Chapter 2

Articles of Confederation

- The first form of government for the new nation

- Redefined the former colonies as states and loosely united them as a confederation or alliance
under one governing authority
- Each state wrote its own Constitution
- Each state Constitution shared features: Provided different branches of government, protected
individual freedoms, and they affirmed that the ruling power came from the people
- Created a “loose league of friendship” among the states
- Entitled Congress to engage in international diplomatic war, and acquire territory

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

- A unanimous vote was required to alter or amend the Articles

- At least nine states must agree in order to enact a national law
- The requirement that all states must agree in order to amend the system of government proved
daunting
- Congress could not tax the people directly
- No National court system or national currency
- Congress could not regulate commerce among states

Problems with the Inability to Tax

- The national government relied on voluntary assistance from states to meet its financial needs
- States had the ability to pay those taxes but had disdain for taxes imposed by a national
government

Shay’s Rebellion

- In Massachusetts in 1786, a large group of impoverished farmed, including many Revolutionary

War veterans, lost their farms to mortgage foreclosures
- They organized, disrupted government, and obstructed court claims
- Daniel Shays led a band of violent insurgents to the federal arsenal in Springfield
- Local authorities had difficulty raising a militia and were only able to do so because of private
funds
- Even though Shay lost, it demonstrated to the nation’s leaders that the lack of centralized
military power posed a threat to America’s security

Article V

- The Constitution can be altered or amended in a two-stage process

- Stage one: a proposal from either two-thirds of the House and Senate, or with a two-thirds vote at
a convention initiated by the states and called by Congress
- Stage two: Ratification, which is completed by a vote of three-fourths of state legislatures or
three-fourths of state ratifying conventions.

Bicameral

- A two-house legislature
- The people elect the lower house whose members elect the higher house

Bill of Rights

- Idea presented by Anti-Federalists

- Explicitly laid out the rights of the people
- Federalists deemed it unnecessary because these were implied by in the Constitution

Electoral College: States decide how their electors are chosen, with each state having the same number
of electors as they have representatives in congress.

Every Student Succeeds Act (2015)

- States are free to determine their own standards for educational achievement, while still
upholding protections for disadvantaged students
- The Federal Department of Education must still approve each state’s plan, assuring that the states
live up to the requirements in the federal law

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

- More populated states wanted more representation, while smaller states wanted equal footing
- Created a two-house system (the one in place today)
- House of Representatives being voted on by the people, and a senate being voted on by the House
of Representatives

New Jersey Plan

- Assured states their sovereignty through a national government with limited and defined power
- No defined court system
- Each state got one vote.

No Child Left behind (2002)

- Called for improvements in teaching methods, testing to measure progress, and sanctions for
underperforming schools
- To implement these changes, the federal government increased its role and level of oversight in
education
Race to the Top

- Offered incentives, rather than the sanctions of No Child Left Behind

- Offered incentives for states to adopt new national standards or develop their own that require
students to be college-and-career ready at graduation

Three-Fifths Compromise

- Only three-fifths of a state's slaves were counted when deciding representation in Congress

USA PATRIOT Act (2001)

- Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and
Obstruct Terrorism
- Law covered intelligence gathering and sharing by executive branch agencies, points of criminal
procedure, and border protection
- Allowed government agencies to share information about significant subjects, and it widened
authority on tapping suspects’ phones
- Government can share grand jury testimony and proceedings, detain illegal immigrants for longer
periods, and monitor email communication
- People questioned the legality of it

Virginia Plan

- Three branch system

- Congress two house (Bicameral)
- The people elect the house who, in turn, elect the senate.

Advice and Consent: The Senate can suggest appointees and must formally approve most presidential
appointments, for example of checks on the executive branch

Federalist No. 51

- “If men were angels, no government would be necessary”

- Points out the separation powers outlined in the Constitution as a guard against tyranny
- States that the best protection of the minority is that “the society itself will be broken into so
many parties, interests, and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals, or the majority, will be in
little danger from interested combinations of the majority”
Impeachment

- Example of Checks on the Executive and Judicial Branch by Congress

- The House has “the sole power of impeachment” and can impeach the president, a federal judge,
or another official of wrongdoing
- The Senate holds a trial for the accused official
- Chief Justice presides as the judge at the trial

Pocket Veto: When the President receives a bill at the end of a legislative session and refuses to sign it,
thus killing the bill

Separation of Power: Divides the federal government into three branches, executive, judicial, and
legislative, each with its own responsibilities and tasks

Stakeholders: People or groups who will be affected by legislative policies

Two-thirds override: When the President vetoes a bill, Congress can override it with a two-thirds
majority vote

Checks and Balances

- How each branch of government limits the other branches

- Example in the legislative process: vetoes

Veto: The president rejecting a piece of legislation, can be overridden by a ⅔ supermajority vote in
Congress