2e. 6091 Sec 4 Compiled Lesson Notes-1

ASSUMPTION ENGLISH SCHOOL
SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 12 Light
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
Learning Objectives:
(a) recall and use the terms for reflection, including normal, angle of incidence and angle of reflection
(b) state that, for reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and use this principle in
constructions, measurements and calculations
(c) recall and use the terms for refraction, including normal, angle of incidence and angle of refraction
(d) recall and apply the relationship sin i / sin r = constant to new situations or to solve related problems
(e) define refractive index of a medium in terms of the ratio of speed of light in vacuum and in the medium
(f) explain the terms critical angle and total internal reflection
(g) identify the main ideas in total internal reflection and apply them to the use of optical fibres in
telecommunication and state the advantages of their use
(h) describe the action of a thin lens (both converging and diverging) on a beam of light
(i) define the term focal length for a converging lens
(j) draw ray diagrams to illustrate the formation of real and virtual images of an object by a thin converging
lens
12.1 Reflection of Light
1. Light is a wave that carries energy from one place to another. Light can travel in
vacuum. Example: sunlight travels through space.
2. Light rays always point from the light source to the eyes.
A converging
A ray A parallel beam A diverging beam
beam
How do we see object?
3. For luminous object (gives off light on its own):
Light travel from phone to cat’s eyes.
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4. For non-luminous object (does not give off light on its own):
Light travels from sun light to water bottle.

Light then bounces off (reflects from) water bottle to cat’s eyes.
5. Definition: Reflection is the bouncing of light rays off a surface.
6. Ray diagram for reflection:
Incident ray: Light hitting the surface

Normal Reflected ray: Light reflected from the
surface
Angle of incidence: Angle between incident

Angle of Angle of ray and normal
incidence reflection
Angle of reflection: Angle between reflected
Incident ray Reflected ray
ray and normal
Normal: Imaginary line perpendicular to the

surface at the point of incidence
7. Laws of reflection:
(i) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
means → these 3 lines must touch at the point of incidence.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
means → angle i = angle r
8. Example 1:
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A ray of light strikes a mirror at an angle of 56° to the horizontal. Find angles i, r and q.
9. Example 2:
A ray of light is incident on a mirror. A second mirror is placed at right angle. Find θ.
10. Types of reflection:
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Regular reflection Diffused reflection
Diagram
Type of
Smooth and flat surface Rough surface
surface
What Parallel light rays reflected in Parallel light rays reflected in
happen? same direction different directions
Type of
Clear image No clear image
image
Applicatio
Mirror To see an object, eg. A book
n
Similarity At every point of incidence, the laws of reflection are obeyed.
11. Characteristic of a plane mirror image:
(i) Image is upright
(ii) Image is of the same size as object
(iii) Distance from image to mirror = distance from mirror to object
(iv) Laterally inverted
(v) Image is virtual
The image cannot be captured on a screen.

The light rays do not meet at the image position.
12. Example 3:
Determine the distance between the man and the image of the chair.
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Constructing ray diagrams for plane mirrors
Step 1: Draw a perpendicular line from object to mirror.

Step 2: Measure the distance from object to mirror.
Step 3: Mark the same distance behind the mirror to locate the image.
Step 4: Draw a light ray* from the image to the top of the eye.
Step 5: Draw another light ray* from the image to the bottom of the eye.
Step 6: At the mirror, join the rays back to the object.
Step 7: Draw arrows pointing from object to eye.
* Behind the mirror, light rays are drawn with dotted lines to show that they are virtual.
13. For a point object:
object O
14. For an extended object:
object O
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15. Example 4:
A person is standing at A. Which object(s) (P, Q or R) can be seen in the mirror by the
person at A?
16. Example 5:
In an ideal experiment, a fine beam of light is introduced through a small window, as

shown in the figure below, into a box which is evacuated (containing no air and hence
no floating dust particles).
All the walls are perfectly black except for one which is a perfectly flat mirror. You look
through another small window in the wall opposite the mirror. Assume that no light
enters through this window because you are sitting in a darkened room.
Which of the following would best describe what you saw and why?
A. You would see nothing because light cannot travel in a vacuum.

B. You would see the box fully illuminated since it would be filled with light.
C. You would see the beam of light striking the mirror and being reflected by it.
D. You would see nothing because although light is present in the box none of it would
reach your eyes.
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12.2 Refraction
17. Definition: Refraction is a bending of light when it enters from one

optical medium to another.
18. Due to light speeding up or slowing down when it enters from one
transparent medium to another medium of different optical densities,
refraction occurs.
19. The speed of light is the fastest in vacuum (or air) at 3.0 × 108 m/s.
20. Comparing solid, liquid and gas:
Least optically dense Most optically dense
Gas Liquid Solid

(eg. air) (eg. water) (eg. glass)
Fastest Slowest
21. From optically less dense to optically denser material → bend towards normal
From optically denser to less optically dense material → bend away from normal
Note:
The emergent ray is
parallel to the incident ray,
ie. the angles i are the
same.
22. Analogy:
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What happens when light is incident perpendicular to a
surface?
Light will not be refracted. It will go straight through.
23. Laws of refraction:
(i) The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
means  these 3 lines must touch at the point of incidence.
(ii) For two given media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine
of the angle of refraction is a constant.
sin i
= constant
means  sin r (Snell’s law)
24. Definition: Refractive index is a ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of
light in medium.
speed of light in vacuum

n=
speed of light in medium
c
n=
v
25. When light passes from vacuum (or air) into a given medium (eg. water), the constant
sin i
ratio of sin r is also known as the refractive index, n, for that medium.
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26. The higher the refractive index → optically denser material → more bending of light
27. Example 6:
Find the refractive index of water.
40°
water
air
59°
28. Daily application of refraction:
 A straight pencil appears bent at the air-water boundary due to the slowing down
of light when it travels from air to water.
 Light rays refract away from normal as it travels from water to air , and cause
our eyes to see it as bent.
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12.3 Total Internal Reflection
29. Definition: Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of a light ray inside an
optically denser medium at its boundary with an optically less dense medium.
A diver sees the reflection of the turtle

on the water-air interface.
Light ray reflected back to diver’s eyes.
30. Total internal reflection is a phenomenon where light ray does not exit a medium at an
interface.
31. Two conditions for total internal reflection:
(i) Light travels from optically denser medium to optically less dense medium.
Example: from solid to water, from water to air.
(ii) Angle of incidence is more than the critical angle of the optically denser medium.
What is critical angle?
Diagram Condition Description
Light refracts away from the normal when it

air
travels from water to air.
water i<c
Optically denser to optically less dense →
bend away
air Angle of incidence increases → angle of

refraction also increases.
water i<c
Light refracts in air.
Light travels along surface of water. (r = 90°)

air
water i=c Definition: Critical angle, c, is the angle of
incidence in the optically denser medium
for which the angle of refraction in the
optically less dense medium is 90°.
air Total internal reflection occurs.

water i>c Light does not exit water.
i = r (law of reflection)
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32. Deriving formula for critical angle:
sin i
n=
sin r
sin 90°
n=
sin c
1
n=
sin c
33. Example 7:
Calculate the critical angle of water with a refractive index of 1.33.
Applications of total internal reflection
34. Transmission of data using optical fibre:
 Optical fibres are long, thin and flexible, enabling data to be transmitted over long
distance.
 The core of the optical fibre are usually made from glass or plastic.
 The outer cladding of the optical fibre has a lower refractive index so that total
internal reflection can occur.
 Light rays enters from one end and repeatedly total internally reflect until it
emerges from the other end.
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 It is used in telecommunication (telephone conversation and internet data
transferring) and medical industry (endoscope).
 Widely used in telecommunication and replacing copper wire due to:
 Higher carrying capacity: carry much more information over long distance
 Less signal degradation: less signal loss
 Light weight
 Lower cost
35. Example 8:
The optical fibre has a refractive index of 1.4.
(a) Calculate angle β.
(b) Find angle θ.
(c) Calculate the critical angle of the optical fibre.
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12.4 Refraction by Thin Lenses
36. Lens is a transparent glass or plastic with curved surface.
37. Refraction occurs and causes individual rays to refract by different angles.
38. Two types of lens:
Converging lens (convex lens) Diverging lens (concave lens)
Light rays focus to a point Light rays are spread out
Often use as magnifying glass Often use to correct short-sightedness
Due to the curved surface of lens →

Different angles of incidence will result in different angle of refraction.
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39. Features of a converging lens:
focal plane
F C F
principal axis
focal length, f
Optical centre, C : Midpoint of converging lens
Principal axis : Horizontal line passing through optical centre of lens
Focal point, F : Point at which all rays parallel to the principal axis converge together
after refraction
Focal length, f : Distance between optical centre and focal point
Focal plane : A plane that is perpendicular to the principal axis, which passes
through F and the converging point (see point 41)
40. When parallel beam of light passing through a converging lens is not parallel to the
principle axis, the rays are refracted to a point on the focal plane.
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12.5 Ray Diagrams for Thin Converging Lens
41. Locating the position of image formed by a converging lens.
Step 1: Ray parallel to the principal axis, and converge to focal point F
F C F
Step 2: Ray passing through optical centre C
F C F
Step 3: Ray passing through focal point F, and become parallel to principal axis
F C F
The point where
all the rays meet
is the image.
I
42. Types of images formed by a converging lens:
Object distance (u) Type of image Image distance (v) Uses

u=∞ - Inverted v=f Telescope
- Real
u > 2f - Diminished f < v < 2f Camera
- Inverted Opposite
u = 2f - Real v = 2f side of Photocopier
- Same size lens
- Inverted
f < u < 2f - Real v > 2f Projector
- Magnified
u=f - Upright v=∞ Same Spotlight
- Virtual side of
u<f - Magnified v>f lens Magnifying glass
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43. Example 9:
An object O is placed in front of lens L. Its image is represented by I. Construct a ray

diagram to determine the location of the focal point.
I
O
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SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 13 Waves
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibrations in ropes and springs and by waves in
a ripple tank
(b) show understanding that waves transfer energy without transferring matter
(c) define speed, frequency, wavelength, period and amplitude
(d) state what is meant by the term wavefront
(e) recall and apply the relationship velocity = frequency × wavelength to new situations or to solve related
problems
(f) compare transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples of each
13.1 Introducing waves
1. A wave is made up of repeated motion at regular interval that transfers energy from
one place to another.
Recall:
One oscillation is the path of the ball from A to B and back to A.
Waves in a rope
2. A wave can be produced by fixing one end of a rope to

a wall and moving the other hand up and down.
3. It is observed that the waves travel towards the wall,

while the rope (such as particles P and Q) moves up
and down, about their rest positions.
4. Kinetic energy from the moving hand is transferred

to the rope and subsequently from the rope to the wall.
5. NOTE: The rope does not move from one end to the
other end. This shows that a medium is not
transferred during energy transfer.
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Water waves in a ripple tank
6. Water waves can be generated using a ripple tank where a small dipper moves up and
down the water surface.
7. As a result, the waves move away from the dipper while the water particles move up
and down, about their rest positions.
8. Kinetic energy from the dipper is transferred to the water and eventually transferred
to the edges of the ripple tank.
9. NOTE: The water particles do not travel from one end to the other end. Again, this
shows that a medium is not transferred during energy transfer.
Summary
10. The source of a wave is a vibration or an oscillation.
11. Waves transfer kinetic energy from one point to another.
12. In waves, energy is transferred without the medium or particles being transferred
from one end of the wave to the other.
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Types of waves
13. If we move the spring in an up and down motion, we will observe that the individual
spring coils move perpendicularly to the direction of the wave.
14. If we move the spring in a left and right motion, we will observe that the individual
spring coils move parallel to the direction of the wave.
15. As was seen with the slinky spring, there are two types of waves:
• Transverse waves
• Longitudinal waves
16. Comparison between transverse wave and longitudinal wave:
Transverse wave Longitudinal wave

Transverse waves are waves that
Longitudinal waves are waves that
travel perpendicular to the
Definition travel parallel to the direction of
direction of the medium’s particle
the medium’s particle vibration.
vibration.
electromagnetic waves
Examples sound waves
water waves
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17. Example 1:
In the set-up below, a rod is dipped into water to form a water wave. Describe the
motion of the floating object as the rod is dipped into the water.
rod
floating object
water tank
water
Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
13.2 Properties of Wave Motion
18. Different parts of a transverse waves:
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(a) Crest: Highest point of a transverse wave
(b) Trough: Lowest point of a transverse wave
Maximum displacement from rest (or undisturbed) position
 Height of the crest or trough

(c) Amplitude:
 SI unit: metre (m)
Note: displacement is the distance of the particle away from

the rest (or undisturbed) position.
The distance between two successive crests or two

