Experimental Research of Effectiveness of
Brakes in Passenger Cars Under Selected
Conditions
A.Erd, M. Jaśkiewicz, G. Koralewski, D. Rutkowski, J. Stokłosa
Abstract – The subject of the considerations presented herein is
experimental research of effectiveness of disc brakes on various
road surfaces in both dry and wet road conditions on the example
of a passenger car equipped with different kinds of tyres. The
factors affecting the length of the braking distance of a passenger
car were described on the basis of which braking delays were
measured for three selected tyre types with a different tread
depth for three vehicle speeds of 50 km/h, 70 km/h and 100 km/h
in order to determine how selected factors affect the braking
distance of the vehicle. The experiments were conducted on a dry
asphalt surface, a wet asphalt surface contaminated with sand as
well as for comparison purposes, on a wet and dry concrete
surface. The tests were conducted with the use of mid-range
vehicles equipped with disc brakes with a diameter of 288 mm,
312 mm and 320 mm. The author hereof complied an analysis of
the results for various combinations of discs, tyres, surfaces and
vehicle speeds. The experiments demonstrated that the difference
in the length of the braking distance between a dry and wet
surface amounts to 1.87 m for 50 km/h, 3.18 m for 70 km/h and
4.97 m for 100 km/h. On the basis of the conducted experiments it
might be concluded that braking is more efficient on an asphalt
surface. With each type of the analysed brake discs, the distance
needed stop the tested vehicle on a concrete surface was longer.
Index — automotive safety, brake pads, disc brakes,
coefficient of friction, friction layer
I. INTRODUCTION
The braking system is one of the most important systems
in vehicles. It is responsible for road safety. When operating
properly, it allows the driver to keep its steerability and
stability while stopping the vehicle or decreasing its speed.
Due to the important role that this system plays in the
A.Erd - University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Faculty of
Transport and Electrical Engineering. Malczewskiego str. 29 , 26-600 Radom.
andrzej.erd@gmail.com
M. Jaśkiewicz. - Kielce University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics
and Mechanical Engineering, Al. Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego 7, 25-314
Kielce, Poland. m.jaskiewicz@tu.kielce.pl
G. Koralewski - Polish Air Force Academy in Dęblin, National Security and
Logistics Faculty, ul. Dywizjonu 303 nr 35, 08-521 Dęblin,
g.koralewski@wsosp.pl
D. Rutkowski Kielce University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics and
Mechanical Engineering, Al. Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego 7, 25-314 Kielce,
Poland. D.rutkowski@tu.kielce.pl
J. Stokłosa – University of Economics and Innovation in Lublin, Faculty of
Transport and Computer Science, Projektowa str, 4, 20-209 Lublin,
jozef.stoklosa@wsei.lublin.pl
978-1-5386-4578-9/18/$31.00 ©2018 European Union
vehicles, it is necessary to control its condition regularly, as
frictional elements of the system wear during operation which
may lead to deterioration of braking effectiveness or in
extreme cases – to its loss [1], [2], [3], [5], [17].
Currently, the braking system is equipped with a number
of systems which assist the driver to stop the vehicle and
control it during braking. Brake booster pumps and brake
force correctors were introduced for common use [15]. ABS
system which prevents the wheels from blocking is the most
important as it allows the driver to maintain steerability during
sudden braking. The development of frictional elements
consists in replacing steel discs with ceramic or carbon discs
which offer more favourable thermal properties [4], [13].
This paper analyses the process of braking of a passenger
car in a linear motion. The braking distance is defined in
accordance with the ECE 13 Regulations as a distance
travelled by the vehicle from the point the driver begins to
actuate the control element (pedal or brake lever) to the point
at which the vehicles reaches a full stops [14].
The subject of the considerations presented herein is an
experimental study of effectiveness of brakes on various road
surfaces in both dry and wet road conditions on the example of
a passenger car equipped with different types of tyres.
The surface type is one of the most important factors
responsible for the braking distance [9], [10]. Various types of
surfaces have different coefficients of adhesion [16]. What is
more, contamination such as sand, small stones or mud might
be found on each type of surfaces which effectively reduces
the coefficient of adhesion of a particular type of surface [7],
[9]. Table 1 presents the coefficients of adhesion for different
types of surface.
Table 1. The coefficients of adhesion for different types of surface [16]
Type of road surface Coefficient of
adhesion
Concret dry 0,8 - 1,0
Concret wet 0,6 – 0,8
Asphalt dry 0,7 – 0,8
Asphalt wet 0,4 – 0,5
Road surface basalt cube dry 0,6 – 0,7
Road surface basalt cube wet 0,3 – 0,5
Snowy road 0,1 – 0,4
Icy road 0,05 – 0,15
On the basis of Table 1, it might be concluded that the
coefficient of adhesion for various surfaces varies in a wide
