Political Parties in India

(Special Repeat Project Report)

Submitted to
Mr. Kamal Narayan
(Faculty of Political Theory)

Submitted by
Lucky Tandon

B. A. LL. B. (Hons.)

Semester – I, Batch-XIV, I.D.- 1420141032

Hidayatullah National Law University

Atal Nagar , Nava Raipur, Chhattisgarh

i
 Declaration

I, Lucky Tandon, Batch XIV, declare that this project submitted to H .N.L.U., Raipur is an

original work done by me under the able guidance of Mr. Kamal Narayan, Faculty of

Political Theory. The work is a bona fide creation done by me . Due references in terms of

footnotes have been given wherever necessary.

Lucky Tandon

Roll No. 75

Batch XIV

2
 Acknowledgements

I feel highly elated to work on the project “Political parties in India” The practical realization

of the project has obligated the assistance of many persons. Firstly, I express my deepest

gratitude towards Mr. Kamal Narayan, Faculty of Political Theory to provide me with the

opportunity to work on this project . His able guidance and supervision were of extreme help

in understanding and carrying out the nuances of this project.

I would also like to thank The University and the Vice Chancellor for providing extensive

database resources in the library and for the internet facilities provided by the University.

Some printing errors might have crept in which are deeply regretted . I would be grateful to

receive comments and suggestions to further improve this project.

Lucky Tandon

Roll no. 75

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 Table of contents

I. Introduction___________________________________________ 5

II. Research Methodology/ Objectives_________________________7

III. Chapter 2-Party System in India__________________________8

IV. Chapter 3- Party System in Different Political Systems_______14

V. Conclusion________________________________________ __17

VI. References____________________________________________ 18

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 INTRODUCTION

Political parties are one of the most important and often overlooked pillars of a political
system. In a political system, political parties are the medium through which people and
people groups work to secure political power and if successful, to exercise that power. Even
if a political party is not elected to power, they still play an important role as the opposition
which keeps the government accountable to the people.1 They have no less significant
function when in opposition, of scrutinizing the use of power and forcing the government
constantly to justify its policies and actions. Any democratic political system requires
people’s support. It can be mobilized by a political party. In this project report an attempt is
being made to review the origin, growth and the development of party system in India.

A political party is a group of people. These people come together to contest elections in
order to hold power in the government. It is a way to mobilize voters to support common sets
of interests, concerns, and goals. The primary role of the political party is to fix the political
agenda and policies. So, each party tries to persuade people by appealing to their needs and
the grievances. Political parties are a link between people and the government.2 A political
party serves as a platform for people with common ideologies. Every political party aims to
contest elections to be a part of legislative and executive organs of the government. The party
that wins majority seats in elections forms the government and implements the policies
designed by its election manifesto. The party with second majority votes plays the role of
opposition in the parliament and keeps a close eye on the functioning of the government.

Political parties are easily one of the most visible institutions in a democracy. For most
ordinary citizens, democracy is equal to political parties. A political party is a group of
people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. They agree
on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the collective good.
Since there can be different views on what is good for all, a few basic positions which it
supports. A government is expected to base its policies on the line taken by the ruling party.

1
Diwakar, Rekha (2017), “Parties and Party System in India”, in Party System in India, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi. Chapter 1, pp.1-36.
2
Arora, Balveer (2003). “Federalization of India’s Party System”, in Ajay K. Mehra, D.D. Khanna and Gert
Kueck (eds), Political Parties and Party Systems, New Delhi, Sage Publications, pp.83-99.
5
Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country. Formally, laws are debated and
passed in the legislature. But since most of the members belong to a party, they go by the
direction of the party leadership, irrespective of their personal opinions.3

Parties form and run governments. The big policy decisions are taken by political executive
that comes from the political parties. Parties recruit leaders, train them and then make them
ministers to run the government in the way they want. Those parties that lose in the elections
play the role of opposition to the parties in power, by voicing different views and criticising
government for its failures or wrong policies. Opposition parties also mobilise opposition to
the government Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues. Parties have
lakhs of members and activists spread all over the country. Many of the pressure groups are
the extensions of political parties among different sections of society. Parties sometimes also
launch movements for the resolution of problems faced by people. Often opinions in the
society crystallise on the lines parties take.

Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes implemented by
governments. For an ordinary citizen it is easy to approach a local party leader than a
government officer. That is why, they feel close to parties even when they do not fully trust
them. Parties must be responsive to people’s needs and demands. Otherwise people can reject
those parties in the next elections.4

3
Diwakar, Rekha (2017), “Fragmentation of the Party System and Coalition Politics”, in Party System in India,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Chapter 4, pp.94-124.
4
Yadav, Yogendra (1999). “Electoral Politics in the Time of Change: India’s Third Electoral System: 1989-99”,
Economic and Political Weekly, 34 (34&35), August 21- 28, 2393-99.
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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The method of research adopted for the project is the analytical and descriptive method. The

texts that were used for the project include articles , research papers and news given in

various websites as well as online journals.

OBJECTIVES

 To understand the meaning and significance of political parties.

 To analyse party system in different political systems.
 To study political party system in India.

CHAPTER 2- PARTY SYSTEM IN INDIA

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Evolution of Party System in India

The contemporary party system in India developed originally in the context of the struggle
for freedom and after independence within the framework of parliamentary government. Both
these environments have exerted their influence on the present character and structure of the
political parties. The context of the struggle for freedom tells that the evolution of parties in
India has been on different footings than those of western democracies. In India, unlike the
west, social and economic change did not precede political development. Since the growth of
Science and Technology was slow and the development of the country’s economy was poor
and uneven, society remained un-modernized. The Indian situation, thus, provided hardly a
ground for the development of the party system from within. Like capitalism, therefore, the
development of party system was also preceded from an application of external stimuli. The
British provided it as a part of an historical process. 5 The party system in India originated in
the late nineteenth century as a response to the British colonial challenge. The beginning of
the Indian party system can be traced to the formation of the Indian National Congress in
1885 as a political platform.6 The growth and role of the Indian party system as such was
conditioned by the divide and rule policy of the British, The secular party system, as in the
western countries, could not be achieved in India as there was communalization of polities,
fragmentation of national unity and weakening of solidarity on the basis of caste, religion and
community.

There were three factors which played a vital role in determining the pattern of the Indian
party system.7

1. A major factor of the national movement was the building of a national consensus on
certain essential issues of three significant dimensions of national interest, namely, national
unity, political integration, national defence and security.

2. The other factor of the national movement was its broad ideological base, coalescing the
many stands from the radical left to the conservative, traditional right. The co-existence of the
left, the centre and the right in the national movement during the freedom struggle not only

5
Narang, A.S., Indian Government and Politics, Gitanjali Publishers, New Delhi, 1987, p.263
6
R.L. Hardgrave, jr. & S.A. Kochanek (2008), “The Congress System and Its Decline”, India: Government and
Politics in a Developing Nation, chapters 6, pp.269-313.
7
Misra, B.B., Political Parties in India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1978, P-1-
8
gave it a wider support base and provided it with all-India legitimacy but also laid down a
tradition of toleration and accommodation of different points of view.

3. The continental size of the country, comprising of well-defined and distinct socio-cultural
regions, with their own languages and dialects, specific patterns of caste community and
tribal formations, provided the objective conditions for the rise of regional parties and groups.

The framers of the constitution did not give importance to the development of party system in
the country. It was thought that India would follow the British political ideas and political
system. Being heterogeneous in character, India adopted a unique system. The Indian party
system has undergone various phases like one-party Dominance Phase and Multiparty
System and Coalition Era.8

One-party dominance phase dominated the Indian party system in its initial years.9 The
Congress party was able to remain dominant amidst several other political parties. The
dominance was due to factors like its past political image; integrative political style; strong
and successful leadership; long history marked by a high level of institutionalization;
organizational strength and capacity for renewal; ability to manage internal conflicts; strategy
of co-option and absorption of the opposition; and also the continuing fragmentation of the
opposition parties.10 However, the general elections of 1967 marked an end to the system of
one-party dominance. This phase was a period of national consensus and parties of pressure.
There were many factions within the party, and outside the party, there was constant threat
from the several opposition parties, dissident groups from the ruling party, and other interest
groups and important individuals. This phase gave way to a system of competitive
dominance.

