circular orbits.
• They are made of frozen gases (water, NH3, CH4, CO2) which hold together rocky and metallic minerals.
• Short-period comets (orbital period of a few hundred years) originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated
scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune.
• Longer period comets, with orbits of thousands of years, come from the more distant Oort Cloud.
Halley’s Comet
• One of the larger comets is the Halley’s Comet.

• The orbit of Halley’s Comet brings it close to the Earth every 76 years ― short-period comet.
• It last visited in 1986 and is projected to return in 2061.
Kuiper belt
• The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt but consisting mainly of objects composed 115
primarily of ice.
• It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.
Oort Cloud
• Oort cloud is a giant shell of icy bodies that encircle the solar system occupying space at a distance between
5,000 and 100,000 AU.
Distance from Sun (NASA / JPL-Caltech, via Wikimedia Commons)
Potentially Hazardous Objects (PHO)
• They are NEOs (asteroids or comets) that come threateningly close to Earth and large enough to cause sig-
nificant regional damage in the event of impact.
• All asteroids with a Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance (MOID) of 0.05 AU (7,480,000 km) or less are con-
sidered Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs).
• MOID is the minimum distance between two almost overlapping elliptical orbits.
• NASA tracks and characterizes NEOs that are 140 meter or larger in size.
• However, no asteroid larger than 140 m has a “significant” chance of hitting the Earth for the next 100 years.
Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

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• A meteoroid is any solid debris originating from asteroids, comets or other celestial object and floats
through interplanetary space.
• A meteor is the streak of light that appears in the sky when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere (mesosphere)
at about 200 km at high speed and burns up because of the friction.
• In some cases, the meteoroid does not burn up completely and makes its way to the Earth’s surface.
• The surviving chunk is called a meteorite.
• The depression created on the earth’s surface after the meteorite’s impact is called as a meteorite crater.
Chicxulub crater
• Chicxulub crater (Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula) was caused by a meteorite impact that is believed to have
wiped out the dinosaurs (5th mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous 65 million years ago).
The devastation potential of a 10 km asteroid (meteorite)
• An asteroid roughly 10 km across and travelling at a speed of 20 km/s hit Earth about 65 million years ago. 117
• This impact made a huge explosion and a crater about 180 km across (E = mc2 ➔ more speed = more energy).
• Debris layer in the atmosphere blocked sunlight for months and led to impact winters that lasted for years,
leading to the extinction of roughly 3/4 of species that existed at that time, including the dinosaurs.
• Tiny mammals that lived in burrows survived. Hence mammals replaced giant reptiles after the impact.
• Many asteroids of this type cross Earth's orbit every now and then.
• Some of these could potentially hit Earth in the future.
Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA)
• There are around 25,000 near-Earth objects (NEOs – asteroids, comets, space debris) that orbit the Sun on a
trajectory that brings them close to our planet’s orbit.
• According to NASA, as of now, there are about 900 near-Earth objects measuring more than 1 km.
• An impact from one of these NEOs can bring devastating effects to Earth.
• The latest of the five mass extinctions, Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction (66 million years ago, the end of
dinosaurs), is said to have caused by an asteroid or a comet impact.
• Over the years, scientists have suggested different ways to ward off asteroid impact threats, such as blowing
up the asteroid before it reaches Earth or deflecting it off its Earth-bound course by hitting it with a spacecraft.
• Now, scientists have embarked on a plan to test their expertise with the second of these two methods.
Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment
• The AIDA is a double-spacecraft kinetic impact mission being developed by NASA ad ESA.
• The project aims to study the effectiveness of an impact to ward off an impending asteroid threat.
• Th aim of the mission is to test if the technique of deflecting asteroids off their earth-bound course is effective
in warding off future asteroid impact threats.
• AIDA includes NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) and the ESA’s Hera.
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)
• NASA aims to launch DART spacecrafts in 2021.

• DART will be put to test on the Didymos binary near-Earth asteroid system.
• Didymos binary system consists of Didymos A (about 780 metres in size), and Didymos B (about 160 metres).
• The Didymos B will have a distant approach to Earth in 2022, and then again in 2024.
• DART adopts kinetic impactor technique to deflect the orbit of the smaller body through an impact by one
of the spacecrafts with the target at 6.6 km/s.
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• Mission Hera will launch in 2024 and will arrive at the Didymos system in 2027 to measure the impact crater
produced by the DART collision and study the change in the asteroid’s orbital trajectory.
• The effect of the collision is also monitored by earth based observatories.
• Based on the observations, the capabilities of kinetic impact as an asteroid mitigation strategy will be deter-
mined.
Superhabitable Planets
What are Exoplanets?
• The word planet is a general term that describes any celestial body that moves around a star.
• There are also “rogue” planets that do not orbit stars.
• An exoplanet is a planet outside our solar system.
• It is an extrasolar planet.
What is Dark Energy?
• In 1998, it was discovered that the universe is expanding & that this expansion was gaining speed or accel-
erating.
• There had to be an “invisible” energy that was driving this.
• Calculations showed that this dark energy – so called because it did not interact with the observed mass –
makes up about 70% of the universe.
• It is distributed evenly throughout the universe, not only in space but also in time – in other words, its
effect is not diluted as the universe expands.
• The even distribution means that dark energy does not have any local gravitational effects, but rather a
global effect on the universe as a whole.
• This leads to a repulsive force, which tends to accelerate the expansion of the universe.
• The rate of expansion & its acceleration can be measured by observations based on the Hubble law.
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• These measurements, together with other scientific data, have confirmed the existence of dark energy &
provide an estimate of just how much of this mysterious substance exists.
Dark Matter
• The velocity of rotation for spiral galaxies depends on the amount of mass contained in them.
• But the outer arms of the Milky Way are rotating much too fast to be consistent with the amount of matter
that we know exists in them.
• Such fast rotation is possible only when there is more mass, & that extra mass is believed to come from
the dark matter.
• Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that is thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter
in the universe.
• Dark energy plus dark matter constitutes 95.1% of the total content of the universe (the rest in the
normal matter). In short, we are unsure about what’s there in 95% of the universe!
• The majority of dark matter is thought to be composed of some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particles.
• The name dark matter refers to the fact that it does not appear to interact with observable electromag-
netic radiation, such as light.
• It is thus invisible (or ‘dark’) to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, making it extremely difficult to
detect.
• Dark matter interacts with the rest of the universe only through its gravity (that’s how we know it exists).
Superhabitable Planet
• A superhabitable planet is a hypothetical type of exoplanet or exomoon that may be better suited
than Earth for the emergence & evolution of life.
• The concept was introduced in 2014 by René Heller & John Armstrong, who have criticized the language
used in the search for habitable planets, so they propose clarifications because a circumstellar habitable
zone (HZ) is not enough to define a planet's habitability
• They define a superhabitable world as a terrestrial planet or moon that could support more diverse flora &
fauna than there are on Earth, as it would empirically show that its environment is more hospitable to life.
• Related term – Goldilocks zone
✓ The Goldilocks Zone refers to the habitable zone around a star where the temperature is just right
- not too hot & not too cold - for liquid water to exist on a planet.
✓ Liquid water is essential for life as we know it.
✓ Where we find liquid water on Earth, we also find life. 120
✓ The location of a Goldilocks Zone around another star depends on the type of star.
✓ Bigger hotter stars have their Goldilocks Zones further out, while smaller cooler stars such as M-type red
dwarf stars have habitable zones much closer in.

