POLYMERS

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 Compounds that contain carbon

HYDROCARBONS
 Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen.
 PURE HYDROCARBONS – Organic compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen.
 SATURATED PURE HYDROCARBONS – Organic compounds
containing only carbon and hydrogen and single bonds only.
ALKANES
 The fully saturated hydrocarbons are usually called ALKANES.
 The simplest of the alkanes is
methane (CH4), the main
compound in natural gas.

 The next simplest alkane is ethane (C2H6),

contains 2 carbons side-by-side, each one of
them in bonded to 3 hydrogen atoms.
Ethane is a gas and mostly used in the
production of plastics.

 Propane (C3H8) is gas at room

temperature and in normal
atmospheric pressure, propane is a
common fuel for cooking, heating, and
vehicles.

 Butane (C4H10) has two forms:

1. The first is just a chain of carbons with hydrogens stuck
wherever they’re needed to make each carbon have 4
bond, called Normal Butane or n-butane.
2. But the 4 carbons can also be arranged differently by
making a chain of 3 and branching the fourth one off the
 center of the chain. This is called isobutene or i-butane (2-
Methylpropane).

Even though they have the same chemical

formula, their structure gives different properties.

 These different structures for compound that have same

molecular formula are called isomers.
 ISOMERS are molecules that have the same molecular formula but
different structures.

 The larger
and more
complex
alkanes are, the most densely their molecules can pack together.
Which means that they tend to be liquid or solid instead of
gaseous at room temperature.

HYDROCARBONS PREFIXES
  Meth- in a name always indicates a molecule or branch containing
one carbon atom.
 Eth- means two carbon atoms.
 Prop- means three carbon atoms.
 But- has four carbon atoms.
 ALKANES are always named based on the longest possible
continuous chain in their structure.
Example: Octane – has 2 carbon chains attached to one of its
carbon atoms.

 When shorter carbon chains are attached to longer ones like this,
they’re still named using the same prefixes, but we add –yl onto
the end to show they’re just attachments. Since this attachment
has two carbons, we call it an ethyl group.

 If more than one of the same size group attached to the same
chain, like two methyl groups on the same alkane (see below), in
this case, you put a number for
both of them and prefixes like di-
and tri- are used to indicate
multiple attachments.

THREE TYPES OF ALKANE REACTIONS

 1. COMBUSTION (burning) – Combustion requires a hydrocarbon,
oxygen, and a source of heat. Combustion is the type of reaction
that powers your car and your propane grill. The products of a
complete combustion of a pure hydrocarbon are always carbon
dioxide and water vapor. (see below)

2. HALOGENATION – Replacement of hydrogen atoms with

halogens. When halogen atoms like fluorine or chlorine are
substituted for one or more hydrogen atoms in the alkane.

3.

DEHYDROGENATION – Removal of a water molecule.

Dehydrogenation is the removal of hydrogen atoms from alkanes.

ALKENES
 These are hydrocarbons that contain a double covalent bond
between two carbon atoms in the molecules.
 The first alkene molecule contains two carbon
atoms. Just like the alkanes, each carbon atom
still needs 4 bonds, but has two bonds already
due to the double covalent bond with the
other carbon atoms.
 Example: Ethene, Methene, Propene, Butene, Hexene
 Hexene

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
 Functional groups
are groups of atoms
which gives molecules
similar properties. There are
many different functional groups:
1. ALKANES
2. ALKENES
3. ALCOHOLS
 This is a hydroxyl group and is a hydrogen bonded to
an oxygen which is then covalently bonded to the rest
of the molecule. This
groups can be attached to
any of the alkanes above
to form alcohols, their
names all end in –ol
 Example: Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol. (insert pics
below, butanol,
propanol)

BUTANOL
 The alcohol functional group means that all these
compounds will react in a similar way and will have
similar properties.

4. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
 This is the functional group for carboxyl acids and
gives an organic molecule the name –oic acid.
 For example:
 5. ESTERS
 Esters give molecules a sweet smell and makes them
useful for perfumes and flavorings.
6. KETONES
 This is a functional group which make molecules
useful as solvents.
7. AMINES
 Amines can be useful as dyes and useful in making
medicines.
 Some molecules even have more than one functional group and
give molecules different properties. An example is Glycine.

POLYMERS
 A polymer is a large molecule or a macromolecule which
essentially is a combination of many subunits. The term polymer
in Greek means ‘many parts’. Polymers can be found all around us.
From the strand of our DNA which is a naturally occurring
biopolymer to polypropylene which is used throughout the world
as plastic.
  Polymers may be naturally found in plants and animals (natural
polymers) or may be man-made (synthetic polymers). Different
polymers have a number of unique physical and chemical
properties due to which they find usage in everyday life.
 Polymers are all created by the process of polymerization wherein
their constituent elements called monomers, are reacted together
to form polymer chains i.e 3-dimensional networks forming the
polymer bonds.
 The type of polymerization mechanism used depends on the type
of functional groups attached to the reactants. In biological
contexts, almost all macromolecules are either completely
polymeric or are made up of large polymeric chains.

