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SLAUGHTERHOUSES
SLAUGHTERHOUSES
SLAUGHTERHOUSES
Slaughtering
In slaughterhouses animals are received and kept around in stockyards and pens for 1 day.
The animals are watered, but in most cases not fed unless they are kept more than 1 day.
The animals are then driven from the holding pens to the slaughtering area where the
following activities take place:
- Stunning;
- Sticking and bleeding over a collecting trough. The collected blood may be
sewered or processed;
- Decapitation;
- Chilling or freezing.
Meatpacking
Many large scale plants ship whole graded carcasses to retail markets, others perform
some on-site processing to produce retail cuts. The processes are the following:
Rendering
Rendering is a heating process for meat industry waste products through which fats are
separated from water and protein residues for the production of edible lards and dried
protein residues. Commonly it includes the production of a range of products of meat meal,
meat-cum-bone meal, bone meal and fat from animal tissues. It does not include
processes where no fat is recovered.
Viscera can be recovered as edible products (e.g. heart, liver). They can also be separated
for inedible rendering or processing (e.g. lungs).
The paunch contents, ‘paunch manure’ (partially digested feed), is estimated to range from
27 to 40 kg. The paunch can be handled in four ways:
1: Total dumping. All of the paunch contents is flushed away into the sewer.
2: Wet dumping. The paunch contents are washed out and the wet slurry is
screened on the presence of gross solids, which are subsequently removed.
3: Dry dumping. The paunch contents are dumped for subsequent rendering or
for disposal as solid waste without needless water flushing.
4: Whole paunch handling. The entire paunch may be removed, intact, for
rendering or for disposal as solid waste.
Intestines may be rendered directly, or hashed and washed prior to rendering. For the
processing of intestines de-sliming prior to thorough washing is necessary.
Categories of slaughter-plants
Plants for red meat slaughtering may be categorized on the basis of the final products. A
plant that processes meat into products such as canned, smoked and cured meats is
significantly different from a plant with facilities for slaughtering without further processing.
Slaugtherhouses:
- Simple slaughterhouse:
- Complex slaughterhouse:
Packinghouses
- Low-processing packinghouse:
A plant that both slaughters and processes fresh meat into cured,
smoked, canned and other meat products. Only the meat from
animals slaughtered at the plant is processed. Carcasses may
also be sold.
- High-processing packinghouse:
There are also plants that do not slaughter themselves but restrict their activities to the
processing of meat (meatpacking). These plants have a waste production comparable to
that of a simple slaughterhouse.
The products resulting from slaughtering of cattle are carcasses and by-products. The
quantity of animal by-products often exceeds 50% of the LWK. The weight of the carcass,
expressed as a LWK-percentage is the so called “dressing percentage” (carcass
weight/live weight *100).
Table 1 gives dressing percentages for a few different types of cattle in the U.S.; Table 2
shows dressing percentages for cattle in France. As shown in these tables, a wide variation
in dressing percentages exists, mainly related to factors like breed, age and feeding. In
many developing countries low dressing percentages (i.e. less then 50%) are common as
animals receive less feed and/or feed that is of lower quality than the feed offered in
developed countries and because the animals are slaughtered at a higher age than is done
in developed countries.
Carcasses still contain quantities of fat and bones (see table 2), most of which will be
removed if the carcasses are processed further. This further processing leads to increased
amounts of by-products.
hides, skins, blood, rumen contents, bones, horns, hoofs, urinary bladder, gall
bladder, uturus, rectum, udder, foetes, snout, ear, penis, meat trimmings, hide
and skin trimmings, condemned meat, condemned carcass, oesophagus, hair
and poultry offals (feathers, head).
Only few of these products can be used directly. Figure 2 gives the division of cattle into
various product categories. It shows in principle that by-products may be used in full (which
would result in low waste production).
- there must be a commercial process for converting the animal by-product into
a usable commodity.
- there must be an actual or potential market for the commodity that has been
produced.
Cattle Pigs
Denmark England U.S. Denmark Sweden U.S.* U.S.*
Carcass and edible products 62-64 75-80
Carcass, meat and bone 69 56 56
Retail cuts (bone in) 42
Retail cuts (boneless) 41
Organs 4 7 4 2.4
Red offal 6
Bone 8
Edible fats 3-4 10 11 3 16 16
White offal 10
Blood 3-4 3 4 3 4 3
Inedible raw material 8-10 17 6 8 15
Hide and/or hair 7 8 6 1
Hide (cured weight) 6
Waste 20 14 6 12 4
Paunch and manure 8
Shrinkage 2-10
*: different sources
2.2.1. Description
2.2.2. Quantities of by-products
2.2.1. Description
Receiving areas
The inlet to the plant is normally designed in such a way that fluctuations in bird deliveries
can be dealt with adequately. This is necessary since the processing capacity has a fixed
maximum. At regular intervals birds are unloaded onto the holding areas and attached by
their feet to a conveyor belt, transported to the slaughter area.
