UCK 421E PROPULSION CLASS NOTES

Prof. Dr. Ali Kodal, I.T.U. AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING 2012

CONTENTS

I. CLASSIFICATION AND GENERAL PERFORMANCE

A. INTORDUCTION
1. Air Breathing Engines
2. Injection of stored mass engines
3. Propulsive system classifications
4. Typical propulsive system example: Turbofan engines
5. Basic propulsive system problems
6. Separation of engine
7. Control volume momentum conservation
8. External flow effects
9. Acceleration effects

B. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
1. Jet engines performance parameters
2. Reciprocating engines (piston) performance parameters
3. Rocket engines performance parameters
4. Other engine performance parameters

C. PROPULSIVE, THERMAL AND TOTAL EFFICIENCIES

1. Definitions
2. Efficiency derivations for stationery and moving axis
3. Takeoff propulsion

II. THERMODYNAMICS CYCLES

A. INTRODUCTION
B. REVERSIBLE CYCLES
C. IRREVERSIBLE CYCLES AND LOSSES
D. IMPORTANT CYCLES
1. Carnot cycle
2. Rankine cycle
3. Spark ignition engines and Otto cycle
4. Compression ignition engines and Diesel cycle
5. Gas Turbine cycle ( Brayton )

III. COMBUSTION

1
 A. INTRODUCTION
B. SIMPLE APPROACH
C. CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
D. OXIDATION COMBUSTION REACTIONS
1. Mixture ratio
2. Fuel equivalence ratio
3. Combustion with air

E. GAS MIXTURES
1. Dalton law
2. Mole fractions
3. Mixture total mass
4. Mixture molecular mass
5. Mass fractions

H. ENERGY BALANCE FOR CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Energy conservation, 1st law of Thermodynamics
2. Standard state
3. Constant pressure reaction enthalpy
4. Constant volume reaction
5. Lower and higher heating values
6. Adiabatic flame temperature
7. Chemical equilibrium
8. Combustion products composition problem

IV. JET POPULSION SYTEM ANALYSIS

A. RAMJET
1. Ideal ramjet
2. Ramjet with losses
3. Entry performance

B. TURBOJET
1. Component efficiencies
2. Static Turbojet performance
3. Flight Turbojet Performance

C. TURBOFAN
1. Static ideal Turbofan engine
2. Optimum by-pass ratio

2
 D. PROPELLERS
1. Definition
2. Advance ratio
3. Dimensional analysis

V. JET PROPULSION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

a) Air inlets (subsonic, supersonic)
b) Combustion chamber
c) Afterburner
d) Exhaust nozzle

3
 I. CLASSIFICATION AND GENERAL PERFORMANCE

A. INTRODUCTION

Propulsive devices produce thrust to accelerate a vehicle and overcome drag force. For aerospace
vehicles, thrust is produced by acceleration of fluid stream entering and leaving propulsive
device.

1. Air breathing engines

a) Propeller
b) Turboprop
c) Turbojet
d) Turbofan
e) Ramjet

2. Injection of stored mass

a) Rockets
b) Ion thrusters
c) Plasma thrusters (plasma = electric conduction gas)

These require addition of thermal or electrical energy to the propellant which is usually a fluid
analysis of the addition of work and heat to compressible fluid dynamics.

Assume one dimensional compressible flow and apply fundamental principles to study of
propulsive system.

Fig. 1.1 Typical turboprop engine (Hill and Peterson, 1992).

4
 3. Basic interactive components of propulsive sytems

Inlets Combustors Nozzles Propellers

Compressors, Turbines Ion

Fans, Pumps Accelerators

IC
Plasma
Accelerators Engines

Propulsion

System

Fig. 1.2 Afterburner turbojet.

4. Typical example of propulsive system : Turbofan engines

5
Fig. 1.3 GE F404 low by-pass ratio, afterburner turbofan.

Fig. 1.4 The RB211-535E4, typical high by-pass ratio turbofan

Turbofan engines flow scheme:

Inlet Fan or Combustor Turbine Nozzle

compressor

Ramjet engines flow scheme:

Inlet Combustor Nozzle

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 5. Basic Questions in Propulsion System Design

1. Automotive propulsion
i) Range : 1000 km,
ii) Max. Speed : 160 km/h,
iii) Passenger : 5
iv) Acceleration: to 160 km/h at 30 s

Questions: Engine Power, How much fuel, Type of engine, Cost, Maintenance
considerations, Transmission, Fuel consumption Low or high speed performance.

2. Rocket propulsion
i) 50000 kg payload
ii) 7500 m/s max. speed

Questions: Engine thrust, How much fuel, engine design

3. Combustor Design:

H2-O2 ratio, Combustion temperature, rocket nozzle cooling.

7
 6. Separation of engine
Thrust = push or pull exerted by engine and its enclose

Want to compare different engine + power plants. Separate engine performance from the effect
of enclose of airplane. Maybe difficult.

Consider Rocket Engine:

Payload

Fuel tanks

Engine

For Jet Engines:

F = Thrust
(Produced by the thrust generator. If the external flow were isentropic, i.e external losses are
neglected, can determine F in terms of engine parameters by momentum consideration for
control volume. )

7. Momentum Conservation for Control Volume

Propulsive flow = flow of working fluid
External flow = flow of fluid

8
 Control Volume Analysis

ṁ f
S
F
V∞

ṁ e
ṁ i
Ve
V∞
Pe
P∞ S’
Ae

Ac Az
Ai

Mass balance :

ṁ e = ṁ i + ṁ f

Definitions:

S : Stream tube far from propulsion system

S’ : Stream tube bounding propulsive flow
Ac : Capture area
Ai : Inlet area
Ae : Exhaust area

Assumption :

1) A∞ is in undisturbed free stream

2) Az to line of flight, cuts exhaust plane of propulsive system.
3) External flow is isentropic, parallel to x at z axis.
4) Ve : exhaust velocity is uniform overall exit plane Ae

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Rocket nozzle:
Ae

Ve

Control volume momentum:

dmv
Newton 2nd law: ∑ F = dt

For control volume:

d
∭ ρ VdV + ∬(ρVrel n) Vds = − ∬ pnds + ∑ Fext
dt
CV CS CS

Where:
V : Velocity measure w.r.t. virtual coordinates
Vrel : Velocity relative control surface
n : Outward normal unit vector

Stationary (control volume) systems:

Over A∞ :
V = Vrel = i V∞
P = P∞
ρ = ρ∞

Over Az—Ae :

V = Vrel = i V∞
P = P∞
ρ = ρ∞

S and S’ are stream tubes that fluid does not cross.

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Mass conservation between S and S’:

ρ∞ (Az − Ae )V∞ = ρ∞ (A∞ − Ac )V∞

(Az − Ae ) = (A∞ − Ac ) (2.1)

(Az − A∞ ) = (Ae − Ac ) (2.2)

Over section Ae :

V = Vrel = i Ve
P = Pe
ρ = ρe

Steady flow, thus

d
dt
∭( ) = 0

∬CS(ρVrel ∙ n) Vds = ρ∞ (Az − Ae )V∞2 + ρe Ae Ve2 − ρ∞ (A∞ − Ac )V∞2 − ρ∞ Ac V∞2 (2.3)

ṁ e = ṁ i + ṁ f = ṁ i (1 + f)
ṁ f
f= = fuel air ratio
ṁ i

Using (2.1) :

∬CS(ρVrel ∙ n) Vds = ṁ e Ve − ṁ i V∞ = ṁ i [(1 + f)Ve − V∞ ] (2.4)

Pressure force = − ∬CS pnds

On S :

− ∬S pnds = P∞ (Az − A∞ ) = P∞ (Ae − Ac ) (2.5)

On A∞ :

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 − ∬ pnds = P∞ A∞
A∞

On Az :

− ∬ pnds = −P∞ (Az − Ae ) − Pe Ae

Az

Sum:

− ∬CS pnds = P∞ (Ae − Ac ) + P∞ A∞ −P∞ (Az − Ae ) − Pe Ae = −(Pe − P∞ )Ae (2.6)

Combine the result:

ρe Ae Ve2 − ρ∞ Ac V∞2 = −(Pe − P∞ )Ae + F (2.7)

F = ρe Ae Ve2 − ρ∞ Ac V∞2 + (Pe − P∞ )Ae (2.8)

(F= thrust produced with isentropic external flow)

 F = ṁ e Ve − ṁ i V∞ + (Pe − P∞ )Ae (2.9)

Jet thrust : ṁ e Ve

Ram drag : ṁ i V∞

Pressure thrust : (Pe − P∞ )Ae

In terms of, f :

F = ṁ i [(1 + f)Ve − V∞ ] + (Pe − P∞ )Ae

For rockets ṁ i = 0 →

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 F = ṁ e Ve + (Pe − P∞ )Ae (2.10)

F ~ independent of external flow—depends only processes within engine

Ac = capture area varies with flight speed
Ve = depend on detailed processes within propulsive system---engine. Performance
calculation involve around finding Ve.

8. Influence of External Flow

External flow exerts no force on the propulsive flow. Applying momentum conservation to the
volume between S and S’ :

V = i V∞
From mass conservation (A∞ − Ac ) = (Az − Ac )

→ ∬CS(ρVrel ∙ n) Vds = 0

d
Steady state : dt
∭( ) = 0

No external force : ∑ Fext = 0

 − ∬CS pnds = 0

A
P∞ (Az − A∞ ) − ∫A e PE dA + P∞ (A∞ − Ac ) − P∞ (Az − Ae ) = 0
c
Ae
 ∫A (PE − P∞ )dA = 0
c

For real life situation:

Ae
∫ (PE − P∞ )dA + FT = D ≠ 0
Ac

Drag force on the

Frictional
engine
force

FA = available thrust = F-D

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 D = depends on details of external flow.

A
Consider ∫A e(PE − P∞ )dA = 0
c

Break S’ into two parts:

Ac Ae
Ai

A
e A e A
∫A (PE − P∞ )dA = ∫A i(PE − P∞ )dA + ∫A (PE − P∞ )dA = Pre-entry drag + Pressure drag
c c i

9. Influence of Acceleration
Consider accelerating rocket:

F = ṁ e Ve + (Pe − P∞ )Ae (2.14)

Ve
V(t)
M(t)
Pe
D

Mg

Mass conservation:

dM
ṁ = ρe Ae Ve =
dt

∭ ρVdV = M(t)V(t)
CV

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 d dV dM
∭ ρVdV = M +V
dt dt dt
CV

∬(ρVrel ∙ n) Vds = (ρe Ve Ae )(−Ve + V) = ṁ(V − Ve )

CS

− ∬ pnds = (Pe − P∞ )Ae

CS

∑ Fext = −Mg − D

Combine:
dV dM
M +V + ṁ(V − Ve ) = (Pe − P∞ )Ae − Mg − D
dt dt

Cancel from mass

conservation
Final result:
dV
M = ṁVe + (Pe − P∞ )Ae − Mg − D = F − Mg − D
dt
F = thrust

F = ṁ e Ve + (Pe − P∞ )Ae Remains valid!

dV
M(t) = F − Mg − D
dt
If we neglect external forces and the pressure thrust:

dV dM
M(t) = ṁVe = − V
dt dt e

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 dM
dV = −Ve
M

Suppose Ve is constant

V(t) = −Ve lnM + const

Initial conditions: V(0)=0, M(0)=M1

M(t)
 V(t) = −Ve ln
M1

If M, ṁ and F were constants, then MV=F∙t

Example
Jet engine

Ve
V∞
Me=1
∞≈1.0 kg∕m3

f<<1 V∞=300 m/s, F=3.56.105N Te=1200K, ℳ=25, =1.3, Pe=P∞

Find 𝑚̇ =?, Ac=?

Solution:

F = ṁ i [(1 + f)Ve − V∞ ] + (Pe − P∞ )Ae

f<<1 and Pe=P∞ :

F = ṁ i (Ve − V∞ )

F
ṁ i = ṁ =
(Ve − V∞ )

𝛾𝑅𝑇 1.3 ∙ 8314 ∙ 1200

𝑉𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒 √ =1∙√ = 720 𝑚/𝑠
ℳ 25

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 3.56 ∙ 105
ṁ = = 847.6 kg/s
(720 − 300)

𝑚̇ 874.6
ṁ = ρ∞ Ac V∞ → 𝐴𝐶 = = = 2.82 𝑚2 or Dc=1.895 m
ρ∞ V∞ 1.0∙300

B. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

1. Aircraft Range

Consider level flight, constant velocity, altitude and lift to drag ratio (L/D)
M(t) = aircraft mass
F : required thrust

V x

Mg
L=Mg
F=D
𝑑𝑀
Mass flow rate: 𝑚̇𝑓 = − 𝑑𝑡

Problem = How much fuel is required to fly a given distance, or how far can the aircraft fly with
a given amount of fuel. For a given range what fraction of gross weight to payload.

𝑀𝑔 𝐹 𝑀𝑔 1 𝐹 𝑀𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝐹=𝐿 → =𝐿 ∙ 𝑑𝑀 → = −𝐿 ∙
⁄𝐷 𝑚̇𝑓 ⁄𝐷 (− ) 𝑚̇𝑓 ⁄𝐷 𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑚̇𝑓
= specific fuel consumption= SFC = s
𝐹

SFC= specific fuel consumption

TSFC = Thrust specific fuel consumption
𝑘𝑔⁄ 𝑙𝑏𝑚⁄
ℎ ℎ
[s] = ,
𝑁 𝑙𝑏𝑓

𝑠𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑀
→ 𝐿⁄ =−
𝐷 𝑀𝑔

Horizontal flight : V = flight velocity = const., dx=Vdt or dt=dx/V

𝑠𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑀
→ =−
𝑉(𝐿⁄𝐷) 𝑀𝑔

Suppose s remains constant during the flight

Let R = aircraft range

𝑔𝑠 𝑅 𝑀 𝑑𝑀 𝑀2
𝐿 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑀 2 = −𝑙𝑛
𝑉( ⁄𝐷) 0 1 𝑀 𝑀1

𝐿
𝑉 ( ) 𝑀1
𝑅= 𝐷 𝑙𝑛
𝑔𝑠 𝑀2

Other important parameters:

 Engine weight
 Engine frontal area
 Desired range
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  Maximum takeoff thrust

Example:
Boeing 747, M1 = 750 000 lbm, L/D =15, V = 550 mil/h, R= 3000 mil,
s = 0.9 lbm/h∙lbf

Estimate fuel required in steady constant velocity flight?

