[Scanning the Logs]

Scanning the Logs

Performing a quick, qualitative scan of resistivity and porosity logs is the best
way to begin analyzing responses because it gives a “big picture” of what lies
ahead. The ultimate objective of this scan is to locate potential pay zones.
Wells are drilled to their total depths (TD) for a reason: that is usually where pay
is expected. Before a well is logged, approximate depths of potential pay zones
may already be known from the mud log or other data. If the hoped-for pay zone
doesn’t exist or is determined to be wet, then quick scans of resistivity and
porosity responses may help identify other zones of interest. Scanning logs from
older or abandoned wells may help identify potential pay zones that were either
missed or ignored.
One goal of the initial “reconnaissance scan” is to gain familiarity with how
various measurements are presented (e.g., location and scales of curves, etc.). It
is also an excellent opportunity to begin the search for qualitative indications of
potential pay. Objectives of the initial scan should include:
1. Identifying all obvious shale intervals.
2. Establishing a resistivity baseline response for shales.
3. Identifying zones of interest using a resistivity shale baseline test, while also
considering porosity responses of those zones.
4. Identifying washed-out intervals from the caliper response.

This section introduces methods for quickly accomplishing these objectives.

Qualitative evaluation of resistivity and porosity responses takes a lot of tedious
work out of the search for potential pay zones, making it a great place to begin.

Baseline Responses in Shale

Shales are not conventional reservoir rocks, but recognizing them on logs is an
important first-step in the evaluation process. Non-productive shales account for a
majority of the logged interval in many wells, so identifying them at the outset is a
convenient method of “filtering” the data, eliminating those shales from

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consideration as pay and allowing attention to be focused on other more promising

intervals.
Most shales show consistently recognizable responses that make them easy to
identify (Fig. 1). Gamma ray is usually higher in shale than in other lithologies, but
this is not always true. Gamma ray responses in shale depend upon the types and
amounts of clay minerals, and may vary considerably. By far the most distinctive
responses of shale are those seen on spontaneous potential (SP) and resistivity
curves.
Figure 1. Typical SP and resistivity baseline responses in shale intervals. Permeable zones are evident
where the SP curve deflects from its baseline, and resistivity curves separate.

The SP curve in shale is relatively static, showing very little deflection. This
response is common to most shales, giving a reference known as the SP shale

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baseline. When plotted correctly, the SP shale baseline is usually located near the
right side of the track in which it is presented.

Shale also shows a distinctive resistivity baseline response. Curves representing

multiple depths of investigation (DOI) typically overlay or “stack” because of
minimal invasion (very low permeability) in shale. Clay minerals are a large
component of shales and are conductive, so a baseline resistivity value in shale is
usually low (1-10 Ω-m). Some variation of the baseline value can be expected,
depending upon the types and amounts of clay minerals, but its value is
consistently lower than the resistivities of most other rocks.
Resistivity and SP responses in permeable, invaded formations may be
significantly different than in shale. Salinity differences between water-base mud
filtrate and formation water cause SP curve deflections, and that same salinity
contrast is responsible for at least some of the separation seen on resistivity curves.
Values of Rdeep (the best estimation of resistivity of the uninvaded formation) in
permeable rocks depend upon their volume of water, water resistivity, pore
geometry, and the distribution of any hydrocarbon.

Resistivity Shale Baseline Test

Watching experienced log analysts scan a resistivity log can give the impression
that they possess some superhuman ability to mentally process the data. Without so
much as a single calculation they can often quickly identify water-saturated
formations and potential pay zones. They make it look entirely too easy, and
sometimes it is. Their “trick” is the resistivity shale baseline test.
The resistivity shale baseline test is a qualitative application of one of the most
fundamental relationships in all of logging. A clean formation’s true resistivity (R t,
or resistivity of its uninvaded zone) is a function of the volume of water contained,
where:

(Eq. 1)

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According to this relationship, low Rt values indicate a large volume of water (i.e.,
Ø×Sw) is present. That large volume of water may be the result of high porosity
(Ø), high water saturation (Sw), or both. High Rt, on the other hand, indicates a
small volume of water. This may be the result of low Ø, low Sw, or both.
Understanding this basic relationship is what makes the resistivity shale baseline
test a very effective – and fast – technique for identifying zones of interest.
Figure 2. Comparison of Rdeep to the resistivity shale baseline is a qualitative method of quickly
identifying water-saturated zones and potential pay zones.