Classification of Polymers
 Polymers cannot be classified under one category because of their
complex structures, different behaviours, and vast applications.
We can, therefore, classify polymers based on the following
considerations.
Classification of Polymers based on the Source of Availability
There are three types of classification under this category, namely,
Natural, Synthetic, and Semi-synthetic Polymers.
1. Natural Polymers:
 They occur naturally and are found in plants and
animals. For example proteins, starch, cellulose, and
rubber. To add up, we also have biodegradable
polymers which are called biopolymers.
2. Semi-synthetic Polymers:
 They are derived from naturally occurring polymers
and undergo further chemical modification. For
example, cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate.

3. Synthetic Polymers:
 These are man-made polymers. Plastic is the most
common and widely used synthetic polymer. It is used
in industries and various dairy products. For example,
nylon-6, 6, polyether’s etc.
Classification of Polymers based on the Structure of the Monomer Chain
This category has the following classifications:
 1. Linear Polymers
 The structure of polymers containing long and straight chains
fall into this category. PVC, i.e. poly-vinyl chloride is largely
used for making pipes and electric cables is an example of a
linear polymer.
2. Branched-chain Polymers
 When linear chains of a polymer form branches, then, such
polymers are categorized as branched chain polymers. For
example, Low-density polythene.
3. Cross-linked Polymers
 They are composed of bifunctional and trifunctional
monomers. They have a stronger covalent bond in comparison
to other linear polymers. Bakelite and melamine are examples
in this category.
Other Ways to Classify Polymers
Classification Based on Polymerization
1. Addition Polymerization: Example, poly ethane, Teflon, Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)
2. Condensation Polymerization: Example, Nylon -6, 6, perylene,
polyesters.
Classification Based on Monomers
1. Homomer: In this type, a single type of monomer unit is present.
For example, Polyethene
2. Heteropolymer or co-polymer: It consists of different type of
monomer units. For example, nylon -6, 6

Classification Based on Molecular Forces

1. Elastomers: These are rubber-like solids weak interaction forces
are present. For example, Rubber.
2. Fibres: Strong, tough, high tensile strength and strong forces of
interaction are present. For example, nylon -6, 6.
3. Thermoplastics: These have intermediate forces of attraction. For
example, polyvinyl chloride.
4. Thermosetting polymers: These polymers greatly improve the
material’s mechanical properties. It provides enhanced chemical
and heat resistance. For example, phenolics, epoxies, and
silicones.
Structure of Polymers
 Most of the polymers around us are made up of a hydrocarbon
backbone. A Hydrocarbon backbone being a long chain of linked
carbon and hydrogen atoms, possible due to the tetravalent nature of
carbon.
 A few examples of a hydrocarbon backbone polymer are
polypropylene, polybutylene, polystyrene. Also, there are polymers
which instead of carbon have other elements in its backbone. For
example, Nylon, which contains nitrogen atoms in the repeated unit
backbone.

Types of Polymers
On the basis of the type of the backbone chain, polymers can be divided
into:
1. Organic Polymers: Carbon backbone.
2. Inorganic Polymers: Backbone constituted by elements other than
carbon.

Types of Polymers
On the basis of their synthesis:
1. Natural Polymers
2. Synthetic Polymers

Biodegradable Polymers
The polymers which are degraded and decayed by microorganisms like
bacteria are known as biodegradable polymers. These types of polymers
are used in surgical bandages, capsule coatings and in surgery. For
example, Poly hydroxybutyrate co vel [PHBV]

High-Temperature Polymers
These polymers are stable at high temperatures. Due to their high
molecular weight, these are not destroyed even at very high
temperatures. They are extensively used in the healthcare industries, for
making sterilization equipment and in the manufacturing of heat and
shock-resistant objects.

Few of the important polymers are:

1. Polypropylene: It is a type of polymer that softens beyond a
specific temperature allowing it to be moulded and on cooling it
solidifies. Due to its ability to be easily moulded into various
shapes, it has a lot of applications.
A few of which are in stationary equipment’s, automotive
components, reusable containers speakers and much more. Due
to its relatively low energy surface, the polymer is fused with the
welding process and not using glue.
2. Polyethene: It is the most common type of plastic found around
us. Mostly used in packaging from plastic bags to plastic bottles.
There are different types of polyethene but their common formula
being (C2H4)n.

Properties of Polymers
Physical Properties
 As chain length and cross-linking increases the tensile strength of the
polymer increases.
 Polymers do not melt, they change state from crystalline to semi-
crystalline.
Chemical Properties
 Compared to conventional molecules with different side molecules,
the polymer is enabled with hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding
resulting in better cross-linking strength.
 Dipole-dipole bonding side chains enable the polymer for high
flexibility.
 Polymers with Van der Waals forces linking chains are known to be
weak, but give the polymer a low melting point.
Optical Properties
  Due to their ability to change their refractive index with
temperature as in the case of PMMA and HEMA: MMA, they are
used in lasers for applications in spectroscopy and analytical
applications.
Some Polymers and their Monomers
 Polypropene, also known as polypropylene, is made up of
monomer propene.
 Polystyrene is an aromatic polymer, naturally transparent, made
up of monomer styrene.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a plastic polymer made of monomer
vinyl chloride.
 The urea-formaldehyde resin is a non-transparent plastic obtained
by heating formaldehyde and urea.
 Glyptal is made up of monomers ethylene glycol and phthalic acid.
 Bakelite or polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride is a plastic
which is made up of monomers phenol and aldehyde.