Solution:
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚/ℎ
𝑀1 𝑅𝑔𝑠 3000𝑚𝑖𝑙 32.2 2 0.9
𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑙𝑛 = =
𝑀2 𝑉 ( 𝐿 ) 550
𝑚𝑖𝑙
15
𝐷 ℎ
1 slug= 32.2 lbm lb=slug ft/s2
𝑀1 𝑀1
𝑙𝑛 = 0.3273 → = 1.387 → Mfuel = M1-M2 = 2.093∙105 lbm
𝑀2 𝑀2

Using SI units
R = 4828 km, g = 9.807 m/s2, s = 2.549∙10-5 kg/Ns = 9.176∙10-2 kg/Nh,
V=885 km/h = 245.9 m/s

1. Performance Parameters for Reciprocating Engines with a Propeller

Reciprocating (piston) engines are not good for high speed flights. However, recent
researches have been modified their status.

BHP = Engine Brake Horsepower

𝑚̇𝑓
= 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 = Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
𝐵𝐻𝑃

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Useful Power = F∙V 1 hp = 550 ft lb/s SI : 1 hp = 745.71 W

Propeller Efficiency:

𝐹𝑉 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑃 = =
𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= propulsive efficiency for any propulsion system
𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Range problem:
𝑃 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑃 𝑚̇𝑓
𝐹= =
𝑉 𝑉 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶
𝑑𝑀 𝑀𝑔
L = Mg, 𝑚̇𝑓 = − 𝑑𝑡
, 𝐹=𝐿 , dx = V dt
⁄𝐷

𝑀𝑔 𝑑𝑀 𝑃 𝑑𝑀 𝑃
𝐹=𝐿 =− (𝑉 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 ) = − 𝑑𝑥
⁄𝐷 𝑑𝑡 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶

Integrate →
𝐿
𝑃 (𝐷) 𝑀1
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
𝑔 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑀2

P ↑
}  R increased range
BSFC ↓

P might range from 0.6~0.8

BSFC ~ 0.5 lbm/BHP h → gasoline engine

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 ~ 0.35 lbm/BHP h → for Diesel engine

2. Performance Parameters for Rockets

Booster Rocket (accelerating or sounding rocket)
Accelerate vehicle to high velocity by short term application at high thrust (max. 3
minutes).

Rocket flight: neglect drag

V(t)

dV
M = ṁVe + (Pe − P∞ )Ae − Mg − D = F − Mg
dt g
F = rocket thrust
For convenience let, 𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝐶

Ve
where
𝐹
C = effective exhaust velocity =
𝑚̇

When Pe=P∞ → C = Ve

Equation of motion:
dV 𝑑𝑀
M = ṁC − Mg = −𝐶 − 𝑀𝑔
dt 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑀
 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐶 − 𝑔𝑑𝑡
𝑀

when t=0 V=V1, and when t=tb V=V2

tb = burnout time

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Assume C = const. and g = const.
Result
𝑀2 𝑀1
V = V2-V1 = −𝐶 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑔𝑡𝑏 = 𝐶 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑔𝑡𝑏
𝑀1 𝑀2

V = velocity increase during powered flight

tb  → V 
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀1
=  → V 
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀2

For a rocket, C or Ve is a crucial performance parameter. Ve should be large for given M1/M2 to
produce large V.

(Paradox, if M1/M2 is large enough V can exceed speed of light)

Specific Impulse

g𝑚̇ = propellant weight flow

𝐹 𝐶
: 𝐼𝑠𝑝 = = = specific impulse (rocket 𝑚̇ ~ propellant mass flow)
𝑚̇𝑔 𝑔

𝑙𝑏 𝑁
[Isp] = 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑠, 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 =𝑠
( ) 2 ( ) 2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

𝑀1
∆𝑉 = 𝑔 [𝐼𝑠𝑝 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑡𝑏 ]
𝑀2

Significance of Isp :

𝑏 𝑡
∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = total impulse applied to a rocket

22
 𝑡𝑏
∫0 𝑔𝑚̇𝑑𝑡 = total weight of propellant used

Impulse weight ratio:

𝑏 𝑡
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 ∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑡
𝐼= =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ∫𝑡𝑏 𝑔𝑚̇𝑑𝑡
0

If 𝑚̇ = const. and F = const.

𝐹𝑡𝑏 𝐹
𝐼= = = 𝐼𝑠𝑝 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝑔𝑚̇𝑡𝑏 𝑔𝑚̇

Another important parameter:

𝐹
Thrust to weight ratio =
𝑔𝑀1

Typical values 𝐼𝑠𝑝 (𝑠) 𝐹

𝑔𝑀1
Chemical Rockets 200~500 10 ~102
-2

Nuclear Rockets 500~1000 10-2~10

Ion rockets 700~60 000 10-5~10-2

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 3. Other Engine Performance Parameters

Air Breathers
Consider air needed to produce given F

𝑚̇𝑖
Ai
Ac

Large frontal area 

 Larger nozzle drag
 Larger compressor
 Larger engine components
 Larger engine weight for given F

𝐹 𝐹
= 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = Thrust per unit frontal area
𝑊𝑒 𝐴𝑖

𝐹 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
Air specific impulse : 𝐼𝑎 = =
𝑔𝑚̇𝑖 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

Note:
𝑚̇𝑓
Specific fuel consumption: 𝑠 = = 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶
𝐹
𝑚̇𝑓
Fuel to air mass flow ratio : 𝑓=
𝑚̇𝑖

24
 𝑓 𝑓
𝑠= , or 𝐼𝑎 =
𝑔𝐼𝑎 𝑔𝑠

Typical values Ia (s)

Propeller 3~6
Turbojet 30~60
Ramjet 30~90

𝐹
Since ṁi = ρ∞ Ac V∞ and 𝐴𝐶 = 
ρ∞ V∞ g Ia

Propeller has larger frontal area than turbojet.

Example
𝑙𝑏𝑚/ℎ 𝑘𝑔
Suppose Ia = 50 s, s = 0.9 = 9.176∙10-2
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑁ℎ

Find f = ?
Solution:
𝑓 = 𝑔𝑠𝐼𝑎 = 0.0125

Effect of engine exhaust temperature on Ia

Neglect pressure thrust

𝑚̇𝑖 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ] (1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞

𝐼𝑎 = =
𝑔𝑚̇𝑖 𝑔

25
Me : exhaust Mach number

𝛾𝑒 𝑅𝑇𝑒
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒 √
ℳ𝑒

ℳ𝑒 : molecular mass

𝛾𝑒 𝑅𝑇𝑒
(1 + 𝑓)𝑀𝑒 √ − 𝑉∞
ℳ𝑒
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑔

Suppose f<<1, V∞ = 300 m/s, ℳ𝑒 = 25, e = 1.3, g = 9.807 m/s2, Me = 1. 

𝐼𝑎 = 2.12√𝑇𝑒 − 30.59

Ia
90
80
70
60
Ia
50
40
30
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Te

𝐹
Thrust to weight ratio = , We = engine weight
𝑊𝑒

 Proportion of gross weight taken up by engine

1949 1986 2005

We (lb) 5000 5000 18000
F (lbf) 5000 50000 120 000

26
 Rocket engine (similar for turbojet)

%100-----
- Pay load
Fuel
% weight
Engine

Structure

Max range
Range

Determine engine cross-section and or size.

𝐹
Thrust per unit frontal area =
𝐴𝑖

Turbojet:
𝐹 𝑚̇𝑖 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ]
=
𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝐴𝑐 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ]
=
𝐴𝑖
𝐴𝑐
= 𝜌 𝑉 [(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ]
𝐴𝑖 ∞ ∞

𝐴𝑐
If ~ O(1) and we consider V∞ , Ve , f fixed (approx. const.) 
𝐴𝑖

Then:

27
 𝐹
~𝜌∞
𝐴𝑖
Decreases for high altitude flights!

F
Thust coefficient =
1
𝜌 𝑉 2𝐴
2 ∞ ∞ 𝑖

For turbojet -- neglecting pressure thrust

F 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑒
=2 [(1 + 𝑓) − 1]
1 𝐴𝑖 𝑉∞
𝜌 𝑉 2𝐴
2 ∞ ∞ 𝑖
Independent of ∞ !

C. PROPULSION, THERMAL AND OVERALL EFFICIENCIES

1. Definitions

𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

Thermal efficiency: th =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

Propulsion efficiency: p =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
Overall efficiency: o =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑜 = 𝑝 𝑡ℎ

28
Example

Reciprocating engine with propeller

𝑚̇𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

BSFC = =
𝒫 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝒫 1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 ∙ 𝑄
Q = fuel heating value
𝑝
𝑜 = 𝑝 𝑡ℎ =
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 ∙ 𝑄

Typical gasoline engine :

BSFC ~ 0.5 lbm/BHP h, Q = 19000 Btu/lbm

1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 2.542 ∙ 103 = 0.268
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 ∙ 𝑄
SI units
BSFC= 8.448 ∙10-8 kg/N.s Q = 4.423∙107 J/kg

2. Efficiencies Based on Engine Fixed and Stationary Coordinates

Engine fixed coordinates:
x

V∞ Ve

29
Stationary coordinates:

V∞ (Ve-V∞)

Ve = exhaust velocity relative to propulsive device

For fixed observer
(𝑉𝑒 −𝑉∞ )2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚̇𝑒 dumped overboard or lost power
2

Relative to stationary coordinates:

Total available power = F∙V∞ + (KE)abs

(KE)abs : absolute kinetic energy

(𝑉𝑒 −𝑉∞ )2 2
𝑉∞
Total available power = (𝑚̇𝑒 𝑉𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉∞ )𝑉∞ + 𝑚̇𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑓
2 2

= useful power + lost power + fuel KE before combustion

Use
𝑚̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑖 + 𝑚̇𝑓
𝑚̇𝑖 : not moving relative to stationary coordinates
𝑚̇𝑓 : at speed V∞ relative to stationary coordinates

30
 𝑉𝑒2 2
𝑉∞ 𝑉𝑒2
Total available power = 𝑚̇𝑖 ( − ) + 𝑚̇𝑓
2 2 2

Relative to engine coordinates:

𝑉𝑒2 2
𝑉∞ 𝑉𝑒2
Total available power = 𝑚̇𝑖 ( − ) + 𝑚̇𝑓 → same result
2 2 2

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑚̇𝑒 𝑉𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉∞ )𝑉∞

𝜂𝑝 = =
𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑚̇𝑖 ( 𝑒 − ∞ ) + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑒
2 2 2

[(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ]𝑉∞

𝜂𝑝 =
𝑉2 𝑉2
(1 + 𝑓) 𝑒 − ∞
2 2
Define
𝑉∞
𝒱= = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉𝑒
Then →

[(1 + 𝑓) − 𝒱]𝒱
𝜂𝑝 =
1 𝒱2
(1 + 𝑓) −
2 2

For air breathers f<<1 →

2𝒱
𝜂𝑝 =
1+𝒱

31
Other relations:
𝐹
=1−𝒱
𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑒
𝐹𝑉∞
= 𝒱(1 − 𝒱)
𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑒2

2.00

𝜂𝑝
1.00

0.00
𝒱
0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.60 2.00

𝐹𝑉∞ 𝐹
-1.00
𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑒2 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑒

-2.00

Discussion:
 To produce thrust must be Ve >>V∞ or 𝒱 < 1
 When 𝒱 = 1 (p)max = 1 but then F=0.
 Useful power ~ (1 − 𝒱) is maximum when 𝒱 = 1/2 and there p = 2/3.

For Rockets:
𝑚̇𝑖 = 0  𝑚̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑓

32
 (𝑚̇𝑒 𝑉𝑒 − 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉∞ )𝑉∞ 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑉𝑒 𝑉∞ 2𝑉∞
𝜂𝑝 = 2 2 = = = 2𝒱
𝑉𝑒 𝑉∞2 𝑉𝑒 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉𝑒
𝑚̇𝑖 ( − ) + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑚̇𝑓
2 2 2 2

Can V∞ be greater than Ve ?

V∞ can be greater than Ve for rockets

1
But, for 𝒱> then 𝜂𝑝 > 1 which contradicts to the second law of
2
thermodynamics.

We have to use modified definition of p for rockets.

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 𝑉∞

𝑉𝑒2 𝑉∞2
𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚 ( + )
2 2

Jet power Energy added

during previous
portion of flight

𝑚̇𝑉𝑒 𝑉∞ 2𝒱
𝜂̃𝑝 = =
𝑉2 𝑉2 1 + 𝒱2
𝑚̇ ( 𝑒 + ∞ )
2 2
𝜂̃𝑝 < 1 always!

Thermal efficiency:

33
 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Turbojet:

𝑑(𝐾𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑙 )/𝑑𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑉2
𝑚̇𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + ∞ )
2

𝑉𝑒2 𝑉∞2 𝑉2 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉∞2

𝑚̇𝑖 ( − ) + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑒 (1 + 𝑓) −
2 2 2 2 2
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑉∞2 𝑉∞2
𝑚̇𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + ) 𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + )
2 2

Typical example:
Suppose Te = 1200 K, Me =1, ℳ𝑒 = 25, Ve= 720 m/s, V∞= 300 m/s, f = 0.012,
QR = 4.42∙107 J/kg

 th= 0.409.

Suppose all heating value converted into mechanical energy:

QR → KE
(𝑉𝑒 )2𝑖𝑑
𝑓𝑄𝑅 = (1 + 𝑓)
2
→ (𝑉𝑒 )𝑖𝑑 = 1024 𝑚/𝑠 ideal speed!