The party system moved towards party-institutionalisation and there arose a possibility of
emergence of the two-party system with the 1977 general elections in which 75.8 per cent of
the votes were cast in favour of only two parties, i.e., the Janata Party, and the Congress. For
the first time in the Indian party system, non-congress party, i.e., the Janata Party came to
power at the Centre in the 1977 elections. However, the Janata Party failed to capture the
advantage of the situation and it fell prey to internal bickering and factionalism. Thus, the
hope of a bi-party system was short lived, and the congress came back to power in the 1980

8
Narang A.S., Op. Cit., p.264.
9
Rajani Kothari, State Against Democracy: In Search of Humane Governance. Ajanta Publications, New Delhi,
1988, p.45.
10
Johari, J.C., Indian Constitution: A Politico- Legal Study, S. Chand & Chand Company, New Delhi, p.65.
9
elections. This phase saw an increase in straight contest and rejection of independent
candidates.11

The party system moved to another phase, the Hegemonic Dominance Phase, with the 1980
elections. Though the Congress came back to power at the Centre, the Congress rule in this
period was different from its dominance in the Jawaharlal Nehru era. Its dominance after the
1980 elections began to be identified with the leader, i.e., Mrs. Indira Gandhi, who led an
authoritarian command over the party. The role of opposition was reduced in the light of
insecurity and unwillingness to share power with other parties. Thus, the dominance of the
Congress (I) was not based on politics of consensus but was a hegemonic dominance due to
lack of national-level non-Congress parties and limited regional support basis of regional
parties. Thus, in the hegemonic phase the party had become dependent on the leader for
hegemony.

The Indian party system entered the multi-party system and coalition era with the 1989
elections. The subsequent elections of 1991 and 1996 further consolidated this phase. The left
and regional parties have gained greater importance and they often play a balancing role.

Thus, India has developed its own chaotic form of multi-party politics. This is because of its
peculiar social structure, political development, institutional framework and development
processes overall.

Classification of Political Parties in India

The types of political parties can be broadly classified into following categories:

National Parties : Any party to be called as national level political party must fulfil
following conditions: It must have had its candidates stood for last elections in at least four or
more States for Lok Sabha or for Legislative Assembly and secured not less than 6 % of total
valid votes in those elections. In addition, win at least four seats in Lok Sabha from any State
or States. It must have won at least 2 % seats in Lok Sabha from at least three different
States. Some of the present national parties are; Congress(I), Bharatiya Janata Party, Bahujan
Samaj Party, Nationalist Congress Party, Communist Party of India etc.

Regional Parties: The State parties promote regional languages, culture and interest of
people of that region. To be recognized as a State party, it must fulfill following conditions:
In the last general elections to legislative assembly, the party candidates must have secured
not less than 6% of total valid votes and must retain at least 2 members to State Legislative
11
Gopal Krishna, ‘One Party Dominance Developments and Trends in Party Systems and Election Studies’,
Centre for Developing Societies, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1967, pp.122-124.
10
Assembly. Some of the well-known State political parties are; Shiv Sena (Maharashtra),
AIADMK and DMK (Tamil nadu), Telgu Desam(Andhra Pradesh), Rashtriya Janata Dal
( Bihar), the National Conference ( Jammu and Kashmir) etc.

Features of Indian Party System

The following can be described as the main features of the Indian party System:

1. Multi-party System: As a land of social pluralism, India has been a natural home for a
multi-party system. Even before the dawn of independence, there had appeared four major
political parties-Congress, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha and the Communist Party.
After the dawn of independence and because of the adoption of parliamentary democracy, the
stage was set for the birth of new political parties. Besides the above four, Jan Sangh, PSP,
SSP, SMK and National Conference came into being and gradually their number began
increasing. Republican Party, Janata party, Janata Dal, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, Assom
Gana Parishad and several others came to be organized. Presently there are several major
parties both national and regional-Congress, BJP, BSP, CPI, CPM, NCL Janata Dal (U),
Janata Dal (S), BSP, SP, AIADMK, DMK, Telugu Desam, SAD, BJD, TCM, ML, and many
others. Initially, the party system in India worked as a single party dominant multiparty
system. However, since 1989 it has been working as a real multi-party system.