Types of Polymerization Reactions

Addition Polymerization
 This is also called as chain growth polymerization. In this, small
monomer units joined to form a giant polymer. In each step length
of chain increases. For example, Polymerization of ethane in the
presence of Peroxides
Condensation Polymerization
 In this type small molecules like H2O, CO, NH3 are eliminated during
polymerization (step growth polymerization). Generally, organic
compounds containing bifunctional groups such as idols, -dials,
diamines, dicarboxylic acids undergo this type of polymerization
reaction. For example, Preparation of nylon -6, 6.

What is Copolymerization?
In this process, two different monomers joined to form a polymer. Synthetic
rubbers are prepared by this polymerization. For example, BUNA – S.
How to Calculate Molecular Mass of Polymers?
There are two types of average molecular masses of Polymers:
 Number Average Molecular Masses
 Weight Average Molecular Mass
Number Average Molecular Masses:

Weight Average Molecular Mass:

Uses of Polymers
Here we will list some of the important uses of polymers in our everyday life.
 Polypropene finds usage in a broad range of industries such as
textiles, packaging, stationery, plastics, aircraft, construction,
rope, toys, etc.
 Polystyrene is one of the most common plastic, actively used in
the packaging industry. Bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable
glasses and plates, tv cabinets and lids are some of the daily-used
products made up of polystyrene. It is also used as an insulator.
 The most important use of polyvinyl chloride is the manufacture
of sewage pipes. It is also used as an insulator in the electric
cables.
 Polyvinyl chloride is used in clothing and furniture and has
recently become popular for the construction of doors and
windows as well. It is also used in vinyl flooring.
  Urea-formaldehyde resins are used for making adhesives, moulds,
laminated sheets, unbreakable containers, etc.
 Glyptal is used for making paints, coatings, and lacquers.
 Bakelite is used for making electrical switches, kitchen products,
toys, jewellery, firearms, insulators, computer discs, etc.
Commercial Uses of Polymers
Polymer Monomer Uses of Polymer
Rubber Isoprene (1, 2-methyl 1 – 1, 3- Making tyres, elastic
butadiene) materials
BUNA – S (a) 1, 3-butadiene (b) Styrene Synthetic rubber
BUNA – N (a) 1, 3-butadiene (b) Vinyl Synthetic rubber
Cyanide
Teflon Tetra Flouro Ethane Non-stick cookware –
plastics
Terylene (a) Ethylene glycol (b) Fabric
Terephthalic acid
Glyptal (a) Ethylene glycol (b) Phthalic Fabric
acid
Bakelite (a) Phenol (b) Formaldehyde Plastic switches, Mugs,
buckets
PVC Vinyl Cyanide Tubes, Pipes
Melamine (a) Melamine (b) Ceramic plastic
Formaldehyde Resin Formaldehyde material
Nylon-6 Caprolactum Fabric
How do polymers have different physical properties?
Give examples.
 In polymers, monomers are bonded, by different molecular
interactions. Nature of these interactions, yield polymers of varying
elasticity, tensile strength, toughness, thermal stability, etc.
 Monomers forming a linear chain with weak bonding. These polymers
exhibit elasticity and are called elastomers. Example: Neoprene,
Buna-S, Buna-R.
 Polymers with strong forces of interaction between the monomer in
both linear and between the chains have higher tensile strength and
are used as fibres. Example: Polyamides (nylon6,6),
polyesters(terylene).
 Polymers having their intermolecular force in between the
elastomers and fibres are thermoplastics. They can be repeatedly
 reprocessed without much change in their polymeric
properties. Example: Polythene, polyvinyl.
 Monomers that undergo heavy branching, gets fused on heating and
cannot be reused or reprocessed. Such materials are thermosetting
plastics. Bakelite, Urea-formaldehyde are examples.

What is the vulcanization of rubber?

Natural rubber is highly elastic to be of poor physical stability. Addition of
5% of sulphur, enhances the crosslinking of the linear chains and thus
improves the stiffening of the rubber for an application like vehicle tires.
Match the column A with B.
Column A Column B

1 Buna -S a Ziegler Natta catalyst

2 Nylon 6-6 b Addition polymerization

Terephthalic acid
3 High-density polyethene c
ethylene glycol

4 Declon d Biodegradable polymer

Polymer of glycine and

5 e Fibre
aminocaproic acid
Answer:

Column A Column B

Addition
1 Buna -S a
polymerization

2 Nylon 6-6 b Fibre

Ziegler Natta
3 High-density polyethene c
catalyst

4 Declon d Terephthalic acid

 Polymer of glycine and Biodegradable
5 e
aminocaproic acid polymer

What are biodegradable polymers? Give examples.