The birds are suspended from the conveyor after which the following actions take place:
- Stunning;
- Scalding. To loosen the feathers, the birds are held in water of temperatures
ranging from 50°C to 60°C;
The various components of the raw offal can be summarized as follows (El Boushy and
van der Poel, 1994):
2.3. Emissions
Table 5 shows the estimated solid waste of slaughterhouses and the meat processing
industry in The Netherlands (RIVM, 1994). All the solid waste mentioned in Table 5 has a
potential use as fertilizer (manure) or animal feed (fat).
Slaughter process:
manure 5.5 kg/ton carcass weight
fat (pretreatment wastewater) 1.7 kg/ton carcass weight
Meatpacking:
fat (pretreatment wastewater) 2.0 kg/ton product
Intestine handling:
fat (pretreatment wastewater) 2.3 kg/ton product
paunch manure 100 kg/ton product
It would appear that rumen contents and the manure of the stockyards has not been
included in the value of manure.
2.3.2. Wastewater
Kumar (undated) remarks that effluents of slaughterhouses constitute one of the most
serious causes of environmental pollution, bad odours and health hazards in almost all of
the developing countries.
Table 6 presents some values of the quality of the wastewater in the Netherlands, as
recently estimated by the RIVM (1994), while in Table 7 international but older values of
wastewater characteristics of the various types of red meat slaughterhouses (see chapter
2.1.1) are presented.
Pigs Cattle
BOD 2.4 4.4 kg/ton carcass weight
Nkj 0.6 1.1 kg/ton carcass weight
It has been observed that with a reduction of the water use also the waste load decreases.
Heinen (1994) compared data of water consumption and effluent quality of large scale
slaughterhouses in Poland with Dutch data (Table 8).
Clearly the Polish industry uses much more water for its processes than the Dutch industry.
The difference is enormous, especially as far as slaughtering is concerned (6 times as
much). The chemical oxygen demand per m3 of wastewater after pre-treatment is
approximately the same as in the Netherlands. The total waste production in
slaughterprocess in Poland is much higher (over 7 times) than in the Netherlands.
Comparison of the Polish COD-production figures (Table 8) to the figures of Table 6, shows
that the Polish figures are not extreme, while the Dutch figures mentioned in Table 8 are
low.
The Polish non-industrial-scale private slaughterhouses have in recent years increased the
market share of slaughter from 10% (1988) to 60% in 1993 (Heinen, 1994).According to
Heinen, the water use in non-industrial-scale private slaughterhouses in Poland is
considerably lower than the water use of industrial-scale plants. This implies that the total
waste load per ton LWK in the water will probably be lower than the values given in Table 8.
Production of blood: Of all waste products, the waste in the form of blood has the highest
polluting value. Blood itself has a high BOD: 150,000 - 200,000 mg/l, the extreme value
being 405,000 mg/l. (Domestic wastewater has a BOD of 300 mg/l). In the killing, bleeding
and skinning phases, blood is produced which, when completely sewered, leads to a total
waste load of 10 kg BOD per ton of LWK. A waste load of up to 3.0 kg BOD per ton of LWK
may occur in wastewater flowing out of the killing-area and the hide-removal-area.
In order to reduce the waste load, attempts should be made to collect and process blood (=
drying). Drying of blood can be done by direct heating which produces large quantities of
bloodwater (corresponding waste load approximately 1.3 kg BODper ton of LWK) but
preferably it is done by indirect (external) heating (corresponding waste load approximately
0.3 kg BOD per ton of LWK).
Paunch: Paunch manure is the second most important source of pollution. It may
substantially contribute to the total waste load if not properly handled. Dumping (sewering)
of the entire paunch content gives a BOD of 2.5 kg per ton of LWK. There are several ways
to handle paunch (see 2.1.1)
Stockyards and pens: Waste results from manure and urine, feed, livestock dirt, sanitizers
and cleaning agents. The waste will reach the sewer by means of water overflowing from
water troughs, by rain and snowwater and pen washdown water. The sewered raw waste,
assuming that solid contaminants have been removed, has been estimated at 0.25 kg BOD
per ton of LWK.
Slaughtering: During the slaughtering the following wastes are produced (Edible offals are
excluded because these are considered as meat (by-products)):
- Blood and tissue produced during hide removal fall on the floor. External
contamination of the hide with dirt and manure is a secondary source of
pollutants. The waste load is also increased as a result of cleaning-up
operations in this area.
- Wastewater is produced from intentional overflow from scalding tanks that
contain blood, dirt, manure and hair (0.15 kg BOD per ton of LWK). The
fluming of the mechanically removed hair also results in wastewater containing
residual hair, blood and dirt after recovery of the bulk of the hair (0.4 kg BOD
per ton of LWK). Recovered hog hair may be be dumped as solid waste,
washed and baled for marketing (0.7 kg BOD per ton of LWK) or it may be
hydrolysed by pressure cooking (1 kg BOD per of LWK).
- Slime and casings from intestines. De-sliming and casing washing add 0.6 kg
BOD per ton of LWK to the raw waste load;
- Inedible offals that are produced are hair, recovered from fluming water,
heads and carcass trimmings, lungs and paunch. They also contribute to the
amount of wastewater.