2. Rapidly Changing Party Structures: The party structure in India has been continuously
and rapidly changing due to splits, defections, alliances and counter alliances. Almost every
political party has been living through them. The congress experienced four big splits in
1969, 1977, 1995 and 1999. In 1999 the Nationalist Congress Party emerged out of a split in
the Congress. In fact, several political parties like Trinamool Congress, TMC and some
others have come out of the Congress as a result of splits. Around 1964, the Communist Party
suffered a split and CPI and CPM emerged on the Indian political scene. In 1977, the party
system underwent a big change when Jan Sangh, Bhartiya Lok Dal, Socialist Party, Congress
(O) and Congress rebels combined to form the Janata Party. In 1979, however, the Janata
Party suffered a split when Janata (S), i.e., Lok Dal separated itself from this party. In April
1980, the former Jan Sangh members parted away from Janata Party and formed the Bhartiya
Janata Party (BJP). In 1988, the Janata Party, the Lok Dal and the Jana Morcha combined to
form Janata Dal. In 1990, Janata Dal (S) was formed out of the Janata Dal. The SAD, the
DMK, the TDP, the LD and several other regional parties have also suffered.12
12
Ghai. K.K., Indian Government and Politics, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, 2002, p.485.
11
3. Dominant Position of the Congress (1949-89): The Indian multi-party system initially
worked as one party dominant multi-party system. Between 1947-1967, the Congress
dominated fully the Indian political scene at the national and state levels. It got 354, 371, 361
seats in 1952, 1957 and 1962 General Elections respectively. However, the emergency rule
imposed by it during June 1975 to March 1977, reduced its popularity to a very low ebb and
it suffered a big defeat in March 1977 elections. A united opposition (the Janata Party) was
successful in defeating it.

4. Presence of a Recognized Opposition: Initially, when Indian Party System was working
as a one-party-dominant-multi-party system, lack of an effective opposition was its big
weakness. In the first four general elections, no party other than the Congress was able to
secure even 50 seats, the minimum constitutional requirement for getting the status of the
‘opposition party’. In 1969, when there occurred a split in the Congress, the Congress (O) got
the status of an opposition party But during 1980 and 1989 election no party was able to
secure the status of opposition party as non-congress (I) parties are able to get 10 percent
seats. Since 1989 one party or other party is securing seats to remain as opposition party in
Lok Sabha.

5. Large number of Regional Political Parties: A regional party is one which enjoys its
popularity in one or two States and is committed to secure the interests of these via-a-vis the
Union. The existence of many regional parties along with some national level political parties
is a reality of Indian Political System. Such a feature is quite natural for a country like India
which is characterized by social pluralism. DMK, AIADMK, National Conference,
Shiromani Akali Dal, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, Assom Gana Parishad, Biju Janata Dal,
Telugu Desam, Telangana Praja Samiti, Vishal Haryana Party, Bangla Congress, Utkal
Congress, Forward Block, UUML, Kerala Congress, Manipur National Front, DMK,
AIADMK etc. are some of the more prominent regional parties.

6. Power sharing between National and Regional Political Parties: A new development in
the Indian political system has been the emergence of a process of power sharing between
National and Regional parties. From Eleventh Lok Sabha elections (1996) onwards a
coalition, consisting of several regional parties and some national level parties has been
ruling at the Centre. The CPM was ruling West Bengal in a similar fashion for more than 25
years. The leaders of regional parties have started playing an active and even deterministic
role in the organisation of the Central Government.

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7. Similar Ideological Perceptions: Almost all political parties have similar ideologies. In
fact, the parties are not very rigid about their ideological commitments. All the parties are
committed to uphold democracy, secularism, socialism and decentralization, and most of
them now favour liberalization and privatization. All of these are willing to use the caste
factor, linguistic factor and regionalism for expanding their support bases. In fact, all of them
have been doing this. Most of the parties have emerged as a result of splits in the Congress.
Because of lack of ideological differences, the members of a political party do not hesitate to
switch their loyalties from one party to another.

8. Inner Factionalism: Factionalism and groupism are present in most of the political
parties. Internal groupism in Congress has been a recognized feature. The existence of
‘Leftists’, ‘Rightists’, ‘Young Turks’, ‘Dissidents’, and ‘Inner circles’, within the Congress
has been a historical fact. It is also true of all other political parties. This feature has been
mainly responsible for political splits and defections. Groups owing loyalties to different
leaders are present in almost every party. Each leader has a group of loyalists.

