Journal Pre-proof

Experimental and numerical study of an electromagnetic sensor for

non-destructive evaluation of steel corrosion in concrete

Chuanqing Fu (Conceptualization) (Supervision) (Project

administration) (Funding acquisition), Jiahui Huang (Methodology)
(Investigation) (Formal analysis) (Writing - original draft), Zheng
Dong (Formal analysis) (Writing - original draft) (Writing - review
and editing), Wenjie Yan (Investigation), Xiang-Lin Gu (Writing -
review and editing) (Supervision)

PII: S0924-4247(20)31687-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2020.112371
Reference: SNA 112371

To appear in: Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical

Received Date: 12 August 2020

Revised Date: 30 September 2020
Accepted Date: 7 October 2020

Please cite this article as: Fu C, Huang J, Dong Z, Yan W, Gu X-Lin, Experimental and
numerical study of an electromagnetic sensor for non-destructive evaluation of steel corrosion
in concrete, Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical (2020),
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2020.112371
This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as
the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the
definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and
review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early
visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be
discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal
pertain.

© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

Experimental and numerical study of an electromagnetic sensor for non-destructive
evaluation of steel corrosion in concrete

Chuanqing Fua, Jiahui Huanga, Zheng Dongb,c,d,*, Wenjie Yana, Xiang-Lin Gub,c

a
College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou,

China

of
b
Key Laboratory of Performance Evolution and Control for Engineering Structures, Ministry of

Education, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Rd., Shanghai 200092, PR China

ro
c
Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, 1239

-p
Siping Rd., Shanghai 200092, PR China
d
Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
re
*Corresponding author: 93dzheng@tongji.edu.cn
lP

Graphical abstract
na
ur
Jo

1
 of
ro
-p
re
Highlights
lP

 An external electromagnetic (EM) sensor was developed.

 Experimental and numerical investigations were carried out to demonstrate the

na

effectiveness.

 The external EM sensor has a good accuracy in estimating the mass loss of corroding
ur

steel.

 Effects of parameters were investigated through numerical simulation.

Jo

2
Abstract:
Corrosion of steel is one of the major causes for the degradation of reinforced concrete (RC)

structures. In this regard, the assessment of reinforcement corrosion is critical in evaluating the

service life of RC structures. The present study aimed to develop an electromagnetic-based

apparatus which can be externally positioned on RC structures, to detect and monitor the corrosion

of embedded steels. Experiments and numerical simulations based on finite element method (FEM)

were carried out to verify the effectiveness of the external electromagnetic (EM) sensor. Different

of
degrees of corrosion for steel in concrete specimens were obtained by impressing current method.

ro
Experimental results showed a linear relationship between the mass loss of corroding steel and the

change of magnetic flux density sensed by the external EM sensor. Compared with the numerical

-p
results obtained from FEM simulations, a good accuracy was exhibited in estimating the mass loss

of corroding steel in concrete by the change of magnetic flux density. Numerical simulations were
re
further conducted to investigate the effects of the dimension and position of steel, the distance
lP

between testing surfaces of the EM sensor, and the magnitude of magnetic field intensity. As a

non-destructive technique, a promising application of the external EM sensor was demonstrated in

na

terms of evaluating the corrosion degree of steel in concrete, with the feasibility to increase its

sensitivity by controlling the driving current and coil turns.

ur

Keywords: Electromagnetic sensor; steel corrosion; reinforced concrete; numerical simulation

Jo

1 Introduction
To maintain the long-term serviceability of reinforced concrete (RC) structures, increasing

attention has been attracted to the detection and monitoring of defects and deteriorations. In terms

3
of the durability of RC structures, corrosion of steel is the main cause of structural deterioration

[1–3].

Generally, the evaluation methods of steel corrosion in concrete are divided into destructive testing

(DT) and non-destructive testing (NDT) [4]. Conventional DT techniques require autopsy of

concrete. The corrosion level of embedded steel was then determined either by the mass loss

through gravimetric measurement [5–8], or the volume loss or cross-sectional area reduction

of
through 3D scanning [9–11]. As the most accurate corrosion measuring method [6], however, the

ro
prerequisite of gravimetric measurement is to destroy the concrete structures, which limits its

application. In this regard, NDT techniques have been widely utilized to detect and monitor the

-p
corrosion of reinforcing steels in concrete, either during routine inspection at early stages or
re
investigation after the occurrence of deteriorations [2–4,12–18].
lP