 These polymers have functional groups found in the natural
polymers. Example: Poly β-hydroxybutyrate -co-β-hydroxy
valerate (PHBV). This can be degraded by bacterial presence.

What do you mean by Engineering plastics and synthetic

metal?
 These polymers possess high strength, resistance to chemical,
thermal, abrasion similar to ceramics and metals for use in
engineering applications. Examples: Silicone, Polycarbonate, ABS,
Polysulfone.
 The polymer that is similar to the metal in terms of their electrical,
electronic, magnetic, and optical properties is termed as
‘intrinsically conducting polymer (ICP)’ or ‘synthetic metal’.

POLYETHYLENE
 Polyethylene is transparent and thermoplastic, meaning it can be
melted and reformed, making it recyclable.
 Some other polymers like polyurethane or Bakelite are thermoset,
polymers that can change chemically during a curing process and
cannot be melted down and reformed.
 Polyethylene can actually be converted into a thermoset by
introducing cross-links, the molecular bridges between those
polymer chains.

ADDITION POLYMERIZATION
 The monomers are simply added together and no by products are
formed.
 Free radicals are atoms or ions that
have a single unpaired electron.
CONDENSATION REACTION
 Sometimes a hydroxyl group from one molecule joins with a
hydrogen from another, forming water. The water will break away
as a byproduct, leaving two molecules bound together.
 This often occurs when an amine group, with its loosely held
hydrogen, meets a carboxylic acid, with its loosely held –OH
group.

 NYLON – when hexamethylenediamine has an amine group on

each end and adipic acid has a carboxylic acid on both ends. When
the two monomer unit, called a dimer, is formed, there is still
carboxylic acid on one end and an amine group on the other,
allowing for further polymerization.

 These amine acid condensation polymerizations also allow for the

creation of natural polymers, being created inside of you out of
monomers that we call amino acids. Amino acids polymerize
through condensation reactions guide by the code in your DNA
and enzymes to form you.
 Other important polymers in the body include, polysaccharides,
which we use to store energy and DNA and RNA, which we use to
encode information for the formation of proteins,
POLYMERS IN ENGINEERING
 Polymers – are materials made up of long, repeating chains of tiny
molecules known as monomers – a class of molecules that can
react with others to form much larger molecules. Polymers with
longer chains tend to show more elastic properties. These are
often called Elastomers, and are mainly found in rubber materials.
 On the other hand, polymers with larger and more complex
monomers tend to be stiffer. You can also stiffen polymers
through a process called cross-linking. That’s when polymers are
bonded with each other to form a 3D, net-like shape called a
polymer network.
 Vulcanization is the process of using sulfur to cross-link and
strengthen rubber polymers.
 It’s this world that’s helped us keep firefighters safe, using
polymers to design better gas masks and other parts of their gear.
 Just like with other materials, some kinds of polymers get used
more than others.
 The ones that you’ll most likely come across are polyethylene, or
PE, polyvinyl chloride, or PVC, and polyethylene terephthalate, or
PET.
 Polyethylene is the most common plastic in use today. It’s
primarily found in packaging materials, like plastic bags and
bottles.
 Polyvinyl chloride comes in two main forms: rigid and flexible.
Rigid forms of PVC are often used in buildings and construction for
things like plastic pipes and the frames for windows and doors.
They need to be strong, not just for daily use, but to hold up for as
long as possible in a disastrous event like a fire.
 PVC can also be made softer and more bendable by adding in a
plasticizer, which can help it be more flexible or make it less thick
and viscous. You’ll find flexible PVC in imitation leather, flooring,
and inflatable products.
 Polyethylene terephthalate is a bit different. It’s spun into fibers
and used for clothing, as well as other things like photographic
film and magnetic recording tape.
 Nylon, which is a tough, lightweight, and elastic polymer, and
Kevlar, a strong fiber with bullet-stopping power.
 We also have Teflon, which is highly water resistant and one of
the slipperiest solids
  If you add a very small concentration of a polymer to a moving
fluid, the friction within the fluid can decrease by up to 80%.
That’s called polymeric drag reduction. The end result is a fluid
that can flow even faster with the same pressure behind it.

DESIGNER POLYMERS
 Designer polymer is one that has been designed to respond to a
change in environment or uses properties that are better than
traditional polymers.
Examples:
JACKET
 Nylon is tough, lightweight, and waterproof. But it's missing a
desirable property in that it doesn't allow sweats pass through so
when the person is wearing a garment they can become quite
uncomfortable.

 Designers have started to

use gore-tex, a designer polymer. Gore-tex uses layers of different
polymers. They include an outer layer typically made from nylon
or polyester, making the outer layer strong. Inner layers are made
from polyurethane and this provides water resistance. Other
membranes are made of PTFE which has millions of holes these
holes are small enough to alow the water vapor or sweat to pass
out but does not allow larger water droplets from the outside to
pass into the soft lining.
CONTACT LENSES
 The traditional polymer, PMMA, doesn’t allow oxygen to pass
through and touch the eye, this is why no blood visits the cornea,
thus blocking your vision.
 The polymer used now is a special hydrogel, it’s more flexible,
softer, and is breathable. This improves the health of the eye.
TOOTH FILLINGS
  The traditional filling is made of silver amalgam. This looks false as
it contrasts against the tooth’s natural color.
 Designer polymers use a composite polymer resin which is tough,
contains no dangerous chemicals like the mercury metal found in
silver amalgam fillings. The designer polymer can be matches at
the tooth natural color. It’s a photopolymer and when treated
with light, it will harden and match the color of the tooth.

