Effects of rancidity and free fatty acids in choice white grease on growth
performance and nutrient digestibility in weanling pigs1
J. M. DeRouchey, J. D. Hancock2, R. H. Hines, C. A. Maloney,
D. J. Lee, H. Cao, D. W. Dean, and J. S. Park
Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan 66506-0201
ABSTRACT: Two experiments were conducted to de-
termine the effects of rancidity and FFA in choice white
grease (CWG) on growth performance and nutrient di-
gestibility in nursery pigs. In Exp. 1, 150 crossbred pigs
(average initial BW of 6.8 kg and average initial age of
21 d) were used. Treatments (as-fed basis) were a corn-
soybean meal-based control with no added fat, 6%
CWG, and 6% CWG heated at 80°C, with oxygen gas
bubbled through it at 849 mL/min for 5, 7, 9, or 11
d. Peroxide value for the CWG increased as oxidative
exposure was increased from 0 to 7 d (i.e., peroxide
values of 1, 40, and 105 mEq/kg for d 0, 5, and 7, respec-
tively), but decreased to 1 mEq/kg as the hydroperox-
ides decomposed after 9 and 11 d of oxidation. Pigs fed
the control diet (no added fat) had the same (P = 0.91)
overall ADG (d 0 to 35) but lower G:F (P < 0.04) than
pigs fed diets with added fat. As for the effects of fat
quality, ADG (linear effect, P < 0.01) and ADFI (linear
effect, P < 0.001) decreased as the fat was made more
rancid. However, there were no changes in digestibility
of fatty acids as the rancidity of the fat was increased
(P = 0.16), suggesting that the negative effects of rancid-
ity were from decreased food intake and not decreased
Key Words: Fat Quality, Free Fatty Acids, Pigs, Rancidity
2004 American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Fat is added to swine diets to improve rate and/or
efficiency of gain (Stahly and Cromwell, 1979; Cera et
al., 1988; Pettigrew and Moser, 1991). To further iden-
tify and define the beneficial effects of fat on growth
performance, attempts have been made to define fat
quality. However, those research efforts have focused
mainly on the effects of essential fatty acids (Cunnane,
1
Contribution No. 03-133-J from the Kansas Agric. Exp. Stn., Man-
hattan 66506.
2
Correspondence: 244 Weber Hall (phone: 785-532-1230; fax: 785-
532-7059; e-mail: jhancock@oznet.ksu.edu).
Received January 23, 2004.
Accepted May 17, 2004.
2937
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nutrient utilization. In Exp. 2, 125 crossbred pigs (aver-
age initial BW of 6.2 kg and average initial age of 21
d) were used to determine the effects of FFA in CWG
on the growth performance and nutrient digestibility
in nursery pigs. Treatments (as-fed basis) were a corn-
soybean meal-based control with no added fat, 6%
CWG, and 6% CWG that had been treated with 872,
1,752 or 2,248 lipase units/g of fat. The FFA concentra-
tions in the CWG were increased from 2% with no lipase
added to 18, 35, and 53% as lipase additions were in-
creased. Pigs fed the control diet (no added fat) had the
same (P = 0.30) overall ADG (d 0 to 33) but lower G:F
(P < 0.01) than pigs fed diets with added fat. There
were no effects of FFA concentration on ADG (P = 0.18),
and ADFI increased (linear effect, P < 0.04) as FFA
concentration in the CWG increased. Fatty acid digest-
ibility was not affected (P = 0.17) by FFA in the diet.
In conclusion, our data suggest that as fat is oxidized
(especially to peroxide values greater than 40 mEq/kg),
ADG and ADFI in nursery pigs will decrease; however,
FFA concentrations of at least 53% do not adversely
affect utilization of CWG in nursery pigs.
J. Anim. Sci. 2004. 82:2937–2944
1984), unsaturated:saturated fatty acid ratios (Powles
et al., 1995), and fatty acid chain lengths (Hamilton
and McDonald, 1969). Few studies address the effects of
rancidity and FFA concentrations on pig performance.
Experiments with rats (Andrews et al., 1960) and broil-
ers (Cabel et al., 1988) showed decreased growth perfor-
mance, whereas data from experiments with turkeys
(Leeson et al., 1997) and finishing pigs (Lewis et al.,
1976) indicated no affects of increased rancidity of di-
etary fat on growth performance. Additional conflicting
opinions about the effects of fat quality on animal
growth results from the use of commercial fat blends
of unknown sources and backgrounds to generate data
concerning the effects of FFA (Wiseman and Cole,
1987). Thus, our objective was to determine the effects
of rancidity and FFA in a defined source of CWG on
 2938 DeRouchey et al.