34
Overall Efficiency:

𝐹𝑉∞
𝑜 = 𝑝 𝑡ℎ =
𝑉∞2
𝑚̇𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 +
2)

[(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ]𝑉∞ 2[(1 + 𝑓)𝒱 − 𝒱 2 ]

𝑜 = =
𝑉∞2 2𝑄
𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + ) 𝑓𝒱 2 [ 𝑅2 + 1]
2 𝑉𝑒 𝒱
2[(1 + 𝑓)𝒱 − 𝒱 2 ]
𝑜 =
𝑉 2
[(1 + 𝑓) ( 𝑉𝑖𝑑 ) + 𝑓𝒱 2 ]
𝑒

2𝒱(1−𝒱)
Often f << 1  𝑜 = 𝑉 2
( 𝑖𝑑 )
𝑉𝑒

1 𝑉 2 1
For fixed Vid/Ve (𝑜 ) = ( 𝑒)
2 𝑉
at 𝒱 = .
2
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑑

0,6

0,5
𝑜
0,4
Ve/vid =1

0,3 Ve/Vid = 0.866

Ve / Vid = 0.707
0,2 Ve/Vid = 0.5

0,1

0 𝒱
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2

35
For rocket :
𝑉𝑒 𝑉∞ 2𝒱
𝑜 = = 2
𝑉2
𝑄𝑅 + ∞ (𝑉𝑖𝑑 ) + 𝒱 2
2 𝑉𝑒
𝑉 2
f = 1 and 𝑄𝑅 = ( 𝑖𝑑 )
𝑉 𝑒

for typical hydrocarbon : QR= 4.423∙107 J/K

→ Vid = 9405 m/s

3. Takeoff Thrust

Consider turbojet engine, ignore pressure thrust and f << 1

At takeoff V∞=0
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑖 (𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ) = 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑒

𝐹𝑆 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝑉𝑒 = =
𝑚̇𝑖 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

How does FS vary with 𝑚̇𝑓 ?

With f << 1 and for V∞ = 0 →
𝑉𝑒2 𝑉∞2 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉𝑒2
𝑚̇𝑖 ( − ) + 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑚̇
2 2 2 𝑖 2
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑉2 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑅
𝑚̇𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + ∞ )
2
2𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄𝑅
𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑒 = 𝐹𝑆 =
𝑉𝑒

36
 1
For given 𝜂𝑡ℎ , 𝑚̇𝑓 , 𝑄𝑅  𝐹𝑆 ~
𝑉𝑒

II. THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES

A. Introduction

Questions:

 Is there an absolute maximum for th ?

 Where should heat be added for max th ?
 How does maximum temperature affects th ?

Heat engine: repetitive device. Working fluid repeatedly put through same cycle of
thermodynamic processes.

(Power producing devices in a closed cycle by taking heat from the heat source. Real cycles are
open cycles.)

Cycle = thermodynamic processes with the same initial and final states.

B. REVERSIBLE CYCLES

Working fluid passes through a series of equilibrium states via reversible processes.

𝛿𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑣
P, v
𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃𝑚𝑑𝑣
T, s
𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠

𝛿𝑄

2
P 1
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝛿𝑊1−2 2
1

𝛿𝑊1−2
v 37
 ∮ 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = ∮ 𝛿𝑊

= net work done by system during one cycle = area enclosed by curve representing the work

T 1
2
Total area = 𝛿𝑊

𝛿𝑄1−2
S

∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑆 = 𝛿𝑄1−2 = 𝛿𝑄 𝑟𝑒𝑣

1−2
1

∮ 𝑇𝑑𝑆 = ∮ 𝛿𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

Steady flow processes

Piston—cylinder ~ Otto engine

Gas turbines ~ Turbojet engine

Gas turbines:

Combustion
chamber

compressor Turbine load

Heat
exchanger

38
Consider:

1. Unit mass system

2. Steady flow
3. Reversible equilibrium
4. Infinitesimal segment of steady flow process

𝑃~𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃, 𝑠~𝑠 + 𝑑𝑠, T~𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇, 𝑣~𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣,

𝛿𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣

P 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃

v 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣,

𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑘

1st Law :

𝛿𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑑𝑒 + 𝛿𝑊

𝛿𝑊 = (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃)(𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣) + 𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ

Flow work

𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑣) + 𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑘 = 𝑑ℎ + 𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ

reversible →
𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠

combine results 

39
 𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = −𝑣𝑑𝑃

P
4 3
∫ −𝑣𝑑𝑃 = 𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ > 0
3 4
1
∮ 𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = ∮ 𝑃𝑑𝑣
𝛿𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 2
<0 2
1
v

C. IRREVERSIBLE CYCLES AND LOSSES

All real cycles are irreversible.

For example, in the turbine → friction and aerodynamic losses  WT < WTS

WT : actual turbine work

WTS : ideal (isentropic) turbine work

P1 P1

Q=0 WTS Q=0 WT

P2 P2

frictionless, adiabatic Actual Turbine

Turbine isentropic efficiency:

40
 𝑊𝑇
𝜂𝑇 =
𝑊𝑇𝑆

T h
P1

P1

T2 2S
2
2S 2 P2

S ℎ2 > ℎ2𝑆
S

𝑊𝑇 ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝜂𝑇 = = <1
𝑊𝑇𝑆 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑆

Pump efficiency:

h 4 P4
4S
ℎ4 > ℎ4𝑆

𝑊𝑃 > 𝑊𝑃𝑆
P3
3
𝑊𝑃𝑆 ℎ4𝑆 − ℎ3
𝜂𝑃 = = S
𝑊𝑃 ℎ4 − ℎ3

41
 D. IMPORTANT CYCLES

1. Carnot Cycle

P
T
2 T=const
3 2 T1 3
S=const S=const
1
T=const 4
v T2
1 4

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )(𝑆3 − 𝑆1 )

𝑄1 = 𝑇1 (𝑆3 − 𝑆1 )

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇2
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = =1−
𝑄1 𝑇1 𝑇1
1

2. Rankine Cycle boiler Turbine WT

Q1
Steam power plants---steam engines
2
Using large steam turbines
4 condenser
4-1 boiler ---- constant pressure

1-2 turbine--- reversible adiabatic Q2

3
WP pump
2-3 condenser--- constant pressure

3-4 pump----reversible adiabatic

42
 𝑊𝑇
What do we want to know: th, , Q1, Q2 and effective losses in performance.
𝑚̇

P T
4 1
1

4
3 2
3 2
v
S

Remarks:

1. WP<<WT vapor condensed before entering pump.

𝑤𝑃 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 = 𝑣(𝑃4 − 𝑃3 ) = pump specifc work

2. Q1 is not all added at peak Temp.

3. P<Pcritical = 22.09 Mpa (for H2O)

Cycle Analysis:

𝑞4−1 = ℎ1 − ℎ4

𝑞2−3 = ℎ3 − ℎ2

𝑤𝑇 = ℎ1 − ℎ2
4

𝑤𝑃 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 = −𝑣3 (𝑃4 − 𝑃3 )

3

𝑤𝑇 + 𝑤𝑃 𝑤𝑇 + 𝑤𝑃
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑞4−1 ℎ1 − ℎ4

43
 3. The spark Ignition Engine---- Otto Cycle

a-b : intake P d
b-c : compression

c-d : combustion c
e
d-e : expansion

e-f : expansion after valve open f

Pa
a b
f-a : exhaust v

Air Standard Cycle Assumptions:

1. Fixed mass of fluid (mass is changing in actual engine).

2. Combustion is replaced by constant volume heating (actually volume &composition are
changing during combustion).
3. Fluid is air, a perfect gas with constant specific heats (actually variable CP, CV).
4. Closed cycle (actually open cycle).

Otto Cycle P b
d-a : reversible adiabatic compression

a-b : constant volume heat addition a c

b-c : reversible adiabatic expansion
d
c-d : constant volume heat rejection (cooling) v
𝑄2 𝐶𝑉 (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑑 ) (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑑 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1− =1−
𝑄1 𝐶𝑉 (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 ) (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 )

T
for isentropic processes and perfect gas b
v = const s = const

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
a
𝑇𝑏 𝑣𝑏 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑣𝑐 c
s = const
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
v = const
𝑇𝑎 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑇𝑑 𝑣𝑑
d
S
44
Since 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑏 , 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑣𝑑 →

(𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑣𝑎𝛾−1 = (𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑑 )𝑣𝑑𝛾−1 →

(𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑑 ) 𝑣𝑎 𝛾−1 1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1−( ) = 1 − 𝛾−1
(𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 ) 𝑣𝑑 𝑟

𝑉𝑑
𝑟= = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑉𝑎

Va
TDC BDC

Vd

r 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
th 0 .242 .426 .512 .565 .602 .630 .652

Thermal efficiency depends only on compression ratio. But not on maximum combustion
temperature, Tmax ?

Break into sub Carnot cycles :

𝛾−1 𝛾−1 T
𝑇2 𝑣 𝑣
= (𝑣1 ) = (𝑣𝑎 ) b
𝑇1 2 𝑑

T1
a
𝑇2 1 c
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1 − 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑟
T2
d
Cycle work per unit mass for one cycle : S

1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝐶𝑉 (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 ) (1 − )
𝑟 𝛾−1

4. Compression Ignition Engine and The Diesel Cycle

Air standard Diesel Cycle : no spark ignition, spantaneuos ignition after compression, heat is
added at constant pressure.

45
 T
P a b b
P = const
a
c
c
d v = const
v d
S

a-b : constant pressure heat addition

b-c : isentropic expansion

c-d : constant volume cooling

d-a : isentropic compression

𝑣𝑑
𝑟𝑘 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑣𝑎
𝑣𝑐
𝑟𝑒 = = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑣𝑏
𝑣𝑏
𝑟𝑐 = = 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑣𝑎

𝑟𝑘 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑐
𝛾
1 𝑟𝑐 − 1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − ( 𝛾−1 ) ( )
𝑟𝑘 𝛾(𝑟𝑐 − 1)

1
lim (𝜂𝑡ℎ )𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 − 𝛾−1 = (𝜂𝑡ℎ )𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜
𝑟𝑐 →1 𝑟𝑘

(𝜂𝑡ℎ )𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 < (𝜂𝑡ℎ )𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜

( for practical deisgn 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 > 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 since rk and rc are greater).
𝛾
𝑟𝑐 − 11
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑎 ) (1 − 𝛾−1 )
𝑟𝑘 𝛾(𝑟𝑐 − 1)

46
 5. Gas Turbine Cycle ( Brayton Cycle)

Q1
Burner

Comp Turb load

cooling

Q2

T 3
P
2 P=const 3 b
P = const

s= const 2
s= const
a 4
1 4 P = const
P= const
1
v S

1-2 : compressor

2-3 : heating--combustion

3-4 : turbine---expansion

4-1 : cooling—heat rejection to atmosphere

47
 V∞
Ve

a 2 3 b 4
1

1-a : Ram compression (diffuser)

a-2 : compressor

2-3 : combustion

3-b : turbine--expansion

b-4 : nozzle--- expansion

Ramjet:

T 3
fuel P=c
V∞
2
nozzle
4
P=c
2 3 4 1
1 S

No thrust at take off with ramjet. Used only acceleration at high speed.

48
Brayton Cycle

𝑞2 ℎ4 − ℎ1 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1− =1−
𝑞1 ℎ3 − ℎ2 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

(𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇3 𝑃3 𝑇2 𝑃2
, P2=P3, P1=P4 
𝛾 𝛾
= (𝑃 ) = (𝑃 )
𝑇4 4 𝑇1 1

1 1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝛾−1 =1−
𝑣 𝛾−1
𝑃 𝛾 (𝑣1 )
(𝑃2 ) 2
1

𝑣
Let 𝑟 = 𝑣1 
2
1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑟 𝛾−1
Same as Otto cycle !

But typically compression rate Brayton is less than the ratio of Otto cycle.

rBrayton < rOtto → Brayton < Otto

In practice, due to larger mass flow rate capacity, Brayton cycle is good for the aircrafts.

Let,
𝛾−1
𝑃2 𝛾 𝑇2 𝑇3
𝜃=( ) = = ≡ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑇4

𝑇3
𝛼= ≡ 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑇1

1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝜃

49
Typical Brayton parameters (=1.4)

𝑃2 ⁄𝑃1 2 4 6 8 10 20 30
𝜃 1.22 1.49 1.67 1.81 1.93 2.35 2.64
𝜂𝑡ℎ .18 .33 .4 .45 .48 .57 .62
r 1.64 2.69 3.6 4.42 5.17 8.5 11.35

Net Work : Wnet=WT+WC

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1 𝜂𝑡ℎ

𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑞1 = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 ( − ) = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (𝛼 − 𝜃)
𝑇1 𝑇1

1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (𝛼 − 𝜃) (1 − )
𝜃

Example:

CP= 1.006 kJ/kg K, P2/P1 = 20, =2.35, T3 = 1400 K, T1= 300 K, = T3/T1 = 4.667

 wnet = 401.7 kJ/kg

Otto-Brayton Cycles comparison:

Brayton ~

 For larger volumes

 For lower pressures
 For lower temperatures

Therefore Gas Turbine is appropriate for Jet engines.

50
Real Brayton Cycles

T T2 P2
𝑇2′
Compressor :

𝑇2 > 𝑇2′
P1
c : adiabatic compressor efficiency 1
S

𝑤𝑐′ ℎ2′ − ℎ1 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2′ − 𝑇1 ) 𝑇2′ − 𝑇1

𝜂𝑐 = = = =
𝑤𝑐 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝛾−1
𝑇′ 𝑃 𝛾
𝑇1 (𝑇2 − 1) (𝑃2 ) −1
1
𝜂𝑐 = = 1
𝑇 𝑇2
𝑇1 (𝑇2 − 1)
1 𝑇1 − 1

For given P2, P1, T1 and c :

𝛾−1
𝑇2 1 𝑃2 𝛾
= 1 + [( ) − 1]
𝑇1 𝜂𝑐 𝑃1

T P3
Turbine : 3

t : adiabatic turbine efficiency

P4
4
4’
S

51
 𝑇4 𝑇
ℎ3 − ℎ4 (1 − 𝑇3 ) 1 − 𝑇4
3
𝜂𝑡 = = =
ℎ3 − ℎ4′ 𝑇4′ 𝛾−1
(1 − 𝑇 ) 𝑃4 𝛾
3 [1 − (𝑃 ) ]
3

For given P3, P4, T3 and t :

𝛾−1
𝑇4 𝑃4 𝛾
= 1 − 𝜂𝑡 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇3 𝑃3

Other losses : cooler and combustion chamber pressure losses.

Real Brayton Cycle T-S diagram:

T P2

P3
2 3

4 P4

P1

1
S

52
Operation at constant temperature ratio:
𝑇
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟  𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 ∶ 𝛼 = 𝑇3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡,
1

𝑃2
In this case, effect of on th and Wnet ?
𝑃1

𝑃2 1
  𝜂 =1− 𝛾−1 
𝑃1 𝑃
( 2) 𝛾
𝑃1

T
3
T3
2’’ P1

2’

2
T1
1
S

As T2 → T2’ → T2’’ → T3  th = Carnot but Wnet → 0

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 1
= (𝛼 − 𝜃) (1 − )
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝜃

For given  there will be value of  for which wnet has maximum value. For 𝜃 = √𝛼 Wnet
becomes maximum.