Wavelength (λ): successive troughs or distance between any two
identical points on successive waves.
(d)
Pronounce as  Length of one complete wave
lamda
 SI unit: metre (m)
Any two points on the wave which move in the same

direction and have the same speed and displacement
(e) Phase: from the rest position.
Usually, they are exactly one wavelength away.
Displacement-distance graph
19. The transverse rope wave can be represented using a displacement-distance graph.
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 The horizontal dotted line represents the rest position. Note that the particles are
vibrating up and down at the instant.
Sign of
Description Displacement Remarks
displacement
Point 1 particle is at rest position 0 cm -
Point 2 particle is at rest position 0 cm -
More than 0
particle is below rest
Point 3 but less than Negative
position
maximum
particle is at the lowest Same as
Point 4 Maximum Negative
point amplitude
More than 0
particle is above rest
Point 5 but less than Positive
position
maximum
particle is at the highest Same as
Point 6 maximum Positive
point amplitude
20. Example 2:
A wave is propagating towards the right.
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(a) Identify all the crest(s): …………………………………………………..
(b) Identify all the trough(s): …………………………………………………
(c) The distance between point E and point I is called: ……………………
(d) The distance between point G and point L is called: ……………………
(e) The distance between point J and K is called: ……………………
(f) The distance between point F and J is called: ……………………
(g) The distance between point H and N is called: ……………………
(h) The distance between point M and N is called: ……………………
(i) Name any two points which are in phase: ……………………
(j) Identify all the particles that are vibrating upward: ………………………………………
(k) Identify all the particles that are vibrating downward: …………………………………..
*Note: to identify the directions of vibration of particles, draw an identical wave slightly to the
left or right of the original wave (depending on the direction of wave motion).
Displacement-time graph
21. The transverse rope wave can also be represented using a displacement-time graph.
We do this by tracking the displacement of a particle over a period of time.
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22. More terminology:
Time taken to generate one complete wave

(f) Period (T):
 SI unit: seconds (s)
Number of waves produced in one second
 SI unit: Hertz (Hz)
(g) Frequency(f):
The distance travelled by a given point on the wave in one

second
(h) Wave speed (v):
23. Example 3:
Label the amplitude, period, crest and troughs in the displacement-time graph.
24. The imaginary line that joins all the crests of adjacent waves is called the wavefront.
25. Wavefronts are represented by the dotted lines as shown in the diagram.
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A straight dipper produces plane wavefronts, while a spherical dipper produces circular
wavefronts.
26. The distance between two wavefronts is the wavelength of a wave.
27. Example 4:
The diagram below shows a displacement-distance graph of a wave.
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(a) Find the wavelength of the wave.
(b) Given that the speed of the wave is 200 m/s, find the frequency of the wave.
[Ans: 50 Hz]
(c) Find the period of the wave. [Ans: 0.02 s]
28. Example 5:
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Two boats A and B are 50 m apart and a wave is travelling towards them. The wave
takes 5 s to travel from boat A to boat B. The boats make one complete oscillation in 2
s. The boat rises 1.5 m from its lowest position to its highest position.
Determine
(a) the amplitude of the wave [Ans: 0.75 m],
(b) the frequency of the wave [Ans: 0.5 Hz],
(c) the velocity of the wave [Ans: 10 m/s].
29. Example 6:
(a) Draw on the diagram below to show the wavelength of the longitudinal wave.
(b) A water wave has a frequency of 2 Hz and a wavelength of 0.3 m. How fast is it
moving? [Ans: 0.6 m/s]
(c) Purple light has a speed of 3 ¿ 108 m and a frequency of 5 ¿ 1014 Hz. What is the
wavelength? [Ans: 600 nm]
30. Example 7:
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A transverse wave is travelling to the right. The diagram below is its displacement-
distance graph at t = 0 s.
(a) What is the direction of movement of particle P and Q?
…………………………………………………….…………………………………………
…………………………………………………….…………………………………………
(b) Sketch the displacement-distance graph half a cycle later. Indicate the positions of
P and Q.
(c) Sketch the displacement-distance graph a quarter cycle later. Indicate the
positions of P and Q.
(d) State the wavelength of the wave.
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(e) Given that the speed of the wave is 2 m/s, calculate the frequency of the wave.
[Ans: 0.25 Hz]
(f) Calculate the period of the wave. [Ans: 4 s]
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SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 14 Electromagnetic Waves
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) state that all electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that travel with the same speed in vacuum
and state the magnitude of this speed
(b) describe the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum
(c) state examples of the use of the following components:
(i) radio waves (e.g. radio and television communication)
(ii) microwaves (e.g. microwave oven and satellite television)
(iii) infra-red (e.g. infra-red remote controllers and intruder alarms)
(iv) light (e.g. optical fibres for medical uses and telecommunications)
(v) ultra-violet (e.g. sunbeds and sterilisation)
(vi) X-rays (e.g. radiological and engineering applications)
(vii) gamma rays (e.g. medical treatment)
(d) describe the effects of absorbing electromagnetic waves, e.g. heating, ionisation and damage to living
cells and tissue
14.1 Electromagnetic Waves
1. EM waves do not need a medium to transfer energy from one location to another.
2. An EM wave transfers energy through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
3. EM wave of different wavelengths and frequencies form the electromagnetic

spectrum.
4. There are seven components in the EM spectrum.
5. EM spectrum is continuous, that means that is no gap in between components.
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6. Radio wave has the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency while gamma ray has
the shortest wavelength and highest frequency.
7. The higher the frequency, the higher its energy.
8. Visible light is part of the EM waves and has its own spectrum of light.
9. Red light has the longest wavelength and violet has the shortest wavelength.
10. The refractive index for red light in glass is slightly smaller than that for violet light.
Hence, violet light slows down even more than red light, so it is refracted at a
slightly greater angle.
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11. Properties of electromagnetic waves:
No. Properties
1 All EM waves are transverse waves.
2 All EM waves transfer energy from one place to another.
All EM waves do not need a medium to travel. They can travel through
3
vacuum.
All EM waves travel at 3.00 x 108 m/s in vacuum or air. They will slow down in
4
medium such as water or glass.
5 All EM waves’ speed can be calculated using v = f λ.
6 All EM waves obey the law of reflection and refraction.
7 All EM waves do not carry any electric charge.
Frequencies of EM waves do not change even when it enters into another

8
medium. This is because frequency depends on the wave source.
12. Example 1:
The radio station Class 95 FM transmits radio waves at a frequency of 95 MHz. What is
the wavelength of the radio waves transmitted?
14.2 Applications and Effects of Electromagnetic Waves
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13. Applications of Electromagnetic Waves:
No. EM Waves Applications
- Radio broadcasting, wireless telegraphy, telephone,

television, radar, navigation, telecommunication
1 Radio wave
- Radio waves can go around obstructions due to their
longer wavelengths
- Microwave ovens to heat up food

- Transmission of TV programmes via satellites in space
2 Microwave
- Can penetrate atmosphere, but unable to pass through
obstruction
- Infrared remote controller

3 Infrared - Thermometer
- Intruder alarms
- For humans to see objects

4 Visible light
- Optical fibre in medical and telecommunication
- Part of sunlight that causes sunburn and tans

- UVA: ultraviolet lamps for artificial tanning
5 Ultra violet rays
- UVB and UVC: germicidal lamps for sterilisation in
hospitals
- X-ray scanner such as luggage scanner in the airport

6 X-rays - Radiology: high frequency x-rays for radiation therapy
- Radiography: low frequency x-rays for x-ray imaging
Gamma rays - Most energetic rays

7
(γ-rays) - Treat cancer by killing cancerous cells
Effects of electromagnetic waves
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14. Ionising radiation on living matter:
 Ionising radiation are radiation that has sufficient energy to remove electrons from
atoms or molecules
 Examples of ionising radiations are UV radiation, X-rays and γ-rays
 These radiations are harmful to the body as they damage biological molecules
such as proteins and DNA
 Examples: cancers in human (damage cells), defects in foetus (mutation of

cells), kill cells
15. Infrared heating:
 During winter, houses are inserted with heaters.
 These heaters emit infrared radiation and cause the houses to be warm.
16. Example 2:
State whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) Electromagnetic waves require a medium for propagation. T/F
(b) The speed of light in water is slower than in vacuum. T/F
(c) The frequency of light in water is the same as in vacuum. T/F
(d) The wavelength of light in water is longer than in vacuum. T/F
(e) The speed of red light is faster than that of blue light. T/F
(f) The wavelength of red light is longer than that of blue light. T/F
(g) The frequency of red light is higher than that of blue light. T/F
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SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 15 Sound
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) describe the production of sound by vibrating sources
(b) describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves in terms of the processes of compression and
rarefaction
(c) explain that a medium is required in order to transmit sound waves and that the speed of sound differs in
air, liquids and solids
(d) describe a direct method for the determination of the speed of sound in air and make the necessary
calculation
(e) relate loudness of a sound wave to its amplitude and pitch to its frequency
(f) describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo, and how this may be used for measuring
distances
(g) define ultrasound and describe one use of ultrasound, e.g. quality control and pre-natal scanning
15.1 What is Sound?
1. Sound carries energy from one location to another in the form of longitudinal wave.
2. Sound is produced by vibrating objects placed in a medium, such as air or water.
3. From the photo, the vibration of the tuning fork causes water particles to be displaced.
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4. A vibrating object in air causes layers of air particles around it to be displaced. A series
of compression and rarefaction are produced by the shifting of air layers.
Displaced: move (something) from its rest (or undisturbed)

position
Tuning fork in rest position:
The layers of air particles are

undisturbed.
Tuning fork pushed outwards:
Layers of air particles compressed

together.
compression
wave motion
Tuning fork moved inwards:
Layers of air particles move further

apart.
rarefaction compression
wave motion
Tuning fork pushed outwards again:
Another compression is formed while

the wave moved to the right.
C R C
5. From the diagram above, the direction of vibration of air particles is parallel to the
direction of wave motion. Sound is a longitudinal wave.
6. Compressions and rarefactions of sound waves are formed by a change in air

pressure.
7. Compressions are regions where air pressure is slightly higher than surrounding air
pressure.
8. Rarefactions are regions where air pressure is slightly lower than surrounding air
pressure.
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air pressure compression
amplitude rarefaction
high
surrounding distance from
air pressure vibrating source
low
wavelength
9. The distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions is the wavelength.
10. The diagram below shows how compressions and rarefactions are formed as sound
travels across.
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11. Displacement-distance graph for sound waves is similar to that of a transverse wave.
Taking displacement to the right as positive,
Displacement (m) Note:
Particles do not
move from one
place to another!
15.2 Transmission of Sound
12. Sound needs a medium to travel in. Any medium which has particles that can vibrate
will transmit sound.
13. Sound travels fastest in solid, then in liquid, and slowest in air.
Medium Approximate speed of sound/ m/s

Air 330
Water 1500
Iron 5000
Granite 5400
14. Speeds of sound in air depend on temperature and on humidity.
Higher Lower
Speed is faster as there is Speed is slower as there is

Temperature
more energy. less energy.
Speed is faster as there are Speed is slower as there are

Humidity
more particles in the air. fewer particles in the air.
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15. Describe a direct method of how to measure speed of sound.
Procedure:
1. Using a measuring tape, measure the distance d between observer A and B.