Table 1. Composition of diets in Experiments 1 and 2, as-fed basisa

Phase I Phase II Phase III

Ingredient, % Basal Fat added Basal Fat added Basal Fat added

Corn 22.84 22.84 44.10 44.10 47.81 47.81

Soybean meal (46.5% CP) 26.36 26.36 31.52 31.52 41.86 41.86
Dried whey 20.00 20.00 10.00 10.00 — —
Lactose 10.00 10.00 — — — —
Cornstarch 6.00 — 6.00 — 6.00 —
Choice white greaseb — 6.00 — 6.00 — 6.00
Spray-dried wheat gluten 4.00 4.00 — — — —
Spray-dried plasma protein 4.00 4.00 1.00 1.00 — —
Fish meal (menhaden) 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 — —
Monocalcium phosphate (21%) 1.28 1.28 0.85 0.85 1.32 1.32
Limestone 0.89 0.89 0.84 0.84 1.17 1.17
L-LysineⴢHCl 0.32 0.32 0.25 0.25 0.05 0.05
DL-Methionine 0.19 0.19 0.14 0.14 0.05 0.05
L-Threonine 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.10 — —
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.35 0.35
Vitaminsc 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Mineralsc 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Antibioticd 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Zinc oxide 0.32 0.32 0.25 0.25 — —
Copper sulfate — — — — 0.09 0.09
Chromic oxide — — 0.25 0.25 — —
a
Diets were formulated to contain 1.7% lysine, 0.9% Ca, and 0.8% P in Phase I (d 0 to 7 for Exp. 1, and
d 0 to 5 for Exp. 2); 1.55% lysine, 0.8% Ca, and 0.7% P in Phase II (d 7 to 21 for Exp. 1, and d 5 to 19 for
Exp. 2); and 1.4% lysine, 0.8% Ca, and 0.7% P in Phase III (d 21 to 35 for Exp. 1, and d 19 to 33 for Exp.
2).
b
For Exp. 1, choice white grease with 0, 5, 7, 9, and 11 d of thermal (heated at 80°C) and oxidative
exposure (O2 gas at 849 mL/min). For Exp. 2, choice white grease with 0, 872, 1,752, and 2,248 lipase units/
g of fat.
c
Provided (per kilogram of complete diet): 11,025 IU of vitamin A; 1,654 IU of vitamin D; 44 IU of vitamin
E; 4.4 mg of vitamin K (as menadione); 55 mg of niacin; 33 mg of pantothenic acid (as d-calcium pantothen);
10 mg of riboflavin; 0.044 mg of B12; 17 mg of Cu from CuSO4; 165 mg of Fe from FeSO4; 40 mg of Mn from
MnSO4; 0.3 mg of Se from sodium selenite; 165 mg of Zn from ZnO; and 0.3 mg of I from Ca iodate.
e
Provided 165 mg of apramycin/kg of complete diet in Phases I and II and 55 mg of carbadox/kg of complete
diet in Phase III.