PLASTICS
 Plastic is a polymer. Various monomeric units in the different
plastics are arranged in different patterns.
1. Linear
2. Cross-linked manner
 Types of plastics:
1. Thermosetting – Thermosetting plastics are those which
do not melt on heating. When the plastic is casted into
mould, it takes up the form permanently. It cannot be
remolded later. The two most commonly used examples
of thermosetting plastics are Melamine and Bakelite.
Melamine is known to withstand high amounts of heat. It
is used in making tiles, floorings, and kitchenware.
Bakelite is used in making handle of kitchen utensils and
switches as it is poor conductor of heat and electricity.
2. Thermoplastic – These can be molded or simply melted on
heating. It can be easily bent, or heated to remold into
various forms. (e.g. PVC)
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
  NONREACTIVE – Metals usually get corroded or rusted easily, in
presence of air and moisture, metals have a tendency to get
physically degraded or to form oxides. But plastics do not show a
tendency like this. In fact, plastics do not react with air moisture or
even with chemicals. As a result no rust is formed, hence, they can
be widely used to store various types of liquids and chemicals.
Airtight containers are made to store food or liquid items.
 APPLICATION OF PLASTICS: Medical Field – because they do not
react easily with chemicals and are non-corrosive in nature. Bottle
sachets and strips of plastics can be used to store medicines. Even
the syringes, gloves, and threads used for stitches are made up of
plastics.
 POOR CONDUCTION OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY
 STRENGTH AND DURABILITY

PLASTICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

 Plastic is a type of solid waste (it occupies space)
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMON PLASTICS

PLASTIC AND LABEL APPLICATIONS: Understanding the Differences in

Plastics

PET (or PETE) – aka Polyethylene Terephthalate.This is

the easiest and most common type of plastic to
recycle. It is used in household containers such as
carbonated beverage bottles, microwavable food
trays, and peanut butter jars; as well as medicine
bottles, hair combs, and rope. When recycled it is
commonly found in carpet, fiberfill for coats and
sleeping bags, cassette tapes and sails for boats. In labs, this is primarily
used for storage and dispensing bottles.
 HDPE – aka High-Density Polyethylene. Many
packaging applications use this material as a moisture
barrier and for its chemical resistance. Safer than PET,
products made of HDPE will not transmit chemicals
into food or drinks so they are typically used in snack
food packages, cereal box liners, milk, margarine and
whipped topping containers. It is also used for
shampoo, detergent and bleach bottles, motor oil and even children’s
toys. When recycled, HDPE is used for plastic lumber, fencing, or storage
crates. Like PET, it is commonly found in lab bottles and larger chemical
storage containers.

V – aka PVC or Polyvinyl Chloride.This is commonly

used in plumbing pipes, floor coverings and house
siding, but is also found in synthetic leather products,
shower curtains, car dashboards and cable and wire
sheathing. Due to its ability to resist most chemicals
and bacteria, it is found in blood bags and medical
tubing.

LDPE – aka Low-Density Polyethylene.A durable,

flexible plastic known for its transparency and
toughness, it is often used for sandwich bags, cling
wrap, squeeze bottles, grocery bags and dry cleaning
bags. It is also popular in wire and cable applications
because it has stable electrical qualities. It is not
commonly recycled, but can be used in lumber,
garbage cans, and furniture. Like other PE products, this is often used in
lab bottles, particularly ones with narrow necks such as wash and dropper
bottles.
 PP – aka Polypropylene.A strong film with excellent
chemical resistance, this is a popular synthetic for
both solid and flexible packaging. It can handle higher
temperatures so is especially good for filling hot
liquids such as pancake syrup. It is used for food
storage containers, ketchup bottles, diapers,
prescription bottles and yogurt containers, as well as plastic bottle caps. It
is also found in automotive battery casings. When recycled, it is commonly
used in rakes, battery cables or ice scrapers. Due to its wide service
temperature range it is one of the most popular plastics used in laboratory
test tubes, vials, bottles, jars, racks and microplates.

PS – aka Polystyrene or Styrofoam.This plastic can be

used in either rigid or foam format. Because of its
clarity it is great for medical and laboratory specimen
containers such as culture tubes, Petri dishes,
pipettes, wells and microplates. It is popular in food
packaging and plastic cutlery; as expandable foam, it
can be easily shaped into disposable coffee cups,
meat, fish and cheese trays and restaurant take-out boxes. It is also
popular for packaging foam and peanuts. When recycled it is used for
insulation, rulers and license plate frames.

OTHER – Covers all other plastics which are hardest to

recycle. Here are a few examples:Acrylonitrile
Butadiene Styrene (ABS), known for its strength and
rigidity, is used in musical instruments, golf club
heads, automotive trim and bumpers, luggage and
small kitchen appliances.