Meatpacking: Cutting and deboning operations produce trimmings, blood, bones and bone
dust. The total of raw waste loads for meat processing plants (including cutting and
deboning) has been estimated at 5.7 - 6.7 kg BOD per ton of product. Meatprocessing
operations produce a raw waste load from:
- Blood, tissues and fat that reach the sewer during cleaning activities;
- The curing of solutions containing sugar and salt. Pickling can cause a high
chloride waste, only 25% of the curing brine remains in the product.
Table 9 summarizes the potential wastewater emissions of red meat slaughterhouses (no
water prevention).
Evisceration: For medium-to-high capacity poultry plants, it has been estimated that offal
flume-water from continuous flowaway fluming contributes a raw waste load of
approximately one-third of the total plant load (presented in Table 10). Values of 1.7 - 13.2
kg BOD per ton of LWK with a common average of 3.4 kg BOD have been reported
(Barnes et al., 1984).
Production of blood: Because of the high BOD of blood, the same observation with respect
to the contribution of blood to the total waste load applies to poultry plants. Chicken blood
contributes 4.5 kg BOD per ton of LWK if completely sewered.
Receiving areas: Waste load values of the receiving area vary widely since they are
derived from the quantity of dirt, manure and feather deposits which vary with the length of
holding time.
(1) (2)
Poultry slaughterhouses Poultry slaughterhouses
Chicken Turkey Range Typical
Range Range
BOD 3.3 - 25 1-9 5 - 30 6.8
COD 5.9 - 45 1.8 - 16 1 - 30 15
NKj-N 0.15 - 12.2 0.4 - 1.9
SS 0.1 - 22 0.6 - 10.9 3 - 25 3.5
P 0.054 - 2.5 0.034 - 0.2
Waste water:
- The final wash water contains blood and tissue (0.7 kg BOD per ton of LWK);
- Whole bird washing after defeathering (0.06 kg BOD per ton of LWK)
- General plant clean-up; up to 50% of the BOD can come from cleaning
operations.
Solid waste:
Emissions of CFC’s and NH3 into the air are the result of evaporation of chilling liquids and
of the stripping of chilling and freezing-machines, when out of use.
The smoking of meat products and the singing of hogs in a gas flame to complete the hair
removal lead to the production of mainly CO2, CO and NOx and obnoxious smells.
The overall energy used in Dutch slaughterhouses and the meat processing industry is
estimated at 137 kWh/ton of carcass and about 28.7 m3 gas/ton of carcass (RIVM, 1994).
The degree of air pollution caused by the generation of energy depends on the type of
process for which the energy is needed. The processes of “dehairing”, “water heating” or
“production of electricity” each lead to different levels of emission.
Based on estimates of the RIVM (1994), emissions of CO2, CO and NOx resulting from the
burning of gas for heating and steam production are for the dutch situation as indicated in
table Table 11.
Table 12 shows the energy use of Polish large scale slaughterhouses and comparable
figures for the dutch situation. According to Heinen (1994) Polish meat plants are highly
inefficient in their energy-consumption.
Red meat:
- Dry animal pen clean-up reduces the amount of wastewater. If the pens are
covered, no rain or snowwater can enter, which reduces the amount of of
wastewater
- Hog hair, recovered from the dehairing process, can be disposed as solid
waste, washed and baled for direct marketing, or hydrolysed by pressure
cooking for marketing as a feed supplement.
- Tankwater (from the rendering process) can be evaporated. This will reduce
the waste load from 2 to 0.5 - 1 kg BOD per ton of LWK. Evaporation on the
other hand consumes energy which will lead to CO2 production.
Poultry:
- Stunning before killing reduces the overall loss of blood. Without prior
stunning, blood will be splashed over a wide area and may also contaminate
feathers.
- Dry cleaning before washing the receiving area;
- Head, feet and remaining inedible viscera may be collected for disposal or
inedible rendering.
RIVM (1994) reported also some possibilities for waste prevention: Table 13.
Process Waste-prevention
Slaughterprocess:
Air: - mainly energy saving
Water: - dry animal pen clean-up
- dry transport (poultry-slaughterhouse)
- less loss of blood
- more dry cleaning
- fast separation of meat and water
- improve defatting-process waste water
Solid Waste: - increases when waste water prevention increases (manure, fat).
Meatpacking:
Air: - mainly energy saving
Water: - separate meat and water as much as possible
- more dry cleaning
- improve defatting-process waste water
- application of steam-tunnels or high pressure-systems for cooking meat
Solid Waste: - increases when waste water prevention increases (fat).
Intestine
handling:
Air: - energy-saving
Water: - application of dry rendering
- keep paunch manure separated as much as possible
Solid Waste: - increases when waste water prevention increases (manure, fat).
Utility-processes*:
Air: - improve efficiency chilling-machines and chilling practices (keep doors close,
repair leakages)
Water: - use as less (warm) water as possible during cleaning-up