growth performance and nutrient digestibility in wean-
ling pigs.
Materials and Methods
Animal care and use for the experiments reported
herein were in accordance with the Guide for the Care
and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Re-
search and Teaching (FASS, 1999).
Experiment 1
One hundred fifty (Line 326 boars × C 22 sows, PIC,
Franklin, KY) piglets, with an average initial BW of
6.8 kg and an average initial age of 21 d, were used in
a 35-d growth assay to determine the effects of rancidity
in choice white grease (CWG) on growth performance
and nutrient digestibility. The pigs were weaned,
blocked by BW, and allotted to pens based on sex and
ancestry. There were five pigs per pen and five pens
per treatment. The diets (Table 1) were formulated to
1.7% lysine for d 0 to 7, 1.55% lysine for d 7 to 21, and
1.4% lysine for d 21 to 35 and to meet or exceed all
nutrient concentrations suggested by the NRC (1998).
Treatment diets were a corn-soybean meal-based con-
trol with no added fat, 6% CWG (Darling Int., Inc.,
Coldwater, MI), and 6% CWG (as-fed basis) subjected
to heating in the presence of oxygen gas for varying
lengths of time. To create rancidity, the CWG was added
to metal barrels (145 kg of CWG/208-L barrel) equipped
with heaters. The fat was heated to 80°C with oxygen
gas bubbled through it for 5, 7, 9, or 11 d. The flow rate
of the gas was 849 mL/min through a 6.4-mm-diameter
hose with multiple punctures to ensure even distribu-
tion of oxygen gas throughout the CWG. On d 5, half
the CWG was removed from one barrel, and the rest of
the fat was heated and oxidized for an additional 2 d
to create the 7-d treatment. On d 9, half the CWG was
removed from the second barrel, and the remainder of
the fat was heated and oxidized for an additional 2 d
to create the 11-d treatment. The CWG treatments were
stabilized with 1 g of an antioxidant (Rendox AT 20
Liquid, Kemin Industries, Inc., Des Moines, IA)/kg of
fat. The fat treatments were stored in a cool room (10°C)
to prevent further development of rancidity. Fat sam-
ples were collected and analyzed for peroxides, p-anisid-
ine, FFA, moisture, impurities, unsaponifiable matter,
and iodine value using AOAC (1990) procedures.

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 Rancidity and free fatty acids for piglets 2939
Table 2. Chemical analysis of choice white grease (Exp. 1, as-fed basis)
Days of thermal and oxidative exposure

Item 0 5 7 9 11

Peroxide value, mEq/kg 1 40 105 1 1

p-Anisidine value 2.5 10.6 20.5 11.1 7.5
Free fatty acids, % 2 2 2 3 3
Total M.I.U., %a 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3
Moisture, % 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Insoluble impurities, % 0 0 0 0 0
Unsaponifiable matter, % 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0
Iodine value 64 61 59 55 55
Unsaturated/saturated ratio 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2
Fatty acids, % of sampleb
C8:0c 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
C10:0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
C12:0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
C14:0 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.5
C16:0 30.3 32.5 32.6 36.0 34.2
C16:1 3.7 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.4
C18:0 7.5 9.3 9.4 8.5 9.4
C18:1 46.0 44.0 43.8 43.4 43.5
C18:2 9.7 8.4 8.0 5.9 6.1
C18:3 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.6
a
Total of moisture, insoluble impurities, and unsaponifiable matter.
b
Fatty acids determined by GLC for choice white grease as derivatized fatty acid methyl esters (Sukhija
and Palmquist, 1988).
c
Number of carbon atoms and double bonds designated to the left and right of colon, respectively.