53
 2,5
T1 = 300 K →
2  T3 (K)
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 2 600
1,5 alfa = 2
4 1200
=3 6 1800
1 =4
=6
0,5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
𝜃

Efficiency of Brayton Cycle

With t < 1 , c < 1 , P2=P3 , P1=P4 , ideal gas and constant specific heats :

𝑞2 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1−
𝑞1 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝛾−1
𝑇4 𝑃4 𝛾 1
= 1 − 𝜂𝑡 [1 − ( ) ] = 1 − 𝜂𝑡 (1 − )
𝑇3 𝑃3 𝜃

𝛾−1
𝑇2 1 𝑃2 𝛾 1
= 1 + [( ) − 1] = 1 + (𝜃 − 1)
𝑇1 𝜂𝑐 𝑃1 𝜂𝑐

𝛼𝜂𝑡 𝜂𝑐 − 𝜃 1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = [1 − ]
𝜂𝑐 (𝛼 − 1) − (𝜃 − 1) 𝜃

Now th also depends on .

1
If t → 1 and c → 1  𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝜃

𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 ( − ) 𝜂𝑡ℎ
𝑇1 𝑇1

54


𝜃 1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (𝛼𝜂𝑡 − ) (1 − )
𝜂𝑐 𝜃

As t → 1 and c → 1 
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 1
= (𝛼 − 𝜃) (1 − )
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝜃

Brayton Cycle with Regeneration

Turbine exit temperature is high. Why not use exhaust gases to preheat gases going into
combustion chamber.

2R Q1
Burner
2’ 3

Wnet
C T

4’
4R
1
Cooler

Q2

55
 3

T P=c

1-2’ : compression 2R
4’
2’-2R : regeneration heating
2’
2R-3 : combustion
4R
3-4’ : turbine expansion P=c

4’-4R : regeneration cooling 1

S
4R-1 : cooling

2’ 2R

4R 4’

Ideal regenerator → T2R = T4’, T4R = T2’

Real regenerator → T2R < T4’, T4R > T2’ 

(q1)regen < (q1)non regen, Wnet not changed  (th)regen > (th)non regen

Analysis
1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (𝛼 − 𝜃) (1 − 𝜃) unchanged

1
𝑞1 = 𝐶𝑃 [(𝑇3 − 𝑇2′ ) − (𝑇4′ − 𝑇2′ )] = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 𝛼 (1 − 𝜃)

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝜃
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝑞1 𝛼

th: depends on both temperature and pressure ratio!

56
The Brayton Cycle with Reheat or Afterburning

V∞ Ve

1’ 2’ 3 5’ 6 4
1

Q1

2’ 5’ Reheat
B 6
Burner

C load
T1 T2

1 Cooler
4’
Q2

P
T
2’ 3 3
6
6
5’ 5’
2’
4’
1 4’
v 1
S

57
(Wnet)reheat > (Wnet) standard

(net)reheat < (net) standard

𝛾−1
𝑇2′ 𝑃2′ 𝛾
𝜃= =( )
𝑇1 𝑃1
𝛾−1
𝑇3 𝑃3 𝛾
𝜃1 = =( )
𝑇5′ 𝑃5′
𝛾−1
𝑇6 𝑃6 𝛾
𝜃2 = =( )
𝑇4′ 𝑃1

𝑇3
𝛼=
𝑇1

𝑃1 = 𝑃4′

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑃 [(𝑇3 − 𝑇5′ ) + (𝑇6 − 𝑇4′ ) − (𝑇2′ − 𝑇1 )]

𝑃3 = 𝑃2′
}  =1∙2
𝑃5′ = 𝑃6

Consider special case T6=T3 :

𝜃1 𝜃1 𝑇6
𝑇4′ = 𝑇6 = 𝑇3 =
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃2

𝑇3
𝑇5′ =
𝜃1

𝛼 𝜃1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (2𝛼 − 𝜃 − − 𝛼 + 1)
𝜃1 𝜃
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝛼
𝜂𝑡ℎ = and 𝑞1 = 𝐶𝑃 [(𝑇3 − 𝑇2′ ) + (𝑇6 − 𝑇5′ )] = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 (2𝛼 − 𝜃 − 𝜃 )
𝑞1 1

𝜃 1
( 𝜃1 − 𝛼 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝜃 1
(2 − 𝛼 − 𝜃 )
1

58
 1
As lim 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝜃 no reheat, revert to standard Brayton cycle!
𝜃1 →1

For fixed  and  , (Wnet)max occurs when 𝜃1 = √𝜃 .

Since =1∙2 → 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 = √𝜃

At this case :

1 1
( − 𝛼)
𝑡ℎ =1− √𝜃
𝜃 1
(2 − 𝛼 − )
√𝜃
Depends on only two parameters.

III. COMBUSTION

A. Introduction

 Jet engine
 Heating via combustion
 Internal combustion engine
 Combustion chamber design

Problems: How much fuel, thermochemistry, fuel injection, spray combustion, how large,
ignition, combustion unstability, explosion hazards, air pollution.

B. Simple approach

Based on “fuel heating value”.

The effect of burning fuel to adding heat Q per unit mass of fuel consumed.

59
For many hydrocarbons:

Q = 19000 Btu/lbm = 4.423∙107 J/kg = 44230 kJ/kg = 1.056∙104 cal/gm

Consider combustion chamber:

C. C.
h1 , 𝑚̇𝑂 h2 , 𝑚̇𝑃
Oxidizer products

hf , 𝑚̇𝑓
fuel

𝑚̇𝑃 = 𝑚̇𝑓 + 𝑚̇𝑂

Assume adiabatic and complete combustion → has the same effect as adding heat at rate 𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄

Energy conservation:

𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄 = 𝑚̇𝑃 ℎ2 − 𝑚̇𝑂 ℎ1 − 𝑚̇𝑓 ℎ𝑓

→ enthalpy at combustion chamber exit:

𝑚̇𝑓 𝑄 + 𝑚̇𝑂 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑓 ℎ𝑓

ℎ2 =
𝑚̇𝑃
𝑚̇
𝑓 = 𝑚̇ 𝑓 
𝑂

ℎ1 + 𝑓(𝑄 + ℎ𝑓 )
ℎ2 =
1+𝑓

60
Example

T1 = 300 K, f = 0.012, Q = 4.423∙104 kJ/kg then T2 = ?

Solution

hf ≈ 0, h1 = 300 kJ/kg ( CP  1 kJ/kg )

→ h2 = 821 kJ/kg  T2 = 800 K

From Gas tables or h = CPT

𝑄 ℎ𝑓
𝑇2 1 + 𝑓 (𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 + 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 )
=
𝑇1 1+𝑓

ℎ𝑓
Typically f << 1, << 1 
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1

𝑇2 𝑄
≅ 1+𝑓( )
𝑇1 𝐶𝑃 𝑇1

𝑄
≈ 147
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1

𝑄 𝑄
= = 𝐷𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐶𝑃 𝑇1 ℎ1
Damkohler 3rd Group

C. CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Overall reaction equation:

 A +  B + ∙∙∙∙ →  M +  N + ∙∙∙∙

Reactants Products
61
A, B, ..., M, N, ... : represents 1 mole of each chemical species involved

, , ...., , , ..... : Stoichiometric coefficient

Mole: a molecular mass of a speicies

H2O → 18 g H2O, 6.02∙1023 molecules (Avogadro no)

Example

H2 + ½ O2 → H2O

2g H2 + 16 g O2 → 18 g H2O

In a chemical reaction →

 Mass is conserved
 Elements are conserved

In a Rocket combustion chamber :

H2 + ½ O2 → 1H2O + 2OH + 3O2 + 4H2 + 5O + 6H

H: 2 = 21 + 2 + 24 + 6

O: 1 = 1 + 2 + 23 + 5

Need 4 more equation to solve 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 !

D. OXIDATION COMBUSTION REACTIONS

Exothermic reactions, Fuel has + valence, oxidizer has – negative , complete oxidation occurs
for all valences are used up.
62
e.g.

O - - + 2H+ → H2O

C++++ + O - - + O - - → CO2

Incomplete oxidation ---- all valences are not used:

C++++ + O - - → CO++

CO++ combine more oxygen : CO++ + O - - → CO2

CO2 cannot combine more oxygen

Fuel Oxidizer Mixtures

Lean mixture → when more oxidizer is present than needed for complete combustion

C + 2O2 → CO2 + O2

Stoichiometric → when there is just enough oxidizer for complete combustion

CH4 +2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Rich mixture → insufficient oxidizer

C + ½ O2 → CO

2. Mixture Ratio

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑟=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟

Example
16 1
CH4 +2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O  𝑟 = 2∙32 = 4

1
CH4 +3O2 → CO2 + 2H2O +O2  𝑟=6

63
 1
CH4 +2O2 → Stoichiometric  𝑟𝑠𝑡 = 4

3. Equivalence ratio
𝑟
𝜑=
𝑟𝑠𝑡

 =1 → Stoichiometric

 <1 → lean

 >1 → rich

CH4 +3O2 →  = 2/3 lean mixture!

4. Combustion with air

Air ~ % 21 O2, % 79 N2 (other minor contributions: A, CO, CO2, H2O etc)

N2 act as an inert in most combustion reactions.

CH4 +2O2 + 2(79/21) N2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 2(79/21) N2

1(16)
𝑟𝑠𝑡 = = 0.0582
79
2(32) + 2 (21) (28)

CH4 – Air rst = 0.0582

CH4 – O2 rst = 0.25

E. GAS MIXTURES

Box of volume V at temperature T and pressure P

64
M1 moles of species 1 M1

M2 moles of species 1 M2 T

. . P
.
.
Mi
Mi moles of species 1

1. Dalton’s law

Each species acts as if it were M, V , at temperature T independent of all other gases.

Pi  partial pressure of species i

∑ 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃

Perfect gas : PV = nRT = (n1 + n2 + .... + ni) RT

For speicies i : PiV = niRT

2. Mole fraction:

𝑛𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑋𝑖 = =
𝑛 𝑃
Another way is: separate species each at P, T, each species i occupies volumes Vi at P, T.

P P P P

T T T T

V1 V2 .. Vi

Perfect gas equation: PVi = niRT

65
 𝑉𝑖
= 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑉
𝑛𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑋𝑖 = = =
𝑛 𝑃 𝑉

3. Total mass of mixture:

𝑚 = ∑ 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑖

Mi : molecular mass of species i

4. Molecular mass of mixture

𝑚 ∑𝑖 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑛𝑖
𝑀= = = ∑ 𝑀𝑖 = ∑ 𝑀𝑖 𝑋𝑖
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑖 𝑖

Mass of species i in the mixture : m i = ni M i

5. Mass fraction:

Mass fraction of species i

𝑚𝑖 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑌𝑖 = = = =
𝑚 ∑𝑖 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖 ∑𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝑀

∑ 𝑋𝑖 = 1

∑ 𝑌𝑖 = 1

Example

Stoichiometric CH4-Air mixture

66
CH4 +2O2 + 2(79/21) N2

𝑛𝐶𝐻4 1
𝑋𝐶𝐻4 = = = 0.09502
𝑛 79
1 + 2 + 2(21)

79
∑ 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑖 1(16) + 2(32) + 2 (21) 28
𝑀 = ∑ 𝑀𝑖 𝑋𝑖 = = = 27.6 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛 79
𝑖 1 + 2 + 2( )
21
𝑋𝐶𝐻4 𝑀𝐶𝐻4 (0.09502)16
𝑌𝐶𝐻4 = = = 0.05504
𝑀 27.62

H. ENERGY BALANCE IN CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

 A +  B + ∙∙∙∙ →  M +  N + ∙∙∙∙

Y. O.
Reactants Products

Hreact, T1 Hprod, T2

Q
Energy Conservation, 1st law of Thermodynamics :

Q = Hprod -Hreact

𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝛼𝐻𝐴 + 𝛽𝐻𝐵 + ⋯

𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 𝜇𝐻𝑀 + 𝜈𝐻𝑁 + ⋯

Q = Hprod − Hreact = 𝜇𝐻𝑀 + 𝜈𝐻𝑁 + ⋯ − (𝛼𝐻𝐴 + 𝛽𝐻𝐵 + ⋯ ) = HP

HP  constant pressure reaction enthalpy

Q > 0 : endothermic

Q < 0 : exothermic

In enginnering practice (-HP )  heat of reaction at constant pressure

All materials possess a certain amount of energy due to their chemical structures. For example, C
and O2 have a different energy level than CO2 at 300 K since heat is evolved when CO2 is
formed from C and O2.
67
 1. Standard State

Standard State: most stable state of an element at temperature of 298.16 K, 1 atm.

For example: Oxygen O2, Hydrogen H2 etc.

Example

H2 (g) +½ O2 (g) → H2O (g)

Reactor
H2 (g) +½ O2 (g) H2O (g)
P1 = 1 atm, T1 = 298.16 K P2 = 1 atm, T2 = 298.16 K

Q = HP

X(g) = gaseous phase, X(l) = liquid phase, X(c) = solid, crystalline phase.

Energy conservation :

HP = HH2O (g) – HH2 (g) - ½ HO2 (g) = -57798 cal = -57.798 kcal = enthalpy of formation

H2 (g) +½ O2
H (g)
Adiabatic
1 Reaction
0
H2O (g)

formation
2 reaction

T
298.16 K

For Adiabatic reaction → H2 = H1 → T increases

68
∆𝐻𝑓𝑜  Heat added when one mole of the compound is formed from its elements in their
standard state.

For a reference level,

The standard heats of formation of all elements in their standard states are assigned a value of
zero at all temperatures.

