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Real-time wildfire detection and tracking in Australia using geostationary

satellite: Himawari-8

Article  in  Remote Sensing Letters · November 2017

DOI: 10.1080/2150704X.2017.1350303

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Real-time wildfire detection and tracking in Australia using
geostationary satellite: Himawari-8

Guang Xua,b and Xu Zhonga

a
IBM Research Australia, 60 City Road, Southbank, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
b
School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia

ARTICLE HISTORY
Compiled July 17, 2017

ABSTRACT
Real-time information about the spatial extents of wildfires can assist both emer-
gency responders and the general public to mitigate the impact of the wildfires.
However, in a large spatial and temporal scale, timely and accurate information
about the areas affected by ongoing wildfires is often in scarce supply. This paper
investigates the feasibility of generating such real-time information in Australia using
the recently launched geostationary Himawari-8 satellite. The Himawari-8 satellite
offers extremely high-temporal-resolution (10 minutes) multispectral imagery, which
is suitable for real-time wildfire monitoring in a large spatial and temporal scale.
The potential of real-time wildfire monitoring using Himawari-8 is evaluated by a
case-study of the recent 2015 Esperance, Western Australia wildfire. The results
demonstrate that the detection is robust to smoke and moderate cloud obscuration
and sensitive enough for early detection of wildfires. Further, fine-grained temporal
changes in the rate and direction of fire spread can be monitored in real-time, which
enables the potential for automated detection of abnormal fire behaviour.

KEYWORDS
active fire; burned area; real time; multispectral classification; geostationary

1. Introduction

Wildfires have a significant impact upon local social, economic, and environmental
assets. Accurate and up-to-date information is critical for effective emergency manage-
ment during wildfires. To minimise the impact of wildfires, it is critical for emergency
responders and the general public to know, with minimum latency, where and when
ignitions happen and the location of active firefront.
Satellite imagery is an efficient approach to monitor active wildfires at large spa-
tiotemporal extent. Non-geostationary satellites provide greater spatial coverage than
geostationary satellites, which comes with the cost of much longer refresh interval.
The MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) (Giglio et al. 2003,
2006), VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) (Schroeder et al. 2014),
AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) (Flasse and Ceccato 1996),
and Landsat (Schroeder et al. 2016) have been used to monitor wildfires. Among these
non-geostationary satellites, MODIS has the highest temporal resolution (six hours)
in Australia, which is not suitable for real-time wildfire monitoring. Geostationary
satellites have been used to monitoring wildfires in real-time or near real-time, such

CONTACT Xu Zhong. Email: peter.zhong@au1.ibm.com

as GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) (Zhang and Kondra-
gunta 2008), MSG (Meteosat Second Generation) (Calle et al. 2006; Sifakis et al.
2011), MTSAT (Multifunctional Transport Satellite) (Hyer et al. 2013), and COMS
(Communication, Ocean and Meteorological Satellite) (Kim et al. 2014). MTSAT (also
known as Himawari-7) offered the highest temporal-resolution imagery and best data
availability in Australia, before replaced by Himawari-8.
Himawari-8 provides infrared imagery in Australia with 2 km spatial resolution
every 10 minutes. This casts new light on fire management by providing real-time
earth observations. The HighFire Risk Project 1 is providing the real-time fire map
generated from Himawari-8. Hotspots are classified from band 7 of Himawari-8 imagery
using a simple threshold (330 K), which can be affected by hot ground in daytime. A
diurnal temperature cycle model was developed to detect anomaly in the time series
of imagery (Hally et al. 2016, 2017). However, this method requires long time series
of non-cloud influenced pixels as training data, which limits its scope of application.
Wickramasinghe et al. (2016) developed a multi-spatial resolution approach to monitor
active fire lines based on Himawari-8. Wati et al. (2017) also applied Himawari-8 in a
case study of forest fires detection. However, these studies did not fully reveal the new
potential brought by the high-temporal-resolution imagery.
This paper explores how the Himawari-8 satellite can support real-time wildfire
monitoring. A case study of the 2015 Esperance, Western Australia wildfire is pro-
vided. The robustness to the obscuration of cloud and smoke, the sensitivity of fire
detection, and the capacity of estimating fine-temporal-grained direction of fire spread
are investigated in detail. The results highlight the promising potential of supporting
wildfire management using Himawari-8 satellite imagery.