The pigs were housed in an environmentally con-
trolled building with 1.2- × 1.5-m pens with woven wire
flooring. Room temperature was maintained at 32, 29,
27, and 24°C for d 0 to 7, 7 to 14, 14 to 21, and 21 to
35, respectively. Each pen had a self-feeder and nipple
waterer to allow ad libitum consumption of feed and
water. Pigs and feeders were weighed on d 7, 21, and
35 to allow calculation of ADG, ADFI, and G:F. Chromic
oxide was included in the diets for d 7 to 21 (as an
indigestible marker), and on d 20, fecal samples were
collected from four pigs per pen by rectal massage. Feed
and feces were analyzed for concentrations of Cr (Wil-
liams et al., 1962), DM, GE, ether extract (AOAC, 1990),
and N (FP-2000, Leco Corp., St. Joseph, MO). Fatty
acid concentrations in the fat, feed, and feces were de-
termined with GLC (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1988). Cal-
culations of apparent digestibilities of DM, N, GE, ether
extract, and fatty acids were done using the index ratio
procedure, with Cr2O3 used as the marker.
Statistical analyses were conducted using the GLM
procedure of SAS (SAS Inst., Inc., Cary, NC), with pen
as the experimental unit. Polynomial regression (Pe-
terson, 1985) was used to determine shape of the re-
sponse (linear and quadratic) to increased rancidity in
the CWG.
Experiment 2
One hundred twenty-five (lines 326 boars × C 22 sows,
PIC, Franklin, KY) piglets, with an average initial BW
of 6.2 kg and average initial age of 21 d, were used in
a 33-d growth assay to determine the effects of FFA in
CWG on growth performance and nutrient digestibility.
The pigs were weaned, blocked by BW, and allotted to
pens based on sex and ancestry. There were five pigs
per pen and five pens per treatment. The diets (Table
1) were formulated to 1.7% lysine for d 0 to 5, 1.55%
lysine for d 5 to 19, and 1.4% lysine for d 19 to 33 and
to meet or exceed all nutrient concentrations suggested
by the NRC (1998). Treatment diets were a corn-soy-
bean meal-based control with no added fat, 6% CWG
(Darling Int., Inc.), and 6% CWG (as-fed basis) that had
been heated to 35°C and treated with 872, 1,752, or
2,248 lipase units (Validase Fungal Lipase 8000, Valley
Research Inc., South Bend, IN)/g of fat. For the lipase
treatments, 73 kg of CWG was placed in three barrels
(208 L capacity), mixed with water (1.3:1 water:CWG),
and lipase was added. The mixture was agitated with
a rotating propeller for 12 h and allowed to settle for
24 h for separation of the fat and water. The fat was
collected and stabilized, stored, and analyzed as in
Exp. 1.
The pigs were housed in the same environmentally
controlled nursery room used for Exp. 1. Management
of the room and pigs was the same as in Exp. 1, but
the pigs and feeders were weighed on d 5, 19, and 33
in this experiment. Chromic oxide was included in the
diets as an indigestible marker from d 5 to 19, and on
d 18, fecal samples were collected from four pigs per
pen by rectal massage. Fat, feed, and fecal analyses
were the same as described for Exp. 1.