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 = −57.798 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐻2𝑂 (𝑔)

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 = 52 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐻 (𝑔)

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 =0
𝐻2 (𝑔)

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 =0
𝑂2 (𝑔)

2. Constant pressure reaction enthalpy

 A +  B + ∙∙∙∙ →  M +  N + ∙∙∙∙

T1, P T2, P

T0 = 298.16 K  reference temperature

𝐻𝑖 = ∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 + ∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝑖 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇
𝑇0

𝑇 𝑇

∆𝐻𝑃 = 𝜇 [∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 + ∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝑀 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇] + 𝜈 [∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 + ∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝑁 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇] + ⋯

𝑀 𝑁
𝑇0 𝑇0

𝑇 𝑇

−𝛼 [∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 + ∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝐴 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇] − 𝛽 [∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 + ∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝐵 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇] − ⋯

𝐴 𝐵
𝑇0 𝑇0

69
 𝑇
Obtain ∫𝑇 𝐶𝑃 𝑖 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇 by using tables.
0

∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝑖 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇 = (𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 )𝑖 (𝑇)
𝑇𝑟

𝑇2

∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝑖 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇 = (𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 )𝑖 (𝑇2 ) − (𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 )𝑖 (𝑇1 )

𝑇1

Enthalpy tables are based on reference temperature:

(𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 ) → 𝑇01

∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 → 𝑇02

𝐻𝑖 (𝑇) = ∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 (𝑇 + (𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 )𝑖 (𝑇) − (𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 )𝑖 (𝑇02 )

02 )

Example

𝐻𝐶𝑂2 (2000 𝐾) = ∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 (298 𝐾) + (𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 )𝐶𝑂2 (2000 𝐾) − (𝐻 − 𝐻 𝑜 )𝐶𝑂2 (298 𝐾)

𝐶𝑂2

= -94052 + 24140 -2238.1 = -72150 cal/mol

3. Reactions at Constant Volume

T1 T2

P1, v P2, v

 A +  B + ∙∙∙∙  M +  N + ∙∙∙∙

ΔQ

dv = 0 no work δW=0

Q = Ev = Eprod − Ereact = 𝜇𝐸𝑀 (𝑇2 ) + 𝜈𝐸𝑁 (𝑇2 ) + ⋯ − (𝛼𝐸𝐴 (𝑇1 ) + 𝛽𝐸𝐵 (𝑇1 ) + ⋯ )

70
Assume mixture of perfect gases:

H= E+Pv and ideal gas Pv = RT  H = E +RT

Ereact = 𝛼𝐻𝐴 (𝑇1 ) + 𝛽𝐻𝐵 (𝑇1 ) + ⋯ − 𝑃1 𝑉

Eprod = 𝜇𝐻𝑀 (𝑇2 ) + 𝜈𝐻𝑁 (𝑇2 ) + ⋯ − 𝑃2 𝑉

Ev = Eprod − Ereact = HP − R(n2 T2 − n1 T1 )

Special case T2=T1=T

Ev = Eprod − Ereact = HP − RT(n2 − n1 )

Further if n2=n1 
Ev = HP

Example

H2 + ½ O2 → H2O (g)

T2=T1=298.16 K

Find Ev =?

HP = −57798 𝑐𝑎𝑙 n1=1.5, n2=1, R=1.98 cal/mol K

Ev = −57798 − (1.98)(298ç16)(1 − 1.5) = −57502 cal

4. Higher and lower heating values

∆𝐸𝑉
− ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑚𝑓

∆𝐻𝑃
− ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑚𝑓

∆𝐸𝑉 ~ Internal energy change

∆𝐻𝑃 ~ Constant pressure enthalpy change

mf ~ fuel mass

71
Most fuels of practical interest contain H, burning in O2 or air: in two possible forms H2O (g) or
H2O (l)

LHV, lower heating value:

If products contain H2O (g)

∆𝐻𝑃
𝐿𝐻𝑉 = −
𝑚𝑓

Constant pressure lower heating value

HHV, higher heating value:

If products contain H2O (l)

∆𝐻𝑃
𝐻𝐻𝑉 = −
𝑚𝑓

Constant pressure higher heating value

Example

H2 (g) +½ O2 (g) → H2O (g)

HP = HH2O (g) – HH2 (g) - ½ HO2 (g) = -57798 cal - 0 – 0 = -57.798 kcal

∆𝐻𝑃 57.798
𝐿𝐻𝑉 = − = = 28.899 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
𝑚𝑓 2

For HHV : HP = HH2O (l) = -68.32 kcal

∆𝐻𝑃 68.32
𝐻𝐻𝑉 = − = = 34.14 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔
𝑚𝑓 2

72
 5. The Adiabatic Flame Temperature

For Adiabatic combustion ~ HP = 0

Y. O.
 A +  B + ∙∙∙∙  M +  N + ∙∙∙∙
P1 , T 1 P2 , T C

Q = HP = 0

𝛼𝐻𝐴 (𝑇1 ) + 𝛽𝐻𝐵 (𝑇1 ) + ⋯ = 𝜇𝐻𝑀 (𝑇𝐶 ) + 𝜈𝐻𝑁 (𝑇𝐶 ) + ⋯

TC : adiabatic flame temperature , determined by trial and error

Example
Octane is in combustion in a constant pressure combustor with 50% excess air. Determine the
adiabatic flame temperature for steady state, steady flow process. Assume air and fuel enter at
298 K, 1 atm.

Solution

C8H18 + 1.5 ath (O2+3.76N2) → 8 CO2 + 9 H2O + 0.5 ath O2+1.5 × 3.76 × ath N2

O2 balance for complete combustion, find ath = 12.5. Now, the reaction is:

C8H18 + 18.75 (O2+3.76N2) → 8 CO2 + 9 H2O + 6.25 O2+70.5 N2

HReact = HProd

-208450 +18.75(0) = 8(-393520 +h-0)CO2 +9(-241820 + h -0)H2O +6.25(0+h -0)O2 +70.5(0+h-0)N2

Simplify:

8 hCO2 + 9 hH2O + 6.25 hO2 + 70.5 hN2 = 5 116 090

73
By trial and error

TC = 1900 K → 5 343 064 ≠ 5 116 090

TC =1800 K → 4 974 976 ≠ 5 116 090

Interpolate between these two trials: TC = 1838 K

Example

Ethane is burned with stoichiometric air. Reactants and products are at 25oC. Determine the heat
transfer rate?

Solution

C2H6 + 3.5( O2 +3.76 N2 ) → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + 13.16 N2

Q = HP = Hprod − Hreact

Q = HP = 2(−393520) + 3(−241820) − 1(−84680) = −1427820 kJ/kmol ethane

Example

Burning of heptane C7H16 is takes place in a steady state combustion chamber by entrance of fuel
and air as dry gases at Po, To. The mixture contains 125% theoretical air and the products are
cooled to the temperature of 600 K by a heat exchanger. Find the heat transfer at the heat
exchanger for per unit kmol of heptane?

Solution

C7H16 + K ( O2 +3.76 N2 ) → 7 CO2 + 8 H2O + K×3.76 N2

Using oxygen balance K=7+4 = 11 and for 125% theoretical air 1.25×11 = 13.75,

The reaction is:

C7H16 + 13.75 ( O2 +3.76 N2 ) → 7 CO2 + 8 H2O + 51.7 N2 + 2.75 O2

Q = HP = Hprod − Hreact

74
 Q = HP = 7(−393522 + 12906) + 8(−241826 + 10499) + 51.7(8894) + 2.75(9245)
− (−187900) = −3 841 784 kJ/kmol fuel

6. Chemical Equilibrium

Suppose we have H2 at room temperature in constant volume container. Heat H2 to 3000 K.

Pressure increases and the dissociation reaction happens. Law of mass action is used.

𝐻2 ⇄ 2𝐻

1
XH2

XH
t

Approaches constant steady state values and XH, XH2 become constant.

In General

∑ 𝑎𝑠 𝐴𝑠 ⇄ ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝐵𝑘
𝑠 𝑘

Gibbs free energy : F = H – TS

At equilibrium : dF = 0

dF=0

XH
75
Can show that dF = 0, whenever partial pressures satisfy the relation :

𝑏 𝑏
𝑃𝐵11 𝑃𝐵22 …
𝐾𝑃 = 𝑎 𝑎 ≡ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝐴11 𝑃𝐴22 …

→ KP : equilibrium constant is function of temperature only, its tabulated.

Example

1
𝐻 ⇄ 𝐻
2 2
At equilibrium :

𝑃𝐻
𝐾𝑃 = ⁄
𝑃𝐻12 2

Suppose : P = 20 atm, T = 3000 K

P = PH+PH2 , PH = XH P , PH2 = XH2 P, XH + XH2 = 1 

𝑋𝐻 𝑃
𝐾𝑃 (𝑇) = ⁄
𝑋𝐻12 2 𝑃1⁄2

From tables : KP = 1.5762∙10-1 atm½ →

XH = 0.03346

Example

Hidrogen is heated from room temperature to 4000 K, 500 kPa conditions. During this process
H2 2H dissociation reaction takes place Find the chemical composition at equilibrium?

76
Solution

P = PH+PH2 , PH = XH P , PH2 = XH2 P, XH + XH2 = 1 

𝑃𝐻 2 𝑋𝐻2 𝑃 2−1
𝐾𝑃 = = ( )
𝑃𝐻2 𝑋𝐻2 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

From Table, for T = 4000 K : KP= 2.545

2
𝑋𝐻2 500 (1 − 𝑋𝐻2 )
2.545 = ( )=5
𝑋𝐻2 100 𝑋𝐻2

𝑋𝐻2 = 0.497

𝑋𝐻 = 0.503

Example

Consider stoichiometric reaction of pentane ( C5H12 ) with pure oxygen The combustion
products are at 2400 K and 100 kPa. Only taking the CO2  2CO +O2 dissociation reaction into
account, find out the mole fraction of CO ?

Solution

C5H12 + 8 O2 → 5 CO2 + 6 H2O

2CO2  2CO +O2 dissociation reaction

From table for T = 2400 K : lnKP = -7.715 → KP = 4.461×10-4

2
𝑋𝐶𝑂 𝑋𝑂2 𝑃
𝐾𝑃 (𝑇) = 2 ( ) = 4.461 × 10−4
𝑋𝐶𝑂2 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

Now, consider for 2CO2  2CO +O2 at equilibrium:

77
 2CO2 2CO O2
Initial 5 0 0
Change -2z +2z +z
Equilibrium 5-2z 2z z

nCO2 = 5-2z, nCO = 2z, nO2 = z and ntot = 5 - 2z + 2z + z + 6 = 11 + z

2
𝑋𝐶𝑂 𝑋𝑂2 (2z)2 z
2 = 2
( ) = 4.461 × 10−4
𝑋𝐶𝑂2 (5 − 2z) 11 + z

By trial and error find z = 0.291 and so  XCO = 0.0515

7. Combustion products compositon problem

If we consider combustion problem at high temperature, such as for rocket combustors:

a H2 + b O2 → 1 H2O + 2 OH + 3 O2 + 4 H2 + 5 O + 6 H

For known P and T what will be the equilibrium composition?

From mass conservation:

H: 2 a = 21 + 2 + 24 + 6

O: 2 b = 1 + 2 + 23 + 5

4 additional equilibrium relations will be needed:

1 𝑃𝑂
𝑂 ⇄ 𝑂 → 𝐾𝑃 1 =
2 2 1⁄2
𝑃𝑂
2

1 𝑃𝐻
𝐻2 ⇄ 𝐻 → 𝐾𝑃 2 = 1⁄2
2 𝑃𝐻
2

1 1 𝑃𝑂𝐻
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 ⇄ 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐾𝑃 3 = 1⁄2 1⁄2
2 2 𝑃𝐻 𝑃𝑂
2 2

78
 1 𝑃𝐻2 𝑂
𝐻2 + 𝑂 ⇄ 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐾𝑃 4 =
2 2 𝑃𝐻2 𝑃𝑂
1⁄2
2

Total mole no : n = 1 + 2 + 3 +4 + 5 + 6

Notes:

1. The equilibrium relations for each reversible reactions are satisfied simultaneously
2. The specified reversible reactions do not have to be reactions which actually take place.
3. At equilibrium the reaction path does not matter. Reaction path or scheme is important if
rate of approach to equilibrium is to be determined.

IV. ANALYSIS OF JET PROPULSION DEVICES

A. RAM JETS

1. Ideal ramjet

T 4
V∞ fuel Flame holders
Ve P = const
P∞
2
nozzle
6
P = const
a
2 6 S
a 4
Shock waves

Assume isentropic expansion and compression, constant pressure combustion and cooling,
perfectly expanded nozzle, no shock waves and no losses.

Assumptions :

 Isentropic compression : P0a =P02

 Isentropic expansion : P04 =P06
 Constant pressure combustion : P2 = P02 = P4 = P04

79
  Constant pressure cooling
 Perfectly expanded nozzle : P6 = P∞ = Pa

F = ṁ a [(1 + f)Ve − V∞ ]

𝛾 𝛾
𝑃0𝑎 𝑃06 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= = (1 + 𝑀 ) = (1 + 𝑀𝑒 )
𝑃𝑎 𝑃6 2 2

Assume a = e =  = const

M = Me does not imply Ve  V

𝑉 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑀 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 𝑀

𝑉𝑒 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑀𝑒 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑒 𝑀𝑒

𝑎𝑒 𝑇𝑒
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑉=√ 𝑉
𝑎 𝑇𝑎

𝑇𝑒 (𝑇𝑒 ⁄𝑇0𝑒 )𝑇0𝑒

=
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎

T0e = T04 : maximum cycle temperature

𝑇0𝑒 𝛾−1 2 𝛾 − 1 2 𝑇0𝑎

= 1+ 𝑀𝑒 = 1 + 𝑀 =
𝑇𝑒 2 2 𝑇𝑎

𝑇𝑒 𝑇04 𝛾 − 1 2 −1
= (1 + 𝑀 )
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎 2

𝑇04
 cycle temperature ratio
𝑇𝑎

80
Thrust equation :

F Ve
= V [(1 + f) − 1]
ṁ a V

F √𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎
= M√𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 (1 + f) −1
ṁ a 𝛾 − 1
√1 + 2
[ 2 𝑀 ]

Remarks:
𝑇04 𝑇0𝑎 𝛾−1 F
i) f = 0 and = =1+ 𝑀2  =0
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎 2 ṁ a
F
ii) M=0  = 0 no thrust at zero velocity!
ṁ a
𝑇
iii) ( 𝑇04 ) determined by combustion chamber design. Increases with f , and decreases
𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
with M and T02.