2. Observer A fires a starting pistol.
3. On seeing the flash of the starting pistol, observer B starts the stopwatch and then
stops it when he hears the sound.
4. The time interval t is recorded.
5. To calculate the speed of sound in air, use the formula
distance d travelled by sound
v=
time taken t
Increasing accuracy of experiment:
1. Repeat the experiment a few times to calculate the average value of speed of sound
in air.
2. Repeat the experiment with the positions of observers A and B interchanged.
15.3 Reflection of Sound
What is echo?
16. Since sound is a wave, sound can undergo reflection.
17. An echo is formed when a sound is reflected off hard, flat surfaces such as a large
wall or a distant cliff.
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18. The laws of reflection also apply to sound waves.
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Uses of echoes
19. Echoes can be used to:
(i) measure large distances
The ship sends out a signal (pulse). The pulse hits the sea bed and reflects back to the
ship as echo. The time taken for the pulse to reach back at the ship is recorded and the
distance can be calculated since the speed of sound in water is around 1500 m/s.
Example 1:
A navy ship sends out a pulse of sound down to the sea bed and receives an echo 1.5 s
later. Assuming the speed of sound in sea water is 1500 m/s, calculate the depth of the
sea at this position.
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Example 2:
A man stands some distance away from a cliff. He gives a shout and hears his echo 4
seconds later. How far is he from the cliff? The speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
Example 3:
Amy is sitting by the side of a window when there is a thunderstorm. She hears the
thunderclap 3.5 s after seeing the lightning bolt strike.
(Given that speed of sound in air = 340 ms-1 and speed of light in air = 3 ´ 108 ms-1)
(a) How far away is the lightning strike from Amy?
(b) State two similarities and two differences between the light wave and sound wave.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) detection of location of objects which are not easily seen
Bats use echoes to detect the presence of obstacles when they are flying. They emit a
high frequency sound (ultrasound). When there are objects in their path, the sound will
get reflected. When the bats hear the echoes, they can pinpoint the position of the
obstacles and thus avoid them.
15.4 Ultrasound
20. Not all frequencies of sound can be heard by the human ear.
21. The human ear is only capable of hearing sounds in the range of 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
22. This range is called the range of audibility.
What is ultrasound?
23. Below 20 Hz, it is called infrasound. Above 20000 Hz, it is called ultrasound.
24. Ultrasound is sound with frequency above the upper limit of the human range of
audibility.
25. Applications of ultrasound:
(i) Quality control:
 Check for cracks in concrete slabs
 Inspect metal pipes for abnormality
 Measure thickness of wooden boards
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(ii) Pre-natal scanning:
 Ultrasound is sent out to the mother’s womb to examine the development of

foetus.
 By measuring the time taken for the ultrasound to be reflected, the depth of the
reflecting surface within the womb can be derived, and an image is formed.
(iii) Determine depth of seabed:
 Ultrasound is sent out from a transmitter and is reflected when it strikes on the
seabed.
 The time taken is recorded, and the depth can be calculated by 2d = speed / time.
(iv) Locate sunken ships or shoals of fish:
 Ultrasound is sent out from a transmitter and is reflected when it strikes on the
sunken ships or shoals of fish.
 The time taken is recorded, and the depth can be calculated by 2d = speed / time.
15.5 Pitch and Loudness
Pitch
26. The level of pitch depends on the frequency of the sound waves.
The higher the frequency, the higher the

pitch.
The lower the frequency, the lower the pitch.
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Loudness
27. The loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of the waves.
The larger the amplitude, the louder the sound.
The smaller the amplitude, the softer the sound.
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SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 16 Static Electricity
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) state that there are positive and negative charges and that charge is measured in coulombs
(b) state that unlike charges attract and like charges repel
(c) describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force
(d) draw the electric field of an isolated point charge and recall that the direction of the field lines gives the
direction of the force acting on a positive test charge
(e) draw the electric field pattern between two isolated point charges
(f) show understanding that electrostatic charging by rubbing involves a transfer of electrons
(g) describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction
(h) describe examples where electrostatic charging may be a potential hazard
(i) describe the use of electrostatic charging in a photocopier, and apply the use of electrostatic charging to
new situations
16.1 Electrostatics
1. Static electricity (or electrostatics) is the study of non-moving electric charges.
2. To know what electric charge is, we must look at the atomic structure.
An atom is made up of three different subatomic particles. This is shown in the diagram
of the beryllium atom below.
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Particle Electric charge Location
Proton Positive charge Nucleus
Neutron No charge Nucleus
Electron Negative charge Orbiting around nucleus
3. In summary,
 an object has a net positive charge when it contains more protons than electrons.
 an object has a net negative charge when there are more electrons than protons.
Neutral charge Negative charge Positive charge
4. When two charged objects are brought near to each other, they will either attract or
repel.
Attract Repel Repel
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5. Law of electrostatics states that unlike charges attract while like charges repel.
+ + + –
– – – +
6. Measurement of electric charge, Q:
 The SI unit for electric charge Q is coulomb (C).
 1 electron has a charge of –1.6 x 10-19 C.
 1 proton has a charge of 1.6 x 10-19 C.
7. Example 1:
Two metal balls, P and Q, each hangs from a nylon thread as shown below. A negative
charged rod is then placed between them. While P is repelled by the rod, Q is attracted
to the rod. What are the charges of P and Q?
P :_____________ charge
Q :_____________ charge
8. Comparing conductors and insulators:
Insulators Conductors
Motion of charged
Not free to move about Free to move about
particles
Ability to conduct
Very low High
electricity
By friction, after which By induction, after which
Method of
charges remain at the rubbed charges flow freely in the
charging
surface object
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Examples Non-metals Metals
Electrostatic charging by friction (for insulators)
9. Insulators are charged by friction because rubbing causes electrons to be

transferred from one material to another.
10. In this method, the electrons remain on the surface where the material was rubbed
because electrons cannot move freely in an insulator.
Example: Rubbing balloon against hair experiment
When balloon is rubbed against hair, some electrons from the hair
are transferred to the balloon.
As the balloon gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.
As the hair loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
11. Whether electrons are gained or lost during rubbing depends on their affinities for
electrons. Some materials tend to attract more electrons more than the other
materials.
12. The table below shows the types of charges acquired when some materials are rubbed
together.
Materials Positive charge Negative charge

Glass rod rubbed with silk Glass Silk
Ebonite rod rubbed with fur Fur Ebonite
Perspex rod rubbed with wool Perspex Wool
Rubber balloon rubbed with hair Hair Rubber balloon
Polythene rod rubbed with wool Wool Polythene
13. Example 2:
A piece of polythene is rubbed with a cloth duster. The polythene becomes negatively
charged and the cloth becomes positively charged.
State the movement of charges to explain this observation.
Gain electrons Gain protons Lose electrons Lose protons
Polythene: …………………………………
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Cloth: ………………………………………
14. Example 3:
A glass rod is rubbed with silk and the silk becomes negatively charged while the glass
rod becomes positively charged. Explain why.
Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
16.2 Principles of Electrostatics
Electrostatic charging by induction (for conductors)
15. Conductors cannot be charged by friction because electrons are mobile and can
easily move to and away from conductors.
16. As such, conductors are charged by induction.
17. Induction is a method of charging in which a conductor is charged without being in

contact with the charging body.
18. Charging two metal spheres by induction (draw the distribution of charges):
Diagram Description / Explanation
 Place two uncharged metal

spheres on insulating stands side
by side where they touch.
Step 1:
 Insulating stand prevents charges
from flowing into and away from the
sphere.
 Bring a positively-charged rod

near but not touching sphere A.
 Electrons in both spheres are

Step 2: attracted to left side of sphere A.
 A has excess negative charges.
 B has excess positive charges.
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 While the rod is still near sphere A,
Step 3:
separate the two metal spheres.
 Remove the charged rod.
 Both spheres now have equal

Step 4: number of opposite charges.
 Both spheres have being charged

by induction.
19. Charging a single metal conductor by induction (draw the distribution of charges):
 Insulating stand prevents charges from

flowing into and away from the sphere.
 Bring a negatively-charged rod near but

Step 1:
not touching to sphere A.
 Electrons are repelled to the right side of

the sphere.
 While the rod is still near sphere A, earth

the negatively-charged end of the
sphere by touching it with your hand.
Step 2:
 Free electrons will move away from the
sphere to the earth via your hand.
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 While the rod is still near sphere A,
remove your hand.
Step 3:
 This stops the earthing process.
 Remove the charged rod.
 The sphere has excess positive charges

Step 4:
now.
 It has become positively-charged.
20. Example 4:
A piece of metal foil, which is initially uncharged, is picked up by a positively-charged

rod. Which diagram is correct?
( )
21. Example 5:
A neutral light-conducting ball, suspended between two light conducting charged plates,
touches the positively charged plate as shown.
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conducting ball
What will be the subsequent motion of the light-conducting ball between the positively
charged conducting plate and the negatively charged conducting plate?
A The ball will be attracted to the negative plate.

B The ball will be attracted to the positive plate.
C The ball will oscillate to and fro between the conducting plates.
D The ball will stay in the middle of the two conducting plates. ( )
Reason: ……………………………………………………………………………………………
If the light-conducting ball is now replaced with a light-insulating ball, then what is the
subsequent motion after the ball touches the positively-charged plate?
A The ball will be attracted to the negative plate.

B The ball will be attracted to the positive plate.
C The ball will oscillate to and fro between the conducting plates.
D The ball will stay in the middle of the two conducting plates. ( )
Reason: ……………………………………………………………………………………………
Neutralising a charged insulators and conductors
22. A charged object is neutralised by discharging the excess charges on it.
23. Insulators can be discharged through heating it or by providing humid conditions:
(a) Heating
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 The positively-charged insulator is brought near a flame. The heat from the
flame ionises the air particles around it.
 The negatively-charged ionised air particles will neutralise the positively-

charged glass rod.
(b) Humid condition
 Water molecules in air can conduct electricity.
 When the humidity is high, an object acquiring an excess charge will tend to lose
that charge to water molecules in the surrounding air.
24. Conductors can be discharged by earthing.
Earthing a positively-charged Earthing a negatively-charged

conductor conductor
Electrons from earth flow to the

Excess electrons will flow away from
conductor to neutralise the excess
conductor to the ground.
positive charges.
25. Example 6:
An object is positively charged. It becomes neutral when a person touches it. Explain.
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Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
26. Example 7:
A negatively-charged conductor is suspended from a string. When it is brought near the

metal plate connected to the ammeter, a quick deflection is seen on the ammeter.
Explain why a deflection is seen in the ammeter.

Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
27. Example 8:
An isolated conducting sphere P has the charge distribution shown. A similar sphere Q,
connected to earth by a long wire, is brought close to P but not touching. Which figure
correctly shows the final distribution of charge on the two spheres?
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A B
Q
P
Q
P
C P
Q DP
Q
( )
28. Example 9:
A positively-charged glass rod is placed near a neutral metal rod. If one end of the rod is
connected to earth, what will be the net electrical charge on the metal rod? Explain.
metal rod glass rod

Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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16.3 Electric Field
29. Definition: Electric force is the attractive or repulsive force that electric charges exert on one another.
30. Definition: Electric field is a region in which electric charge experiences an electric force.
31. Electric field can be represented by drawing lines with arrows.
 The direction of an electric field shows the direction of the force that would act on a small positive charge.
 The closer the field lines, the stronger the electric field.
 Electric fields cannot cross each other or touch because like charges repel.
32. Class practice:
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
Positive charge Two positive charges Two unlike charges Two like charged plates
+ + + + + + + + +
| | | | | | | | |
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Negative charge Two negative charges Two unlike charges Two unlike charged plates
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33. Example 10:
The diagram below shows the electric field pattern between two isolated point charges.
Write down the types of charges in the two circles.
16.4 Hazards and Application of Electrostatics
Hazards of electrostatics
(A) Lightning – Lightning can be deadly as it carries current of up to 30 000 A.
Thunderclouds are charged by friction between water molecules in the

thunderclouds and air molecules in the atmosphere.
Negative charges accumulate at the bottom of the clouds. These repel the
electrons near the surface of the Earth, causing the surface of the Earth to be
positively-charged.
When the accumulation of negative charges is large, the air particles nearby are
ionised. The ionised air particles provide a conducting path for the electrons in the
clouds to reach the Earth.
When the electrons travel down the conducting path to the Earth, lightning forms.
(B) Electrostatic discharge
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Excessive charges may build up on objects due to friction. When a sudden
discharge occurs, it may cause sparks and ignite flammable objects.
Electronic equipment, such as computer boards and hard drives, can also be easily
damaged by electrostatic discharge. Such equipment are usually packed in
antistatic packaging.
34. Example 10:
The aircraft is refuelling. Both the fuel and the hose through which it passes are
insulators. The fuel passing into the aircraft becomes positively charged and this causes
the aircraft to be positively charged.
(a) Explain how the charge may cause the fuel to ignite.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
(b) The danger is reduced by connecting a wire from the aircraft to the ground. Explain
how this prevents the build-up of positive charge on the aircraft.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
Practical application of electrostatics
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(A) Photocopier machine
35. Photocopier machine uses electrostatic electricity to produce printed documents.
 The aluminium drum is coated with selenium, a

substance that conduct electricity in the
presence of light.
Step 1:
 The whole drum is positively-charged by a
highly-charged wire.
 The paper is placed above a glass and light is

shone on the paper.
 The darker area does not receive enough light,

Step 2: so it does not conduct electricity. Hence, it
remains positively-charged.
 The lighter area conducts electricity in the

presence of light and is discharged.
 The toner is negatively-charged.
Step 3:  As the drum continues to roll, the toner will be

attracted to the positively-charged image on the
drum.
 A positively-charged paper is passed over the