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 2940
Statistical analyses were performed using the GLM
procedure of SAS, with pen as the experimental unit.
Polynomial regression (Peterson, 1985) was used to de-
termine shape (linear and quadratic) of the response
to increased FFA in the CWG.
Results and Discussion
Experiment 1
Analyses of the CWG (Table 2) indicated that thermal
and oxidative exposure increased peroxide value (a
measure of hydroperoxide concentration) of the fat until
d 7 (i.e., 105 mEq/kg). Then, hydroperoxides decreased
to a level similar to that of the untreated fat with 9
and 11 d of oxidative exposure. Hydroperoxides result
from the loss of hydrogen and addition of oxygen to
replace a double bond in the carbon skeleton of a fatty
acid. A hydroxyl group then attaches to the oxygen at
the broken double bond, and a hydroperoxide is formed
(Frankel, 1998). Hydroperoxides will decompose into
secondary products of aldehydes, carbonyls, ketones,
alcohols, acids, esters, hydrocarbons, lactones, and sub-
stituted furans when exposed to prolonged autoxidation
(Frankel, 1998). Hydroperoxides are odorless, but these
decomposition products create a “rancid” aroma. Also,
the breakdown of hydroperoxides produces free radicals
that are readily reactive with other fatty acids to accel-
erate the initial oxidation reaction (Enser, 1984). Thus,
peroxide values of fats or oils are useful to characterize
fat quality only for samples that are oxidized to low
levels (e.g., 50 to 100 mEq/kg) and may be misleading
when used to characterize quality of fats exposed to
extreme oxidative stress.
To better elucidate degredation of the fat, a p-anisid-
ine assay was used to determine the aldehyde content
of the CWG (Table 2). Like peroxides, p-anisidine values
increased until d 7. Thereafter, p-anisidine values de-
creased, but to a lesser extent than peroxide values.
Therefore, p-anisidine values, like peroxide values,
proved unreliable as indicators of the degree of rancid-
ity for fats exposed to extreme oxidative challenge.
No differences in moisture, insoluble impurities, or
unsaponifiable matter were observed as the fat became
more rancid (Table 2). However, iodine number and the
unsaturated:saturated fatty acid ratio decreased with
increasing rancidity, indicating a change in fatty acid
composition. In particular, the percentage of C18:1 and
C18:2 decreased with oxidative challenge, indicating
that these fatty acids were especially affected by the
oxidative process. Similar results were reported by Yos-
hida and Kajimoto (1989) when soybean oil was oxi-
dized by blowing dry air at 40°C for 40 d onto the oil.
In that experiment, peroxide values were 359 mEq/kg
and the unsaturated:saturated ratio was significantly
lower (C18:1 was converted to C16:0) compared with
fresh soybean oil.
For d 0 to 7 and 7 to 21 of the growth assay, adding
fat did not affect (P = 0.13) ADG or G:F compared with
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DeRouchey et al.
the control diet with no added fat (Table 3). These re-
sults agree with those of Li et al. (1990) and Jones et
al. (1992), who reported no positive response from add-
ing fat to piglet diets for the first 2 wk after weaning.
However, for d 21 to 35 of our experiment, ADFI was
lower (P < 0.001) and G:F was greater (P < 0.03) for
pigs fed the diets with added fat vs. the control. Also,
fat addition to nursery diets improved (P < 0.04) overall
efficiency of growth (i.e., d 0 to 35) compared with
the control.
For d 0 to 7 of the growth assay, ADG, ADFI, and
G:F were not affected (P = 0.15) by increased thermal
and oxidative exposure of the CWG. However, for d 7
to 21, ADG (linear effect, P < 0.003) and ADFI (linear
effect, P < 0.01) were decreased as rancidity of the added
fat was increased. Also, overall (d 0 to 35) ADG (linear
effect, P < 0.01) and ADFI (linear effect, P < 0.001)
decreased as the added fat had more thermal and oxida-
tive exposure. These effects occurred primarily for fat
treatments with more than 5 d of thermal and oxidative
exposure (i.e., peroxide values >40 mEq/kg). Other re-
searchers have reported decreased growth performance
when animals were fed fat with high peroxide values.
Behniwal et al. (1993) observed lower ADG and G:F
when rats were fed peanut oil (10% of their diet) with
a peroxide value of 90 mEq/kg. Kimura et al. (1984)
reported that rats fed oxidized soybean oil (peroxide
values of 490 and 580 mEq/kg) had decreased ADG and
ADFI and developed diarrhea. In contrast, Lewis et al.
(1976) heated soybean oil over a gas burner for 2 to 4 h
(peroxide value of 5.4 mEq/kg) and observed no harmful
effect of feeding that fat as 4 or 8% of the diets for
finishing pigs. L’Estrange et al. (1967) reported no nega-
tive effects in nursery pigs when fed diets with oxidized
meat meal as 10% of the formulation. Thus, there seems
to be a threshold for rancidity above which feed intake
and rate of growth are decreased.
No differences in apparent digestibility of DM, N, or
GE (P = 0.30) were observed among pigs fed the control
and the fat added treatments. Jones et al. (1992) re-
ported greater digestibility of N and GE when fat was
added to diets for weanling pigs compared with a nonfat
control. Asplund et al. (1960) reported greater digest-
ibility of N with fat inclusion in the diet. They suggested
that increased digestibility of N was related to longer
transit time through the intestines when fat was added
to the diets; however, the data from our experiment do
not support those proposed effects of fat on improved
digestibility of other nutrients.
Digestibilites of total fat, long-chain unsaturated
fatty acids, and long-chain saturated fatty acids were
greater (P < 0.001) for the fat added treatments com-
pared with the control (Table 3). Frobish et al. (1970)
also reported greater digestibility of fat in diets with
added fat compared with a no-added-fat control, and
this was most likely caused by endogenous losses (that
are not accounted for with apparent digestibility deter-
minations) contributing a high proportion of the lipids
excreted in feces of pigs fed a diet with little fat.
 Rancidity and free fatty acids for piglets 2941
Table 3. Effects of rancidity on growth performance and digestibility of nutrients in nursery pigs (Exp. 1; as-fed intake)a
P-value