Source & Credits
Biotechnology Related Concepts
Bioweapons
• Biological weapons are microorganisms like virus, bacteria, fungi, or other toxins that are produced and
released deliberately to cause disease and death in humans, animals or plants.
• Biological agents, like anthrax, botulinum toxin and plague can pose a difficult public health challenge.
• Bioterrorism attacks could result in an epidemic, for example if Ebola virus was used as biological agents.
• Biological weapons are a subset of a larger class of weapons referred to as weapons of mass destruction,
which also includes chemical, nuclear and radiological weapons.
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Bacillus Anthracis (Anthrax)

• Bacillus anthracis bacteria, which causes anthrax, is one of the deadliest agents to be used as a biological
weapon.
• Anthrax has been used as a bioweapon for about a century mixed with powders, sprays, food and water.
• The invisible, infectious, odourless and tasteless spores make Anthrax a flexible bioweapon.
Australia Group
• The Australia Group (AG) is an informal forum/voluntary group of countries.

• The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR).
• Members, through the harmonisation of export controls, seeks to ensure that exports do not contribute
to the development of chemical or biological weapons (CBW) by states or terrorist groups.
• The AG at present consists of 42 countries and the European Union.
• India formally became the 43rd member.
• Australia manages the secretariat.
Multilateral Export Control Regime (MECR)
• It is an informal group of like-minded supplier countries that seek to contribute to the:

✓ Non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction,
✓ Delivery systems, and
✓ Advanced conventional weapons through national implementation of guidelines and control lists for ex-
ports.
• There are currently four such regimes:
1. The Wassenaar Arrangement (WA) on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods
and Technologies (It has 42 member).
2. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), for the control of nuclear related technology (It has 48 partici-
pating governments, India is not a member of the NSG).
3. The Australia Group (AG) for the control of chemical and biological technology that could be
weaponized.
4. The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) for the control of rockets and other aerial vehicles
capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction.
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IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project
• The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) concluded the six-month long exercise of conducting
a “whole-genome sequence” of a 1,008 Indians that beloged to diverse ethnicities.
• The project is part of a programme called “IndiGen” and is a precursor to a much larger exercise funded by
the Department of Biotechnology to sequence at least 10,000 Indian genomes.
• The project involved the Hyderabad-based Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) and the
CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB).
• Globally, many countries have undertaken genome sequencing of a sample of their citizens to determine
unique genetic traits, susceptibility (and resilience) to disease.
Key Terms
• DNA: hereditary material of most of the living beings.

• RNA: hereditary material of some microorganisms (virus).
• Genes: specific section of DNA which encodes the synthesis of gene product either RNA or for proteins i.e.,
it is involved in making RNA (transcription) or proteins (translation).
• Chromosome: are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal & plant cells.
✓ The DNA is coiled to make thread like structure called chromosomes.
✓ Human beings have 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent).
✓ Each chromosome is made of protein & a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
• Genome sequencing: Deciphering the exact order of bases pairs (complete DNA sequence) in an organism's
genome.
✓ This entails sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the
mitochondria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.
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Source & Credits
Difference between DNA vs RNA
DNA RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

Double Stranded Single Stranded
Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar
Can’t Self-Replicate
Self-Replicate
It is synthesized from DNA when required
Occurs inside the nucleus & of cell & some cell or-
It is found in cytoplasm of the cell but very little is
ganelles (mitochondria) but in plants it is pre-
found inside the nucleus.
sent in mitochondria & plant cell
DNA is the genetic material in all living organ-

RNA is genetic material in some viruses
isms
Long Polymer Chain Shorter Polymer Chain
Life of DNA is longer Its life is short
3 types of RNA are present in an organism: - mRNA,

DNA occurs only in one form in any organism
rRNA, tRNA
DNA is functional in the transmission of genetic in- RNA is functional is the transmission of the genetic
formation code that is necessary for the protein creation
It forms as a media for long-term storage from the nucleus to the ribosome
Bases present are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, & Bases present are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine &
Thymine Uracil
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Genome
• A genome is the DNA, or sequence of genes, in a cell.