9. Personality-Cult Politics: Personality-cult dominates party politics in India. Several

political parties stand organized around a leader. The existence of such political parties like
Congress (Indira), Congress for Democracy (Jagjivan Ram), Congress (Urs), Janata Party
(JP), AD (Mann), AD (Longowal), AD (Tohra), Jan Sangh (Madhok), Janata Dal (A), Lok
Dal (A) Biju Janata Dal and others reflect the presence of politics of personality cult in Indian
political parties. Often the political scene witnesses the rise of groups loyal to different
leaders and loyalty towards the leaders enjoys precedence over ‘loyalty towards the party’.
The leader of the party behaves like a ‘queen bee’.

10. Politics of Populism: Almost all the political parties adopt and follow populistic politics
and raise populistic slogans for securing their vote banks. The party in power uses its power
of policy making for attracting votes. ‘Rozgar Yojanas’, ‘Waiving of Loans’, ‘Power to the
People’, ‘Increased Reservation’, ‘Vote for Mandir’, ‘Protection of Panth’, ‘Protection of
interests of Minorities’, ‘Garibi Hatao’, Free water, Free-electricity etc. are used as election-
years slogans and plays for securing votes. Exploitation of caste, religion, linguistic and
regional interests is unscrupulously practiced by almost all the political parties for securing
votes.

CHAPTER 3- PARTY SYSTEM IN DIFFERENT POLITICAL SYSTEMS

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A party system denotes the interaction among political parties. In democracy, they respond to
each other’s initiative in a competitive interplay. The political parties, like countries copy,
learn from and compete with each other, with innovations in organization, fund raising and
election campaigning, spreading across the party system. 13 The party system is the whole
assortment of inner party rivalries in a single country, at any single time. It is a web of
competition, something related to ‘democratic competition’ for the right to rule. 14 It implies a
pattern of competition, consisting of an interaction of its units (parties).

This competition is political, manifestly an electoral competition, whereby all the political
parties take part in an open, formalized genuine elections. 15 With the exception of single-
party state, several parties co-exist in each country: the form and modes of their co-existence
define the party system of particular country, being considered. Two series of elements enter
this definition. In the first place, there are the similarities and disparities that can be
discovered in the internal structure of individual parties, which makes up the system. (A
distinction will be made between system with centralized parties and those with decentralized
parties, between the flexible party and the rigid party and so on). In the second place, a
comparison between the various parties makes it possible to make distinction among new
elements in the analysis, that do not exist for each party community, considered in isolation:
number, respective size, alliance, geographical localization, political distribution and so on. A
party system is defined by a relationship, amongst all these characteristics.

At last, each nation state has its own party system, which makes it possible to classify and
compare the countries by the type of party system, they possess. The most obvious distinction
rests upon the number of parties in each country. In addition to number-based classification,
party system can also be classified into totalitarian and non-totalitarian, constitutional and
non-constitutional, democratic and non-democratic and so on. Moreover, these can also be
classified as class or ideologically basis16

A party system can be classified into single, two- and multi-party system.

13
Hague and Harrop, n.45, p.194.
14
Douglas W. Rae, The Political Consequence of Electoral Laws, London: Yale University, 1967, p.47.
15
Leslie Lipson, “The Two-Party System in British Politics”, American Political Science Review, Vol. XLVII,
1953, p.358.
16
Neil A. McDonald, “Party Perspectives: A Survey of Writings”, in Harry Eckstein and David E. Apter (eds.),
Comparative Politics, Delhi: Surjeet Publications, 2003, p.348
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Two-Party System
At present, it is generally understood that, a bi-party system is duopolistic, which dominated
by two ‘major’ parties that have equal chance to win government power. In its traditional
form, a bi-party system can be defined by three criteria: firstly, the number of ‘small’ parties
may exist; only two parties enjoy enough electoral and legislative strength to have a realistic
prospect of winning government power. Secondly, the one of the major parties is able to rule
alone on the basis of majority in the legislature, the others are in the opposition. Thirdly,
Power alternate between these parties; both are electable the opposition serve as wings of
government.17 For instance, UK and USA are most frequently cited example, other have
included Canada, Australia and New Zealand. However, UK party system may turn to multi-
party system or coalition era.

