Faye Gapas 12 – Baryonyx
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
FIRST QUARTER
MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES
Properties – characteristics that enables us to distinguish one
substance from another
Physical Property and Physical Change:
Physical Property – characteristic that is not associated with a
change in its chemical composition
o Examples: density, color, hardness, melting and
boiling points and electrical conductivity
o without changing the physical state of the matter
Chemical Property and Chemical Change:
Chemical Property – change of one type of matter into another
type
o look for a chemical change
o Chemical Change – always produces one or more
types of matter that differ from the matter present
before the change
o Examples: flammability, toxicity, acidity, reactivity
and heat of combustion
TWO CATEGORIES OF MATTER:
1. Intensive Property – property of the matter that does not
depend on the amount of matter present
o determined by the chemical composition of the
particles and their structure
o intensive = internal
2. Extensive Property – the property depends on the amount
of matter present
o the value is directly proportional to the amount of
matter in question
o depends only on the number of particles not on their
composition or internal arrangement
o examples: mass and volume
!!! All chemical properties are intensive, none are extensive
o chemical properties never depend on how much of a
substance is present but only on what kind of
particles make up the substance
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
Element – a pure substance (only one type of particle) that
cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical or
chemical means
Compound – a pure substance composed of two or more
elements that are chemically combined
o contains elements
o elements combine: lose their original properties; in
specific ratio
o can be separated by chemical means
Mixture – a combination of two or more substances that are
not chemically combined
o each substance keeps its identity
o can physically separate them
o contains elements, compounds or both
o can be formed using any ratio of components
o Homogenous or Heterogeneous
o “homo” means “same”
o Homogenous mixture – have the same appearance
and properties throughout the mixture
o “hetero” means “difference”
o Heterogeneous mixture – consist of visibly different
substances
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
Mixture – blend of two or more kinds of matter which retains
its own identity and properties
o can separate the components by using their
characteristic properties
o they are physically combined so processes bases on
differences in physical properties
1. Mechanical Separation – advantage of physical
property such as color and shape
o separating parts by hand
o useful when particles are large enough to be seen
2. Magnetic Separation – advantage of the physical
property magnetism
o can be separated by their magnetic properties if one
substance is magnetic and the other is not
3. Filtration – advantage of physical property state of
matter
o separate heterogeneous mixtures composed of solids
and liquids
o uses a porous barrier to separate the solid from the
liquid
o liquid passes through leaving the solid in the filter
paper
o can be used to separate an insoluble substance from a
soluble substance
o can be used to separate solid particles of different
sizes
o filter - layer that allows some substances to pass
through while blocking others
o most common type: gravity filtration
4. Decanting – to pour off a liquid leaving another
liquid or solid behind
o advantage on differences in density
o when decanting solids from liquids, pour out the
liquid into another beaker
 use a stirring rod to: (a) keep the
solid from pouring out (b) allow the
liquid run down it and keep from
splashing
5. Distillation – separation of a mixture based on the
physical property of boiling point
o used to separate two liquids with different boiling
points
o first liquid starts to boil: it evaporates and reaches the
condenser, water run along the outside of the
condenser, cooling the vapor and allowing it to return
to the liquid state and be collected at the end
o based on the principle: solvent is more volatile than
the solute and evaporates
o residue – solid that remains in the flask
o distillate – distilled product
o volatile - measures the tendency to vaporize
o fractional distillation - separating two miscible
liquids (liquids that are readily dissolved in one
another)
6. Evaporation - vaporizing a liquid and leaving the
dissolved solids behind
 o used to separate a solid from a liquid in a 
coulomb (C) is the SI unit of
homogeneous solution charge
o the solution is heated until all liquid evaporates and  atomic mass unit (amu) =
only solid is left behind 1.66054x10-24g
o can be used to separate a solute from the solvent in a Mass Number – number of protons + number of neutrons
solution o atomic number + number of neutrons
7. Extraction – separate an insoluble solid from a Atomic number – number of protons or electrons in nucleus
soluble solid
o by adding a solvent to the mixture then pouring the
liquid through a filter
8. Centrifuge – circular motion helps denser Isotopes – atoms of the same element with different numbers
components sink to the bottom faster of neutrons
o rotate containers of liquids to separate suspended Atomic Mass – weighted average of the masses of each of the
materials with different densities isotopes of an element
9. Paper Chromatography – the property of molecular o reported on the periodic table
attraction to separate a mixture o equation:
o different molecules have varying molecular ATOMIC MASS = % abundance isotope 1 (mass isotope 1) +
attractions for the paper % abundance isotope 2 (mass isotope 2) + …
o Chromatography – used to separate the components Monoatomic Gases – the single atoms of noble gases: He,
of a solution; different components of the mixture Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
will travel different lengths up the chromatography Molecule – an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite
surface arrangement held together by chemical forces
10. Fractional Crystallization – dissolved substances  Diatomic Molecule – contains only two atoms
crystallize out of a solution once their solubility limit  Polyatomic Molecule – contains more than two atoms