• Most of the DNA is in the nucleus and intricately coiled into a structure called the chromosome.
• The rest is in the mitochondria, the cell’s powerhouse, and some is chloroplast DNA.
• Every human cell contains a pair of chromosomes, each of which has three billion base pairs or one of four
molecules – adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) – that pair in precise ways.
• The order of base pairs & varying lengths of these sequences constitute the “genes”, which are respon-
sible for making amino acids, proteins and, thereby, everything that is necessary for the body to function.
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• When these genes are altered (mutated), proteins sometimes do not function as intended, leading to disease.
Genome Sequencing
• Sequencing a genome means deciphering the exact order of base pairs in an individual.
• This “deciphering” or reading of the genome is what sequencing is all about.
• In this particular piece of DNA, an adenine (A) is followed by a guanine (G), which is followed by a thymine
(T), which in turn is followed by a cytosine (C), another cytosine (C), and so on.
Whole genome sequencing
• Exome, the portion of the genes responsible for making proteins occupies just about 1% of the actual gene.
• Rather than sequence the whole gene, many geneticists rely on “exome maps”.
• However, the non-exome portions also affect the functioning of the genes.
• Hence to know which genes of a person’s DNA are “mutated” the whole genome sequencing is required.
• Whole genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism's
genome at a single time.
• This entails sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mitochon-
dria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.
• In practice, genome sequences that are nearly complete are also called whole genome sequences.
• The whole genome sequencing relies on new technologies that allow rapid sequencing of the entire genome
in a matter of a few days.
Benefits of Genome Sequencing
• Whole genome sequencing data of a person can be analysed to determine if they carry genes for particular
single genetic disorders (caused due to mutation). This will help usher in a new era of personalized medicine.
Stem Cell or Cord Blood Banking 127
Stem Cells
• The blood collected from the umbilical cord of the new-born is a rich source of stem cells.
• The stem cells are unspecialised cells (they do not have a specific predefined function).
Stem cell banking or Cord blood (umbilical cord blood) Banking
• Cord blood is the blood that remains in the umbilical cord and placenta post-delivery.
• Cord blood at the time of delivery a rich source of stem cells and other cells of the immune system.
• Cord blood banking is the process of collecting the cord blood and extracting and cryogenically freezing its
stem cells and other cells of the immune system for potential future medical use.
• In some parts of the world, cord blood banking is more often referred to as stem cell banking.
• Cord blood banking is designed to collect the stem cells and not the actual blood cells themselves.
How long can the stem cells be preserved?
• The stem cells are preserved in liquid nitrogen in cord blood banks.
• Technically, there is no expiry date and these stem cells can be preserved for a lifetime.
• Scientifically, evidence exists that they can be stored for about 20 years.
Why are stem cells special?
• In some organs, such as the bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to repair and replace damaged tissues.
• Stem cells taken from umbilical cord blood are like those taken from bone marrow, capable of pro-
ducing all blood cells: red cells, platelets, and immune system cells.
• That is, they are capable of renewing themselves through cell division to give rise to new stem cells or
specialized cell types (bone cells, muscle cells, etc.).
What are the uses of stem cells?
• In a patient, they can be induced to become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions.
• Hence, they offer the possibility of a renewable source of replacement cells and tissues to treat diseases
including macular degeneration, spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart disease, diabetes, etc.
• The stem cells in theory can treat around 70 blood related disorders and genetic disorders including thalas-
semia, sickle cell anaemia, leukaemia, and immune related disorders.
• But given the present state of medicine, they are effective only for around a dozen of them.
Are stem cells useful for family members? 128
• Body’s immune system does not accept outside stem cells and other cells of the immune system.
• Cord blood taken from a baby's umbilical cord is always a perfect match for the baby.
• In addition, immediate family members are more likely to also be a match for the banked stem cells.
• Hence, it may sometimes be possible to use the stem cells of the immediate family member to treat certain
diseases.
What does Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) say about cord blood banking?
• Companies convince parents (emotional marketing) to bank the cells promising future therapeutic use.
• However, the ICMR does not recommend commercial stem cell banking.
• According to ICMR, there is no scientific basis for preservation of cord blood for future self use.
• According to ICMR, cord blood banking is advisable when there is an elder child in the family with a condition
treatable with stem cells and the mother is expecting the next baby.
What do experts say?
• Globally, cord blood banking is recommended as a source of hematopoietic stem cell (derived from bone
marrow, umbilical cord) transplantation for haematological (diseases related to blood) cancers.
• For all other conditions, the use of cord blood as a source of stem cells is not yet established.
Digital India Project
• PM announced 3 Digital India projects, National Digital Health Mission, a new Cyber Security Policy &
promised optical fibre connectivity on Independence Day.
Optical-Fibre Connectivity
• BharatNet envisages laying of about 8 lakh kilometre of optical fibre cable (OFC) to all the 2,50,000-plus
Gram Panchayats (GP) in the country at an estimated cost of Rs 42,068 crore ($6.2 billion).
• It aims to provide speeds of upto 100 Mbps to all gram panchayats (GPs).
• Initiated in October 2011, BharatNet was originally named National Optical Fibre Network or NOFN.
• It’s being financed by the Universal Service Obligation Fund of the Department of Telecommunications,
through a 5 per cent levy on the revenues of private telecom service providers.
• The project’s primary objective is to extend fibre connectivity to every panchayat, thereby providing access
to broadband internet services to 69 per cent of India’s rural population. 129
• Phase I of BharatNet, which commenced in June 2014, was completed in December 2017.
• In the Phase II, the remaining 1,29,827-gram panchayats are to be covered.
• This phase incorporates a mix of both underground & aerial fibre as well as radio & satellite connectivity to
reach more inaccessible locations such as Jammu & Kashmir, Northeast, Himachal Pradesh & Uttarakhand.
• In the third phase from 2019 to 2023, state-of-the-art, future-proof network, including fiber between dis-
tricts & blocks, with ring topology to provide redundancy would be created.
• The project is a Centre-State collaborative project, with the States contributing free Rights of Way for estab-
lishing the Optical Fibre Network
National Digital Health Mission
• The genesis of the new digital health infrastructure in India came about in the 2017 National Health Policy,
which proposed a new National Digital Health Authority.
• In August 2020, National Digital Health Mission (NDHM) released its latest strategic document, outlining the
envisioned digital registries of doctors, hospitals, insurance companies, digital personal health records, etc.
• The NDHM is a complete digital health ecosystem.
• It will also include e-pharmacy & telemedicine services, regulatory guidelines for which are being framed.
• The digital platform will be launched with four key features — health ID, personal health records, Digi Doctor
& health facility registry.
• Patients can create a Health ID, allowing them to share their data between hospitals & doctors digitally.
• If individuals are looking to benefit from government schemes, then they will be required to connect their
ID to their Aadhaar.
• One copy of a patient’s records is stored in their doctor’s files & one is stored in their own individual locker
(which can be owned by a company or by the government).
• Other than the registry of doctors, professionals, & institutions, this allows for decentralised storing.
• The NDHM is implemented by the National Health Authority (NHA) under the Health Ministry.
• The platform will be available in the form of an app & website.
• The vision is often compared to the Unified Payments Interface (UPI), a government-owned highway that
private players can hook into to provide their applications to consumers.
• NDHM is overseen by a Mission Steering Group with Ministers from IT, AYUSH, Women’s & Child Devel-
opment, as well as Niti Aayog Member, NHA CEO, & others.
National Health Policy 2017

130
• It envisages providing larger package of assured comprehensive primary health care through the ‘Health &
Wellness Centres’.
• It aims to allocate major proportion of resources to primary care & intends to ensure availability of two beds
per 1,000 population distributed in a manner to enable access within golden hour.
• Golden hour-the first hour after traumatic injury, when the victim is most likely to benefit from emergency
treatment.
• In addition, the policy proposes free drugs, free diagnostics & free emergency & essential health care ser-
vices in all public hospitals in a bid to provide access & financial protection.
• The policy proposes raising public health expenditure to 2.5 per cent of the GDP in a time-bound man-
ner, the 2.5 per cent of GDP spend target for this sector would be met by 2025.
• Among key targets, the policy intends to increase life expectancy at birth from 67.5 to 70 by 2025 &
reduce infant mortality rate to 28 by 2019.
• It also aims to reduce under five mortality to 23 by the year 2025.
• Besides, it intends to achieve the global 2020 HIV target.
Cybersecurity Policy 2020
• The new cybersecurity policy to be rolled in 2020 would replace the present one.
• The existing policy, India’s first, was released in 2013.
• Cyber intrusions & attacks have increased in scope & sophistication targeting sensitive personal & business
data, & critical information infrastructure, with impact on national economy & security.
• The present cyber threat landscape poses significant challenges due to rapid technological developments
such as Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence, lnternet of Things (IoT), 5G, etc.
• New challenges include data protection/privacy, law enforcement in evolving cyberspace, access to data
stored overseas, misuse of social media, cooperation on cybercrime & cyber terrorism, & so on.
• Threats from organised cybercriminal groups, technological cold wars, & increasing state sponsored cyber-
attacks have also emerged.
• Thus, a need exists for the formulation of a National Cyber Security Strategy 2020.
National Cyber Security Strategy 2020 (NCSS 2020)
• GOI under the aegis of National Security Council Secretariat is in the process of formulating the National
Cyber Security Strategy 2020 to cater for a time horizon of five years (2020-25).
• Proposed vision is to ensure a safe, secure, resilient & vibrant cyber space for our Nation’s prosperity. 131
Pillars of Strategy
• Examining various facets of cyber security under the following pillars: -

a) Secure (The National Cyberspace)
b) Strengthen (Structures, People, Processes, Capabilities)
c) Synergise (Resources including Cooperation & Collaboration)
Objectives of National Cyber Security Policy
1. To create a secure cyber ecosystem in the country.