2. Data and methods

Active fire detection using satellite imagery is a binary classification problem. Each
pixel of the satellite imagery is labelled as ‘non-fire’ or ‘fire’. The ‘fire’ pixels are also
known as hotspots. This section introduces the details of the Himawari-8 multispectral
satellite imagery and how the imagery is classified to detect hotspots.

2.1. Himawari-8 satellite imagery

The geostationary satellite Himawari-8 started operating on 7 July, 2015. Himawari-8
is armed with the Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI), which provides 16-channel mul-
tispectral imagery. The AHI can provide imagery with extremely high temporal reso-
lution – 10 minutes. The near-infrared and infrared bands of Himawari-8 have spatial
resolution of 2 km, except band 4 (1 km) (Bessho et al. 2016). This spatial resolution
can only support coarse-spatial-grained wildfire monitoring. But the high temporal
resolution is anticipated to reveal fine-temporal-grained details of ongoing wildfires.

2.2. Hotspot detection algorithm

MODIS Active Fire product is one of the most famous and widely used satellite-
based wildfire monitoring systems. The latest collection-6 MODIS active fire detection
algorithm first identifies possible hotspots and then eliminates false alarms (Giglio
1 http://www.highfirerisk.com.au/imr/AUS_H8_05.htm

2
et al. 2016). Potential hotspots are classified by applying certain thresholds to 4 µm
and 11 µm bands of MODIS. False alarms are then rejected by cloud, water, and coast
tests based on the additional bands and comparison with neighbouring pixels.
Accounting for the similarity between some of the bands of MODIS and Himawari-8,
we modified the MODIS algorithm to detect hotspots from Himawari-8. The modi-
fied algorithm first identifies potential hotspots using the 3.9 µm and 11.2 µm bands
of Himawari-8. Then false positives in the potential hotspots are rejected by water
masking (using the 2.3 µm band) and cloud masking (using the 0.64 µm, 0.86 µm and
12.4 µm bands). The details and notations of the six bands used in our algorithm are
listed in Table 1. The low albedo of visible bands (0.64 µm and 0.86 µm) are used to
identify night-time by the criterion (abs(A0.64 ) < 0.01) and (abs(A0.86 ) < 0.01).

Table 1.: Bands of Himawari-8 imagery used for hotspots detection.

Band # Central wavelength (µm) Notation Unit Detection target
3 0.64 A0.64 Unitless night and cloud
4 0.86 A0.86 Unitless night and cloud
6 2.3 A2.3 Unitless water
7 3.9 T3.9 Kevin fire
14 11.2 T11.2 Kevin fire
15 12.4 T12.4 Kevin cloud

2.2.1. Detecting potential hotspots

Active fires can yield high brightness temperature at 3.9 µm and large difference be-
tween the brightness temperature at 3.9 µm and 11.2 µm. The specific value may
change with land cover types, time of the day and day of the year. Thus the classi-
fication criteria should be adaptive to instantaneous regional average conditions. In
this paper potential hotspots are detected by testing every pixel of the 3.9 µm and
11.2 µm bands’ imagery with the following criterion,

(ZT3.9 > 0.8) and (ZT3.9 −T11.2 > 1.5), (1)

where Z(·) = (·)−mean(·)

std(·) . mean(·) and std(·) denote the average and standard deviation
of (·) within our study area where T3.9 < 360 K in daytime or < 320 K at night.

2.2.2. Water masking

Water absorbs electromagnetic radiance at near 2.3 µm in daytime, which leads to
lower albedo compared with the albedo of land. Hence, water regions can be identified
in daytime by thresholding the 2.3 µm band. Both land and water have low albedo at
night, so water regions cannot be identified from the 2.3 µm band at night. However,
as the 3.9 µm band generates few false positives at night, it is unnecessary to conduct
water or cloud masking at night. Thus non-water pixels are classified by,

(A2.3 > 0.05) or night-time, (2)

where abs(·) stands for absolute value of (·). The condition A2.3 > 0.05 classifies non-
water pixels in daytime.