drum surface.
Step 4:  The negatively-charged toner is attracted to the

paper.
 An image is formed.
(B) Electrostatic precipitators
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Waste gases, smoke and dust particles are produced during burning of fossil fuels.
These can damage buildings and cause breathing difficulties.
An electrostatic precipitator is used to remove smoke and dust particles from waste
gases before they pass out of the chimneys.
Smoke and dust particles become negatively-charged when they pass through the
metal grid. They are attracted to the positively-charged metal plates. The gases
leaving the precipitator are free of smoke and dust particles.
(C) Spray painting
Spray painting can be used to produce a uniform coat of paint on vehicles.
The spray paint particles and the vehicle to be painted are of opposite charges.
The paint particles repel each other after leaving the nozzle and get attracted to the
vehicle.
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SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 17 Current Electricity
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) state that current is a rate of flow of charge and that it is measured in amperes
(b) distinguish between conventional current and electron flow
(c) recall and apply the relationship charge = current × time to new situations or to solve related problems
(d) define electromotive force (e.m.f.) as the work done by a source in driving unit charge around a complete
circuit
(e) calculate the total e.m.f. where several sources are arranged in series
(f) state that the e.m.f. of a source and the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component are
measured in volts
(g) define the p.d. across a component in a circuit as the work done to drive unit charge through the
component
(h) state the definition that resistance = p.d. / current
(i) apply the relationship R = V/I to new situations or to solve related problems
(j) describe an experiment to determine the resistance of a metallic conductor using a voltmeter and an
ammeter, and make the necessary calculations
(k) recall and apply the formulae for the effective resistance of a number of resistors in series and in parallel
to new situations or to solve related problems
(l) recall and apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the length and cross-
sectional area of a wire to new situations or to solve related problems
(m) state Ohm’s Law
(n) describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a metallic conductor
(o) sketch and interpret the I/V characteristic graphs for a metallic conductor at constant temperature, for a
filament lamp and for a semiconductor diode
17.1 Electric Current
1. Inside a metal wire, electrons are moving around randomly in many different
directions.
e e e
e e
e e
e e e
2. When a battery is connected to the wire, electrons start to flow in the same direction.
e e e
e e
e e
e e e
3. An electric current is formed when electrons move from one end to another.
4. Differences between conventional current and electron flow:
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Conventional current Electron flow
What is flowing? Positive charge Electron
From positive to negative From negative to positive
Direction of flow?
terminal terminal
5. Definition: An electric current is defined to be the rate of flow of electric charge Q

through a given cross section of a conductor.
1 second
6. Formula:
I = current (in A)
Q
I=
t Q = charge (in C)
t = time (in S)
7. SI unit: ampere (A)
8. Example 1:
When a motor of a car is switched on for 0.5 s, 16 C of charge passes through the wires
in the motor. Assuming the charge is uniformly transmitted over a given time, how large
is the electric current?
9. Example 2:
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A 3 A current flows in a circuit for 2 minutes. What is the total charge flowing in the
circuit?
10. Example 3:
The current in a circuit is 5 A. What is the time taken to have 1500 C to flow through a
circuit?
How to measure electric current?
11. An ammeter is used to measure electric current and is connected in series in a circuit.
12. The positive terminal of ammeter is connected to the positive terminal of a battery.
NOTE: If connected wrongly, the needle will deflect in the opposite way and spoil.
Positive terminal
Negative terminal
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What are circuit diagrams?
13. There are four main components in an electric circuit:
Component Function
Power source
To drive the electric charges around the circuit
(e.g. dry cell, battery)
Load To convert electrical energy to other forms of energy
(e.g. light bulb, heater) to do something (e.g. light up)
Conductors
To join the components together
(e.g. wires)
Switch To open or close the circuit
14. Circuit diagram is a picture that uses symbols to represent electrical components.
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15. Example 4: Draw the circuit diagrams for the circuits below.
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17.2 Electromotive Force and Potential Difference
What is electromotive force?
16. A power source is used to make electrons flow from one end to the other end. This is
known as electromotive force (e.m.f.).
17. Definition: Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is defined as the work done by a source in
driving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
18. Formula:
ε = e.m.f. (in V)
W
ε=
Q W= work done (in J)
Q = charge (in C)
19. SI unit: volt (V)
20. Example 5:
The work done to drive 4 C around a circuit is 12 J. What is the e.m.f. of the dry cell?
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21. Example 6:
The e.m.f. of a cell is 4 V. What energy is dissipated by the cell if it drives 8 C of charge
round the circuit?
22. Example 7:
The e.m.f. of a cell is 4 V. What energy is dissipated by the cell in 20 seconds if a

current of 2 A flows in the circuit?
23. Cells can be arranged in series or parallel. The effective (combined) e.m.f. depends on
the arrangement of the cells.
Series Parallel
Resultant
Sum of each cell’s e.m.f. One cell’s e.m.f. only
e.m.f.
Pros / Cons Dry cells last for a shorter time Dry cells last for a longer time
The charges gain energy as they The charges gain only a portion
Reason
pass through each cell of the energy from each cell
24. Example 8:
Calculate the effective e.m.f. for the following cells. Each cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V.
(a)
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(b)
25. A voltmeter is used to measure e.m.f. of a dry cell and is connected in parallel in a
circuit.
26. The positive terminal of voltmeter is connected to the positive terminal of a battery.
NOTE: If connected wrongly, the needle will deflect in the opposite way and spoil.
What is potential difference?
27. When charges pass through a light bulb, electrical energy is converted to light and
thermal energy. This amount of energy converted for each unit charge is called the
potential difference.
28. Definition: Potential difference (p.d.) is defined as the work done to drive a unit
charge through a component.
29. Formula:
V = potential difference (in V)

W
V=
Q W= work done (in J)
Q = charge (in C)
30. SI unit: volt (V)
31. Example 9:
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The potential difference across a light bulb is 2.2 V. What is the work done when 400
mA of charges flow through the light bulb?
17.3 Resistance
32. There is resistance in any electrical device because electrons can collide into the
atoms in the device. For a given p.d., the greater the resistance, the smaller the
current.
33. Definition: The resistance R of a component is defined as the ratio of the potential
difference V across it to the current I flowing through it.
34. Formula:
R = resistance (in Ω)
V
R=
I V = potential difference (in V)
I = current (in A)
35. SI unit: ohm (Ω)
36. A resistor is a conductor that control the size of current flowing in a circuit. There are
two types of resistors, fixed resistor and variable resistor (rheostat).
37. Example 10:
A 12 Ω resistor is connected across an 8.0 V supply as shown. What is the current

flowing through the resistor?
Experiment to determine resistance of an unknown resistor
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A
R
V
Procedure:
1) Set up the apparatus as shown.

2) Measure and record the current I and potential difference V.
3) Adjust the rheostat to get 5 sets of values for I and V.
4) Plot a graph of V (y-axis) against I (x-axis).
5) Determine the gradient of the graph.
Ohm’s Law
38. Ohm’s law states that when physical conditions (e.g. temperature) are constant, the
current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it.
Graph: straight line passes through origin
Relationship: I directly proportional V
39. According to Ohm’s Law, resistance remains constant under steady physical
conditions.
40. Conductors that obey Ohm’s Law are known as ohmic conductors.
41. Non-ohmic conductor does not obey Ohm’s Law.
V
 The ratio of I is not constant (not straight line) → resistance is not constant.
 When temperature increases, resistance increases and hence current
decreases.
42. Examples of non-ohmic conductors:
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- When p.d. is applied in the forward - As current increases, the temperature
direction, current increases greatly. of the lamp increases.
 resistance is very low.
- This means that the resistance of the
- When p.d. is applied in the reverse filament lamp increases as
direction, current is almost zero. temperature increases.
 resistance is very high.
43. Example 11:
For each V-I graph, identify whether it is ohmic or non-ohmic, and describe how
resistance varies with current.
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17.4 Resistivity
44. Beside temperature, there are three other factors that affect the resistance of a wire.
(A) Resistivity
45. Resistivity of a material is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of
electric current.
46. Resistivity is different for different materials. The higher the resistivity, the greater the
resistance.
(B) Length of wire
47. When the wire is longer, resistance is larger because electrons have to flow through a
longer distance in the wire.
Lower resistance Higher resistance
(C) Cross sectional area of wire
48. When the wire is thicker, resistance is smaller because electrons have more “space” to
flow in the wire.
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Higher resistance Lower resistance
49. Formula for resistance of a wire:
R = resistance (in Ω)
ρL
R=
A ρ = resistivity (in Ωm)
L = length of wire (in m)
A = cross-sectional area (in m2)
50. Example 12:
Find the resistance of a 1.5 m long piece of wire if the cross-sectional area is 2 x 10 -8 m2
and has a resistivity of 4 x 10-8 Ωm.
51. Example 13:
Find the length of a piece of wire if resistance is 20 Ω, cross-sectional area is 4 x 10 -8 m2

and resistivity is 4 x 10-8 Ωm.
52. Example 14:
Wire A has a resistance of 2 Ω.
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(a) Wire B is twice as long as A. What is the resistance of wire B?
(b) Wire C’s cross-sectional area is half of wire A. What is the resistance of wire C?
(c) Wire D is 1.5 times shorter than wire A but thrice the thickness of wire A. What is
the resistance of wire D?
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SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 18 D.C. Circuits
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell, battery, d.c. supply or a.c. supply), switches, lamps,
resistors (fixed and variable), variable potential divider (potentiometer), fuses, ammeters and voltmeters,
bells, light-dependent resistors, thermistors and light-emitting diodes
(b) state that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same and apply the principle to new
situations or to solve related problems
(c) state that the sum of the potential differences in a series circuit is equal to the potential difference across
the whole circuit and apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems
(d) state that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a
parallel circuit and apply the principle to new situations or to solve related problems
(e) state that the potential difference across the separate branches of a parallel circuit is the same and apply
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the principle to new situations or to solve related problems
(f) recall and apply the relevant relationships, including R = V/I and those for current, potential differences
and resistors in series and in parallel circuits, in calculations involving a whole circuit
(g) describe the action of a variable potential divider (potentiometer)
(h) describe the action of thermistors and light-dependent resistors and explain their use as input
transducers in potential dividers
(i) solve simple circuit problems involving thermistors and light-dependent resistors
18.1 Series Circuit
1. Throughout this chapter, a very important formula is often used:
V = IR
I=V/R
R=V/I
2. Understanding current in a series circuit:
Let’s say:
 The carts are charges (electrons) → because they move from – to +
 The little circles are energy
The story goes like this:
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 The carts leaving the battery are fully loaded with energy.
 The carts can only move along the train track.
 When the carts reach the light bulb, their energy are transferred to the light bulb.
 However, the carts continue back to the battery to reload again.
From the story Implies that To the circuit

The number of carts moving on
The current is the same
the track is the same the entire →
throughout the entire circuit.
time.
Each cart carries the same Each charge carries the same
→
number of circles. amount of energy.
The number of circles are the The amount of energy remains
→
same on the train track. the same when moving in a wire.
There are no circles after leaving Energy is used up by the electrical
→
the light bulb. device.
.
Conclusion:
In a series circuit, current is the same at every point.
3. Example 1:
If A1 is 0.3 A, what will be the currents measured by ammeters A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6?
4. Understanding potential difference in a series circuit:
4
A
B
C
D12
V
V
4 0
J J
4 2 0
J J J
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Assume both light bulbs are identical → they will use up equal amount of energy:
 E.m.f. of cell = 4 V → each charge carries energy of 4J → 4 J/C = 4 V
 At A, charges enter light bulb with 4 V. Some electrical energy is converted to light
and thermal energy. When charges leave B, the energy per unit charge left is 2 V.
 This means that potential difference VAB = 4 – 2 = 2 V.
 At C, charges enter light bulb with 2 V. The remaining electrical energy is

converted to light and thermal energy. When charges leave D, the energy per unit
charge left is 0 V.
 This means that potential difference VCD = 2 – 0 = 2 V.
Conclusion:
In a series circuit, the sum of potential difference across each component is

equal to the potential difference across the whole circuit.
V = V1 + V2 + …
5. Example 2:
Fill in the table to find out the various potential difference.

10
V p.d. across dry cell =
p.d. across A =
p.d. across B =
C
V p.d. across C =
p.d. across A and B =

p.d. across B and C =
p.d. across A, B and C =

6. AV
4
Understanding B in a series circuit:
V
1.
resistance
V 5
V
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4
A
B
C
D12
V
V
Since the light bulbs are connected in series, the current passing through each light
bulb is the same. Having more light bulbs in series means “more resistance” to flow
through.
Analogy using water:

Having more narrow paths will make it more difficult for the water to flow.
Conclusion:
In a series circuit, the effective resistance R is the sum of all the resistances of
each resistor.
R = R1 + R2 + …
18.2 Parallel Circuit
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7. Understanding current in a parallel circuit:
 In a parallel circuit, there are more than one branch for current to flow.
 Current splits at the parallel junction and join back at the other junction.
Conclusion:
In a parallel circuit, the sum of the current in each parallel branch is equal to the
main current flowing into or out of the parallel branches.
I = I1 + I2 + …
8. Example 3:
Assume that the light bulbs are identical. If A1 is 4 A,

find the ammeter reading in A2, A3 and A4.
9. Example 4:
Find I1 and I2.
I1
10. Understanding potential difference in a parallel I2

circuit:
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42
V
V 4 0
J J
4 0
J A
B J
4 0
J C
D J
Assume both light bulbs are identical → they will use up equal amount of energy:
 E.m.f. of cell = 4 V → each charge carries energy of 4J → 4 J/C = 4 V
 At the parallel junction, current splits into two branches but both are still 4 V.
 Charges enter each light bulbs with 4 V. All electrical energy is converted to light
and thermal energy. When charges leave each light bulb, the energy per unit
charge left is 0 V.
 This means that potential difference VAB and VCD = 4 – 0 = 0 V.
Conclusion:
In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each parallel branch is the
same.
11. Example 5:
Three resistors of different resistance are connected in parallel to a 12 V power supply.