is reached as the solution cools Ion – is an atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or
negative charge
ATOMS, IONS AND MOLECULES  Cation – positive charge; neutral atom loses one or
more electrons it becomes a cation
LAWS OF MATTER  Anion – negative charge; neutral atom gains one or
more electrons it becomes an anion
o Law of Conservation of Mass Example: 11Na+ = 11 protons, 10 electrons; 17Na- = 17
o proponent: Lavoisier protons, 18 electrons
o in every chemical transformation, an equal quantity
of matter exists before and after the reaction. NAMING BINARY IONIC COMPOUND
o the total mass of the substances does not change 1. cation is written first, followed by anion
during chemical reaction 2. name of the cation is the same as the name of the
o Law of Definite Proportions metal
o proponent: Joseph Proust 3. name of the anion takes the root of the nonmetal
o in a given chemical compound, the proportion by names and add the suffix –ide
mass of the elements that compose it are fixed, METALS WITH SEVERAL OXIDATION STATES
independent of the origin of the compound or its -ous: lowest charge of the transition metal
mode of preparation. -ic: highest charge of transition metal
o no matter the source, a particular compound is !! Only applicable to the transition metals that has Latin name
composed of the same elements in the same parts also called the common name
o Law of Multiple Proportions !! If the transition metal doesn’t have a Latin name, simply
o proponent: John Dalton
write the name of the element and put the charge beside it e.g.
o when two elements form a series of compounds, the
cobalt (II)
masses of one that combine with a fixed mass of the
other are in the ratio of (small) integers to each other NUMERICAL PREFIXES FOR HYDRATES AND
o if elements A and B react to form two compounds, BINARY COVALENT COMPOUNDS
the different masses of B that combine with a fixed 1 – mono 6 - hexa
mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small 2 – di 7 - hepta
whole numbers 3 – tri 8 - octa
Elements – composed of extremely small particles called 4 – tetra 9 - nona
atoms
5 – penta 10 – deca
Atom – smallest piece of an element that maintains the
NAMING ACIDS
identity of that element
binary – hydro + anion metal + -ic + acid
o the basic unit of an element that can enter into
polyatomic - -ate : ic + acid
chemical combination
o ite : ous + acid
o consists of:
 electron (e)(-ve charge) – outside
STOICHIOMETRY
nucleus
 protons (p)(+ve charge) – nucleus MEASUREMENTS IN CHEMISTRY
 neutron (n)(neutral) – nucleus
 o Atomic Mass
o weighted average of the masses of the existing
isotopes of an element
o units for atomic mass = atomic mass unit (amu)
 Used to express masses of atoms on a
relative scale. We compare everything to
carbon-12.
o absolute masses are too small to measure that’s why
relative atomic masses are used
o relative atomic masses are determined using mass
spectrometer
o Formula Mass – Ionic Compounds
o Molecular Mass – Covalent Compounds
o sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a compound
o Example:
Molecular mass for SO2
S: 1 atom x 32.07 amu = 32.07
O: 2 atoms x 16.00 amu = 32.00
mm = 32.07 + 32.00 = 64.07 amu
o Molar Quantity
o quantity that contains the Avogadro’s number of
items
o Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023 atoms/particles
o gram-atomic mass is the mass of 1 mole of an
element – the mass (grams) that contains the
Avogadro’s number of atoms of that element
 is the molar mass of an element in grams
(g/mol)
o Molar Mass
o mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance
o calculation is the same way as formula mass and
molecular mass
o molecular mass – mass of a molecule in amu
o molar mass – mass of one mole of an element or
compound expressed in grams
o one mole atoms, ions or molecules contains
Avogadro’s number of those particles
o one mole of molecules or formula units contains
Avogadro’s number times the number of atoms or
ions of each element in the compound
o Percent Composition
o determines the elements present in a compound and
their percent by mass
mass of element
x 100= pbm
mass of compound
TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULA
o Empirical Formula
- simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each
element
- may or may not be the same as the molecular
formula
 if the two formulas are different the
molecular formula will always be a
simple multiple of the empirical
formula
o Molecular Formula
- identifies the number of each type of atom
- two or more substances with distinctly different
properties can have the same percent
composition and the same empirical formula
- the subscripts in an empirical formula indicate
the simplest whole-number ratio of moles of the
elements in a compound
- the simplest ratio does not always indicate the
actual number of moles in the compound
o Structural Formula
- shows the structure of the molecule
o Combustion Analysis
- General Procedure:
1. Calculate the number of grams of carbon in the
compound by calculating the number of grams of
carbon in the given amount of CO2 .
2. Calculate the number of grams of hydrogen in the
compound by calculating the number of grams of
hydrogen in the given amount of H2O.
3. If the compound contains oxygen, calculate the
number of grams of oxygen in it by subtracting the
masses of carbon and hydrogen from the given total
mass of compound.
? g O = (given) g total - (calculated) g C -
(calculated) g H
4. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound
from the grams of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND REACTIONS
Signs of Chemical Reactions:
 change in color
 change in odor
 production of new gases or vapor
 input or release of energy
 difficult to reverse
Chemical Reaction – involve a rearrangement of the ways
atoms are grouped together
Chemical Equation
- represents a chemical reaction
- indicates the reactants and products of a reaction
- reactants – shown to the left of an arrow
 substances that exist before a
chemical change
- products – shown to the right of the arrow
 new substances that are formed
during the chemical changes
- CHARACTERISTICS
a) must represent known facts
b) must contain the correct formulas for
the reactants and products
 c)
law of conservation of mass must be 5. Combustion
satisfied - metal + combustion
REACTANTS PRODUCTS - hydrocarbons + O2  CO2 + H2O