Multi-Party System

Multi-party system has different varieties according to number of rival parties, such as, tri-
parties (three parties) quardi-partism (four parties) and poly-partism (many). However, each
of these systems have common factor vis-a-vis the electoral systems. The scholar believes
that “simple majority system with second ballot and proportional representation encourage
multi-parties.” In Switzerland and Holland, the multi-party system is limited and orderly, in
Italy it is anarchic and disorderly, in Germany and France the situation is intermediate
between the two.18

Nowadays, it is believed that, when more than two parties got almost equal number of seats
in the legislature and no party can form government by its own strength, normally known as
multi-party system. This system emerges when; (a) three or more parties shared the bulk of
the votes and public offices and (b) no single party won absolute majority. In a way, most of
the governments have been coalition or fusion governments.19 Besides, in the multi-party
system, there is competition among more than two parties, reducing the prospect of single
party government and increasing the chance of coalitions. The post-elections ‘negotiations’
and ‘horse trading’ are basic tools to form the government.20

Single Party System

17
Heywood, n.3, p.260.
18
Duverger, n.30, pp.239-240.
19
Austin Ranney and Kendall Willmoore, “The American Party System”, American Political Science Review,
Vol.XLVIII, 1954, p.480.
20
Heywood, n.3, pp.263-264.
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Some general characteristics of the single party system are; (I) It is both an elite and bond. It
refer to form ‘new elite’ and create a ‘new ruling class’, which unite and shape the political
leader, who is capable of organizing the country because the masses cannot govern
themselves, on one hand and decline of the traditional social elite, on the other. (II) Single
party system was worked out in Italy and in Germany, which produced a theory that filled its
own single party which differs considerably from one other. (III) The party established direct
and permanent contact between the government and the country (masses) by the process of
‘people leaders’ (upwards direction) and leaders-people (downwards direction). The
downwards direction is more important because party spread the dictator’s orders among the
public. (IV) Single party is a natural consequence of Marxist doctrines and structure of the
Soviet Union. Hence, the retention of the Communist Party, the fighting organization of
working class in its effort to destroy its rivals as well as the organization for seeing that they
do not build up their strength again.

There are three ways for the development of one party system; (I) it can be the result of ‘legal
compulsion’ that is, the Constitution of the state made provision of one party or allows only
one party, as the case of Soviet Union and other Communist states. (II) It arises from extra-
constitutional repression of opposition. This occurs, when opposition is harassed, either
publicly through trials or less openly by means of preventive action against potential
opponents. (III) The development of ‘one-party state’ is of the ‘natural kind’ in which only
one party exist because of the natural structures of the polity. This situation is more likely to
be maintained in relatively small states or in regions such as Brazilian party system before
1930 and Northern Nigeria party system before the military coup of 1966.

CONCLUSION
16
We may deprecate India's political parties, the way they function and the means party

leaders adopt to maximize electoral support. We may blame them for the ills we see in

Indian society and political practice. Such an attitude is not unjustified. Yet we cannot

ignore the role parties have played in bringing about a massive democratic political

transformation over the past six decades since independence. This transformation was by

no means inevitable: most former colonies went through period of political instability,

military coups and authoritarian regimes, but India has moved towards legally based

democratization. The mediating role political parties have played in bringing about this

democratic transformation in a relatively peaceful manner, in a short span of time and

under conditions considered not very conducive to democratic development, cannot be

underestimated They have assisted in the consolidation and expansion of democracy.

popularized the notions of equality, social justice and freedom, and opened doors for

inclusion voice and empowerment of the weaker sections of society. Superficially

political parties may appear to divide people, but parties also attenuate conflict, and show

the way for people to come together Thus, the party domain in India is full of intense

struggle over contentious social and polity issues and the space in which

compromise and consensus are hammered out. What is required, therefore, is a critical

and balanced assessment of parties that considers their strengths and

achievements as well their weaknesses and failings in furthering democracy and

governance.

17
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. R.L. Hardgrave, jr. & S.A. Kochanek (2008), “The Emergence of Coalition Politics and
the Rise of the BJP”, India: Government and Politics in a Developing Nation, chapters.

2. Yadav, Yogendra (1999). “Electoral Politics in the Time of Change: India’s Third
Electoral System: 1989-99”, Economic and Political Weekly.
3. Alam, Javeed (2002). “Communist Parties in Search of Hegemony”, in Zoya Hasan (ed),
Parties and Party Politics in India, New Delhi, Oxford University Press.
4. Mitra, Subrata K. (2016), “Encapsulation without Integration? Electoral Democracy and
the Ambivalent Moderation of Hindu Nationalism in India”, Studies in Indian Politics, Vol 4,
Issue 1, pp. 90 – 101.

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