No added
No Days of thermal and oxidative exposure fat vs. Oxidation effects
Item added fat 0 5 7 9 11 SE others Linear Quadratic

Days 0 to 7
ADG, g 244 249 251 258 260 235 14 —e — —
ADFI, g 288 314 310 297 304 298 14 — — —
G:F, g/kg 847 793 810 869 855 789 32 — — —
Days 7 to 21
ADG, g 435 489 489 448 447 427 15 0.13 0.003 —
ADFI, g 610 659 619 596 580 585 23 — 0.01 —
G:F, g/kg 713 742 790 752 771 730 35 — — —
Days 21 to 35
ADG, g 709 700 701 677 694 664 17 — — —
ADFI, g 1,115 1,058 1,062 982 976 966 20 0.001 0.001 —
G:F, g/kg 636 662 660 689 711 687 18 0.03 0.09 —
Days 0 to 35
ADG, g 506 525 526 501 508 478 12 — 0.01 —
ADFI, g 747 749 735 690 682 680 15 0.03 0.001 —
G:F, g/kg 677 701 716 726 745 703 17 0.04 — —
Diet analysesb
DM, % 90.1 90.5 90.8 91.0 90.9 90.9
GE, kcal/kg 3,881 4,048 4,042 4,179 4,148 4,126
N, % 3.28 3.12 3.35 3.26 3.32 3.23
Ether extract, % 2.8 8.1 7.91 10.1 9.85 8.60
Apparent digestibility, %c
DM 82.9 83.6 81.9 79.6 79.6 83.3 1.2 — — 0.04
N 75.5 76.1 78.0 74.1 74.9 78.3 2.1 — — —
GE 82.6 81.8 80.5 79.5 78.4 82.2 1.5 — — —
Ether extract 72.6 84.5 81.3 84.9 81.8 84.5 1.7 0.001 — —
Long-chain unsaturated
fatty acidsd 78.5 89.3 87.8 88.8 87.6 89.5 0.9 0.001 — —
Long-chain saturated
fatty acidsd 54.7 76.0 70.6 78.5 74.0 76.5 2.8 0.001 — —
Medium-chain fatty
acidsd 93.4 91.7 91.0 92.6 89.0 93.6 1.2 — — —
a
A total of 150 pigs (five pigs per pen and five pens per treatment) with an average initial BW of 6.8 kg.
b
AOAC (1990) procedures.
c
Determined on d 20.
d
Determined by GLC as derivatized fatty acid methyl esters (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1988).
e
Dashes indicate P = 0.15 or greater.

When fat was subjected to the initial degrees of ther-
mal and oxidative challenge, there was a tendency for
decreased digestibility of nutrients, but the trend was
reversed with the greatest extent of oxidative exposure
(hence the quadratic effect of oxidative exposure on
digestibility of DM, P < 0.04). Likewise, digestibility
of total fat and/or fatty acids was not affected (P =
0.23) by subjecting the fat to oxidative stress. Thus,
our results support the argument of Aw et al. (1992),
who suggested that chylomicrons within the lymphatic
system are adept in the transport of lipid peroxides.
Also, oxidized lipid metabolites formed after the con-
sumption of thermally oxidized oils were found to in-
crease the rancidity in blood plasma of chickens
(Sheely et al., 1994), thus suggesting, as did our data,
that oxidation of fatty acids does not prevent their
digestion and absorption.
These findings are in sharp contrast to those of An-
drews et al. (1960), who reported little to no digestion
and absorption of fatty acids having peroxides. In addi-
tion to the potential negative effects of peroxides them-
selves on fat digestibility, the digestibility of unsatu-
rated fatty acids is greater than that of saturated fatty
acids (Sewell and Miller, 1965; Li et al., 1990). Powles et
al. (1995) observed decreased DE in fat with a decreased
unsaturated:saturated ratio in young pigs. Borgstrom
(1967) proposed that saturation of fatty acids decreases
micelle formation and therefore decreased absorption
of fatty acids from the lumen of the small intestine. In
our experiment, as the fat became more rancid, the
percentage of the fatty acids that were saturated was
increased but there was no consistent decrease in fatty
acid digestibility. Thus, the negative effects we ob-
served on growth rate suggest that rancidity of fat in
the diets of young pigs is a serious consideration, but
the effect seemed to result from decreased food intake
and not from decreased nutrient digestibility and/or uti-
lization.