range. In the extreme case when comparing a dry concrete
surface and an icy road, the value of the coefficient of
adhesion is twenty times larger.
The delay of the vehicle during braking is equal to the
product of gravitational acceleration as well as the coefficient
of adhesion as presented in the formula (1).
m of the distance travelled during braking on a wet surface in the
= ∙ (1)
s function of the depth of the tyre tread grooves.
where:
ah – deceleration [m/s2],
µ - coefficient of adhesion,
g - earth acceleration [m/s2].
Fig. 1 presents a graph of the braking distance in the
driving speed function. The graph indicates that the surface
condition plays a significant role as far as the length of the
distance needed to stop the vehicle is concerned. The tests
were conducted on a dry and wet asphalt surface, as well as on
a surface contaminated with sand.
100
asphalt dry
Braking distance [m]
asphalt wet
50 asphalt dry contaminated with dry
sand
asphalt wet contaminated with wet
sand
0
10 15 20 25 30
Speed [km/h]
Fig.1. The braking distance depending on the condition of the asphalt surface
[16]
While analysing the graph presented in Fig. 1, it might be
noticed that the braking distance of the vehicle varies
significantly on the same surface. Rainfall and contamination
reduce the coefficient of adhesion of the surface and as a
consequence, lengthen the braking distance [12]. In the
extreme case, the braking distance on a contaminated asphalt
surface is twice as long as in the case of a dry uncontaminated
asphalt surface. Drivers who are not aware of the fact that the
coefficient of adhesion was reduced due to the factors
mentioned above, might poorly estimate the distance needed
to stop the vehicle. Moreover, contamination and puddles are
placed unevenly on the road which may lead to lateral
displacements of the vehicle and as a result, to the loss of
control over the vehicle [6].
The condition of tyres, i.e. the tread type and its depth, has
a significant impact on the length of the braking distance [8],
[11]. In accordance with the Polish regulations, tyres are
usable if the tread height exceeds 1.6 mm. Moreover, the tyre
tread pattern on one axle must be the same. On a clean and dry
asphalt or concrete surface the tyre tread height plays no
significant role. The situation is different on a wet surface
when the so-called “aquaplaning” phenomenon takes place,
i.e. when the water layer on the surface is not dispersed by the
tyres. When the pressure of the water exceeds the pressure of
the tyre on the surface, a water film layer is created between
the tyre and the surface and thus, the tyres lose their adhesion.
In order to prevent it, the drivers should control the tread
height, as the lower the tyre tread is, the chances of
aquaplaning increase. Fig. 2 presents a graph of dependencies
Dry road surface
8.0
8.0
7.0
tread depth [mm]
Wet road surface
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
2.0
1,6
70% 100% 170%
Braking distance [%]
Fig. 2. The graph of the braking distance depending on the tyre tread depth on
a dry and wet surface
An important factor responsible for braking
effectiveness is the tyre pressure. Depending on the vehicle
load, car manufacturers provide the recommended values on
identification plates. On the basis of the research conducted by
35 40
Bridgestone, it results that 6% of fatalities are caused by
punctures, tearing or improper tyre pressure. Too low air
pressure might accelerate tyre wear (up to 40%). Moreover, it
affects driving and extends the braking distance.
II. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH OF THE BRAKING DISTANCE
DEPENDING ON THE SURFACE TYPE
The test vehicle was a mid-range passenger car. In order to
obtain uniform conditions, all braking delay measurements
were conducted on a dry and wet asphalt surface not
contaminated and contaminated with sand, and on a dry and
wet concrete surface not contaminated and contaminated with
sand over the same operating distance at an ambient
temperature of approximately 20°C. During each attempt, the
following was used to record delays:
− a non-contact optical sensor,
− a delay sensor (decelerometer),
− a sensor of the force affecting the brake pedal,
− a computer with appropriate software.
Series of tests were performed for three different initial
speeds. The initial braking speed in the first series was 50
km/h, in the second 70 km/h and in the third 100 km/h.
The tests aimed to compare the parameters during braking
by a passenger car equipped with three different types of tyres
and three different heights of brake discs of the front axle. The
braking tests were performed on two different types of surface
(both of them divided into wet and dry).
 The vehicle which underwent the tests was Audi A4 b6 Fig. 3 presents a graph of the braking distance expressed in
manufactured in 2003. Depending on the engine version and meters as a driving speed function [km/h]. The smallest brake
equipment, the model was sold with three types of front axle set (288 mm disc) was installed together with Bridgestone
brakes which were tested, such as: tyres.
− 288 mm high, 25 mm thick,
− 312 mm high, 25 mm thick, 100
− 320 mm high, 30 mm thick. asphalt dry asphalt wet