The technique involves first identifying all shale intervals and establishing their
baseline (average) resistivity response. Next, Rdeep in permeable zones is compared
with the baseline. Rdeep values greater than the baseline may indicate the presence
of hydrocarbon, and Rdeep values less than the baseline are likely indications of
high water saturation.
To demonstrate the method’s validity, consider the case of a clean sandstone with
30% porosity, and which is completely saturated with saltwater (Rw = 0.05 Ω-m).
Using core-derived values for the empirical parameters a, m, and n, the rock’s true
resistivity (Rt) is solved by:
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Now suppose the same clean sandstone contains oil in addition to water, and Sw =
10%. The rock’s true resistivity (Rt) is calculated as:

As expected, the addition of hydrocarbon and no change to any other property

results in higher Rt. This is the logic behind the resistivity shale baseline test. The
average shale has a resistivity in the range 1-10 Ω-m. For the cases above, Rdeep
(the best approximation of Rt) is greater than the shale baseline when hydrocarbon
is present, but less than the baseline when the sand is water-saturated.

Two general rules apply to the use of the resistivity shale baseline test:
1. Rdeep greater than the shale baseline may indicate the presence of hydrocarbon.
Low porosity and fresh water (high Rw) are other potential causes.
A formation’s porosity should always be considered when applying the baseline
test, and it is helpful to have at least a general idea of formation water resistivity
(Rw) expected in the region.
2. Rdeep less than the baseline is a likely indication of high water saturation (Sw).

In formations where Rdeep is less than the shale baseline, it is important to

consider the potential influence of conductive clay minerals on the rock’s
resistivity. In shaly formations, larger volumes of clay minerals result in lower
resistivities. Consequently, the resistivity shale baseline test is most effective in
clean formations. Shaly formations containing oil or gas may show Rdeep values
close to or less than the baseline, depending upon their volume of shale, porosity,
and water saturation.

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Caliper Response Check

Some log measurements are acquired by sensors that must remain in contact with
the borehole wall. When that contact is lost they no longer provide accurate
estimates of formation properties. For example, resistivity tools with pad-mounted
electrodes (e.g., MSFL and MicroLog) respond mostly to borehole fluid in
washouts, and porosity values on density-neutron logs are overestimated.
Scanning the caliper curve (representing a measure of borehole diameter) to locate
washouts should be part of the initial scan. Make note of those intervals where
borehole diameter is significantly larger than bit size. These intervals should be
noted so that, when using the resistivity shale baseline test, they are not
misinterpreted as formations with high porosity or high water saturation. Intervals
with minor enlargement of the borehole are less of a concern.
Borehole enlargement in soft and unconsolidated formations results from erosion
and mechanical damage during drilling, rock stresses, and high fluid velocity at the
bit. It is common to see borehole enlargement in shales because they are generally
softer and more prone to erosion than harder, more competent rocks like
consolidated sandstones and carbonates.

Swelling clays are yet another reason why washouts are more common in shale
than in other rocks. Water-base drilling fluids may cause clay minerals to expand,
initially resulting in a smaller borehole diameter. However, the rock is weakened
by this swelling and ultimately collapses, leaving behind a washout.

A Process for the Initial Scan

The qualitative scan of resistivity and porosity logs can help quickly identify
zones of interest, and following a simple process helps get the ball rolling.
Although the resistivity shale baseline test does not reveal how much hydrocarbon
a potential pay zone contains, it does at least provide a clue that a closer look at the
zone is warranted.

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A basic process for the reconnaissance scan includes the following steps:
1. Gain familiarity with how measurements are presented on resistivity and
porosity logs. Make note of where different curves are presented, what scales
are used, and what trace types (e.g., solid, dashed, etc.) are plotted for each.
2. Use resistivity and (if presented) SP curve responses to quickly identify all
obvious shale intervals.
3. Establish a resistivity shale baseline for the entire logged interval. If helpful,
trace over the baseline with a colored highlighter. Realize that the baseline
value may vary with depth, depending upon the resistivities of different shales.
4. With resistivity and porosity logs side-by-side, apply the resistivity shale
baseline test to identify potential zones of interest (i.e., potential pay zones as
well as those that appear to contain mostly water). Consider porosity responses
whenever Rdeep is greater than the shale baseline, as low porosity is one
potential cause.
5. Scan the caliper curve(s), making note of any intervals where washout exists.

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