Nylon was originally developed as synthetic alternative for silk stockings

and is now found in many fabrics including carpet. As a solid, it is used in
mechanical parts like screws and gears with low to medium stress levels. It
is also used as a reinforcing agent in composite materials for car
components. Other applications include hair combs and tooth brushes.

Polylactide (PLA) is made from renewable resources like corn starch,

tapioca and sugarcane and thus is used in disposable cups and
biodegradable packaging, compost bags, disposable tableware, and non-
woven textiles for upholstery, garments and diapers.

Polyester (PET) is popular in knit fabrics, pillows, tarps, bottles and

insulating tapes. It can also be found as finishes on wood products like
guitars and pianos.

Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) is an acrylic “glass” commonly sold

under trade names such as Plexiglas® and Lucite®. Safety glasses are made
from PMMA.

Polyurethane (PUR & PU) is found in foam seating, insulation panels,

Spandex® clothing, seals and gaskets, hoses and skateboard wheels. While
difficult to recycle “other” plastics, PUR can be reused for lumber
alternatives.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (commonly sold as DuPont’s Teflon®) is used in

cookware, waterproof coating, plumbing tape and tubing due to its strong,
heat-resistant, frictionless surface. It’s also used in lab centrifuge tubes.

ELASTOMER (Rubber)
 The organic polymers possessing elasticity (change in dimensions)
to the extent of nearly 200 to 300 percent are known as
elastomers or rubber.
 The rubber gets elongated on stretching and gets back to its
original dimension on removal of stress i.e. it possesses the
properties of elasticity.

Unstressed Applied Stretched Release Back to original

Rubber Stress Rubber of Stress position
Important properties of rubber (except for elasticity):
1. Flexibility
2. Strength (Not brittle/break off)
3. Impermeability to Water (Will not be dissolved)
4. High resistance to Abrasion

ADHESIVES
 Adhesives are used for sticking things together and the objects
being stuck together become known as substrates.

 Adhesives are most often made from polymers or resins. They are
created from a lot of different substances.
 PRESSURE SENSITIVE ADHESIVES consist of acrylics, rubber/latex,
or silicone. They don’t need a solvent, water or heat to stick and
can be applied with light pressure. (e.g. tape)
 POLYMER ADHESIVES consist of polyester, polyurethane, acrylate,
and epoxy. They’re great for bonding wood but also for food
packaging and the automotive industry.
 CYANOACRYLATE ADHESIVES (e.g. superglue)
 DEXTRIN ADHESIVES is a thin glue made from starch used to hold
the pages in a book.
 POLYVINYL ACETATE or PVA ADHESIVES is the white glue used in
school.
 REACTIVE ADHESIVES are used to bond cellphones and
computers.
 SOLVENT-BASED ADHESIVES is a liquid in which other materials
dissolve to form a solution. This kind of adhesive is mixed with
polymers that can be found in sticky notes.

HOW DO ADHESIVES WORK?

According to historians and archeologists, adhesives have been used for
thousands of years—probably since Stone Age cave dwellers first applied
bitumen (a tarry substance used to surface highways) to stick flint
axeheads to the tops of their wooden hunting spears. In ancient times,
people made their glues from whatever they found in the world around
them—such things as sugar, fish skins, and animal products boiled
in water.
We still use some of these natural adhesives today, though we're much
more likely to use artificial adhesives made in a chemical plant. It's obvious
modern glues are chemical products from the horrible names they have—
polyvinyl acetate (PVA), phenol formaldehyde (PH), ethylene vinyl acetate
(EVA), and cyanoacrylate ("super glue") to name just four. Many modern
adhesives are called synthetic resins for no good reason other than that
resin (a gooey substance found in pine trees and other plants) was one of
the first widely used adhesives.
How forces make things stick
Knowing what something is called is a far cry from knowing how it works.
That was a lesson the Nobel-Prize-winning American physicist Richard
Feynman (1918–1988) often used to teach. So let's forget all about
adhesives, acetates, and acrylates and try to figure out why one thing will
stick to another. If you want a short answer, the word is "forces."
People stick to Earth's surface even though the planet is rotating at high
speed, and even there's no glue on the soles of our feet. The reason is
simply that gravity bonds us to the planet with enough force to stop us
whizzing off into space. But gravity isn't enough to keep us permanently in
place. If we supply bigger forces, for example by using our muscles to
move our legs and jump in the air, we can "unstick" ourselves and go
somewhere else. Life on Earth is a bit like being a giant living Post-it® note
—only with legs!
So you don't always need a blob of adhesive to stick things together. That
much is blindingly obvious whenever it rains on your window. Gravity tries
to pull the water down to the bottom of the glass, and sooner or later it
usually wins, but two interesting things try to stop it. First, water
molecules (two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen joined
together) naturally stick to one another, so they clump together in big
droplets on the window. The forces that make them do this are
called cohesive forces (and the process involved is called cohesion).
Second, the water droplets also stick to the glass without any help or glue.
Different forces are at work here known as adhesive forces (the sticking
process is called adhesion). Now the cohesive forces must be bigger than
the adhesive forces or the water wouldn't form droplets at all. Instead, it
would just spread out in a very thin layer on the glass—much as oil does
when you spread it on water. But the adhesive forces are still pretty
strong: some of the water droplets that stick to your window are
surprisingly big.