Brabraking distnce [m]

80
Three sets of tyres 205/55 R16 were applied in the tests:
− Pirelli Sottozero – new tyres, speed index H, tread height 60
7.6 mm, winter tyres,
− Bridgestone Turanza – one-year-old tyres, speed index 40
W, tread height 5.5 mm, summer tyres,
− Michelin Energy Saver – tyres from 2014, speed index 20
H, tread height 4 mm, summer tyres. 0
For the test purposes, the wheels were balanced and the 50 70 100
pressure was set according to the identification plate located Speed [km/h]
on the vehicle, i.e. 2.4 bar.
Fig. 3. The graph of the braking distance as a driving speed function of 288
The following parameters were recorded during road tests: mm brake discs and Bridgestone tyres.
− driving speed,
− delays measured in 3 axles, On the basis of the graph it may be concluded that the
− pressure on the brake pedal, braking distance on the dry surface was shorter than in the
− temperature of the brake discs. case of the wet surface. The largest difference in the braking
The following brake sets were tested: distance was observed at a speed of 70 km/h and amounted to
− 288 mm ATE disc, FERRODO brake pads, 4.5 m. The smallest difference was noted at a speed of 50
km/h, namely 2.1 m. At a speed of 100 km/h the difference
− 312 mm ZIMMERMAN disc, FERRODO brake pads,
was 3.47 m.
− 320 mm TEXTAR disc, FERRODO brake pads. Fig. 4 presents a graph of the braking distance as a driving
Before the tests, the shock absorbers were checked, the speed function for 312 mm brake discs and Bridgestone tyres.
efficiency of which ranged from 62% to 70%. The brake fluid
was replaced with the fluid dedicated to BOSCH brand.
100
The braking distance depends on a number of factors.
Taking account of a dry and wet asphalt surface, the results of asphalt dry
80
Braking distance [m]

the braking distance measurements were presented. Depending

on the tyre type and the set of brake discs, the braking distance asphalt wet
60
differed. Table 2 presents the results of the braking distance
measurements on the dry and wet asphalt surface.
40
Table 2. The braking distance on the asphalt surface
20
Asphalt dry Asphalt wet
disc brake diameter [mm] 0
50 70 100
Speed
288 312 320 288 312 320
Speed [km/h]
[km/h]
Tire Fig.4. The graph of the braking distance as a driving speed function of 312
50 21.45 20.78 19.97 23.46 22.65 22.15 mm brake discs and Bridgestone tyres.

Bridgestone 70 41.6 40.08 38.09 46.1 43.26 42.07

From the graph shown above it may be concluded that the
100 83.35 80.78 75.06 86.82 85.75 83.65 braking distance on 312 mm brake discs and the same tyres
50 23.46 22.33 21.25 24.17 23.89 22.78
was shortened in relation to the brake discs with a smaller
diameter. The difference ranges from 1 to 3 m. There is a
Michelin 70 43.28 42.17 40.55 46.67 44.1 41.85
difference in the braking distance between the dry and wet
100 82.39 80.8 77.21 90.00 86.15 83.59 surface of 1.87 m for 50 km/h, 3.18 m 70 km/h and 4.97 m for
50 20.85 20.01 19.95 22.08 21.7 20.61
100 km/h
Pirelli 70 41.7 39.16 35.37 42.22 40.93 38.95