Variation of f :

Combustion chamber energy balance

Y. O.
𝑚̇𝑎 (1 + 𝑓)𝑚̇𝑎
H02 H04

𝑚̇𝑓 , hf +QR,

𝑚̇𝑓 (ℎ𝑓 + 𝑄𝑅 ) + 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐻02 = (1 + 𝑓)𝐻04

𝑚̇
𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑓 , usually ℎ𝑓 ≪ 𝑄𝑅 
𝑎

𝐻04 − 𝐻02 𝐻04 ⁄𝐻02 − 1

𝑓= =
𝑄𝑅 − 𝐻04 𝑄𝑅 ⁄𝐻02 − 𝐻04 ⁄𝐻02

81
For sufficiently higher Mach number 𝐻02 ≅ 𝐻04  f=0

𝑇0𝑎 𝛾−1
H0 = CPT0 , T02 = T0a , = 1+ 𝑀2 →
𝑇𝑎 2

𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎
−1
𝑇0𝑎 ⁄𝑇𝑎
𝑓=
𝑄𝑅 𝑇 ⁄𝑇
− 04 𝑎
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 (𝑇0𝑎 ⁄𝑇𝑎 ) 𝑇0𝑎 ⁄𝑇𝑎

𝛾−1 2
𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎 − (1 +
𝑓= 2 𝑀 )
𝑄𝑅
⁄
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇04 𝑇𝑎

Additionally :
𝑔𝑚̇𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
= =
𝐹 𝐼𝑎 𝐹 ⁄𝑔𝑚̇𝑎
𝑚̇𝑓
𝑠 = 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐹

F √𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎
= M√𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 (1 + f) −1
ṁ a 𝛾 − 1
√1 + 2
[ 2 𝑀 ]

Example :

𝑇04 𝑄𝑅
= 10, =1.4, = 150 →
𝑇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎

82
f

Ia f
Ia
TSFC
TSFC

0 2 4 6 M 8

Comments :

i) f → 0 Ia = 0
ii) at low M, M  → Ia  (because of increase in V and Ve )
iii) at high M , M  → Ia  (because of decrease in f )
𝑓
iv) 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶~ 𝐼 , remains almost constant as M increase as both f and Ia decrease)
𝑎

Variation of thrust F with flight speed

Consider variation of 𝑚̇𝑎

Ac
Isentropic spike

Assume Ac remain constant

𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝐴𝑐

83
 𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 𝑀𝐴𝑐

𝐹 = 𝑔𝑚̇𝑎 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑔𝜌𝑎 √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 𝑀𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑎

Previously found :

F √𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎
gIa = = M√𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 (1 + f) −1
ṁ a 𝛾 − 1
√1 + 2
[ 2 𝑀 ]

√𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 𝑀2 (1 + f) −1
√1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2
[ 2 ]

𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Ia
F

0 2 4 6 M 8

Remarks:

From expression for f can determine Mmax. (where F, f, Ia → 0).

2 𝑇04
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ ( − 1)
𝛾 − 1 𝑇𝑎

84
=1.4

𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎 2 4 6 8 10 12
Mmax 2.23 3.87 5.0 5.92 6.71 7.42

Example

A ramjet engine provides a thrust for a body at speed of 914 m/s and 12.8 km altitude. (Pa = 0.2
atm, Ta = − 51 oC). Neglect the losses. The pressure at the nozzle exit is 0.2 atm and the heating
value of fuel is 43 MJ/kg. The stagnation temperature at the nozzle inlet is 2030 oC and the
power is for the indicated speed is 7.5 MW. Find the followings:
a) Diffusor exit stagnation temperature and pressure.
b) Speed at the nozzle exit.
c) Thrust, fuel to air ratio, air and fuel mass flow rates.
d) Specific net cycle work.
e) Thrust efficiency.
g) Total efficiency.

Solution

V∞ fuel Flame holders

Ve
P∞
nozzle

a 2 4 6

V∞ = 914 m/s , Ta = -51oC = 222 K, TO4 = 2030oC = 2303 K, P = 7.5 MW, Pa = Pe = 0.2 atm,
QR= 43 MJ / K

𝑉∞ 914
𝑀∞ = = = 3.06
√𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎 √1.4 ∙ 287 ∙ 222

85
 a)

𝑉∞2 9142
𝑇𝑂𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 + = 222 + = 637.62 𝐾
2𝐶𝑃 2 ∙ 1005
𝛾
𝑃0𝑎 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝑀∞ )
𝑃𝑎 2

→ Poa = 8.03 atm

TO2 = Toa = 637.62 K , PO2 = Poa = 8.03 atm

b)

Me = M6 = M∞ = 3.06

𝑇6 𝑇6 𝛾 − 1 2 −1
= = (1 + 𝑀6 )
𝑇06 𝑇04 2

𝑇6 = 2303(1 + 0.2 ∙ 3.062 )−1 = 801.6792 𝐾

𝑉𝑒 = 𝑀6 √𝛾𝑅𝑇6 = 3.06 ∙ √1.4 ∙ 287 ∙ 801.6792 = 1736.7075 𝑚/𝑠

c)

𝑃 = 7.5 𝑀𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑉∞ = 𝐹 ∙ 914 𝑚/𝑠

→ F = 8205.7 N

𝛾−1 2
𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎 − (1 +
𝑓= 2 𝑀 ) = 10.3738 − 2.8727 = 0.041
𝑄𝑅 192.73 − 10.3738
− 𝑇 ⁄𝑇
04 𝑎
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎

F = ṁ a [(1 + f)Ve − V∞ ]

8205.7 = 𝑚̇𝑎 [1.041 ∙ 1736.7075 − 914]

𝑚̇𝑎 = 9.1795 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑚̇𝑓 = 𝑓𝑚̇𝑎 = 0.3763 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

d)

86
 1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 (𝛼 − 𝜃) (1 − )
𝜃

𝛼 = 𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎 = 10.3738

𝛾−1
𝑃02 𝛾 𝛾−1 2
𝜃=( ) = (1 + 𝑀∞ ) = 2.8727
𝑃𝑎 2

1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1.005 ∙ 222 ∙ (10.3738 − 2.8727) (1 − ) = 1091 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2.8727
or

1
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑤𝑚𝑒𝑘 = (𝑉𝑒2 −𝑉∞2 ) = 1091 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2

e)
𝑉∞
𝒱= = 0.5263
𝑉𝑒

[(1 + 𝑓) − 𝒱]𝒱
𝜂𝑝 = = 0.7091
1 𝒱2
(1 + 𝑓) −
2 2

f)
1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = (1 − ) = 0.6519
𝜃

𝜂𝑂 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝜂𝑃 = 0.4623

2. The Ram Jet with losses

Where do losses occur:

1. At the inlet due to shock waves, boundary layer, flow separation.

2. In the combustor due to pressure loss, incomplete combustion, dissociation.

3. In the nozzle due to boundary layers, imperfect expansion.

87
Real Ram Jet T-S diagram
T P0a P02
P04
2 4
P6
6
Pa

a
S

𝑃02
𝑟𝑑 = ≡ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃0𝑎

𝑃04
𝑟𝑐 = ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃02

𝑃06
𝑟𝑛 = ≡ 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃04

Effect of losses on Ia, f and TSFC:

Thrust equation

F = ṁ a [(1 + f)Ve − V] + (P6 − Pa )Ae

𝑇𝑒
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒 √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒 √𝛾𝑅𝑇04
𝑇04

T04 = T06 = T0e (nozzle is adiabatic even though irreversible)

𝛾𝑅𝑇04
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑀𝑒 √
𝛾−1 2
1+ 𝑀𝑒
2
Need to determine Me (in ideal case Me = M no longer true)
𝛾
𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 𝑃06 𝑃06 𝑃04 𝑃02 𝑃0𝑎 𝑃𝑎
(1 + 𝑀𝑒 ) = =
2 𝑃6 𝑃⏟
04 𝑃
⏟02 𝑃
⏟0𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑃6
𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑑

88
 𝛾
𝑃0𝑎 𝛾−1
= (1 + 2 𝛾−1
𝑀 ) 
𝑃𝑎 2

𝛾−1
2 𝛾−1 2 𝑃𝑎 𝛾
𝑀𝑒2 = [(1 + 𝑀 ) (𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑛 ) − 1]
𝛾−1 2 𝑃6

In Ideal case :
𝑃
𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑛 𝑃𝑎 = 1  𝑀𝑒 = 𝑀
6

𝜂𝑏 ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

So that

𝜂𝑏 𝑄𝑅 ≡ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝛾−1 2
𝑇04 ⁄𝑇𝑎 − (1 +
𝑓= 2 𝑀 )
𝜂𝑏 𝑄𝑅
⁄
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇04 𝑇𝑎

𝑓 𝑓
𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 = =
𝐹⁄ 𝐼𝑎 𝑔
𝑚̇𝑎

 𝜂𝑏  TSFC  (reduce burner efficiency implies increase in TSFC)

For convenience :
𝛾−1
𝛾−1 2 𝑃𝑎 𝛾
𝑚 = (1 + 𝑀 ) (𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑛 )
2 𝑃6

Then 

2
𝑀𝑒2 = [𝑚 − 1]
𝛾−1

Combine results:

89
 F 2𝛾𝑅𝑇04 (𝑚 − 1) P6 Ae Pa
gIa = = [(1 + f)√ − M√γRTa ] + (1 − )
ṁa (𝛾 − 1)𝑚 gṁa P6

(1 + f) 2(𝑚 − 1) 𝑇04 P6 Ae Pa
gIa = M√γRTa [ √ − 1] + (1 − )
M (𝛾 − 1)𝑚 Ta ṁa P6

with losses Ia → 0 before f → 0

f
Ia
TSFC

0 2 4 6 M 8

Some of propellant energy is used to overcome losses.

3. Inlet Performance

Inlet is probably major source of losses.

Simple inlet----normal shock inlet

90
 V

Detached shock

Variation

𝑃02
𝑟𝑑 =
𝑃0𝑎

M 1.2 2 3 4
rd 1 0.72 0.328 0.139

Spiked inlet:

Oblique shock

Compression waves

91
Capture area varies strongly with M especially when M<1

Ac/Ai

rd

1 2 3 4 M
n : number of oblique shocks

B. TURBOJET PERFORMANCE

Assume:

1. Reversible adiabatic compressions and expansions

2. Ideal gas and constant heat coefficients
3. Constant pressure heat addition
4. Negligible velocities in section 2 and 6

T
4
6

5 afterburner
3
7
2
a
S

92
 Component efficiencies

Inlet Diffuser

1 2
a

ℎ02𝑆 − ℎ𝑎
𝜂𝑑 =
ℎ02 − ℎ𝑎

𝛾−1
𝑃02 𝛾
ℎ02𝑆 − ℎ𝑎 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 [( ) − 1]
𝑃𝑎

Total diffuser pressure ratio:

𝛾
𝑃02 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
𝑟𝑑 = = (1 + 𝜂𝑑 𝑀 )
𝑃𝑎 2

Compressor:

h 3 P03
3S

ℎ03𝑆 −ℎ02
𝜂𝐶 = ℎ03 −ℎ02

P02
2
S
93
Turbine: h
4
h04

ℎ −ℎ
𝜂𝑡 = ℎ 04−ℎ 05
04 05𝑆
h05
5
h05S 5S

Nozzle:

ℎ06 − ℎ7
𝜂𝑛 =
ℎ06 − ℎ7𝑆

Combustion efficiency:

QR = ideal heat of combustion

bQR = actual heat release

b = burner or combustion efficiency

Typical values:

0.7 < d < 0.9 ( depends on M∞)

0.85 < c < 0.9 (compressor maps)

0.90 < t < 0.95

0.97 < b < 0.99

0.95 < n < 0.98

94
 1. Statik Turbojet Performance

𝐹
𝑆pecific thrust =
𝑚̇𝑎

Thrust specific fuel consumption:

𝑓 𝑓
𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 = =
𝐹⁄ 𝐼𝑎 𝑔
𝑚̇𝑎

Air specific impulse:

𝐹
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑔𝑚̇𝑎

For most turbojet Pe =P∞ 

F = ṁ a [(1 + f)Ve − V∞ ]

𝐹 1
𝐼𝑎 = = [(1 + f)Ve − V∞ ]
𝑔𝑚̇𝑎 𝑔

𝑓 𝑓
𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑠 = =
𝐼𝑎 𝑔 (1 + f)Ve − V∞

𝑃03
= 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑃02
𝑇04 𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 =?
𝛼= = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑇𝑎
𝜂𝑑 , 𝜂𝑐 , 𝜂𝑏 , 𝜂𝑡 , 𝜂𝑛 }

Neglect nozzle inlet velocity:

𝑉72 𝑉𝑒2
ℎ06 = ℎ6 = ℎ7 + = ℎ7 +
2 2

𝑉𝑒 = √2(ℎ6 − ℎ7 ) = √∆ℎ𝑛

∆ℎ𝑛 ≡ 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦

Ve V∞ Ve
𝐼𝑎 = [(1 + f) − ] = [(1 + f) − 𝒱]
𝑔 Ve 𝑔

95
Dimensionless form

Let 𝐶∞ = √2𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 (velocity of ambien t if expanded to 0 K and P =0 atm)

Ta = T∞

𝑔𝐼𝑎 Ve ∆ℎ𝑛
= [(1 + f) − 𝒱] = √ [(1 + f) − 𝒱] = λ
𝐶∞ 𝐶∞ 𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞

λ ≡ specific thrust parameter

For static conditions :

∆ℎ𝑛
λst = (1 + f) √
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞

Simplified analysis

Assume :

1. f << 1  𝑚̇𝑎 ≅ 𝑚̇𝑒

2. working fluid is air, ideal gas, constant specific heat coefficients
3. Neglect pressure losses in combustion chamber and in afterburner: P3=P4, P5=P6
4. Perfectly expanded nozzle: P7=Pa=P∞
5. Neglect auxiliary power units

Notation

Compressor:
𝛾−1
𝑇03𝑆 𝑃03 𝛾
𝜃𝐶 = =( )
𝑇02 𝑃02

In Static case: T02 = Ta = T∞ , P02 = Pa = P∞

96
Turbine:
𝛾−1
1 𝑇04 𝑃04 𝛾
= =( )
𝜃𝑡 𝑇05𝑆 𝑃05

Nozzle:
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
1 𝑇06 𝑃06 𝛾 𝑃06 𝛾
= =( ) =( )
𝜃𝑛 𝑇7𝑆 𝑃7 𝑃∞

tc = tc ≡ machine efficiency

𝑇04
𝛼= ,
𝑇∞

𝑇7𝑆
∆ℎ𝑛 = 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇06 − 𝑇7 ) = 𝜂𝑛 𝐶𝑃 𝑇06 (1 − )
𝑇06

∆ℎ𝑛 = 𝜂𝑛 𝐶𝑃 𝑇06 (1 − 𝜃𝑛 )