Fill in the table to find out the various potential difference.
p.d. across R1 =
p.d. across R2 =
p.d. across R3 =
12. Understanding resistance in a parallel circuit:
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Let’s say:
 The toll booths are resistors → parallel arrangement
 The vehicles are charges flowing
Analogy:
 There are more toll booths for the vehicles to pass through.
 Take “less time” to clear the booth and “faster” flow
 There are less resistance → increase current flow.
Conclusion:
Adding more resistors in parallel will result in lower effective resistance.
1 1 1
   ...
R R1 R2
13. Comparison between series and parallel circuits.
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Series circuits Parallel circuits
E
I
I1
R1
V1
V1
R1
E
Arrangement I1
V2
R2
V2
I2
R2
I2
Only one path for current to flow Two or more paths for current to
flow
Current will split when it reaches a
junction.
Same current at every point and
same current for every
Component with the smallest
Current component.
resistance has the highest current
flowing through it.
I1 = I2
I1 + I2 = I
Different p.d. across each
component (if they have different
resistance).
Same p.d. across each branch of
Potential a parallel circuits.
Component with the largest
difference
resistance has the highest p.d.
V1 = V2 = e.m.f
across it.
V1 + V2 = e.m.f.
Adding more resistors will result in
Adding more resistors will result in lower effective resistance.
higher effective resistance.
Resistance
1 1 1
RT = R1 + R2 +…+ Rn    ...
R R1 R2
Current will continue to flow in

Simple and cheaper to build,
Advantage other branches even if a branch is
design and operate.
opened.
More wires are required.
When one component is spoilt,
Disadvantage Current increases with more
the whole circuit will not work.
resistors in parallel – risk of
overheating.
14. Example 6:
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Complete the table below.
6.0 V
RC = 2.0 Ω
A B C
V V V
VA = 2.0 V VB = 1.5 V VC
Resistor A Resistor B Resistor C

Potential
difference, 2.0 V 1.5 V
V
Current,
I
Resistance,
2Ω
R
15. Example 7:
Given that resistors A and B are identical while resistor C has a resistance of 8.0 Ω,
complete the table below.
10
.0
V
AB
VB 8.
C
V
= 0
Resistor A Resistor B Resistor C
Ω
2.
Potential 0
difference, V
V
Current,
I
Resistance,
R
18.3 Resistors in Series and Parallel
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16. Recall formula:
Series circuits Parallel circuits

Adding more resistors will result
Adding more resistors will result in lower effective resistance.
in higher effective resistance.
Resistance
1 1 1
RT = R1 + R2 +…+ Rn    ...
R R1 R2
17. Example 8:
The resistors shown in the diagrams below are identical and has a resistance of 5 Ω.
Calculate the effective resistance for each circuit.
(a)
(b)
(c)
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(d)
(e)
18. Sometimes, short circuit can happen:
Short circuit happens when current flows through a wire of lower resistance.
When the switch is closed, current flows through the switch and not through the
resistor Y. This is because the switch has a lower resistance compared to resistor
Y. This results in short circuit and may cause circuit to be damaged or over heating
due to high current.
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19. Example 9:
6V
I 6Ω
I2
I1
2Ω
Calculate
(a) the effective resistance,
(b) the currents I1, I2 and I, and
(c) the potential difference V.
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20. Example 10:
12 V
I 3Ω
I2
4Ω
I1
V 6Ω
Calculate
(b) the currents I1, I2 and I, and
(c) the potential difference V.
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21. Example 11:
The circuit shows two resistors connected to a battery of negligible internal resistance.
The current flowing in the circuit is 8 A.
8A
(a) Find the effective resistance of the circuit.
(b) Find the e.m.f. of the battery.
(c) State the potential difference across the 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Calculate the current through the
(i) 3  resistor,
(ii) 6  resistor.
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22. Example 12:
The diagram below shows part of a circuit. The potential difference across DF is 15 V.
D
8
E
6
3
F
Calculate
(b) the current flowing through the 8 Ω resistor,
(c) the current flowing through the 3 Ω resistor,
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(d) the current flowing through the 6 Ω resistor,
23. Example 13:
The e.m.f. of the dry cell is 12 V and the voltmeter reading is 3 V.

I
R
12 V
6
V
Calculate
(a) the current I flowing in the circuit,
(b) the size of the resistor R,
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(c) the current I, if the resistors are connected in parallel instead of in series.
18.4 Potential Dividers
24. A potential divider is a line of resistors connected in series. It is used to adjust the
voltage such that it is smaller than the e.m.f. provided by a single cell.
Current through resistors R1 and R2 Vout across R2
Vout = IR
Vin
Vin = × R2
I= R1 + R2
R1 + R2
R2
= × Vin
R1 + R2
25. Example 14:
Calculate the output voltage.
(a) (b)
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26. A variable potential divider is used to vary the output voltage from a source.
Using rheostat Using potentiometer
Rheostat is a variable resistor that is Potentiometer is a variable resistor that

connected at two terminals is connected at three terminals
To get a larger voltage output, the To get a larger voltage output, the
resistance is the rheostat is adjust to a contact point is slide towards the right
lower value. to get a higher resistance.
R2 L2
Vout = × Vin Vout = × Vε
Formula:
R1 + R2 Formula:
L1 + L 2
27. Example 15:
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The circuit below shows a 9 V battery connected in series with a variable resistor R1 and
a 50 Ω resistor R2. The resistance of the variable resistor R1 can vary from 0 to 100 Ω.
What are the maximum and minimum output voltages?
28. Example 16:
How would you expect the voltmeter reading to change when the potentiometer slider is
moved to the right?
Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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29. Example 17:
Which way would you have to move the potentiometer wiper, to the left or to the right, in
order to increase current through resistor R1?
Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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18.5 Input Transducer
30. Input transducers are electronic devices that respond to changes in physical
conditions such as temperature and light.
31. Input transducers convert non-electrical energy to electrical energy.
What are thermistors?
32. Thermistor is a resistor whose resistance varies with temperature.
33. In a common thermistor, when temperature increases, resistance decreases.
34. By using voltmeter to measure Vout, we can derive the temperature.
What are Light Dependent Resistors?
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35. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases as the amount of
light shining on it increases, and vice versa.
36. Example 18:
An LDR is connected in series with a fixed resistor of 100 Ω. The power supply is 9 V.
Calculate the Vout across the fixed resistor when the LDR has a resistance of
(i) 5 kΩ,
(ii) 50 Ω.
37. Example 19:
An LDR is connected to a 10 Ω resistor and a 9 V battery. The LDR is connected to a

light bulb which lights up when the room is dark. Explain how the LDR works.
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Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 19 Practical Electricity
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) describe the use of the heating effect of electricity in appliances such as electric kettles, ovens and
heaters
(b) recall and apply the relationships P = VI and E = VIt to new situations or to solve related problems
(c) calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where the energy unit is the kWh
(d) compare the use of non-renewable and renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels, nuclear energy,
solar energy, wind energy and hydroelectric generation to generate electricity in terms of energy
conversion efficiency, cost per kW h produced and environmental impact
(e) state the hazards of using electricity in the following situations:
(i) damaged insulation
(ii) overheating of cables
(iii) damp conditions
(f) explain the use of fuses and circuit breakers in electrical circuits and of fuse ratings
(g) explain the need for earthing metal cases and for double insulation
(h) state the meaning of the terms live, neutral and earth
(i) describe the wiring in a mains plug
(j) explain why switches, fuses, and circuit breakers are wired into the live conductor
19.1 Uses of Electricity
1. Electrical energy can be easily converted to other forms of energy.
Effect of
Conversion of energy Example
electricity
Chemical effect electrical energy → chemical energy Electroplating
Heating effect electrical energy → thermal energy Kettle, iron, light bulb
Lightning effect electrical energy → light + sound energy Lightning and thunder
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Electromagnet used
Magnetic effect electrical energy → magnetic energy
in electric bell
Electric motor used in

Mechanical effect electrical energy → *mechanical energy
fans, vacuum
*Note: Mechanical energy refers to sum of kinetic and potential energy in an object that
is used to do work.
Electric heating
2. Most appliances such as kettle and iron use a heating element that is made of
nichrome wire, an alloy of nickel and chromium.
Property of nichrome wire What it means

When current passes through nichrome wire, large
High resistivity amount of electrical energy is converted to thermal
energy.
High melting point 1400 °C Will not melt at high temperature
3. A filament lamp uses the heating effect of electricity to produce light.
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Feature of filament lamp What it means
High resistivity to generate heat and light.

Filament made of tungsten.
High melting point (3400 °C) to prevent melting.
Filament made into a coiled coil. To have a longer wire to have higher resistance
Glass bulb filled with inert gases Prevent tungsten from getting burnt at high
(eg. argon or nitrogen). temperature
19.2 Measuring Electrical Energy
Calculating electrical power and energy
4. Electrical power of an appliance shows how much electrical energy is converted to other
forms of energy such as heat or light in a second.
5. What does “345 W, 240 V” means?
This rating means when an operating voltage of 240 V is applied, the appliance
converts electrical energy to other energy at a rate of 345 J/s.
6. Formula for electrical power:
Power Potential Difference Current
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The work done in driving a
The rate of work done or The rate of flow of
unit charge across a
energy converted. charges.
component.
E W Q
P= V= I=
t Q t
Combining these 3 formulae,
7. SI unit: Watt (W)
8. Other common formulae for electrical power:
Using V = IR,
P = VI
= I2R
V2
=
R
9. Formulae for electrical energy:
Using E = P x t,
E = VIt
= I2Rt
V 2t
=
R
10. Example 1:
A TV, rated as 120 W, 240 V, is connected to a 240 V mains. Calculate the amount of
electrical energy consumed when the TV is switched on for 1 hour.
11. Example 2:
An electric iron with a heating element of 80 Ω is connected to a 240 V power supply.
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Find
(a) the electrical power produced in the heating element,
(b) the current flowing in the iron, and
(c) the energy produced by the iron when operating it for 15 minutes.
12. Example 3:
Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
9.0 V
10 Ω 20 Ω
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13. Example 4:
Which of these two bulbs has the higher resistance?
(Hint: What information is given in the rating? What is the power equation that relates the given
quantities?)
bulb A bulb B
250 V, 250 V,
100 W 200 W
Calculating the cost of electricity consumption
14. The number of kilowatt-hour (kWh) is often used to calculate the cost of electricity
consumption.
15. In terms of SI unit of energy (joule), 1 kWh is equivalent to
16. Formula:
Energy = Power (in kW)  time (in hour)

cost = no. of kWh  price/kWh
17. Example 5:
Singapore Power charges 24.22 cents for each kWh of electrical energy used. Calculate
the total cost of using a 3 kW electric kettle for 20 minutes and a 500 W filament bulb for
6 hours. [Ans: 96.88 cents]
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18. Example 6:
A rice cooker is rated at 2000 W, 240 V. The total cost of using the rice cooker for 30
days is $12.60. Given that the cost of 1 unit of kWh is $0.28, how long was the rice
cooker being used per day? [Ans: 45 mins]
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19.3 Sources of Electrical Energy
19. Singapore’s main source of electrical energy is burning fossil fuels. However, they are non-renewable source of energy and are harmful to
the environment. Therefore, there is a need to source for alternative sources of energy.
Renewable energy Non-renewable energy
energy from natural sources that cannot be

Definition energy from sources that can be replenished naturally
replenished at a sustainable rate
Uranium, fossil fuels, coal, natural gas,