3
2.2.3. Cloud masking
In daytime, cloud usually leads to high albedo or reflectance in visible and near infrared
channels. Also, the brightness temperature of far infrared is relatively low in regions
covered by thick cloud. Again, it is unnecessary to conduct cloud masking at night.
Thus the non-cloud pixels are defined by,

(A0.64 + A0.86 < 1.2) and (T12.4 > 265 K) and

((A0.64 + A0.86 < 0.7) or (T12.4 > 285 K)) or night-time. (3)

The 6 bands listed in Table 1 are tested by the criteria given by Equations (1)-
(3). The pixels that satisfy all the criteria are classified as hotspots. The empirical
thresholds in Equations (1)-(3) are specifically adjusted for the case study described in
the next section. The effectiveness of the algorithm is not validated in different spatial
and temporal extent. The aim of this paper is to assess the potential of Himawari-8
for wildfire management through a case study of real-world wildfires. Finding optimal
thresholds for a different spatial and temporal scale is out of the scope of this paper.

3. Results

The potential of real-time wildfire monitoring using Himawari-8 is evaluated in this

section using the 2015 Esperence wildfire as a case study. The Esperance wildfire refers
to a series of fires that burned from 15 to 26 November in the Goldfields-Esperence
region of Western Australia. The Esperence wildfire is the largest wildfire event in
Australia since the Himawari-8 satellite was operational. The case study focusses on
the time period of 8:30am 17 November to 1:00am 18 November (Western Australia
local time, which is used throughout this paper), when the Esperance wildfire was the
most active.
We investigate three characteristics of our hotspot detections: (1) robustness to
cloud and smoke; (2) sensitivity to early fire development; and (3) capability of tracing
fine-temporal-grained direction of fire spread in real-time.

3.1. Robustness
A wildfire event is usually accompanied by cloud and smoke, which may obscure
hotspots and lead to false negatives. In the 2015 Esperance wildfire event, lots of
cloud and smoke was observed, which allows us to examine the robustness of the AHI
on Himawari-8 to the obscuration of cloud and smoke.
Fig. 1 demonstrates the situation where two fires were covered by smoke. The true-
colour composite image is illustrated in Fig. 1(a), where a large volume of smoke is
clearly visible. Fig. 1(b) overlays the detected hotspots (in red) on the true-colour
composite image, where the two fires are detected even under smoke coverage. This
demonstrates that the infrared signatures of wildfires can pass through small particles
like smoke. Hence, this wildfire monitoring approach is robust to the obscuration of
smoke.
Fig. 2 shows the effect of cloud on the detection of hotspots. The 12 µm band
is used as the background of the images in the second row because the true-color
composite imagery is too dark after sunset, where low temperature regions correspond
to cloud. A total of 35 hotspots (about 140 km2 ) corresponding to the fire on the

4
 (a) True-colour composite image (b) Hotspots overlaid on (a)
Figure 1.: Two fires (in red) are detected in the situation of being obscured by smoke.

2015-Nov-17 (Perth local time)

16:30 16:40 16:50 17:00

18:40 18:50 19:00 19:10

250K Night time brightness temperature of 12.4 um band 300K

Figure 2.: The number of hotspots corresponding to the fire on the right changed dramatically
within the intervals of 30 minutes (16:30 to 17:00 and 18:40 to 19:10). Nevertheless, the cloud
had unobservable effect on the fire on the left.

right disappeared within the interval of half an hour (16:30 to 17:00); and 34 new
hotspots (about 136 km2 ) that co-locate with this fire were detected in half an hour
(18:40 to 19:10). There are two possible explanations to this phenomenon: 1) the fire
extinguished and reburned later; 2) the infrared signatures of the fire were influenced
by thick cloud. Considering the rate of change in the number of hotspots, the first
explanation is highly unlikely. Thus this wildfire monitoring method is not robust to
the obscuration of thick cloud. Nevertheless, the fire on the left in Fig. 2 was still able
to be detected, despite the cloud cover. We therefore conclude that wildfires may be
detected under moderate cloud cover.

3.2. Sensitivity
The 10 minutes temporal resolution of Himawari-8 imagery allows us to detect
new wildfire events with extremely low latency. In this subsection the sensitivity of
Himawari-8 to new fire events is investigated. As shown in Fig. 3, there were eight
major fire events detected using Himawari-8 during the 2015 Esperance wildfire. The
hotspots are colour coded by detection time. Since the authoritative ignition time of
these fires is not available, the sensitivity of Himawari-8 to new fire events is evaluated
by measuring the size of the initial detections of these eight fires. The time and size of
initial detection made by Himawari-8 and MODIS for each fire is compared in Table 2,
where the bold results indicate that Himawari-8 outperformed MODIS.