2. To generate adequate trust & confidence in IT systems & transactions in cyberspace.
3. To create an assurance framework for design of security policies.
4. To strengthen the Regulatory framework for ensuring a Secure Cyberspace ecosystem.
5. To enhance the protection & resilience of Nation’s critical information infrastructure by operating a 24x7
National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC).
6. To develop suitable indigenous security technologies.
7. To improve visibility of the integrity of ICT products & services.
8. To create a workforce of 500,000 professionals skilled in cyber security in the next 5 years through
capacity building, skill development & training.
9. To provide fiscal benefits to businesses for adoption of standard security practices & processes.
10. To enable protection of information while in process, handling, storage & transit so as to safeguard privacy
of citizen's data & for reducing economic losses due to cyber-crime or data theft.
11. To enable effective prevention, investigation & prosecution of cyber-crime & enhancement of law.
12. To develop effective public private partnerships & collaborative engagements through technical & oper-
ational cooperation & contribution for enhancing the security of cyberspace.
13. To enhance global cooperation by promoting shared understanding & leveraging relationships for fur-
thering the cause of security of cyberspace.
Diseases and Related Topics that are Frequently in News
Antimicrobial resistance (AR)
• The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance (antibiotic, antiviral or anti-malarial resistance) as a microorgan-
ism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism.
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• E.g. In Multi Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB – resistant to multiple antimicrobials), the TB bacteria are resistant
to two of the most important TB drugs, isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RMP).
• Micro-organisms can develop resistance mainly in two ways: intrinsic resistance and acquired resistance.
• Intrinsic resistance refers to the innate ability of an organism to resist a class of antimicrobial agents.
• Acquired resistance refers to micro-organisms acquiring the gene coding (genetic mutation) for resistance.
• Acquired resistance is more common than intrinsic resistance.
Issues
• Treating resistant microbes require alternative or higher doses of medication (expensive + toxic).
• In 2016, upto 4,90,000 people developed multi-drug-resistant TB globally.
• Drug resistance is starting to complicate the fight against HIV and malaria as well.
• Organ transplantation, chemotherapy and surgeries would be compromised without effective antimicrobials.
Causative measures
• Overuse, misuse and improper use (e.g. taking antibiotics to treat viral diseases!) of antimicrobials.
• Greater access to over the counter antibiotic drugs in developing countries.
• Using broad-spectrum antibiotics over narrow-spectrum antibiotics (targeting specific microbes only).
• Dumping of inadequately treated effluents from the pharmaceutical industry.
• Antibiotic use in livestock feed at low doses for growth promotion is industrialized countries.
• Poor sanitation and hygiene that forces the extended use of antimicrobials.
Measures required
• Global collective action through international treaties on antimicrobial resistance.

• Preventing over the counter sale of antibiotics.
• Swatch Baharat, awareness, etc.
2019-05: World’s rivers loaded with antibiotics waste
• The concentrations of major antibiotics like Ciprofloxacin (treatment for intestinal and urinary tract infec-
tions) and metronidazole in water bodies were several times above the limit in many parts of the world.
• Discovered in the 1920s, antibiotics are used to treat pneumonia, tuberculosis, meningitis and a host of
deadly bacteria.
• Overuse and misuse of the drugs are thought to be the main causes of antimicrobial resistance.
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2019-07: Colistin banned in animal food industry
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has prohibited the manufacture, sale and distribution of colistin
and its formulations for food-producing animals, poultry, aqua farming and animal feed supplements.
• The move is a “massive victory” for the movement against anti-microbial resistance.
• Colistin is a valuable, last-resort antibiotic that saves lives in critical care units.
• In recent years, may patients have exhibited resistance to the drug.
• Therefore, preventing arbitrary use of colistin in the food industry, particularly as growth supplements
(growth factor) used in animals, poultry would likely reduce the antimicrobial resistance within the country.
Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)
• Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) in its current form has been introduced in India in 1985.
• Ministry of Health provides several vaccines to infants, children and pregnant women through UIP.
Immunization
• Immunization is the process through which a person is made immune to an infectious disease.
• Immunization typically involves administration of a vaccine.
• Vaccines stimulate the body’s own immune system to protect against subsequent infection or disease.
Vaccines provided under UIP
• OPV is given orally in the form of two drops.

• Rotavirus vaccine is given orally in the form of 5 drops.
• Rest of the vaccines under UIP are administered through injections.
Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine (BCG)
• It is given to infants to protect them from tubercular meningitis and disseminated TB.
• BCG vaccine is given at birth or as early as possible before one year.
Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)
• OPV stands for Oral Polio Vaccine.

• It protects children from poliomyelitis.
• OPV is given at birth called zero dose and three doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks.
• A booster dose is given at 16-24 months of age.
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Hepatitis B vaccine
• Hepatitis B vaccine protects from Hepatitis B virus infection.

• Hepatitis B vaccine is given at birth or as early as possible within 24 hours.
• Subsequently 3 doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks in combination with DPT and Hib in the form of
pentavalent vaccine.
Pentavalent Vaccine
• Pentavalent vaccine is a combined vaccine to protect children from five diseases Diphtheria, Tetanus, Per-
tussis, Haemophilic influenza type b infection and Hepatitis B.
• Three doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks of age (can be given till one year of age).
Rotavirus Vaccine (RV)
• It gives protection to infants and children against rotavirus diarrhoea.

• It is given in select states.
• Three doses of vaccine are given at 6, 10, 14 weeks of age.
Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV)
• PCV stands for.

• It protects infants and young children against disease caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae.
• It is given in select states.
• The vaccine is given as two primary doses at 6 & 14 weeks followed by a booster dose at 9 months.
Fractional Inactivated Poliomyelitis Vaccine (fIPV)
• It is used to boost the protection against poliomyelitis (polio).

• Two fractional doses of IVP are given intradermally at 6 and 14 weeks of age.
Measles, Rubella (MR) vaccine
• In few states, a combined vaccine is given to protect from Measles and Rubella infection.
• First dose is given at 9 completed months and second dose is given at 16-24 months.
Japanese encephalitis vaccine (JE)
• It gives protection against Japanese Encephalitis.

135
• JE vaccine is given in select districts endemic for JE.
• First dose is given at 9 completed months and second dose at 16-24 months of age.
DPT booster
• DPT is a combined vaccine; it protects children from Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis.
• DPT first booster is given at 16-24 months of age and DPT 2nd booster is given at 5-6 years of age.
Tetanus toxoid vaccine (TT)
• TT is used to provide protection against tetanus.