Examples Sunlight, running water, wind
petroleum
Application Solar power Hydroelectric power Wind power Nuclear power Fossil fuels
Gravitational
Energy Light → electrical Kinetic → electrical Nuclear → heat → Chemical → heat →
potential →
conversion energy energy electrical energy electrical energy
electrical energy
High efficiency when Most efficient energy Efficiency depends Most countries have
Efficiency there is daylight and source as water flow on wind direction and High efficiency well-established fossil
minimal cloud cover can be controlled speed fuel power plants
Expensive to
Expensive to Cost falling with Additional cost for
construct and Cost rising due to
Cost manufacture solar improving technology disposal of
maintain dam and declining supplies
panels to maintain windmill radioactive waste
power plant
Radioactive waste
Clean energy, but Mining disrupts
Clean energy, but can contaminate
Environment Clean energy, but requires large open ecosystems and
dam construction groundwater and
impact requires large areas areas and possible burning fossil fuels
disrupts ecosystems surface water
noise pollution results in air pollution
sources
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19.4 Dangers of Electricity
20. Electricity brings convenience in our daily lives but can also be dangerous.
21. Summary of hazard of electricity and their causes:
Electrical Danger Caused by

Fire Overheating of cables
Damaged insulation
Electric Shock
Damp conditions
22. Overheating of cables
 Overloading happens when too many electrical appliances are connected to one
socket. This will produce a large current and the large amount of heat generated
can melt the insulation and start a fire.
 Using wrong thickness of wires can also cause fire. Thin wires has higher
resistance, which can generate more heat.
23. Damaged insulation
 Due to wear and tear, the insulation (PVC or rubber) covering the wires can be
damaged. This exposes the live wire and can cause electric shock to user if user
touches it accidentally. This can lead to injury or even death.
24. Damp conditions
 Water can conduct electricity. Water provides a conducting path for a large
amount of current to flow through it and through the body of the person. A large
current (more than 50 mA) will cause electric burn, uncoordinated heart muscle
contraction, or even electrocuted.
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19.5 Safety Features in Home Circuitries
25. Three-pin plugs
 A fused plug connects a portable appliance such as electric kettle to the mains
supply via the power socket.
 There are three wires in a three-pin plug and they are identified by specific colours.
Live wire
240 V
Earth wire
Appliance
0V
Neutral wire
0V
Wire Symbol Colour Feature Function
Connected to the mains Delivers current to the

Live
L Brown at high voltage of 240 appliance from the
wire
V and to the appliance supply
Complete the circuit by

Connected to the mains
Neutral forming a path for the
N Blue at 0 V and to the
wire current to flow back to
appliance
the supply
Connected to the Current does not flow in

ground at 0 V and to the earth wire during normal
Green metal casing of the condition
Earth
E and appliance
wire
yellow Allows current to flow to
Has very low the ground if there is a
resistance electric fault
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26. Fuses
Symbol for fuse:
 When current flowing through it is higher than its fuse rating, the wire gets hot and
melts. It becomes an open circuit and stop current from flowing through it. This
prevents any excessive flow of current.
 The safety measures to be taken when selecting and changing fuses:
Safety measure Reason

If fuse rating is lower than operating current, then fuse
will blow even before the appliance can be used.
Fuses should have
a current rating just If fuse rating is much higher than the operating current,
slightly higher than electric fire can result before the fuse blows.
1 the current flowing
in an appliance Fuse rating is slightly higher to allow appliance to work
under normal under operating current and only blows when current
conditions. increases slightly above operating current.
Fuses are normally rated at 1 A, 2 A, 5 A, 10 A and 13 A.
The appliance will be at 0 V as it is not connected to the

live wire anymore. This will prevent electric shock.
Live wire
240 V Appliance
Earth wire 0V
Neutral wire 0V
0V 0V
Fuses are
2 connected to live
If fuse is connected to neutral wire, the appliance will be
wire.
at high voltage as it is connected to the live wire. This will
cause electric shock.
Live wire
240 V Appliance
Earth wire 240 V
Neutral wire 0V
0V 0V
Switch off the

3 mains when To prevent electric shock if there is leakage of current.
changing any fuse.
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 Example 7:
A hot-water heater is rated 2880 W, 240 V. Calculate the operating current and
suggest a suitable rating for a fuse to be used to protect the heater from overloading.
 Example 8:
A lamp labelled 240 V, 550 W is connected to the mains supply.
240 V
fuse
240 V, 550 W
(a) Calculate the rated value of the fuse that should be connected to the circuit.
(b) State whether the fuse will blow when an identical lamp is connected in parallel
with the first lamp. Explain your answer.
Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
27. Example 9:
The diagram below shows the connection between an air conditioner and a refrigerator
in a household circuit.
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(a) Suggest a suitable fuse ratings for fuse X.
(b) Suggest a suitable fuse ratings for fuse Y.
(c) Both appliances are switched on and work correctly. A fault develops in the cable to
the refrigerator where point P touches point Q.
State what happens, if any, to each component.
Component Behaviour
Fuse X
Fuse Y
Air conditioner
Refrigerator
28. Earthing
 The Earth (E) wire is a low resistance wire, connected to the metal casing of an
appliance.
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Without Earth wire:
 When the live wire accidentally touches the metal casing of an appliance,
current flows to the metal casing. Metal casing is at high voltage now.
 If a person touches the metal casing, large current will flow into his body and
cause electric shock.
With Earth wire:
 When the live wire accidentally touches the metal casing of an appliance,
current flows to the metal casing. Metal casing is at high voltage now.
 This large current will flow from the live wire to the metal casing and to the
ground. This will blow the fuse and cut off the supply to the appliance. Current
does not flow to the user and so, protects him from electric shock.
29. Switches
 The function of a switch is to break or complete an electrical circuit.
 What happens when switch is fitted into the neutral wire?
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 As a safety precaution, any switch must be fitted onto the live wire, so that switching
off disconnects the high voltage from an appliance.
30. Circuit breakers
 Circuit breakers are safety devices that can switch off the electrical supply in a
circuit when there is an overflow of current. To use electricity supply again, turn on
the switch.
 It helps to prevent damaged to the appliances or fires from breaking out.
 Circuit breakers are connected to live wire.
31. Double insulation
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Symbol:
 Most non-metallic casing appliances use two-pin plug. There are no earth wires.
 In double insulation, there are two levels of protection.
 Electric cables are insulated from the internal components of appliance.

 The internal components are insulated from the external non-metallic casing.
32. Example 10:
The diagram shows an electrical appliance connected to a mains supply.
A
X
metal casing
BX
C
X
D
X
(a) Fill in the boxes with the following words: live wire, neutral wire or earth wire
(b) At which position (A, B, C or D) should the fuse be placed? Explain your answer.
Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
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(c) Explain how the earth wire can help to prevent damage or injury to users when a
fault occurs in the appliance.
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Fact
Amber
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Conclusion
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SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 20 Magnetism
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
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(a) state the properties of magnets
(b) describe induced magnetism
(c) describe electrical methods of magnetisation and demagnetisation
(d) draw the magnetic field pattern around a bar magnet and between the poles of two bar magnets
(e) describe the plotting of magnetic field lines with a compass
(f) distinguish between the properties and uses of temporary magnets (e.g. iron) and permanent magnets
(e.g. steel)
20.1 Magnets and Magnetic Materials
1. Materials can be classified as magnetic material and non-magnetic material.
Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials
Objects that are attracted to Objects that do not get attracted

Definition
magnets to magnets
Iron Plastic
Nickel Wood
Examples
Cobalt Copper
Steel Aluminium
Applicatio Can be made to become a Cannot be made to become a

n magnet magnet
2. Properties of magnets:
Properties Diagram
N S
(i) Magnets have two poles; north

and south. The magnetic effect is
strongest at the poles.
(ii) A freely suspended magnet comes

to rest in the north−south
direction.
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Properties Diagram
(iii) Law of magnetism states that like

poles repel and unlike poles
attract.
3. Test for magnetism:
 If object is not attracted to magnet → object is a non-magnetic material
 If object is attracted to magnet → object is a magnetic material
 If object is repelled away from a magnet → object is a magnet
The only test for magnetism is repulsion between two magnets.
4. Example 1:
In the set-up shown, the ring magnets are found to float on top of one another. State a
reason why.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
5. Example 2:
The ends of three metal rods are tested by holding end Q of rod 1 close to the others in
turn.
The results are as follows:
End R End S End T End U

End Q attracts attracts attracts repels
Which of the metal rods is/are a magnet? Explain your answer.

Fact
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20.2 Magnetic Induction
6. When two iron nails are brought near to each other, they do not attract.
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7. What will happen to the paper clip when it is brought near the iron bar, which is fixed in
position?
• The iron bar becomes magnetised when brought near the bar
magnet.
• The iron bar becomes an induced magnet.
• In turn, the iron bar magnetises the paper clip through induced
magnetism.
• As a result, the paper clip is attracted to the iron bar.
• This process is called induced magnetism / magnetic induction.
8. More example: Paper clips get attracted to magnet even when a wood between them.
• The paper clips are magnetised by induced magnetism.
• This process does not require physical contact between the

magnet and the magnetic material. The magnetic material only
needs to be near the magnet.
• The paper clips have become induced magnets.
• The bottom tips of the paper clips are like poles (N poles) and thus
they repel each other.
9. Definition: Magnetic induction is the process whereby an object made of a

magnetic material becomes a magnet when it is near or in contact with a magnet.
10. Example 3:
Explain why the compass needle deflects when a soft iron bar is placed between the
permanent magnet and the compass at position X.
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Fact
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Conclusion
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20.3 Magnetisation and Demagnetisation
11. A magnet is actually made up of tiny atomic magnets pointing in the same direction.
Random alignments of atomic dipoles
After magnetisation, dipoles point in the same direction
12. To magnetise magnetic materials:
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Method Description & Diagram
(a) Stroking
 A permanent magnet is stroked along a steel bar in one

direction.
 Pole produced at the end of magnetised steel bar after

stroking is of opposite polarity to that of the stroking
pole.
 A copper wire is made into a long coil of a few hundred

turns. This is called a solenoid.
(b) Electrical
method using direct  The solenoid is connected in series with a battery and
current (d.c.) switch.
 A metal bar is inserted inside the solenoid.
 When a direct current flows through the solenoid, the

bar is magnetised.
Methods to increase the strength of the magnet:
 increase the number of coils
 increase the e.m.f. of battery
13. Example 4:
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State the polarity of P and Q when an iron bar is magnetised by stroking.
P Q
P: …………………… pole
Q: …………………… pole
Polarity of magnet
14. Polarity of magnet can be determined using the right-hand grip rule.
 The solenoid is ‘gripped’ using the right hand.
 Curl the fingers, pointing in the direction of the current in the solenoid.
 The thumb points in the direction of the north pole.
15. Example 5:
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Determine the polarity of each end of the solenoids.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
16. The main idea to demagnetise a magnet is to randomise the alignment of atoms:
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Method Description & Diagram
 Heating a magnet over a strong Bunsen flame to change

Heating
alignment of atoms.
Hammering  Hammering to change alignment of atoms.
Electrical method
using alternating
current (a.c.)
 Connect the solenoid with a low voltage alternating
current power supply.
 Placed the magnet inside the solenoid and then

withdrawn slowly in an east-west direction till the magnet
is some distance away from the solenoid.
Note: Alternating current is current in which its direction will reverse after each cycle.
20.4 Magnetic Fields
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17. Definition: A magnetic field is the region around a magnet, in which a magnetic
material experiences a magnetic force.
18. To plot magnetic field lines / magnetic field pattern:
 Place a compass at one end of the magnet.
 Mark the S and N ends of the compass needle.
 Repeat by moving the compass further away.
 Sketch the field lines by joining the points together.
 Hence, the magnetic field is then plotted.
19. Key points to note:
 Magnetic field lines are directed outwards from the N pole towards the S pole.
 Magnetic field lines do not cross or intersect one another.
 Field lines are drawn closer to represent stronger fields and vice versa.
20. Example 6:
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Sketch the magnetic field lines around each of the following bar magnets.
(a)
N S
(b)
N N
(c)
N S
N S
(d)
N S
S N
Note: Neutral point is a point where the resultant magnetic field intensity is zero. This
means that there would not be any magnetic effect at that point.
21. Example 7:
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The diagram shows magnetic field lines between N-pole and S-pole on two bar
magnets.
(a) The lines near X are parallel and evenly spaced. State what does this show about
the magnetic field at X.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(b) The lines near Y are further apart. State what does this show about the magnetic
field at Y.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
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20.5 Temporary and Permanent Magnets
22. Both iron and steel are magnetic materials. However, iron and steel have different
magnetic properties.
Magnet Magnetisation Demagnetisation
 More paper
clips  Paper clips
attracted to dropped off
iron
Iron
 Iron does not
 Stronger retain its
induced magnetism
magnet
 Less paper
clips  Some paper
attracted to clips left on
iron steel
Steel
 Weaker  Steel retain
induced its magnetism
magnet
23. Difference between soft and hard magnet:
Magnetic Soft magnet Hard magnet
Easy to magnetise and Difficult to magnetise and

Properties
demagnetise demagnetise
Examples Iron Steel
Application Temporary magnet Permanent magnet
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Uses of permanent magnets
24. Permanent magnets are those that can retain their magnetism for a long time.
25. Moving coil loudspeaker
 A strong permanent magnet is placed at the centre of the loudspeaker.
26. Magnetic door catch
 Permanent magnets are fitted to the doors of freezers and refrigerators to keep the
doors closed.
27. Magnetic compass
 The needle of a compass is a permanent magnet.
Uses of temporary magnets
28. Temporary magnets are those that will not retain their magnetism.
29. One common temporary magnet is electromagnet. (Electromagnetism will be explained

in Chapter 21.)
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30. Example 8:
Three bars are made of metals 1, 2 and 3, which are known to be made of copper, iron
and steel. A magnet is placed at one end of each metal bar.
(a) Based on the diagram below, identify metals 1, 2 and 3.
Metal 1: ………………… Metal 2: ………………… Metal 3: …………………
(b) Explain your answer to (a).