Adhesive and cohesive forces in glues

What does all this have to do with

adhesives? Adhesive and cohesive
forces are also at work in glues. Let's
say you want to stick together two bits
of wood, A and B, with an adhesive
called C. You need three different
forces here: adhesive forces to hold A
to C, adhesive forces to stick C to B, and cohesive forces to hold C together
as well. The first two are pretty obvious: the glue has to stick to each of
the materials you want to hold together. But the glue also has to stick to
itself! If that's not obvious, think about sticking a training shoe to the
ceiling. The glue clearly has to stick both to the training shoe and to the
ceiling. But if the glue itself is weak, it doesn't matter how well it sticks to
the shoe or the ceiling because it will simply break apart in the middle,
leaving a layer of glue behind on both surfaces. That's a failure caused
when the adhesive forces are greater than the cohesive ones and the
cohesive forces aren't big enough to overcome the pull of gravity.
Jam sandwiches may not be the first thing to spring to your mind when
you think about adhesives, but the jam is working as a kind of glue. It's
made of sugar and water: a classic adhesive recipe used since ancient
times. If you use fairly strong bread, you can pick up a jam sandwich by
just one corner of one slice and the whole thing will stay together in your
hand—thanks to the jammy glue. Jam has pretty high cohesive forces
(that's why jam can be hard to dig out of the jar with your knife), but its
adhesive forces are high too. If you butter two pieces of bread and cover
one slice with jam, then close up the sandwich, then peel it apart, you'll
find there's some jam left on both surfaces. As you pull apart the
sandwich, you'll find the jam breaking itself in two in lots of little strands.
That's because the adhesive forces are stronger than the cohesive ones.
Your jam sandwich "fails" due to a failure of cohesion.

COHESIVE FORCES
As you can discover in our main article about the magic of water, water
molecules join together with one another because they're not
symmetrical. One end has a slight positive charge, the other end has a
slight negative charge, and the positive and negative ends of different
molecules snap together like the opposite ends of magnets. That's a kind
of electrical or electrostatic bonding. In metals, the atoms are strongly
held together in a rigid crystal structure called a lattice (a bit like
scaffolding or a climbing frame with atoms at the joins and invisible bars
holding them together). You can easily separate one "piece" of water from
another (by lifting some out with a spoon): the cohesive forces are quite
weak. But you can't easily separate one bit of iron from another (with a
spoon or anything else) because the cohesive forces are incredibly strong.
Water and iron are both pretty useless as glues, but for quite different
reasons. Water could be an excellent glue because it sticks quite well to
other substances (such as glass), but its cohesive forces are incredibly
weak. You can stick paper to the wall by wetting it first, but you can
usually peel it off quite easily too. When you peel, you're breaking the
weak cohesive forces that hold one water molecule to another. Iron is no
good as a glue because it's too preoccupied with sticking to itself to stick
to anything else. All its forces are occupied internally, fixing one iron atom
to another in a strong cohesive structure. There's nothing it can use to
attach itself to other objects: its adhesive forces are virtually nonexistent.

ADHESIVE FORCES
 Now for the real question: what makes
a gluey substance stick to something
else? You may be surprised to hear
that there's no single, simple answer—
but that's not so surprising if you
consider how many different types of
glue there are and how many different
ways in which we can use them. For
each different glue, and each different
surface we use it on, scientists think a
combination of different factors are at
work holding the two together. But the
plain truth is: no-one exactly what's
going on in every case.

One of the main factors is called adsorption. When you spread adhesive, it

wets the surface you apply it to. Lots of very weak electrostatic forces
between the glue molecules and the molecules in the surface (called van
der Waals forces for the physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–
1923) who discovered them) hold the two things together. For adhesives
to work well like this, they have to spread thinly and wet the surfaces very
well. There's no actual chemical bond between the glue and the surface
it's sticking to, just a huge number of tiny attractive forces. The glue
molecules stick to the surface molecules like millions of microscopic
magnets.
In some cases, adhesives can make much stronger chemical bonds with
the materials they touch. For example, if you use certain glues on
certain plastics, the glue and the plastic actually merge together to form a
very strong chemical bond—they effectively form a new chemical
compound at the join. That process is called chemisorption.
Absorption and chemisorption are chemical connections between the glue
and the surface. Glues can also form physical  (mechanical) bonds with the
surface they're sticking to. Suppose the surface is porous (full of holes).
The glue can seep into those holes and grip through them, like a climber's
fingers grabbing holes in a rock face. That's called the mechanical theory
of adhesives.
Another theory of how glues work suggests the adhesive can diffuse into
the surface and vice-versa, with molecules swapping over at the join and
mingling together. This is called the diffusion theory.
Why doesn't glue stick to the tube?
Adhesives are designed to work when they leave the tube—and not before.
Different adhesives achieve this in different ways. Some are dissolved in chemicals
called solvents that keep them stable and non-sticky in the tube. When you
squeeze them out, the solvents quickly evaporate in the air or get absorbed by
the surfaces you're sticking to, freeing the adhesives themselves to do their job.
Plastic modeling glue works like this. It contains molecules of polystyrene in an
acetone solvent. When you squeeze the tube, the glue spurts out and you can
usually smell the very strong acetone as it evaporates. Once it's gone, the
polystyrene molecules lock together to make strong chemical bonds. Glue doesn't
smell when it's dry because all the solvent has vanished into the air. Some glues
(such as synthetic, epoxy resins) have to be mixed together before they work.
They come in two different tubes, one containing the synthetic resin and the
other containing a chemical that makes the resin harden. The two chemicals are
useless by themselves but, mixed together, form a tough, permanent adhesive.