• Tetanus toxoid vaccine is given at 10 years and 15 years of age.
• Pregnant women-TT-1 is given early in pregnancy; and TT-2 is given 4 weeks after TT-1.
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES)
• Bihar loses hundreds of children aged between 2 to 10 years to AES every year.
• AES is a collective term used for referring to neurological manifestations which include mental confusion,
disorientation, convulsion (sudden movement caused by involuntary contraction of muscles), coma, etc.
• Meningitis caused by virus or bacteria, encephalitis (mostly Japanese encephalitis) caused by virus, encepha-
lopathy, cerebral malaria, etc. are collectively called acute encephalitis syndrome.
• While microbes cause encephalitis, encephalopathy is biochemical in origin.
• Encephalitis: An inflammation of brain cells due to a viral or bacterial infection.
• Encephalopathy: brain damage caused due to an environmental toxin.
• There are different types of encephalopathy. In the present case, it is associated with hypoglycaemia (low
blood sugar level) and hence called hypoglycaemic encephalopathy.
• Unlike hypoglycaemic encephalopathy, encephalitis does not cause low blood sugar level.
The link between hypoglycaemic encephalopathy (HE) and litchi
• The spike in AES cases is a result of malnourished children suffering brain damage after eating litchis.
• Litchis contain a chemical called methylene cyclopropyl glycine (MCPG).
• These are naturally occurring toxins that cause hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar level) in children.
• In malnourished children, when the reserves of glucose from the digestive tract and the liver are exhausted,
fatty acids are oxidized to supply blood sugar to the brain. MCPG toxin thwarts this mechanism.
• This can send the brain into hypoglycaemic shock triggering convulsions and, if unaddressed, even death.
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Treatment
• Complete recovery can be achieved if affected children are infused with 10% dextrose within four hours after
the onset of symptoms.
• Infusing 10% dextrose restores blood sugar to a safe level and also stops the production of amino acid
that is toxic to brain cells by shutting down the body’s attempt to convert fatty acid into glucose.
Measures to be taken to prevent similar health crisis in future
• Overhauling the healthcare apparatus to deal with a crisis of this magnitude.

• Local public healthcare centres must stock up anti-convulsion drugs as well as dextrose.
• The state must effectively implement schemes that provide nutritious food to children.
• The public must be sensitised about the causes of AES and the necessary preventive measures to be taken.
Diabetes
• Diabetes is a chronic disease that occurs either when

✓ the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or
✓ when the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.
• Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar.
• Hyperglycaemia, or raised blood sugar, is a common effect of uncontrolled diabetes and over time leads
to serious damage to many of the body's systems, especially the nerves and blood vessels.
Type 1 diabetes
• Type 1 diabetes is characterized by deficient insulin production and requires daily administration of insulin.
• Neither the cause of Type 1 diabetes nor the means to prevent it are known.
Type 2 diabetes
• Type 2 diabetes results from the body’s ineffective use of insulin.

• The majority of people with diabetes have type 2 diabetes.
• This type of diabetes is largely the result of excess body weight and physical inactivity.
• Until recently, this type of diabetes was seen only in adults, but it is now increasingly occurring in children.
Gestational diabetes
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• Gestational diabetes is hyperglycaemia where blood sugar levels are below those diagnosed of diabetes.
• Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy.
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Source and Credits
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)
• Ebola virus was first discovered in 1970s near the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
• Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) is a disease in people and nonhuman primates (monkeys, gorillas, chimpanzees).
• The viruses that cause EVD are located mainly in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Ebola virus spreads through direct contact with an infected person or through direct contact with an
infected animal (bat or nonhuman primate).
• There is no approved vaccine or treatment for EVD.
• A vaccine was found to be effective (97.5% efficacy) in a trials conducted by WHO. But it is not yet approved.
• Symptoms of EVD include fever, headache, muscle pain, weakness, fatigue, diarrhoea, etc.
• Diagnosing can be difficult as early symptoms are not specific to Ebola virus infection.
• Recovery from EVD depends on good supportive care and the patient’s immune response.
• Ebola survivors may experience difficult side effects after their recovery, such as tiredness, muscle aches, etc.
Hepatitis
• Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver.

• It is caused by Virus.
• Hepatitis viruses are the most common cause of hepatitis in the world but other infections, toxic substances
(e.g., alcohol, certain drugs), and autoimmune diseases can also cause hepatitis.
• There are 5 main hepatitis viruses, referred to as types A, B, C, D and E.
• In particular, types B and C lead to chronic disease in hundreds of millions of people and, together, are the
most common cause of liver cirrhosis and cancer.
• Hepatitis A and E are typically caused by ingestion of contaminated food or water.
• Hepatitis B, C and D usually occur as a result of parenteral contact with infected body fluids.
• Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is mostly transmitted through exposure to infective blood.
• This may happen through transfusions of HCV-contaminated blood and blood products, contaminated in-
jections during medical procedures, and through injection drug use.
• Sexual transmission is also possible, but is much less common.
• There is no vaccine for HCV.
Q: Which one of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC-2019 Prelims)

139
a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.
b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.
c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more than those
infected with HIV.
d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis Band C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.
Explanation:
• The hepatitis B vaccine is a safe and effective vaccine that is recommended for all infants at birth and for
children up to 18 years.
• The hepatitis B vaccine is also known as the first “anti-cancer” vaccine because it prevents hepatitis B, the
leading cause of liver cancer worldwide.
Answer: b)
Influenza (Flu)
• Flu is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses that infect the nose, throat, and some-
times the lungs.
• It can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death.
• There are four types of influenza viruses namely A, B, C and D.
1. Influenza A viruses: These are the only influenza viruses that cause flu pandemics that is global epi-
demics of flu disease.
2. Influenza B viruses: They are not classified into subtypes and can be broken down into lineages.
3. Influenza C viruses: This type of virus is detected less frequently and usually causes mild infections and
does not present public health risk. Or we can say that they do not cause human flu epidemic.
4. Influenza D viruses: They primarily affect cattle and does not infect or cause illness in people.
• Influenza A and B viruses causes acute respiratory infection and the seasonal epidemic of disease.
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Source and Credits
Nipah virus
• The Nipah virus was first recognised in 1999 during an outbreak among pig farmers in Malaysia.
• The disease has also been identified periodically in Kerala.
Nipah virus infection
• The virus belongs to a new genus termed Henipavirus.

• Nipah is an RNA or Ribonucleic Acid virus.
• RNA viruses (most common cause diseases in humans) have high mutation rate compared to DNA viruses.
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Transmission
• Nipah virus infection is a zoonosis (disease transmitted from animals to humans).