Fact
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Conclusion
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(c) Can metal 1 pick up the iron tacks if it is near but not touching the magnet?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
31. Example 9:
The figure illustrates the circuit diagram for the switching on of high voltage circuit by a
relay operated by a 12 V supply. The relay is wound on a metal core.
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(a) Name a suitable material for the metal core. Explain why.
Fact
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Conclusion
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(b) What would happen if the metal core is made of aluminum?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(c) Suggest one reason why the high voltage circuit is switched on using the relay
circuit rather than by switching it on directly.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 21 Electromagnetism
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
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(a) draw the pattern of the magnetic field due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids and state the
effect on the magnetic field of changing the magnitude and/or direction of the current
(b) describe the application of the magnetic effect of a current in a circuit breaker
(c) describe experiments to show the force on a current-carrying conductor, and on a beam of charged
particles, in a magnetic field, including the effect of reversing
(i) the current
(ii) the direction of the field
(d) deduce the relative directions of force, field and current when any two of these quantities are at right
angles to each other using Fleming’s left-hand rule
(e) describe the field patterns between currents in parallel conductors and relate these to the forces which
exist between the conductors (excluding the Earth’s field)
(f) explain how a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect and that the effect
increased by increasing
(i) the number of turns on the coil
(ii) the current
(g) discuss how this turning effect is used in the action of an electric motor
(h) describe the action of a split-ring commutator in a two-pole, single-coil motor and the effect of winding
the coil on to a soft-iron cylinder
21.1 Magnetic Effect of a Current
1. Oersted’s accidental discovery during an experiment (https://youtu.be/RwilgsQ9xaM):
A compass needle deflects when it is placed near a current carrying wire.
When no current flows through XY, When current flows through XY, the
the compass needles point to the needles deflect to the east or west.
Earth’s north.
A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
2. Magnetic field lines around a straight wire are determined by the right hand grip rule:
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Current flowing into paper Current flowing out of paper
 Magnetic field lines are closer when it is nearer to the wire because magnetic field is
stronger near the wire.
 When direction of current changes, the direction of magnetic field lines are reversed.
 Magnetic field is stronger when current is larger.
4. Magnetic field lines of a solenoid are determined by another right hand grip rule:
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 The magnetic field pattern of a solenoid resembles that of a bar magnet.
 The magnetic field is stronger inside the solenoid.
 When the direction of the current changes, the direction of magnetic field lines are
reversed.
5. Example 1:
Determine the polarities of the solenoid and draw the magnetic field lines.
(a) (b)
6. When a current is passed through the solenoid, it is magnetised and becomes a strong
electromagnet.
7. Definition: An electromagnet is a magnet that operates only when there is a flow of

electric current.
8. Factors affecting strength of magnetic field:
 No. of turns of coil
 Strength of electric current
 Insert soft iron core into solenoid
9. Example 2:
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Solenoid A is attached to a spring balance and solenoid B is fixed to be right below A.
(a) Mark at each end of both A and B, the magnetic poles due to the current flowing
through the solenoids.
[2]
(b) State the effect of the solenoids have on each other, and how it will affect the
reading of the spring balance.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(c) State two methods in order to produce a greater change in the reading in part (b).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[2]
(d) If the direction of current in solenoid A is now opposite to that shown in the diagram,
how will the reading of the spring balance change? Explain.
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10. Uses of an electromagnet:
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(I) Circuit breaker
 When current is low, the solenoid (electromagnet) is not strong enough to attract
the soft iron armature.
 During short circuit or overloading, the current increases and the solenoid becomes
a very strong electromagnet.
 The electromagnet is able to attract the soft iron armature and causes the
contacts to open. This stops the current from flowing.
(II) Electric bell
 When the button is pushed down, the circuit is complete and current flows.
 The electromagnet becomes magnetised and attracts the soft-iron armature. This
enables the hammer to strike the gong.
 When hammer moves out, circuit is broken at point S. Current stops flowing and
electromagnet loses its magnetism.
 The springy metal strip pulls back the armature, remaking contact at S.
 The cycle is repeated and the bell rings continuously.
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11. Example 3:
A student designs a simple doorbell.
(a) Determine the polarities of both ends of the horseshoe magnet. [1]
(b) Explain how two sounds are produced when switch S is pressed and then released.
Fact
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Conclusion
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(c) State a way to increase the loudness of the doorbell.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(d) State and explain the effect on the bell when the polarities of the cell are reversed.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
21.2 Force on Current-carrying Conductor
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12. A current-carrying wire will experience a force when it is placed in a magnetic field. This
is called the motor effect.
13. Experiment to show the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field:
 A wire swing is hung between the

poles of a horseshoe magnet.
 When circuit is closed, the current

flows from A  B  C  D in the wire.
 Hence, it experiences a force that

results in the wire swinging outwards.
What causes the motor effect?
When this piece of wire is placed in between the two magnetic poles,
 the magnetic fields nearer to the top are in the same direction → strong magnetic
field
 the magnetic fields nearer to the bottom are in opposite direction → weak magnetic
field
 as a result, the wire is pushed downwards due to a resultant field
14. The direction of the force is reversed when
 the direction of current is reversed,
 the direction of magnetic field is reversed.

15. The direction of the force of a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field is determined by
the Fleming’s left hand rule.
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*Note: Force, Field and Current are perpendicular to one another.
16. Example 3:
Determine the direction of the force on the wire.
(a)
(b)
N S
S N
(c)
(d)
N S
S N
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(e)
(f)
N S
S N
(g) (h)
N S S N
(i) (j)
N S
S N
(k)
(l)
N
S
S
N
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Forces between two parallel current-carrying conductors
17. Currents in same directions: attract
X + X X X
18. Currents in opposite directions: repel
+ X X
Force on a beam of charged particles in a magnetic field
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19. A beam of charged particles also experienced a force in a magnetic field. The force
acting on the particles can also be determined using the Fleming’s left hand rule.
20. Example 5:
For each diagram, draw the directions of each charged particle after it enters the
magnetic field.
         
         
         
+          
         
         
         
         
+          
         
         
         
         
–          
         
         
         
         
–          
         
21.3 Turning Effect on a Current-carrying Coil in a Magnetic Field
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21. When a current-carrying coil is placed between the poles of a magnet:
 Using Fleming’s left hand rule, the side AB will experience a force acting inward
while the side CD will experience a force acting outward.
 This will result in the turning effect of the coil about the axis PQ.
22. An application is the use of a d.c. motor. A d.c. motor converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
23. How it works? (https://youtu.be/wxG3cwugXgs)
The e.m.f. causes current to flow in the coil ABCD. This current creates a magnetic field
which interacts with the existing magnetic field produced by the electromagnetic poles N
and S. This interaction creates a magnetic force which turns the coil.
When a direct current flows through

ABCD, magnetic force is experienced in
the wire.
Using Fleming’s left hand rule, the force

at AB is downward while the force at CD
is upward.
This results in the coil (and the

commutator) turning in an anticlockwise
direction.
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When the coil is in the vertical position,
the split ring is not in contact with the
carbon brush. Hence, current stops
flowing.
The momentum of the coil carry it

slightly beyond the vertical position.
When current flows through DCBA,

magnetic force is experienced in the
wire.
Using Fleming’s left hand rule, the force

at DC is downward while the force at AB
is upward.
This results in the coil turning in an

anticlockwise direction.
24. Features of a split-ring commutator:
 There are two gaps on the split-ring commutator.
 The coil is fixed on the commutator and they rotate together.
25. The function of a split-ring commutator is to reverse the direction of current in the
coil every half a revolution.
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26. Factors affecting strength of d.c. motor:
 No. of turns of coil
 Strength of electric current
 Insert soft iron core into coil
27. Example 6:
How will the current-carrying coil move when it is placed in a magnetic field?
………………………………………………………………
28. Example 7:
N
(a) Predict what would happen to the current-carrying conductor.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(b) What would happen if the current in the wire is reversed?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(c) What would happen if the magnetic field is reversed?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(d) If the current direction is parallel with the magnetic field, what do you think will
happen?
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………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
29. Example 8:
S Power
source
N
(a) A rod is placed between a pair of magnetic poles as shown. If the rod moves to the
right, indicate the direction of the current in the diagram above.
[1]
(b) Explain why the rod moves when the switch is closed.
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30. Example 9:
(a) Indicate the directions of the forces acting along AB and CD when the switch is
closed. [1]
(b) Explain why the coil will turn when current flows through the coil.
Fact
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Conclusion
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(c) State a method to increase the rate of turning of the coil.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(d) If the split-ring commutator is changed to one that has no gaps, state what would
happen to the coil.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(e) State the function of the carbon brushes.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Physics 6091
Chapter 22 Electromagnetic Induction
Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________
(a) deduce from Faraday’s experiments on electromagnetic induction or other appropriate experiments:
(i) that a changing magnetic field can induce an e.m.f. in a circuit
(ii) that the direction of the induced e.m.f. opposes the change producing it
(iii) the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
(b) describe a simple form of a.c. generator (rotating coil or rotating magnet) and the use of slip rings (where
needed)
(c) sketch a graph of voltage output against time for a simple a.c. generator
(d) describe the use of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.) to display waveforms and to measure potential
differences and short intervals of time (detailed circuits, structure and operation of the c.r.o. are not
required)
(e) interpret c.r.o. displays of waveforms, potential differences and time intervals to solve related problems
(f) describe the structure and principle of operation of a simple iron-cored transformer as used for voltage
transformations
(g) recall and apply the equations VP / VS = NP / NS and VPIP = VSIS to new situations or to solve related
problems (for an ideal transformer)
(h) describe the energy loss in cables and deduce the advantages of high voltage transmission
22.1 Electromagnetic Induction
1. In the previous chapter on Electromagnetism, Oersted discovered in 1820:
A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
induce
Current magnetic field
2. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the opposite, known as Electromagnetic Induction.
A changing magnetic field produces an induced e.m.f. in a conductor.
induce
Changing magnetic field e.m.f.
3. Definition: Electromagnetic induction is the process through which an induced

e.m.f. is produced in a conductor due to a changing magnetic field.
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4. Faraday’s solenoid experiment (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tC6E9J925pY):
 Connect both ends of a solenoid to a galvanometer.