– yields

– reversible reaction

(s) (l) (g) – phases of matter/ subscripts

– used to indicate a precipitate

(aq) – reactant or product in an aqueous solution (dissolved in

water)

– used to indicate a gaseous product

+ – reacts/separates products with another product
or vice versa (reactants)
2 atm
– pressure at which reaction is carried out
pressure – pressure at which reaction is carried out exceeds
normal atmospheric pressure
0C – temperature at which reaction is carried out
– formula of catalyst
N.R.
MnO 2 – no reaction/no product made

BALANCING
- inspection method:
 same numbers of all types of
atoms on the reactant and
product sides
- atoms are always conserved
- can only change coefficients
- by trial and error starting with the most
complicated molecules

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

1. Synthesis or Combination
- simplest type of chemical reaction
- formation of simple compound to form complex
a) metal + non-metal  ionic compound
b) non-metal + non-metal  covalent
compound
c) element + compound  compound
d) compound + compound  compound
- A + B  AB
2. Decomposition
- breaking of substance
- AB  A + B
- Causes:
a) catalyst
b) heat
c) light
d) electricity (electrolysis)

3. Single Replacement
- more active can replace the least active
- the more active element (halogen, metal)
replaces the least active in the compound
- A + BC  AC + B
4. Double Replacement
- determine the ions (consider the charges)
- AC + BD  AD + CB