• A zoonosis could be caused by a virus, bacteria, fungi or parasite; some examples include anthrax, bird flu,
ebola, dengue, rabies, malaria, swine flu, etc.
• Fruit bats (flying fox) (eat fruits and live in trees) are the natural hosts for Nipah virus.
• Nipah transmission takes place when one consumes infected fruits and fresh date palm.
• Loss of the natural habitat of the bats is exacerbating the rate of bat-to-human transmission.
• As the flying fox habitat is destroyed, their immune system gets weaker, their virus load goes up.
• Human-to-human transmission occurs due to direct contact.
Symptoms
• The incubation period (interval from infection to the onset of symptoms) ranges from four to 14 days.
• Symptoms are similar to that of influenza: fever, muscle pain, and respiratory problems.
• Headaches, dizziness, encephalitis (brain inflammation), etc.
• Sometimes a person can have an asymptomatic infection (acts as a carrier without showing any symptoms).
Treatment
• There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific for the infection.
Plasmodium Vivax Malaria
TH | GS3 > Health
• Context: Recently, an international team has developed a system to breed the parasite Plasmodium vivax in
the lab & then infect cultured human liver cells with it.
• Plasmodium vivax is a protozoal, parasite & a human pathogen.
• This parasite is the most frequent & widely distributed cause of recurring malaria.
• P. vivax is carried by the female Anopheles mosquito; the males do not bite.
• Mosquitoes inject the sporozoite of the parasite into the skin & the sporozoites travel to the liver.
• The parasite can remain in the liver in a dormant stage & relapse later.
• Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, & Pakistan account for more than 80% of estimated cases of P. vivax.
• Although it is less virulent than Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest of the five human malaria parasites,
P. vivax malaria infections can lead to severe disease & death.
• Certain malaria-endemic countries have even abandoned chloroquine for P. vivax treatment but fortunately
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chloroquine is still effective in India.
Mosquito-Borne Diseases
• Mosquito-borne diseases are those spread by the bite of an infected mosquito.

• Diseases that are spread to people by mosquitoes include Zika virus, West Nile virus, Chikungunya virus,
dengue, & malaria.
Link: Source & Credits
Pneumonia
• Pneumonia is a form of acute respiratory infection that affects the lungs

• It is most commonly caused by viruses, bacteria and fungi.
• The lungs are made up of small sacs called alveoli, which fill with air when a healthy person breathes.
• When an individual has pneumonia, the alveoli are filled with pus and fluid, which makes breathing painful
and limits oxygen intake.
• These infections are generally spread by direct contact with infected people.
Rotavirus
• Rotavirus causes severe diarrhoea and death among children under the age of five.
• Rotavirus is a highly contagious virus.
• Rotavirus transmission occurs primarily by the faecal-oral route, or indirectly via contaminated fomites.
• In India, around 78,000 children die from Rotavirus diarrhoea annually.
• It is estimated that Rotavirus accounts for 40% of the hospitalisation among children in India. 143
• Diarrhoea causes 9.2% of the total deaths among children under five years.
• If not treated adequately, it may result in dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, shock and death.
Sickle Cell Anemia
What is Thalassemia?
• Thalassemia is an inherited (i.e., passed from parents to children through genes) blood disorder caused
when the body doesn’t make enough of a protein called hemoglobin, an important part of red blood
cells.
• When there isn’t enough hemoglobin, the body’s red blood cells don’t function properly & they last shorter
periods of time, so there are fewer healthy red blood cells traveling in the bloodstream.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to all the cells of the body.
• Oxygen is a sort of food that cells use to function.
• When there are not enough healthy red blood cells, there is also not enough oxygen delivered to all the
other cells of the body, which may cause a person to feel tired, weak or short of breath. This is a condition
called anemia.
• People with thalassemia may have mild or severe anemia.
• Severe anemia can damage organs & lead to death.
Source & Credits 144
What is Sickle Cell Disease?

• SCD is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders.

• Healthy red blood cells are round, & they move through small blood vessels to carry oxygen to all parts of
the body.
• In someone who has SCD, the red blood cells become hard & sticky & look like a C-shaped farm tool
called a “sickle”.
• The sickle cells die early, which causes a constant shortage of red blood cells.
• Also, when they travel through small blood vessels, they get stuck & clog the blood flow. This can cause pain
& other serious problems such infection, acute chest syndrome & stroke.
Source & Credits
Tuberculosis (TB)
• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

• TB commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) but can also affect other parts (extra pulmonary TB).
• It spreads from person to person through the air, when people who are infected with TB infection cough,
sneeze or otherwise transmit respiratory fluids through the air.
• The most common risk factor associated with TB is HIV and other conditions that impair the immune system.
• Symptomatic Diagnosis: Coughing for more than 2 weeks, loss of weight, loss of appetite, fever and night
sweats, fatigue are common symptoms of tuberculosis.
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TB Treatment
• For new TB cases, the treatment in intensive phase (IP) consists of four drugs: Isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin,
Pyrazinamide and Ethambutol.
• For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive phase is of 12 weeks, where injection streptomycin is given
for eight weeks along with four drugs.
• Most people with TB are cured by a strictly followed 6-month drug regimen.
Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB)
• CBNAAT (Cartridges Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Test) is used for early diagnosis of MDR-TB.
• In MDR-TB, the bacteria that cause TB develop resistance to antimicrobial drugs used to cure the disease.
• MDR-TB does not respond to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the 2 most powerful anti-TB drugs.
• Treatment options for MDR-TB are limited, and expensive.
• In some cases, even more severe drug-resistant TB may develop.
Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB)
• XDR-TB is a form of multidrug-resistant TB with additional resistance to more anti-TB drugs.

• People who are resistant to isoniazid and rifampin, plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three inject-
able second-line drugs (amikacin, kanamycin, or capreomycin) are said to have XDR-TB.
Causes of multidrug resistant-TB
• Multidrug resistance is caused due to mismanagement of treatment and person-to-person transmission.

• Mismanagement of TB treatment involves inappropriate or incorrect use of antimicrobial drugs or use of
ineffective formulations of drugs and premature treatment interruption.
Treatment for drug-resistant TB
• The treatment success in MDR-TB patients is about 54%, while it is just 30% in the case of XDR-TB patients.
• A combination of eight drugs for more than a year is need for XDR-TB treatment.
• Treatment success in XDR-TB patients depends on the extent of the drug resistance, the severity of the dis-
ease, whether the patient’s immune system is weakened, and adherence to treatment.
• Drugs used for treating MDR-TB and XDR-TB can cause serious adverse effects such as deafness.
The goal to end TB by 2025
• Revised National TB Control Programme was renamed as the National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP). 146
• The change in name is in line with the larger goal of eliminating the disease by 2025, five years ahead of
the Sustainable Development Goals target.

• NTEP got a much needed boost with the WHO stating that TrueNat MTB has high diagnostic accuracy.
• As a first step, TrueNat MTB will be available at community health centres and would slowly be extended to
primary health centres across the country.
• There are 5,500-6,000 community health centres and about 25,000 PHCs.
• The states will be procuring the diagnostic machine directly from the Goa-based manufacturer.
National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP)
• 1962: The National TB Programme (NTP) was launched by GOI with BCG vaccination at the district level.
• 1993: WHO declared TB as a global emergency and devised the directly observed treatment (DOTS).
• 1993: GOI revitalized NTP as Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP).
• 1997: DOTS was launched as the RNTCP strategy. By 2006 the entire country was covered under RNTCP.
• In its second phase (2006–11), RNTCP improved the quality and reach of services.
• Despite the measures, undiagnosed and mistreated cases continued to drive the TB epidemic.
• A large number of MDR-TB cases were reported every year.
• To address this, National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Control 2012-2017 was documented with the goal
of ‘universal access to quality TB diagnosis and treatment’.
• Significant interventions were taken during NSP 2012-2017 in terms of mandatory notification of all TB
cases, integration of the programme with the National Health Mission, etc.
• To eliminate TB in India by 2025, National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017-2025 in-
volving all the stakeholders was formulated by RNTCP.
• On 01-01-2020, RNTCP was renamed as National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP).
National strategic plan for tuberculosis elimination (NSP) 2017-2025 (NSP)
• TB elimination has been integrated into the four strategic pillars of “Detect – Treat – Prevent – Build” (DTPB).
Detect
• Early diagnosis and treatment of TB is an important step in TB elimination.