 Observe what happens to the galvanometer when a permanent magnet enters and
leaves the solenoid.
Note: Galvanometer is a sensitive instrument that is used to detect current. When

current flows through the galvanometer, the needle will deflect.
Procedure Observation Conclusion

1) Hold the magnet
stationary outside the
solenoid.
The galvanometer needle No current when there is
was not deflected. no relative movement.
2) Move the North pole

into the solenoid. Emf is induced (hence
current is also induced)
The galvanometer needle
when there is movement
deflected in one direction.
between magnet and
solenoid.
3) Hold the magnet

stationary inside the
solenoid.
The galvanometer needle No current when there is
was not deflected. no relative movement.
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4) Remove the magnet
from the solenoid. Emf is induced (hence
The galvanometer needle current is also induced)
deflected in the opposite when there is movement
direction. between magnet and
solenoid.
5. To increase the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. (and hence increase induced current):
 Increase the strength of the magnet
 Increase the number of turns in the solenoid
 Increase the speed at which the magnet moves with respect to the solenoid
6. Example 1:
Set-up A: Set-up B:
Magnet moving Wire moving away
towards wire. from magnet.
Which set-up, A or B or both, will cause a deflection in the galvanometer? State a

reason for your answer.
…………… because ……………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Two laws of electromagnetic induction
7. There are two laws of electromagnetic induction to determine the magnitude of the
induced e.m.f. and its direction.
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of the

induced e.m.f. in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux in the circuit.
Note: Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines linking the solenoid.
Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f., and hence the induced
current in a closed circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect opposes the
motion or change producing it.
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8. A permanent magnet is made to pass through a short solenoid. Below shows a graph of
induced e.m.f. against time.
Motion of magnet Faraday’s Law:
A. As the North pole of

the magnet enters the there is change in the magnetic flux
solenoid, → e.m.f. is induced
To o
→t
pole
to “r
B. As the North pole of
the magnet continues the rate of change in the magnetic
to move into the flux is maximum
solenoid, → maximum induced e.m.f.
No changes to the magnetic flux →

C. As the magnet moves
No i
halfway into solenoid,
no induced e.m.f. and hence no doe
induced current
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Motion of magnet Faraday’s Law:
the rate of change in the magnetic

D. As the South pole of flux is maximum
the magnet starts to → maximum induced e.m.f.
move out of the
solenoid, This e.m.f. is higher than at B
because the speed is greater
(acceleration due to free fall).
To o
→t
pole
try t
E. As the South pole of
the magnet continues the rate of change in the magnetic
to move out of the flux is less
solenoid, → smaller induced e.m.f.
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 The graph of induced e.m.f. against time has two spikes in the opposite directions
due to the creation of opposite polarities as the magnet enters and leaves the
solenoid.
 E.m.f. is only induced when there is a change in the magnetic flux through the
solenoid.
 If both magnet and solenoid move together at the same time with the same speed,
there is no change in the magnetic flux, and hence no induced e.m.f.
10. Example 2:
i. The diagram shows the set-up of Faraday’s experiment. Label the different parts.
ii. What is the polarity of B when the North pole is moving in that direction? Explain
why.
B is a ……………… pole because by ……………… law, the induced e.m.f. is such
that it will ……………………………………………………………………………………
11. Example 3:
A bar magnet is dropped into a long solenoid which is connected to a resistor and a
galvanometer. When the bar magnet enters the solenoid, the galvanometer needle
deflects to the left.
Sketch a graph of the galvanometer needle deflection Ɵ against time t, starting from the
instant shown in the figure to the time the magnet emerges from the solenoid.
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t
12. Example 4:
A cardboard cylinder is wrapped with a wire connected to a switch and galvanometer.

When the bar magnet is moved, current flows in the direction shown in the diagram
below.
(a) Explain whether the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the cylindrical
cardboard.
Fact
Amber
Link
Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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(b) The experiment is repeated with the switch opened.
(i) Is there induced e.m.f. in the wire?
………… because
………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
(ii) Will there be deflection in the galvanometer?
………… because
………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
22.2 Alternation Current Generator
13. One important use of electromagnetic induction is generation of electricity. An a.c.

generator transforms mechanical energy to electrical energy.
14. Examples of application of simple a.c. generator: manual-operated torchlight, sewing

machine
Simple a.c. generator
Slip rings
Carbon brush
External circuit
Eg. Light bulb
15. How it works:
 A coil of wire is mounted on an axle between two poles of permanent magnets.
 When the coil rotates, it cuts across the magnetic field lines between the poles.
 Since there is a change in the magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced.
 Thus an induced current flows through the coil to the slip rings and to the output.
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16. Feature and function of slip rings:
 Each slip ring is connected to one end of the coil wire and electrically connected to a
conducting carbon brush (against which it slips).
 The slip rings ensure that the induced current in the coil is transferred to the
external circuit.
17. Fleming’s right hand rule provides a simple way to deduce the direction of the induced
current in a straight conductor.
18. Example 5:
Determine the direction of the induced current when the wire is moved by the force.
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19. Example 6:
Indicate on the wire, the direction of the induced current when the wire is lifted up.
20. As the coil rotates, the rate at which the coil cuts the magnetic fields is different.
The graph shows how induced e.m.f. changes with time as it rotates in a clockwise
direction.
Position of coil w.r.t. magnetic fields Observation

No change to the magnetic flux
In the vertical position, the arms AB and CD do
not cut across the magnetic fields.
→ no induced e.m.f
In the horizontal position, the arms AB and CD Greatest change to the magnetic
cut across the magnetic fields at maximum rate. flux
Fleming’s right hand rule: → maximum positive induced

current flows from ABCD e.m.f.

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Greatest change to the magnetic
In the horizontal position, the arms AB and CD
flux
cut across the magnetic fields at maximum rate.
→ maximum negative induced
Fleming’s right hand rule:
e.m.f. (current flows in the
current flows from DCBA
opposite direction)

21. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. of an a.c. generator can be increased by
 Increasing the number of turns in the coil
 Using stronger permanent magnet
 Increasing the frequency of the rotation of the coil
 Winding the coil around a soft iron core to strengthen the magnetic flux linking the
coil
22. Example 7:
(a) Draw the new e.m.f.-time graph when the number of turns in the coils is doubled.
e.m.f. / V
Time /s
(b) Draw the new e.m.f.-time graph when the frequency of rotation of coil was doubled.
e.m.f. / V
Time /s
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23. A fixed-coil generator is another type of a.c. generator where the magnets rotate
instead of the coil. Refer to textbook page 432 and 433 for more details.
22.3 Transformers
24. In 1831, Michael Faraday also discovered that when two coils of wire were wrapped
around a soft iron ring, the magnetic field produced by one coil could induce a current in
the other.
laminated core
IP IS
VP VS load
primary coil of NP secondary coil of NS

turns turns
magnetic field lines
25. A transformer is a device that can change a high alternating voltage (at low current)
to a low alternating voltage (at high current), or vice versa.
26. Transformers are used in
 electrical power transmission from power stations to household and industries
 regulating voltages for the proper operation of electrical appliances
27. Structure of transformers:
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 Two coils, primary and secondary coils, are wrapped around a laminated soft iron
core. Each coil has a certain number of turns.
 Soft iron core is used to ensure better magnetic flux linkages between the two
coils.
 Laminated soft iron core → multiple layers of soft iron to reduce heat loss.
28. Principle of transformer:
 The magnetic field produced by the primary coil causes a change in magnetic flux
in the laminated soft iron core.
 This causes e.m.f. to be induced in the secondary coil. Since the circuit is closed,
a current is also induced in the coil.
Power transmission in a transformer
29. The primary input voltage, VP, number of turns in primary coil, NP, secondary output
voltage, VS and number of turns in secondary coil, NS, are related by the equation:
VS NS

VP NP
NS
N
Note: P is commonly known as the turn ratio.
30. For an ideal transformer (100% efficiency), power supplied to the primary coil is fully
transferred to the secondary coil. Hence, by principle of conservation of energy,
Power in primary coil = Power in secondary coil

VPIP = VPIP
where,
IP = current in primary coil in ampere (A)
VP = voltage in primary coil in volts (V)
IS = current in secondary coil in ampere (A)
VS = voltage in secondary coil in volts (V)
31. Combining both equations above, an important formula can be obtained:
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VS NS IP
 
VP NP IS
32. Due to no power loss, a high alternating voltage will result in a low current.
33. Types of transformers:
Step-up transformer Step-down transformer
VP
VP
NP
NP
Set-up
NS
NS
VS
VS
Structure Ns > Np Ns < Np
Vs vs Vp Output voltage > Input voltage Output voltage < Input voltage
Is vs Ip Output current < input current Output current > input current
Transmission of electricity
34. Ideally, the efficiency of a transformer is 100%. However, in reality, power loss is always
experienced due to the resistance of the transmission wire. This is called Joule heating
in the cables.
2
35. Using the formula P=I R , higher current or higher resistance or both can result in
greater power loss.
36. To minimise power loss during transmission:
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(a) Reducing resistance of transmission cable
 By using thick wire
 Disadvantage: higher cost
(b) Reducing current flow in the transmission cable
 By using high alternating voltage in the power station
 This is the preferred solution
37. Example 8:
The figure below shows Faraday’s iron ring experiment.
i. Explain what happens to the galvanometer when switch S is closed.

Fact
Amber
Link
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Conclusion
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Green
………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Describe what happens to the galvanometer when a steady current flows through
the coil.
………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
iii. Describe what happens to the galvanometer when the switch S is opened.
………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
38. Example 9:
A transformer has 400 turns in the primary coil and 10 turns in the secondary coil. The
primary e.m.f. is 250 V and the primary current is 2.0 A.
Assuming the transformer has 100% efficiency, calculate
(a) the secondary voltage, and
(b) the secondary current.
39. Example 10:
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A transformer is connected to the 240 V mains supply in order to operate a home
computer which is labeled 6 V, 0.5 A. There are 6400 turns on the primary coil of the
transformer.
If there are no power loss, calculate
(a) the number of turns on the secondary coil, and
(b) the current, which flows in the primary circuit.
40. Example 11:
The diagram shows an ideal transformer connected to a 240 V a.c. supply. The primary
coil consists of 1000 turns while the secondary coil has 50 turns. The output is
connected to a load of resistance of 10 Ω.
240 V a.c R = 10 Ω
Coil of 50 turns
Coil of 1000 turns
i. Explain what is meant by an ideal transformer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
ii. Calculate the induced current passing through the load.
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22.4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes
41. Cathode ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.) is a device that shows how voltage varies with time.
42. How it works:
 The electron gun emits a beam of electrode which is produced by the cathode.
 Varying the voltage across the Y-plates changes the vertical deflection of the beam
→ this is Y-gain
 Varying the voltage across the X-plates changes the speed at which the electron
beam sweeps horizontally across the fluorescent screen.
→ this is the time base
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 A bright spot is created when the electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen.
43. Applications of cathode ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.):
 Measuring voltage
Y-gain switched on and time base switched off:
 The applied voltage sets up an electric field between the Y-plates.

 When the electron beam pass through, it get deflected.
 The y-gain can be used to calculate the applied voltage.
 Displaying voltage waveforms
Y-gain and time base are switched on:
 Select a suitable time base frequency.

 Voltage waveforms will be display on the c.r.o.
44. Example 12:
For each c.r.o., given that the Y-gain is 2 V/div and the time base setting is 10 μs/div,
determine the
(a) amplitude of the wave,

(b) frequency of the wave.
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45. Example 13:
A cathode-ray oscilloscope is used to measure the frequency and peak voltage of an

a.c. supply, as shown in the diagram below.
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(a) By taking measurements from the screen shown in diagram above, obtain values
for
(i) the peak voltage Vp of the a.c. supply,
(ii) the time T for one cycle.
(b) Find the frequency f of the a.c. supply.
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(c) Explain why it would not be possible to measure the frequency of an a.c. supply of
frequency 15 Hz using the c.r.o. with these settings.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[2]
(d) Suggest which setting for the time-base could be used when measuring a frequency
of 15 Hz.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
[1]
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ASSUMPTION ENGLISH SCHOOL

Name: __________________________ ( ) Class: _______ Date: __________

12.1 Reflection of Light

How do we see object?

3. For luminous object (gives off light on its own):

Light travel from phone to cat’s eyes.

Light travels from sun light to water bottle.

5. Definition: Reflection is the bouncing of light rays off a surface.

6. Ray diagram for reflection:

Incident ray: Light hitting the surface

Angle of incidence: Angle between incident

Normal: Imaginary line perpendicular to the

means → these 3 lines must touch at the point of incidence.

(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

means → angle i = angle r

10. Types of reflection:

11. Characteristic of a plane mirror image:

(i) Image is upright

(ii) Image is of the same size as object

(iii) Distance from image to mirror = distance from mirror to object

(iv) Laterally inverted

(v) Image is virtual

The image cannot be captured on a screen.

Step 1: Draw a perpendicular line from object to mirror.

13. For a point object:

14. For an extended object:

In an ideal experiment, a fine beam of light is introduced through a small window, as

A. You would see nothing because light cannot travel in a vacuum.

17. Definition: Refraction is a bending of light when it enters from one

20. Comparing solid, liquid and gas:

Least optically dense Most optically dense

Gas Liquid Solid

23. Laws of refraction:

means  these 3 lines must touch at the point of incidence.

speed of light in vacuum

Find the refractive index of water.

28. Daily application of refraction:

A diver sees the reflection of the turtle

Light ray reflected back to diver’s eyes.

31. Two conditions for total internal reflection:

Example: from solid to water, from water to air.

What is critical angle?

Diagram Condition Description

Light refracts away from the normal when it

air Angle of incidence increases → angle of

Light travels along surface of water. (r = 90°)

air Total internal reflection occurs.

Calculate the critical angle of water with a refractive index of 1.33.

Applications of total internal reflection

34. Transmission of data using optical fibre:

 Widely used in telecommunication and replacing copper wire due to:

 Less signal degradation: less signal loss

The optical fibre has a refractive index of 1.4.

(a) Calculate angle β.

(b) Find angle θ.

(c) Calculate the critical angle of the optical fibre.

36. Lens is a transparent glass or plastic with curved surface.

38. Two types of lens:

Name: ______________________ ( ) Class: _ Date: ________

Name: ______________________ ( ) Class: _ Date: ________

Name: ______________________ ( ) Class: _ Date: ________