100 82,36 79,38 76.00 91,33 83,36 81,41

 90 While comparing three types of tyres it turned out that the
80 worst results were achieved by the most worn tyres
asphalt dry (Michelin). Bridgestone (summer, 5 mm tread) and Pirelli
Braking distance [m]

70
60 (winter, new) tyres scored alternately the best results. Thus, it
asphalt wet
may be concluded that if both tyre types were new,
50
Bridgestone tyres would demonstrate better properties.
40
On the basis of the results presented in chapter 4, it was
30
proved that the size of brake discs affects the braking process
20 and its effectiveness. While comparing three types of brake
10 discs, the best results were scored by the set with a height of
0 320 mm. The second place was taken by 312 mm discs,
50 70 100 whereas the set with 288 mm discs obtained the worst results.
Speed [km/h]
Fig.5. The graph of the braking distance as a driving speed function of 320
mm brake discs and Bridgestone tyres. IV. REFERENCES

The summary of the braking distances at a speed of 50 [1] A. Adamowicz, P. Grzes. “Influence of convective
km/h on the dry and wet asphalt as well as on the dry and wet cooling on a disc brake temperature distribution during
concrete for all brake discs and Michelin tyres was presented repetitive braking”. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol.
in Fig. 6. 31, pp.2177-2185, May 2011.
[2] J. Balkwill. Performance vehicle dynamics. Engineering
40 concret wet and applications. Oxford Brooks University, Oxford,
35 concret dry United Kingdom. 2017 p360
asphalt wet [3] Ali Belhocine, Mostefa Bouchetara. Thermal analysis of a
Braking distance [m]