• The objective of NSP was to find all drug sensitive TB cases (DS-TB) and drug resistant TB cases (DRTB).
• To facilitate TB notification, RNTCP has developed a TB surveillance system called “NIKSHAY” (https://nik‐
shay.gov.in) for both government and private health care facilities.
147
• For TB diagnosis more than 14,000 designated microscopy centres spread across the country.
• Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (CBNAAT) / Line Probe Assay (LPA) have been estab-
lished at district levels for decentralised molecular testing for drug resistant TB.
• From 2020, GOI will be using Truenat test as a part of early stage diagnosis.
Treat
• Screening of all patients for rifampicin resistance (and for additional drugs wherever indicated) is done.
• For drug sensitive TB, daily fixed dose combinations (FDCs) of first-line anti-tuberculosis drugs are given.
• First line treatment of drug-sensitive TB consists of a
1. two-months intensive phase with four drug FDCs (Isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide and Eth-
ambutol (HRZE)) followed by a
2. continuation phase of four months with three drug FDCs (Rifampicin, Isoniazid, and Ethambutol
(HRE)).
• For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive Phase is of three months, where
1. injection streptomycin is given for two months along with four drugs (HRZE) and
2. then four drugs (HRZE) are continued for another month.
3. In continuation phase Rifampicin, INH, and Ethambutol are continued for another five months.
Prevent
• Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) is given to Children who are close contacts of a TB patient.
• BCG vaccination is provided at birth or as early as possible till one year of age.
• BCG vaccine has a protective effect against meningitis and disseminated TB in children.
Build
• Health system strengthening for TB control under the NSP 2017-2025 is recommended in the form of building
and strengthening enabling policies, empowering institutions, and human resources.
Typhoid fever
• Typhoid fever is caused by the highly contagious Salmonella Typhi bacteria.

• The bacteria spreads through contaminated food or water.
• While typhoid bacteria can be treated with antibiotics, the microbes have developed resistance against mul-
tiple antibiotics.
• Multi-drug resistant typhoid bacteria are seen in south Asia including India.
148
• Extensively drug-resistant (XDR) typhoid has been found in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.
Miscellaneous Topics
Criticality
• Criticality is a nuclear term that refers to the balance of neutrons in the system.
• Balance of neutrons can be achieved using moderators & control rods.
• “Subcritical” refers to a system where the loss rate of neutrons is greater than the production rate of neu-
trons & therefore the neutron population decreases as time goes on.
• “Supercritical” refers to a system where the production rate of neutrons is greater than the loss rate of
neutrons & therefore the neutron population increases.
• When the neutron population remains constant, this means there is a perfect balance between production
rate & loss rate, & the nuclear system is said to be “critical.”
• When a reactor is starting up, the neutron population is increased slowly in a controlled manner, so that
more neutrons are produced than are lost, & the nuclear reactor becomes supercritical.
• When the desired power level is achieved, the nuclear reactor is placed into a critical configuration to
keep the neutron population & power constant.
• Finally, during shutdown, the reactor is placed in a subcritical configuration so that the neutron population
& power decreases.
• Therefore, when a reactor is said to have “gone critical,” it actually means it is in a stable configuration
producing a constant power!
✓ Supercritical == Car [nuclear reactor] is accelerating.
✓ Critical == Car is going at a constant speed.
✓ Sub critical == Car is slowing down.
Graphene
• Graphene is a two-dimensional single layer (monolayer) of carbon atoms linked in a hexagonal lattice.
• It is an allotrope of carbon.
• It is also known as “The Wonder Material”/miracle material
• It is harder than diamond yet more elastic than rubber; tougher than steel yet lighter than aluminium.
• Graphene is the thinnest compound known to man at one atom thick.
• It is the lightest material known (with 1 square meter weighing around 0.77 milligrams).
• It is the strongest compound discovered (between 100-300 times stronger than steel). 149
• It is the best conductor of heat at room temperature, and also the best conductor of electricity known.
• It is nearly transparent.
• It is impermeable to gases.
• Graphene is known for anti-bacterial properties.
• Graphene has emerged as one of the most promising nanomaterials because of its unique combination of
superb properties.
Properties of Graphene
Electronic properties
• The atomic arrangement of the carbon atoms in graphene allows electrons to easily travel at extremely high
velocity without the significant chance of scattering, saving precious energy typically.
Mechanical properties
• The impressive intrinsic mechanical properties are caused by the stability of the sp2 bonds that form the
hexagonal lattice and oppose a variety of in-plane deformations.
Uses of Graphene
1. Energy storage and solar cells

2. Lubrication
3. Graphene ink
4. Transistors and memory
5. Flexible, stretchable and foldable electronics
6. Photodetectors
7. Face Mask, etc.
Malware (malicious software)
• Malware is any program or file that is harmful to an electronic device user. 150
• Malware can perform a variety of functions such as stealing, encrypting, deleting sensitive data, altering or
hijacking core computing functions and monitoring users' computer activity without their permission.
• Mobile malware can provide access to the device's components such as the camera, microphone, GPS, etc.
• Malware can be delivered to a device with a USB drive or can spread over the internet through downloads
without the user's approval or knowledge.
• Phishing attacks are another common type of malware delivery where emails disguised as legitimate mes-
sages contain malicious links or attachments that can deliver the malware executable to unsuspecting users.
Different types of malware
• Virus: malware which can execute itself and spread by infecting other programs or files.
• Worm: self-replicating malware that typically spreads without any human interaction or directives.
• Trojan horse: designed to appear as a legitimate program in order to gain access to a system. Once acti-
vated, Trojans can execute their malicious functions.
• Spyware: malware that collects data on the device and observe user activity without their knowledge.
• Ransomware: malware that infects a user's system and encrypts the data. Cybercriminals then demand a
ransom payment from the victim in exchange for decrypting the system's data.
• The 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack targeted computers running the Microsoft Windows operating
system by encrypting data and demanding ransom payments in the Bitcoin cryptocurrency.
• Rootkit: malware created to obtain administrator-level access to the victim's system. Once installed, the
program gives threat actors root or privileged access to the system.
• Adware: malware used to track a user’s browser and download history with the intent to display pop-up or
banner advertisements that lure the user into making a purchase.
• Keyloggers: also called system monitors, are used to see nearly everything a user does on their computer.
This includes emails, opened web-pages, programs and keystrokes.
Super Apps
• A super app is a platform developed by a company offering various services under one umbrella app.
• For example, China’s WeChat, which started out as a messaging app, expanded into payments, cabs, shop-
ping, food ordering, cab services to become a super app.
Which companies in India are building super apps?