5
 5 4
3

6
1

8
2

8:00 10:00 12:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00

am am pm pm pm pm pm pm

First detection time

Figure 3.: Eight major fire events in our case study. The time and size of the initial detections
is given in Table 2. The origins of the text boxes indicate the location of the initial detections.

Table 2.: Comparison of initial detection time and size of Himawari-8 and MODIS for each
fire event. Size of burned area is computed under projection EPSG 4326.

Himawari-8 MODIS
Fire
Time (17 Nov) Size (km2 ) Time (17 Nov) Size (km2 )
1 08:50 6.2 10:45 59.8
2 09:30 16.1 09:02 3.7
3 10:50 6.2 13:25 113.8
4 10:50 6.2 10:45 12.3
5 11:20 6.2 13:25 74.3
6 14:40 43.8 22:50 169.2
7 15:10 37.6 22:50 12.6
8 16:00 24.9 22:50 69.5

Himawari-8 made eariler detections of six out of the eight fires than MODIS did.
In the best case (Fire 6) Himawari-8 reduced detection latency by 8 hours and 10
minutes. In addition, Himawari-8 detected six fires at a smaller size than MODIS did.
Himawari-8’s detection of Fire 6 (the best case) was 125.4 km2 smaller than that of
MODIS. The results highlight the non-trivial benefits of real-time fire information
provided by Himawari-8.

3.3. Direction of fire spread

Enabled by the frequent observations provided by Himawari-8, fine-temporal-grained
direction of fire spread can be estimated by analysing the time series of burned area. In
this paper, for a given timestep t, a pixel is labelled as ‘burned’ if the pixel is classified
as a hotspot at any timestep from t − tw to t. tw is set to be 4 hours in this study,

6
which is a subjective choice and should be changed in different context. The pixels
that are labelled as burned form the burned area. The directional expansion of the
burned area in four directions (east, west, north, and south) is quantified using the
STAMP (spatialtemporal analysis of moving polygons) algorithm (Robertson et al.
2007). The STAMP algorithm calculates the directional expansion between two states
of an evolving polygon by categorising the area that is only contained by the newer
state into four directions. The range of angle of each category is determined by the
relative angle from the centroid of the older state to the four vertices of the bounding
box of the union of the two states. In this study the direction of fire spread is calculated
as the directional expansion between the current burned area and that observed 30
minutes ago.
Fig. 4(a) depicts the changes in the normalised directional expansion of the Cas-
cade fire (the largest fire in the 2015 Esperance wildfire) over time. The directional
expansion at each timestep is normalised by the total expansion at the timestep. The
result illustrates several distinguishable stages in the direction of fire progression. The
fire propagated in the southeasterly direction until 14:00. From 14:00 the southerly ex-
pansion gradually reduced, with the easterly expansion becoming dominant. A third
change is observed in the early evening, with easterly expansion dropping off from
18:00, and northerly expansion rapidly increasing between 18:00 and 19:20.
Three snapshots of the burned area are illustrated in Figs. 4(b)–(d), which highlight
distinguishably different directional expansions. To visualise the fire propagation, the
hotspots in Figs. 4(b)–(d) are colour-coded by detection time. The red hotspots are
detected in the pass 30 minutes, i.e., those used to calculate directional expansion
in the STAMP algorithm. The yellow hotspots are detected prior to the red, but
within the past 4 hours. Figs. 4(e)–(f) shows the normalised directional expansions of
Figs. 4(b)–(d), respectively.

4. Discussion

The Himawari-8 imagery can be used to accurately and continuously monitor wildfires
in real time. This approach is well-suited for large-spatiotemporal-extent monitoring
systems. The timely information about fire positions can assist emergency agencies
and the general public to respond to unexpected situations surrounding a wildfire. We
investigated the performance and characteristics of this approach in three important
aspects of practical and operational wildfire management through a case study of
the 2015 Esperance wildfire. The case study has limited spatial and temporal scale,
therefore can not provide comprehensive and sufficient evidence to support certain
claims. The results are more representative in situations similar to the case study.