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 2942 DeRouchey et al.

Table 4. Chemical analysis of choice white grease (Exp. 2, as-fed basis)

Lipase units/g of choice white grease

Item 0 872 1,752 2,248

Free fatty acids, % 2 18 35 53

Peroxide value, mEq/kg 1 1 1 1
p-Anisidine value 5.2 4.9 5.0 5.6
Total MIU, %a 1.2 2.6 2.9 3.3
Moisture, % 0.1 1.6 1.9 2.4
Insoluble impurities, % 0 0 0 0
Unsaponifiable matter, % 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9
Iodine value 61 61 61 63
Unsaturated/saturated ratio 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5
Fatty acids, % of sampleb
C8:0c 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
C10:0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
C12:0 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
C14:0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.0
C16:0 25.5 25.5 25.8 25.1
C16:1 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.4
C18:0 11.8 11.6 12.3 11.7
C18:1 48.1 48.0 47.1 47.3
C18:2 7.3 7.3 7.3 8.1
C18:3 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8
a
Total of moisture, insoluble impurities, and unsaponifiable matter.
b
Fatty acids determined by GLC for choice white grease as derivatized fatty acid methyl esters (Sukhija
and Palmquist, 1988).
c
Number of carbon atoms and double bonds designated to the left and right of colon, respectively.

Experiment 2 increase as FFA concentrations were increased further

Chemical analyses of the CWG used in this experi-
ment indicated a greater percentage of FFA as lipase
additions were increased (Table 4). The peroxide and
p-anisidine values were low and remained unchanged
regardless of the presence of FFA. Also, fatty acid com-
position, iodine value, and unsaturated:saturated fatty
acid ratios were unchanged by enzyme hydrolysis of
triglycerides. However, moisture, and therefore the to-
tal of moisture, insoluble impurities, and unsaponifi-
able matter (MIU) percents increased as FFA were in-
creased. Lipase hydrolysis occurs at the α-positions of
a triglyceride to yield 2-monoacylglycerol and two fatty
acids (Frankel, 1998), and these products of triglyceride
hydrolysis are more soluble in water. Hence, less sepa-
ration of the CWG and water was achieved as the con-
centration of FFA increased and more water was re-
tained.
As for pig growth and feed intake, no differences were
observed for d 0 to 5 (P = 0.30) and d 5 to 19 (P =
0.11) among the fat-added treatments and no-added-
fat control (Table 5); however, for d 19 to 33 and overall
(d 0 to 33), G:F was increased with the fat-added treat-
ments (P < 0.01). These results are in agreement with
those of Exp. 1, where adding fat improved efficiency
of gain in the latter portions of the nursery phase.
For the fat-added diets, ADG and G:F were not af-
fected (P = 0.24) from d 0 to 5 and from d 5 to 19
regardless of concentration of FFA. For d 19 to 33 and
overall (d 0 to 33), there was a trend for G:F to decrease
as FFA concentrations increased to 35%, but then to
to 53% (quadratic effects, P < 0.09). Thus, there seemed
to be no negative effects of high concentrations of FFA
on rate or efficiency of gain and, indeed, overall ADFI
was increased (linear effect, P < 0.04) with increased
amounts of FFA in the diet.
As in Exp. 1, digestibility of total fat, long-chain un-
saturated fatty acids, and long-chain saturated fatty
acids were greater (P < 0.001) for the fat-added treat-
ments compared with the control. But, there were no
differences (P = 0.14) for digestibility of DM, GE, total
fat, long-chain fatty acids, and medium-chain fatty
acids among pigs fed the various fat-added treatments.
These results are in contrast with the data of Powles
et al. (1995) in swine and Wiseman and Salvador (1991)
in broilers, where apparent DE of fats decreased with
increased FFA. However, some of that decrease was
likely related to oxidative damage of the FFA, and not
simply to the fact that they were not esterified with
glycerol.
Implications
Rancidity in choice white grease must be monitored to
ensure maximal performance in nursery pigs. However,
the use of peroxide value and p-anisidine tests to detect
rancidity can be misleading, depending on how much
thermal and oxidative exposure the fat has undergone.
Our data suggest that a peroxide value up to 40 mEq/
kg and a p-anisidine value of 10.6 or less will not result
in decreased growth performance in nursery pigs if hy-
droperoxides have not already begun the degradation