30
asphalt dry
25
20
15
10
5 [5] Khaled R.M. Mahmoud, M. Mourad, A. Mahfouz.
0 “Dynamic behaviors of a wedge disc brake”. Applied
288 312 320
Diameter of the brake disc [mm]
Fig.6. A graph of the braking distance depending on the brake disc diameter
for different types of surface and Michelin tyres.
While analysing the graph presented in Fig. 6, it might be
observed that braking is more effective on the asphalt surface.
With each type of a brake disc, the distance needed to bring
the vehicle to a stop was longer. In this case, 320 mm brake
discs obtained the best results. In the case of the wet surface,
the difference in the braking distance between the asphalt and
concrete surface for the biggest brake discs was 3.44 m, for
312 mm brake discs – 9.27 m, whereas for 288 mm brake
discs the difference amounted to 10 m. On the dry surface the
differences were similar and were, respectively.
III. CONCLUSION
On the basis of the collected materials and the conducted
research it might be concluded that a surface on which the
vehicle moves is crucial while bringing the vehicle to a stop.
While comparing the concrete surface which was
contaminated and uneven with the asphalt surface it was
proved that on the asphalt surface the braking distance from
50 km/h is shorter by approximately 10 m on the dry and wet
surface.
solid brake disc. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 32,
pp.59-67, May 2012.
[4] A. Gajek, W. Szczypiński-Sala. Some tribological
characteristics of disc brake pads. The Archives of
Automotive Engineering, vol. 57, no. 3, p. 33 – 46,
PIMOT Warszawa, 2012.
Acoustics. vol.128, pp. 32-39, Dec. 2017.
[6] A. Gajek, W. Szczypiński-Sala, P. Strzępek. Assesment
Of The Car Brake Deceleration Measurement Methods In
Road Conditions. Transcomp – XIV International
Conference Computer Systems Aided Science, Industry
And Transport. 6-9.12.2010, Zakopane. pp.841-848
[7] P. Greibe. Braking distance, friction and behavior.
Trafitec. Denmark.
http://www.trafitec.dk/sites/default/files/publications/brak
ing%20distance%20-
%20friction%20and%20driver%20behaviour.pdf
[8] K. Hopping, K. Augsburg, K. Hutengs. Dherbomez G.,
Wang B., Victorino A., Charara A. Analysis of the effect
of tire inflation pressure on tire interaction during
braking.. The Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and
Tracks. 2014
[9] Z. Lozia, P. Woliński. Value Relationships Of The
Braking Distance And Stopping Distance Length For Car
Motion Various Conditions. Autobusy. Technika,
Eksploatacja Systemy transportowe. vol 6/2010. pp.1-9
[10] R. Pietruszewski, M. Pawlak, R. Dychto. Ocena
skuteczności działania układu hamulcowego pojazdu
dostawczego nieobciążonego ładunkiem. Autobusy.
Technika, Eksploatacja Systemy transportowe. vol
6/2017. pp.1035-1037
[11] K. Prajwowski, W. Gołębiewski Effect of tire type on optimisation of car transmission systems and lately in
braking distance at different outdoor temperatures. controlling automatic hydro-mechanical transmissions of
Autobusy. Technika, Eksploatacja Systemy transportowe airport buses.
Vol. 7-8, pp 1091 – 112, 2017 D. Rutkowski is a technical specialist at the Department of
[12] K.Prajwowski., i W.Gołębiewsk. Influence atmospheric Automotive Vehicles and Transportation, Faculty of
conditions on braking way. Autobusy. Technika, Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering of the Kielce
University of Technology. His scientific interests include:
Eksploatacja Systemy transportowe. vol 6. pp.222-225.
vehicle suspensions, vehicle brakes effectiveness, vehicle
[13] Rahul Raosaheb Pind, Swami M. C. Analysis and
diagnostics.
Computational Investigation of Brake Disc for Composite J. Stokłosa received the PhD degree at the Russian
Materials. International Journal Of Engineering Academy of Railway Engineering in Moscow (MIIT), at The
Development And Research, Volume 4, Issue 4 pp.927 – Institute of Transport Engineering and Control Systems in
946 1987. He has been employed as a professor at University of
[14] Regulation No 13 of the Economic Commission for Economics and Innovation in Lublin, Poland at The Faculty of
Europe of the United Nations (UN/ECE) — Uniform Transport and Computer Science.
provisions concerning the approval of vehicles of His research fields include maintenance and reliability
categories M, N and O with regard to braking [2016/194] transports vehicles, transport systems modeling.
[15] V.A. Ryzhikov, D.Y. Batyshchev. Differential Braking
Device. International Conference on Industrial
Engineering, ICIE 2017. Procedia Engineering vol. 206,
(pp.1570–1576, 2017.
[16] E. Szumska, D. Młodzińska, R. Jurecki. Vehicle braking
effectiveness in different road conditions. Logistyka. Vol.
6,pp. 10430 -10439, 2014.
[17] Zhiqiang Li, Jianmin Han, Zhiyong Yang, Weijing Li.
Analyzing the mechanisms of thermal fatigue and phase
change. Engineering Failure Analysis. Vol. 57, pp. 202-
218, Nov. 2015.

A. Erd received the M.S. degree in computer science from

Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Poland, in
1973 and the Ph.D. degree at the Faculty of Heavy Machinery
at Poznan University Of Technology, Poland in 1988.
Since 1980, he has been employed at the University of
Technology and Humanities in Radom, Poland. Currently, he
is Head of Laboratory of Diagnostics of Drive Systems at the
Faculty of Transport and Electrical Engineering.
His research interests include ecological issues and
renewable energy sources.
M. Jaśkiewicz received the Ph. D. degree in October
2007at the Kielce University of Technology (Poland) at the
Faculty of Mechatronics and Mechanical Engineering in the
discipline of Construction and Exploitation of Machines. The
basic area of his scientific activity includes the problems of
vehicle safety and biomechanics of the human body injuries
in car collisions. In 2015 he received a postdoctoral degree at
the University of Zilina (Slovakia), based on the postdoctoral
thesis entitled "The impact of human and technical aspects on
vehicle transport safety". He works from 2006 at the Kielce
University of Technology in the Department of Automotive
Vehicles and Transportation and currently he is an associate
professor in this Department.
G. Koralewski –university lecturer and scientist in Polish Air
Force Academy in Dęblin. Currently a professor in the
Institute of Logistics and Transport Organisation. A specialist
in technical science, in the fields of mechanical engineering
and automation and robotics. PhD in technical science since
1986, DSc in technical science since 2001. Specialises in