151
• The Tata Group will be an entrant in an already crowded super app ecosystem of India.
• Reliance Industries, under its Jio umbrella.
• Alibaba Group investee Paytm.

• Flipkart Group-owned payments app PhonePe.
What are the concerns about Super Apps?
• Increase in one company’s monopoly.

• Concerns of privacy.
• Data collected by the master app could then be used to train machines in artificial intelligence.
Trans-Fat
• As per WHO industrially produced trans-fats are found in hardened vegetable fats such as margarine
and ghee (clarified butter) and are often present in snack foods, baked goods and fried foods.
• The substance is responsible for around 500,000 deaths due to coronary heart disease every year across the
world.
• It is, however, often used by manufacturers because it has a longer shelf life and is cheaper than other,
healthier choices that do not affect taste or cost.
• So far, 58 countries introduced laws to protect 3.2 billion people from the substance by the end of 2021.
• They did this by establishing mandatory limits for trans-fats to two per cent of oils and fats in all foods
or by banning partially hydrogenated oils.
• India has implemented less restrictive measures.
Fats
• Fat is one of the three main macronutrients: fat, carbohydrate, and protein.
• Fat is a major source of energy and helps your body absorb vitamins.
✓ Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Polysaccharides

✓ Proteins | Amino Acids | Enzymes
✓ Vitamins and Minerals – Deficiency Diseases
• Fat has the most calories compared to any other nutrient. Controlling fat intake is one of the most im-
portant steps in losing or maintaining weight and preventing or delaying type 2 diabetes.
• Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol.
152
• Fats are solids at room temperature. Oil refers to a fat with unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at
room temperature.
• Fats, like other lipids, are generally insoluble in water.
Saturated fat
• A saturated fat is a fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds.
• A saturated fat has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons, and therefore is ‘saturated’
with hydrogen atoms.
• Most animal fats are saturated whereas the fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated.
• Many experts recommend a diet low in saturated fat.
• Saturated fats are popular with manufacturers of processed foods because they are less vulnerable to ran-
cidity and are, in general, more solid at room temperature than unsaturated fats.
Unsaturated fat
• An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain.
• Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are eliminated.
• In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain somewhat less energy (i.e., fewer calories) than an
equivalent amount of saturated fat.
• The greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty acid (i.e., the more double bonds in the fatty acid) the more
vulnerable it is to rancidity [lipid oxidation] [rusting of fats].
• Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid oxidation.
Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans Fat
153
• The main types of “unhealthy” fats are saturated and trans-fat.

• Saturated fats are primarily found in foods that come from animals, such as meat and dairy.
• Saturated fats are unhealthy because they increase LDL (“bad” cholesterol) levels in your body.
• Many saturated fats are “solid” fats that you can see, such as the fat in meat.
• Other sources of saturated fats include high-fat cheese, butter, Ice cream, palm and coconut oils, etc.
• Trans fats or trans-unsaturated fatty acids are a type of unsaturated fats that are uncommon in nature.
• Trans fats are worse than saturated fats.
• Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into solid fats during food processing.
• Natural trans-fats, present in very small amounts in certain animal products, are not considered harmful.
• But industrially-produced artificial trans-fats (manufactured by adding hydrogen to vegetable oil) lead to
an increase in bad cholesterol (LDL) and lowering of good cholesterol (HDL).
• Foods containing trans-fat are usually labelled as “partially hydrogenated”.
• Partially hydrogenated oil is less likely to spoil, so foods made with it have a longer shelf life.
• Trans fats are easy to use, inexpensive to produce and last a long time.
• Trans fats give foods a desirable taste and texture.
• These trans-fats are largely found in vanaspati oil, margarine, bakery shortenings, and in baked and fried
foods.
154

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Science & Technology Compilation by Pmfias.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ........................................................................................................................................ 7

Types of Intellectual Property .......................................................................................................................................... 8

National IPR Policy, 2016................................................................................................................................................ 15

Related Topics .................................................................................................................................................................. 18

Contemporary Technologies and Their Applications ....................................................................................................... 19

Artificial Intelligence ....................................................................................................................................................... 21

Fuel Cell ............................................................................................................................................................................ 28

Nuclear Fusion – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) ............................................................ 29

Lithium-ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs ..................................................................................................... 34

Param Siddhi Supercomputer ........................................................................................................................................ 42

Reverse osmosis (RO) ...................................................................................................................................................... 44

Information and Communication Technologies ............................................................................................................... 49

Challenges in commercialization of 5G ........................................................................................................................................... 50

Fibre Optics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 51

Internet of Things (IoT) ................................................................................................................................................... 55

Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) ............................................................................................................................................... 58

Privacy and Data Protection Related Topics ..................................................................................................................... 59

Data Localization and Data Protection .......................................................................................................................... 59

Virtual Private Network (VPN) ....................................................................................................................................... 64

India Space Programmes and Related Concepts .............................................................................................................. 66

Hofmann transfer orbit ................................................................................................................................................................... 76

GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) ....................................................................................................... 83

India’s Communication Satellites ................................................................................................................................... 84

NavIC Navigation System ............................................................................................................................................... 89

Private Sector Participation in Space Sector ................................................................................................................. 93

Indian Missile Systems ........................................................................................................................................................ 95

Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile ................................................................................................................................... 95

Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) .................................................................................. 97

India’s Missiles ................................................................................................................................................................. 98

Shaurya Missile ............................................................................................................................................................................. 102

Space and Astronomy Related Concepts ......................................................................................................................... 103

Asteroids ........................................................................................................................................................................ 103

Closest stars to the Sun ................................................................................................................................................. 106

Northern Lights ............................................................................................................................................................. 112

Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA) ........................................................................................................................ 114

Superhabitable Planets ................................................................................................................................................. 119

Biotechnology Related Concepts ..................................................................................................................................... 121

Bioweapons .................................................................................................................................................................... 121

IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project ............................................................................................................. 123

Stem Cell or Cord Blood Banking ................................................................................................................................. 127

Digital India Project........................................................................................................................................................... 129

Optical-Fibre Connectivity ............................................................................................................................................ 129 5

National Health Policy 2017 .......................................................................................................................................................... 130

Cybersecurity Policy 2020 ............................................................................................................................................. 131

Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) ................................................................................................................. 134

Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) ............................................................................................................................. 136

Diabetes .......................................................................................................................................................................... 137

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) ............................................................................................................................................. 138

Hepatitis ......................................................................................................................................................................... 139

Influenza (Flu) ................................................................................................................................................................ 140

Plasmodium Vivax Malaria ........................................................................................................................................... 142

Rotavirus ........................................................................................................................................................................ 143

Sickle Cell Anemia ......................................................................................................................................................... 143

Tuberculosis (TB) ........................................................................................................................................................... 145

Typhoid fever ................................................................................................................................................................. 148

Miscellaneous Topics......................................................................................................................................................... 148

Criticality ........................................................................................................................................................................ 148

Super Apps ..................................................................................................................................................................... 151

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

Laws & Rules that govern Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

• The importance of IPR was first recognized in the

Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)