𝛾−1
𝛾−1 𝛾
1 𝑃06 𝛾 𝑃06 𝑃05 𝑃04 𝑃03 𝑃02
=( ) =( ) = 𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝐶
𝜃𝑛 𝑃𝑎 𝑃⏟
05 𝑃04 𝑃
⏟03 𝑃02 ⏟
𝑃𝑎
1 1 1

𝜃𝑛 𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝐶 = 1

1
∆ℎ𝑛 = 𝜂𝑛 𝐶𝑃 𝑇06 (1 − )
𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝐶

Turbine specific work = compressor specific work

∆ℎ𝑡 = ∆ℎ𝐶

𝐶𝑃 (𝑇03𝑆 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝐶𝑃 𝜂𝑡 (𝑇04 − 𝑇05𝑆 ) =
𝜂𝐶

𝑇03𝑆
𝑇05𝑆 𝑇𝑎 ( 𝑇 − 1)
𝑎
𝜂𝑡 𝑇04 (1 − )=
𝑇04 𝜂𝐶

97
 𝑇04
𝛼=
𝑇𝑎

(𝜃𝐶 − 1)
𝛼 𝜂𝑡 (1 − 𝜃𝑡 ) =
𝜂𝐶

or

1 𝛼 𝜂𝑡𝑐
=
𝜃𝑡 𝛼 𝜂𝑡𝑐 − 𝜃𝐶 + 1

𝜃𝐶 − 1
𝜃𝑡 = 1 −
𝛼 𝜂𝑡𝑐

Remarks:
1
1. For fixed  and C tc  →   nozzle pressure drop increases
𝜃𝑡
1
2. As  increases decreases
𝜃𝑡

Without Afterburning:

T06 = T05 (turbine exit)

∆ℎ𝑡 ∆ℎ𝐶
𝑇05 = 𝑇04 − = 𝑇04 −
𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃

f<<1,

𝑇05 = 𝑇04 − (𝑇03 − 𝑇𝑎 )

For Ta=T0a V∞ = 0, then

(𝑇03𝑆 − 𝑇𝑎 ) 𝑇04 1 𝑇03𝑆

𝑇05 = 𝑇04 − = 𝑇𝑎 [ − ( − 1)]
𝜂𝐶 𝑇𝑎 𝜂𝐶 𝑇𝑎

𝜃𝐶 − 1
𝑇06 = 𝑇𝑎 [𝛼 − ]
𝜂𝐶

1 𝜃𝐶 − 1 1
∆ℎ𝑛 = 𝜂𝑛 𝐶𝑃 𝑇06 (1 − ) = 𝜂𝑛 𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 [𝛼 − ] (1 − )
𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝐶 𝜂𝐶 𝜃𝑡 𝜃𝐶

98
 ∆ℎ𝑛 𝜂𝑛 𝛼 𝜂𝑡𝑐 − 𝜃𝐶 1
= ( ) (𝛼 𝜂𝐶 − 𝜃𝐶 + 1) (1 − )
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 𝜂𝐶 𝛼 𝜂𝑡𝑐 − 𝜃𝐶 + 1 𝜃𝐶

∆ℎ𝑛
𝜆𝑠𝑡 = (1 + 𝑓)√
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎

for C = 0.85 , t = 0.9 , n = 0.93 ve M∞=0 :

1,4

1,2
st
1 =2
0,8 =3

0,6 =4
=5
0,4
=6
0,2

0
C
1 2 3 4

Brayton cycle operate for fixed temperature ratio.

For fixed , as C increases, amount of heat added decreases.

The combustion chamber

Energy balance:

(1 + 𝑓)ℎ04 = 𝑓𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏 + ℎ03

1+f ≈1 

𝑓𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏 𝑇04 𝑇03

= −
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎
𝑇04 𝑇03 𝜃𝐶 −1
𝛼= ve = +1 
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎 𝜂𝑐

99
 𝑓𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏 𝜃𝐶 − 1
=𝛼− −1
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 𝜂𝑐

𝜃𝐶 − 1
𝛼− 𝜂𝑐 − 1
𝑓=
𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎

𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏
≡ 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎

Remarks
𝑄 𝑅 𝜂𝑏
1. characterizes the fuel and combustion chamber design and approxiamately
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎
constant
2. For fixed , as C  and C  → f 
3. For fixed C and C, as   → f 

Specific fuel consumption:

𝑓
𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐶∞ 𝜆𝑠𝑡

TSFC
=2
=3
=4
=5

1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4

C

100
 3. Turbojet Performance at Flight

Ve Ve V∞
λ= [(1 + f) − 𝒱] = (1 + f) −
𝐶∞ 𝐶∞ 𝐶∞

∆ℎ𝑛 γ−1
=√ (1 + f) − √ M∞
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞ 2

Effect of ram drag ------ results a decrease in  or Ia

Inlet Performance
𝛾−1
𝑇02𝑆 𝑃02 𝛾
𝜃𝑑 = =( )
𝑇𝑎 𝑃𝑎

𝑇02
𝛼𝑑 = ≡ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑇𝑎
𝑇 𝑇04
𝛼𝐶 = 𝑇04 , 𝛼=
02 𝑇𝑎

𝛾−1
𝑃02 𝑇02 𝑇02𝑆 𝑃02 𝛾
Measure , , = (𝑃 )
𝑃𝑎 𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎 𝑎

M∞ P02
Pa

 = d C  = d C ≡ overall pressure ratio parameter

ℎ02𝑆 − ℎ𝑎
𝜂𝑑 =
ℎ02 − ℎ𝑎

101
 𝑇02 𝛾−1 2
𝛼𝑑 = = 1+ 𝑀∞
𝑇∞ 2

𝛾−1 2
𝜃𝑑 = 1 + 𝜂𝑑 𝑀∞
2

hc = ht  turbine pressure ratio parameter

𝜃𝑐 − 1
𝜃𝑡 = 1 −
𝛼𝑐 𝜂𝑡𝑐

1
= 𝜃𝑑 𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑡
𝜃𝑛

Can show 

∆ℎ𝑛 𝜂𝑛 𝛼𝑐 𝜂𝑡𝑐
= [𝛼 𝜂𝑐 − 𝛼𝑑 (𝜃𝐶 − 1)] [1 − ]
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞ 𝜂𝐶 𝜃𝐶 [1 + 𝜂𝑑 (𝛼𝑑 − 1)][𝛼𝑐 𝜂𝑡𝑐 − (𝜃𝐶 − 1)]

𝑓𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏 𝜃𝐶 − 1
=𝛼− 𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝑑
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞ 𝜂𝑐

 = 1.4, C = 0.85, t = 0.9, n = 0.93, d = 0.91, Ta= 300 K →

2,5
∆ℎ𝑛
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞ 2 M=0
M=0.8
1,5
M=1.6

1 M=2.4
M=3.2
0,5

0
1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4
C

102
Remarks:

1. 𝛼𝑑 > 1 and  is fixed  f decreases with increasing d (or M∞)

𝑓𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏 𝜃𝐶 −1
For 𝛼𝑑 = 1  =𝛼− −1 Same as before with static case.
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞ 𝜂𝑐

∆ℎ𝑛
2. M∞  →    Ia  (M∞  → √𝐶  but this generally out balanced by
𝑃 𝑇∞

γ−1
decrease due to √ M∞ )
2
𝑓
3. 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶~ 𝜆 , M∞  → f  and   more rapidly than f  TSFC  with M∞

Variation of specific fuel consumption with flight speed:

3.20
TSFC x1E 5

2.80

2.40

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00

V

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑔

Must determine the variation of air mass flow 𝑚̇𝑎 with M∞.

𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝐴𝑐

Ac = ?

103
Can get approximate idea of 𝑚̇𝑎 variation by using the fact that flow in turbine nozzle is
generally choked.

T04, P04 stator

A*, M=1

Rotor blades

Turbine flow is choked →

𝛾+1
𝑃04 𝐴∗ 𝛾 2 2(𝛾−1)
𝑚̇𝑎 = √ ( )
√𝑇04 𝑅 𝛾+1
𝛾
𝑃04 𝑃03 𝑃02 𝑃02 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 𝑇04
𝑃04 = 𝑃𝑎 𝑃 𝑃 , = (1 + 𝜂𝑑 2 𝑀∞ ) , =𝛼
⏟03 02 𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑇𝑎
~1

𝛾 𝛾+1
𝑃𝑎 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 (𝑃03 ⁄𝑃02 )𝐴∗ 𝛾 2 2(𝛾−1)
𝑚̇𝑎 = (1 + 𝜂𝑑 𝑀∞ ) √ ( )
√𝑇𝑎 2 √𝛼 𝑅 𝛾+1

Key variables : altitude, flight speed, fuel flow  controlled by pilot.

At given altitude, fuel flow rate  determines shaft speed and compressor pressure ratio

Max cruise

Max climb

Max continuous ----- constant compressor—turbine RPM Curves

104
 1
f dominates
Ia
0,8 𝑚̇𝑎
F dominates
Ia
0,6 dominates
𝑚̇𝑎 ma
Ia
0,4
F

0,2

0
0 0,5 1 1,5 M∞ 2

Remarks:

1. M∞  → 𝑚̇𝑎 
2. altitude  → Ta   𝑚̇𝑎 
3. for given RPM , V∞   𝑚̇𝑎 
4. M∞   F  then  and again 
5. V∞   TSFC 
6. Altitude   F, 𝑚̇𝑎 , TSFC 

Example

For a turbojet engine, pressure ratio is 32 and maximum temperature in the cycle is 1800 K.
determine followings for the flight Mach number of 0.9:

( d = 0.97, c = 0.85, b = 0.99, t = 0.9, n = 0.98, QR = 45000 kJ/kg )

a) Specific thrust
b) Specific fuel consumption
c) Thermal efficiency
d) Propulsion efficiency
e) Overall efficiency

105
Solution:
𝛾−1
𝑃03 𝛾 0.4
𝜃𝐶 = ( ) = 321.4 = 2.6918
𝑃02

𝑇04 1800
𝛼= = =6
𝑇𝑎 300

𝛾−1 2
𝛼𝑑 = 1 + 𝑀∞ = 1.162
2
𝛾−1 2
𝜃𝑑 = 1 + 𝜂𝑑 𝑀∞ = 1.1571
2
𝛼
𝛼𝐶 = = 5.1635
𝛼𝑑

𝜃𝑐 − 1 2.6918 − 1
𝜃𝑡 = 1 − =1− = 0.5717
𝛼𝑐 𝜂𝑡𝑐 5.1635 ∙ 0.9 ∙ 0.85

1
𝜃𝑛 = = 0.5615
𝜃𝑑 𝜃𝑐 𝜃𝑡

∆ℎ𝑛 𝜂𝑛
= [𝛼 𝜂𝑐 − 𝛼𝑑 (𝜃𝐶 − 1)][1 − 𝜃𝑛 ] = 1.5844
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞ 𝜂𝐶

𝜃𝐶 − 1 𝑄𝑅 𝜂𝑏
𝑓 = {𝛼 − 𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝑑 }⁄ = 0.0171
𝜂𝑐 𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞

a)

∆ℎ𝑛 γ−1
λ=√ (1 + f) − √ M∞ = 0.8777
𝐶𝑃 𝑇∞ 2

b)

𝐶∞ = √2𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑎 = 776.5707 𝑚/𝑠

106
 𝑓
𝑠 = 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 = = 2.5089 ∙ 10−5
𝐶∞ λ
c)

𝑉𝑒 = √2 ∙ ∆ℎ𝑛 = 977.44 𝑚/𝑠

𝑉∞ = 𝑀∞ 𝑎 = 0.9 ∙ √1.4 ∙ 287 ∙ 300 = 312.4692 𝑚/𝑠

𝑉𝑒2 𝑉∞2
(1 + 𝑓) −
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 2 2 = 0.5673
𝑉∞2
𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + )
2

d)
[(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ]𝑉∞
𝜂𝑝 = = 0.4874
𝑉𝑒2 𝑉∞2
(1 + 𝑓) −
2 2

e)
[(1 + 𝑓)𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉∞ ]𝑉∞
𝜂𝑂 = = 0.2765
𝑉∞2
𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + )
2

C. TURBOFAN ENGINE

~ fan jet engine

Consider ideal turbofan engine

i.e. d = c = t = n = 1

Static thrust = ?

Separate primary and secondary stream

Key feature: turbine drives both the primary compressors and the fan.

107
 What do we want to know

F = thrust

Ia = air specific impulse

s = thrust specific fuel consumption

𝑚′̇𝑎
𝑉′7

𝑉7
𝑚̇𝑎

nozzle
turbine
fan C.C
compressor

Pe = Pa = P7

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑉7 + 𝑚̇𝑎′ 𝑉7′

By-pass ratio :

𝑚̇𝑎′
𝛽=
𝑚̇𝑎

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝑉7 + 𝛽𝑉7′ )

𝐹
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = = 𝑔𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉7 + 𝛽𝑉7′
𝑚̇𝑎

note :

Ia or gIa , is based on primary air flow 𝑚̇𝑎 ----sets turbine and combustor design and TSFC.

108
Problem : how to determine  = ?

A fan design will affect Ia and TSFC.

As   → V7  will decrease since more of turbine work is used to drive the fan.

Turbine Power Balance:

𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝛽𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3′ − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇4 − 𝑇5 )

Compressor power + fan power = turbine power

𝑇3 𝑇3′ 𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑇5
( − 1) + 𝛽 ( − 1) = (1 − )
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑇4

Parameters:
𝛾−1
𝑃3 𝛾 𝑇3𝑆
𝜃𝑐 = ( ) =
𝑃2 𝑇2
𝛾−1
𝑃5 𝛾 𝑇5𝑆
𝜃𝑡 = ( ) =
𝑃4 𝑇4
𝛾−1
𝑃3′ 𝛾 𝑇3′𝑆
𝜃𝑓 = ( ) =
𝑃2 𝑇2

𝑇4 𝑇4
𝛼= =
𝑇𝑎 𝑇2

(for statc case Ta = T2)

For lossless engine:

𝑇3𝑆 𝑇3 𝑇5𝑆 𝑇5 𝑇3′𝑆 𝑇3′

= , = , =
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇4 𝑇4 𝑇2 𝑇2

Solve power balance for θt :

𝑇5 1
𝜃𝑡 = = 1 − [(𝜃𝑐 − 1) + 𝛽(𝜃𝑓 − 1)]
𝑇4 𝛼

For  = 0 pure turbojet:

109
 𝜃𝑐 − 1
𝜃𝑡 = 1 −
𝛼

(same as for pure turbojet with tc =1)

𝑔𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉7 + 𝛽𝑉7′ → 𝑉7 , 𝑉7′ = ? assume f << 1 .