Robustness Smoke and cloud is the most common possible obscuration to fire signa-
tures in remote sensing. The case study demonstrates that wildfire detection using the
Himawari-8 imagery is robust to smoke and thin cloud but not to thick cloud. Hence
the Himawari-8 imagery is effective for wildfire monitoring except extremely cloudy
days, which ensures the potential of developing operational wildfire management sys-
tems based on Himawari-8.

Sensitivity The high temporal resolution of the Himawari-8 imagery makes it pos-
sible to detect wildfires with extremely low latency. The case study illustrates that

7
 (b) (c) (d)
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
Percentage

60.00%
50.00% E
40.00%
30.00% N
20.00% W
10.00% S
0.00%

Datetime (Perth local time)

(a)
Hotspots detected in the past 30 minutes
Hotspots detected in the past 30 minutes to 4 hours
2015/11/17 12:20 2015/11/17 15:40 2015/11/17 19:00

(b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g)

Figure 4.: (a) The normalised directional expansion of the fire in Cascade, the largest fire in
the 2015 Esperance wildfire. (b)–(d) Three snapshots of burned area, which highlight distin-
guishably different directional expansions shown in (e)–(f), respectively.

Himawari-8 can detect fires significantly eariler than MODIS. Early detection of wild-
fires is important for timely responses to fire events, such as rapid suppression and
early notification and evacuation. This may also enhance wildfire prediction models,
which require accurate information about the time and location of ignitions. Neverthe-
less, extremely small fire events may be missed because of the limited spatial resolution
(2 km) of the infrared (7th) band of the AHI.

Utility of real-time fire progression Taking advantage of the real-time fire pro-
gression provided by Himawari-8, it is possible to automatically extract valuable fine-

8
temporal-grained features of wildfires that can assist wildfire management. This paper
demonstrates a method to automatically estimate the directional expansion of burned
area. This information may be used to automatically detect abnormal fire spread rates
or changes in the direction of fire spread using anomaly detection techniques, which
can improve the situational awareness around ongoing wildfires. E.g., cold fronts that
occurred during the 2009 Black Saturday wildfire led to sudden change in wind di-
rection, which resulted in 80% of total fire damage (Tolhurst 2009). However, it is
difficult to predict when and where cold fronts will occur during unexpected and ex-
treme situations surrounding a wildfire. The Himawari-8 satellite makes it possible to
detect sudden changes in the direction of fire spread in real-time, which allows emer-
gency responders to make timely decisions and responses to cold fronts. The real-time
fire progression can certainly be explored further to solve many other problems. E.g.,
Himawari-8 imagery can precisely describe how wildfires evolve over time, which can
be used as reference data for wildfire modelling.

5. Conclusion

The extremely high-temporal-resolution imagery of the Himawari-8 satellite inspires

research on monitoring rapidly evolving spatiotemporal events in real-time. This paper
focuses on the investigation of the potential of monitoring wildfire in real-time using the
Himawari-8 satellite. The algorithm of the MODIS Active Fire product is modified and
applied to the multispectral Himawari-8 imagery to refresh hotspot detections every
10 minutes. The performance and characteristics of this approach are studied through
a case study of the 2015 Esperance, Western Australia wildfire. In the case study we
demonstrated that Himawari-8 is robust to smoke and thin cloud, sensitive to small
fires, and can provide valuable real-time fire information for wildfire management.
This paper presents a base-line result as a proof-of-concept of real-time wildfire
monitoring using Himawari-8. We believe this base-line result can be outperformed by
designing specific algorithms according to the characteristics of the multispectral im-
agery of Himawari-8. As more independent reference data about fire progression, such
as post-fire reconstructions of fire perimeter, becomes available, our future work is to
identify hotspots using supervised machine learning techniques (Kotsiantis 2007). This
also allows the integration of Himawari-8 imagery with other wildfire related informa-
tion such as weather conditions, fuel conditions, and topography, which may further
enhance detection accuracy. In addition, the spatial resolution of the infrared bands
of Himawari-8 is only 2 km. The accuracy and sensitivity of wildfire detection may be
improved by integrating Himawari-8 imagery with other remote sensing products with
higher spatial resolution using techniques like (Gao et al. 2006). Further, it will also
be investigated how to extract valuable information from the real-time fire detections
and whether the Himawari-8 imagery can be used to monitor other rapidly evolving
spatiotemporal events such as flooding and thunderstorms.

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