BIOPOLYMERS
 Biopolymers are polymers that occur in nature. Carbohydrates and
proteins, for example, are biopolymers. Many biopolymers are
already being produced commercially on large scales, although
they usually are not used for the production of plastics. Even if
only a small percentage of the biopolymers already being
produced were used in the production of plastics, it would
significantly decrease our dependence on manufactured, non-
renewable resources.
1. cellulose is the most plentiful carbohydrate in the world; 40
percent of all organic matter is cellulose!
2. starch is found in corn (maize), potatoes, wheat, tapioca
(cassava), and some other plants. Annual world production of
starch is well over 70 billion pounds, with much of it being
used for non-food purposes, like making paper, cardboard,
textile sizing, and adhesives.
3. collagen is the most abundant protein found in mammals.
Gelatin is denatured collagen, and is used in sausage casings,
capsules for drugs and vitamin preparations, and other
miscellaneous industrial applications including photography.
4. casein, commercially produced mainly from cow's skimmed
milk, is used in adhesives, binders, protective coatings, and
other products.
 5. soy protein and zein (from corn) are abundant plant proteins.
They are used for making adhesives and coatings for paper
and cardboard.
6. polyesters are produced by bacteria, and can be made
commercially on large scales through fermentation processes.
They are now being used in biomedical applications.

 A number of other natural materials can be made into polymers

that are biodegradable. For example:
1. Lactic acid is now commercially produced on large scales
through the fermentation of sugar feedstocks obtained from
sugar beets or sugar cane, or from the conversion of starch
from corn, potato peels, or other starch source. It can be
polymerized to produce poly(lactic acid), which is already
finding commercial applications in drug encapsulation and
biodegradable medical devices.
2. Triglycerides can also be polymerized. Triglycerides make up a
large part of the storage lipids in animal and plant cells. Over
sixteen billion pounds of vegetable oils are produced in the
United States each year, mainly from soybean, flax, and
rapeseed. Triglycerides are another promising raw material for
producing plastics.
 These natural raw materials are abundant, renewable, and
biodegradable, making them attractive feedstocks for bioplastics,
a new generation of environmentally friendly plastics.
1. Starch-based bioplastics are important not only because
starch is the least expensive biopolymer but because it can be
processed by all of the methods used for synthetic polymers,
like film extrusion and injection moulding. Eating utensils,
plates, cups and other products have been made with starch-
based plastics.
2. Interest in soybeans has been revived, recalling Ford's early
efforts. In research laboratories it has been shown that soy
protein, with and without cellulose extenders, can be
processed with modern extrusion and injection moulding
methods.
3. Many water soluble biopolymers such as starch, gelatin, soy
protein, and casein form flexible films when properly
plasticized. Although such films are regarded mainly as food
 coatings, it is recognized that they have potential use as
nonsupported stand-alone sheeting for food packaging and
other purposes.
4. Starch-protein compositions have the interesting
characteristic of meeting nutritional requirements for farm
animals. Hog feed, for example, is recommended to contain
13-24% protein, complemented with starch. If starch-protein
plastics were commercialized, used food containers and
serviceware collected from fast food restaurants could be
pasteurized and turned into animal feed.
5. Polyesters are now produced from natural resources-like
starch and sugars-through large-scale fermentation processes,
and used to manufacture water-resistant bottles, eating
utensils, and other products.
6. Poly(lactic acid) has become a significant commercial polymer.
Its clarity makes it useful for recyclable and biodegradable
packaging, such as bottles, yogurt cups, and candy wrappers.
It has also been used for food service ware, lawn and food
waste bags, coatings for paper and cardboard, and fibers-for
clothing, carpets, sheets and towels, and wall coverings. In
biomedical applications, it is used for sutures, prosthetic
materials, and materials for drug delivery.
7. Triglycerides have recently become the basis for a new family
of sturdy composites. With glass fiber reinforcement they can
be made into long-lasting durable materials with applications
in the manufacture of agricultural equipment, the automotive
industry, construction, and other areas. Fibers other than glass
can also be used in the process, like fibers from jute, hemp,
flax, wood, and even straw or hay. If straw could replace wood
in composites now used in the construction industry, it would
provide a new use for an abundant, rapidly renewable
agricultural commodity and at the same time conserve less
rapidly renewable wood fiber.