Energy equation across fan:

𝑉7′2 = 2𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3′ − 𝑇2 )

Let 𝐶∞ = √2𝐶𝑃 𝑇2 

𝑇3′
𝑉7′2 = 𝐶∞
2 2
( − 1) = 𝐶∞ (𝜃𝑓 − 1)
𝑇2

𝑇5 𝑇7
𝑉72 = 2∆ℎ𝑛 = 2𝐶𝑃 (𝑇5 − 𝑇7 ) = 𝐶∞
2
( − )
𝑇2 𝑇2
𝑇5 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
= 𝑇5 𝑇4 𝑇3 = 𝛼𝜃𝑡 (for lossless case)
𝑇2 ⏟4 ⏟3 2
𝜃𝑡 𝛼

𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1

𝑇7 𝑇7 𝑇5 𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑃7 𝛾 𝑃5 𝛾 𝑇4 𝑃3 𝛾
= =( ) ( ) ( )
𝑇2 𝑇5 𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑃5 𝑃4 𝑇3 𝑃2

Static case P7 = P2 = Pa, and for ideal engine P3 = P4 

𝑇7 𝑇4 𝑇4 𝑇2 𝛼
= = =
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝜃𝑐

1
∴ 𝑉72 = 𝐶∞
2
𝛼 (𝜃𝑡 − )
𝜃𝑐

Use relation for t, i.e.:

𝑇5 1
𝜃𝑡 = = 1 − [(𝜃𝑐 − 1) + 𝛽(𝜃𝑓 − 1)]
𝑇4 𝛼

Finally :

1
𝑉72 = 𝐶∞
2
[(𝛼 − 𝜃𝑐 ) (1 − ) − 𝛽(𝜃𝑓 − 1)]
𝜃𝑐

110
Let

1 ∆ℎ𝑛
𝐴 = (𝛼 − 𝜃𝑐 ) (1 − )= = 𝜆2𝑠𝑡
𝜃𝑐 𝐶𝑃 𝑇2

𝑔𝐼𝑎
= 𝜆𝑓 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐶∞

Using 𝑔𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉7 + 𝛽𝑉7′ :

1/2
1 1/2
𝜆𝑓 = [(𝛼 − 𝜃𝑐 ) (1 − ) − 𝛽(𝜃𝑓 − 1)] + 𝛽(𝜃𝑓 − 1)
𝜃𝑐

By-pass ratio  does not affect fuel air ratio f.

𝛼−𝜃𝑐 𝑓
Ideal case 𝑓 = 2𝑄𝑅 , 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑠 = 𝐶
⁄𝐶 2 ∞ 𝜆𝑓
∞

Comments :

1. For fixed α, θc, QR an increase in λf will result in a reduction in TSFC.

1
2. 𝐴 = (𝛼 − 𝜃𝑐 ) (1 − 𝜃 ) ~ characterizes primary turbojet performance.
𝑐
3. 𝐹 = 𝜃𝑓 − 1 ~ characterizes fan performance.

𝜆𝑓 = (𝐴 − 𝛽𝐹)1/2 + 𝛽𝐹1/2

Consider :

1. Effect of by-pass ratio  on 𝜆𝑓 when A and F are fixed.

2. Effect of fan pressure ratio 𝜃𝑓 (i.e. F) on 𝜆𝑓 when A and  are fixed

Effective variable is .

When β = 0  𝜆𝑓 = 𝐴1/2
𝐴
 has to be 𝛽 ≤ 𝐹 , otherwise λf becomes complex.

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 𝐴
𝛽>𝐹  insufficient turbine power to drive the fan

𝐴 𝐴
When 𝛽 = 𝐹  𝜆𝑓 = 𝐹1/2

1. Optimum by-pass ratio:

𝑑𝜆𝑓
= 0   = *
𝑑𝛽

𝐴 1
𝛽∗ = ( − )
𝐹 4

𝐹 1/2 𝐴 1
𝜆𝑓 = ( ) + 𝐹1/2 ( − )
𝑚𝑎𝑥 4 𝐹 4
Example

 = 5.5, Ta =300 K → T04 = 1650 K

𝑃03
= 20 → c = 2.354 ,
𝑃02

𝑃03′
= 2 , γ = 1.4 → f = 1.2129, F = 0.219, A = 1.81 
𝑃02

 0 * = 8.015 A/F = 8.2648

λf 1.345 3.985 3.868

Remarks :

1. Considerable improvement in λf.

2. (λf)max occurs for fairly high by-pass ratio.

Effective variable F (fan pressure ratio) on λf with A and  fixed:

When F = 0  𝜆𝑓 = 𝐴1/2 ( same as  = 0 , no by-pass)

𝐴
When 𝐹 = 𝛽 maximum possible value of F for given A and ,

then  𝜆𝑓 = (𝛽𝐴)1/2

112
for maximum 𝜆𝑓
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴
when 𝐹 = 𝐹 ∗ = 1+𝛽  𝜆𝑓 = [𝐴(1 + 𝛽)]1/2
𝑚𝑎𝑥

Example

=6 

F 0 F* =0.2586 A/ = 0.3017

f 1.345 3.559 3.295

Next: combined effect of f with  for different values of F. Much higher maximum f is
possible.

Example

Consider fan jet engine with inlet mass flow rate of 𝑚̇𝑖 . The portion of 𝑚̇𝑖 passes through
turbojet part and the amount (1-)𝑚̇𝑖 passes from the fan. Nozzle exit pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. The velocity at turbojet exit is Ve1 , and at the fan exit is Ve2 =  Ve1. The
speed ratio is v = V / Ve1. Determine the following relations?
𝑉𝑒1
𝐼𝑎 = [𝛽(1 + 𝑓) + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 − 𝑣]
𝑔

2[𝛽(1 + 𝑓) + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 − 𝑣]𝑣

𝜂𝑃 =
𝛽 + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 2 + 𝛽𝑓 − 𝑣 2

𝑉2𝑒1
[𝛽 + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎2 + 𝛽𝑓 − 𝑣2 ]
2
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑉∞2
𝛽𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 +
2)
2 [𝛽(1
𝑉𝑒1 + 𝑓) + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 − 𝑣]𝑣
𝜂𝑂 =
𝑉2∞
𝛽𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + )
2
Solution

113
 𝐹=𝑚
⏟̇ 𝑒1 𝑉𝑒1 + 𝑚
⏟̇ 𝑖2 𝑉𝑒2 − 𝑚
⏟̇ 𝑖 𝑉∞
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑚

𝑚̇𝑒1 = (1 + 𝑓)𝑚̇𝑖1 , ̇ 𝑖2 , 𝑚̇𝑖1 = 𝛽 𝑚̇𝑖 , 𝑚̇𝑖2 = (1 − 𝛽) 𝑚̇𝑖

𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑖1 +𝑚

𝑉𝑒2 = 𝜎𝑉𝑒1 , 𝑣 = 𝑉∞ ⁄𝑉𝑒2 →

𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑉𝑒1 [𝛽(1 + 𝑓) + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 − 𝑣]

𝐹 𝑉𝑒1
𝐼𝑎 = = [𝛽(1 + 𝑓) + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 − 𝑣]
𝑚̇𝑖 𝑔 𝑔

𝐹 ∙ 𝑉∞ 2[𝛽(1 + 𝑓) + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 − 𝑣]𝑣

𝜂𝑃 = 2 2 =
𝑉𝑒1 𝑉𝑒2 𝑉∞2 𝛽 + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 2 + 𝛽𝑓 − 𝑣 2
(1 + 𝑓)𝑚̇𝑖1
2 + 𝑚̇𝑖2 2 − 𝑚̇𝑖 2

𝑉2𝑒1 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2𝑒1
(1 + 𝑓)𝑚̇ 𝑖1 + 𝑚̇ 𝑖2 𝑒2 − 𝑚̇ 𝑖 ∞ [𝛽 + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎2 + 𝛽𝑓 − 𝑣2 ]
2 2 2 2
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =
𝑉2 𝑉∞2
𝑚̇ 𝑖 𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 + ∞ ) 𝛽𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 +
2 2)

𝑉2𝑒1 [𝛽(1 + 𝑓) + (1 − 𝛽)𝜎 − 𝑣]𝑣

𝜂𝑂 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ 𝜂𝑃 =
𝑉∞2
𝛽𝑓 (𝑄𝑅 +
2)

2. PROPELLER

used in general aviation aircraft

could consider as unshrouded fan

renewed interest in use in high speed commercial aircraft.

A. Dimensionless Performance Parameters and Propeller Geometry

114
 𝑉

CL, CD, angle of attack, geometrically similar airfoil

A propeller ≡ a twisted rotating wing

Blade section Velocity components at radius r :

V = in the direction of propeller axes

U = tangential velocity in plane blade ( to axes)

U=rw=2πrn (n = rps)

 V

rw

 ≡ Angle between plane of rotation and air velocity relative to blade section (helix angle)

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
tan 𝛾 = = =
𝑈 𝑟𝑤 2𝜋𝑟𝑛

Since V is fixed  decreases with increasing radius.

115
β ≡ angle between blade chord and the plane of rotation (blade angle)

𝛼 = 𝛽 − 𝛾 ≡ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘

Comments :

1. Blade must be twisted to maintain reasonable values of α.

2. Blade must be thicker near the hub to support centrifugal stresses.

If 𝛽′ ≡ angle between zero lift line and plane of rotation

𝛼 ′ = 𝛽 ′ − 𝛾 = 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

3. The Advance Ratio

Consider a given propeller  (r) is known and fixed

𝛼(𝑟) = 𝛽(𝑟) − 𝛾(𝑟)

(r) : is completely determined if one value of (r), e.g.  = 1 at blade tip is known.

At Tip:

w = 2πn , d = propeller diameter

2𝑉 𝑉
tan 𝛾1 = =
𝑤𝑑 𝜋𝑛𝑑

𝑉 𝑑 𝑉 𝑑
tan 𝛾 = = = tan 𝛾1
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 2𝜋𝑟 𝑛𝑑 2𝑟

𝑑 𝑉
𝛼(𝑟) = 𝛽(𝑟) − tan−1
2𝜋𝑟 𝑛𝑑
116
 𝑉
𝐽= = 𝜋 tan 𝛾1 ≡ 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑛𝑑

Two Geometrically similar propellers

r d r’ d’

Blade sections

At r and r’ such that

𝑟 𝑑
=
𝑟 ′ 𝑑′

Have geometrically similar profiles   = ’ at r =r’

Follows that   = ’

𝑉 𝑉′
Only if  𝐽 = 𝑛𝑑 = 𝐽′ = 𝑛′ 𝑑′

α

V

rw

117
Consider a series of geometrically similar propellers each with the same advance ratio

𝑉 = 𝐽𝑛𝑑

2𝜋𝑟
𝑈=( ) 𝑛𝑑
𝑑
At corresponding blade elements same (r/d)

Tangential velocity  nd

Propeller thrust: T

4. Dimensional analysis

If we carry out dimensional analysis for thrust, moment and power 

Propeller thrust ≡ T 𝑇~𝜌(𝑛𝑑)2 𝑑 2

Thrust coefficient:

𝑇
𝐶𝑇 = = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒, 𝐽)
𝜌𝑛2 𝑑 4

𝜌(𝑛𝑑)𝑑
𝑅𝑒 = : 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑜
𝜇

For large Re numbers dependence of CT on Re is small.

Propeller moment: 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑛2 𝑑 5 𝐶𝑄

CQ ≡ moment coefficient

𝒫
𝐶𝑃 = ≡ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑛3 𝑑 5

Power : 𝒫 = 2πnQ , CP = 2πCQ

basic performance coefficients CP, CQ and CT are all function of J and Re and propeller geometry
and also design.

118
Propeller efficiency:

𝑇𝑉 𝐶𝑇 𝑉 𝐶𝑇
𝜂𝑃 = = = 𝐽
𝒫 𝐶𝑃 𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑃

𝑑
𝛼 = 𝛽 − tan−1 𝐽
2𝜋𝑟

 → J 

CT  → J 

CL ~ α for each blade elements

CD ~α2

C P  → J2 

C T = 0  J = J1

𝐽1 − 𝐽
≡ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝
𝐽

119
Example

V =300 km/h, d =3 m, n = 2778 rpm, ρ = 1.177 kg/m3  J, T, 𝒫, ηP = ?

Solution

𝑉 83.33 𝑚/𝑠
𝐽= = = 0.6
𝑛𝑑 46.3 𝑟𝑝𝑠 𝑥 3 𝑚

From the plot : CP ≈ 0.041 , CT ≈ 0.055

𝒫 = 𝜌𝑛3 𝑑 5 𝐶𝑃 = 11.64𝑥105 𝑊
𝐶
𝑇 = 𝜌𝑛2 𝑑4 𝐶𝑇 = 1.12𝑥104 𝑁 , 𝜂𝑃 = 𝐶𝑇 𝐽 = 0.804
𝑃

Example
For an aircraft with propeller engine, V = 300 km/h, d =3 m, n = 2500 rpm, ρ = 1.177 kg/m3
parameter values are given. If this aircraft flies the range of 5000 km with diesel engine instead
of gasoline engine, how much fuel mass will be saved?

Solution
𝑉 83.33
𝐽= = = 0.67
𝑛𝑑 41.6777 𝑥 3

120
From the plot : CP ≈ 0.036 , CT ≈ 0.045

𝐶𝑇
𝜂𝑃 = 𝐽 = 0.83
𝐶𝑃
For gasoline engine → s = 8.448×10-8 kg/N.s
For diesel engine → s = 5.9136×10-8 kg/N.s

𝐿
𝑃 (𝐷) 𝑀1
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
𝑔 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑀2
𝐿
0.83 ∙ 15 𝑀1 𝑃 (𝐷) 𝑀1
5000 ∙ 1000 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
9.81 ∙ 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑀2 𝑔 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑀2

𝑀 𝑀
(𝑀1 ) = 1.3967, (𝑀1 ) = 1.2623
2 𝑏 2 𝑑

Take M1=M2+Mf then:

(𝑀𝑓 )𝑏 − (𝑀𝑓 )𝑑
= 0.1344
𝑀2

121