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 Rancidity and free fatty acids for piglets 2943
Table 5. Effects of free fatty acid concentration on growth performance and digestibility of nutrients in nursery pigs
(Exp. 2; as-fed intake)a
P-value

No added
No added Free fatty acid concentration, % fat vs. Fatty acid effects
Item fat 2 18 35 53 SE others Linear Quadratic

Days 0 to 5
ADG, g 261 267 281 276 296 17 —e — —
ADFI, g 248 253 267 265 270 20 — — —
G:F, g/kg 1,052 1,055 1,052 1,042 1,096 51 — — —
Days 5 to 19
ADG, g 400 398 406 385 400 14 — — —
ADFI, g 601 563 586 579 579 13 0.11 — —
G:F, g/kg 665 709 695 667 692 26 — — —
Days 19 to 33
ADG, g 632 677 652 654 680 15 0.06 — 0.11
ADFI, g 1,047 966 997 1,017 1,013 26 0.11 — —
G:F, kg/g 604 701 654 643 671 20 0.01 — 0.09
Days 0 to 33
ADG, g 479 498 493 484 505 11 — — —
ADFI, g 737 687 712 718 716 9 0.01 0.04 —
G:F, g/kg 647 722 691 674 703 13 0.01 — 0.08
Diet analysesb
DM, % 88.7 90.5 89.7 90.4 89.6
GE, kcal/kg 3,714 4,191 4,172 4,166 4,102
N, % 3.76 3.74 3.74 3.68 3.67
Ether extract, % 1.90 7.93 7.73 7.66 7.32
Apparent digestibility, %c
DM 79.9 77.3 78.1 80.0 79.1 1.0 — 0.14 —
N 76.4 74.6 76.3 78.6 76.0 1.3 — — 0.10
GE 77.6 75.1 76.9 78.5 76.3 1.6 — — —
Ether extract 66.4 73.3 74.1 77.7 74.7 2.2 0.001 — —
Long-chain unsaturated
fatty acidsd 69.7 77.9 79.2 81.7 79.4 2.2 0.001 — —
Long-chain saturated
fatty acidsd 51.0 62.8 63.3 68.9 65.2 3.0 0.001 — —
Medium-chain fatty
acidsd 91.8 89.4 89.9 91.5 89.4 0.9 0.11 — —
a
A total of 125 pigs (five pigs per pen and five pens per treatment) with an average initial BW of 6.2 kg.
b
AOAC (1990) procedures.
c
Determined on d 18.
d
Determined by GLC as derivatized fatty acid methyl esters (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1988).
e
Dashes indicate P = 0.15 or greater.

process. In addition, as much as 53% free fatty acids
in choice white grease did not adversely affect piglet
performance. Thus, our experiments indicate that ran-
cidity should be of concern when purchasing choice
white grease for use in diets for piglets; however, the
concentration of free fatty acids that were not damaged
or rancid did not affect fat utilization and therefore is
not a suitable measure of quality.
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