Corrosion of steel involves electrochemical reactions, thus the electrochemical measuring

techniques play important roles in the evaluation of steel corrosion in RC structures. Typical
na

electrochemical techniques including half-cell potential, linear polarization resistance (LPR),

electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), potentiodynamic cyclic polarization have been

ur

widely used to either qualitatively or quantitatively evaluate the corrosion condition of steel in

concrete. Half-cell potential technique is one of the most widely-used corrosion evaluation
Jo

methods. However, it hardly provides the information of corrosion rate or the nature of corrosion

since it measures the potential which is related to the probability of corrosion [19], unless further

numerical interpretation is conducted [20]. LPR technique measures the polarization resistance

which equals to the ratio of potential and current in the vicinity of open circuit potential. The

4
corrosion rate can thus be calculated by the polarization resistance. However, the Stern-Geary

constant involved in this calculation is an estimation unless a wider range of polarization is

performed to get the Tafel constants [21]. Comparatively, EIS and cyclic polarization tests provide

more accurate results of corrosion rate, specially, the information about the double-layer

capacitance, the interface, the electrolyte resistance, etc., can be obtained through EIS

measurement [4,22–26]. Nevertheless, both EIS and cyclic polarization tests are time-consuming,

which may last days or even a week, depending on the corrosion condition [27]. Additionally, it

of
should be noted that, the electrochemical techniques are not “perfect” non-destructive tests in some

ro
situations. An electrical connection between the apparatus and the embedded steel is required. In

this regard, a hole may need to be drilled to reach the steel in an existing concrete structure. On

-p
the other hand, the corrosion condition of steel may be changed after cyclic polarization test, due
re
to the wide extent of polarization and the long duration of test.
lP

Magnetic permeability is the measure of the resistance of a material against the formation of a

magnetic field. Table 1 lists the permeability of materials used in RC structures. Steel bar, as a
na

ferromagnetic material, possesses a 100 times higher permeability than the corrosion products (i.e.,

iron oxide), concrete, as well as air. In this regard, when a magnetic line spreads inside reinforced
ur

concrete, the transmission line alters significantly as it towards the steel due to the tremendous

difference in the permeability. The magnetic field could be generated either from a permanent
Jo

magnet or by driving a current through a coil. Once reinforcing steel corrodes, corrosion products

distort the transmission direction of magnetic flux lines at the steel/concrete interface [28]. The

differences between the permeability of steel and concrete, as well as between steel and corrosion

products make it possible to locate the position of steel in concrete, monitor the corrosion activity

5
of steel, detect the rust region and defects, etc. by measuring its magnetic response [28–33].

Additionally, the magnetic response (i.e., the magnetic flux density) is directly proportional to the

driving current [34]. As such, in the case of generating a magnetic field by driving a current

through a coil, the magnetic response closely associates with the permeability of the medium, the

current, as well as the distance between the current and the detected location. Bearing this

characteristic, sensors based on magnetic response have been applied in the field of corrosion

detection [14,28,29,35,36]. Nevertheless, magnetic-based sensor systems embedded in concrete

of
could influence the quality of concrete during placing or compaction. Besides, troubleshooting is

ro
difficult for embedded sensors. Therefore, it is imperative to develop sensors which can be easily

positioned outside the concrete, meanwhile measuring the corrosion of embedded steel accurately.

-p
re
Table 1 Relative permeability of materials involved in RC structures [29,34].
Material Relative permeability μr
Steel bar (carbon steel) 100
lP

Iron oxide (FeO) 1.0072

Water 0.999992
Concrete 1
Air 1.00000036
na

The present study aimed to preliminarily investigate the feasibility of an external electromagnetic

(EM) sensor to quantitatively evaluate the corrosion of steel in concrete. The magnetic field in the
ur

testing area of the EM sensor is generated by driving a direct current through the coil. To fully
Jo

understand the performance of the EM sensor, parametric study was carried out to study the

influences of factors affecting the magnetic response through numerical simulations. It should be

noted that, different degrees of steel corrosion were obtained by impressed current method. While

this may not be the case in real RC structures, in which the embedded steels are subjected to non-

uniform corrosion especially in chloride laden environment, it is beneficial to focus on

6
fundamental relationship between the magnetic response and the corrosion of steel. After this

preliminary investigation for the feasibility of the external EM sensor, further research will be

carried out in terms of its application in naturally non-uniform steel corrosion for laboratory and

on-site measurements.

2 Experiment
2.1 Electromagnetic sensor design

of
Fig. 1 schematically illustrates the EM sensor developed in this study. The testing surfaces of the

ro
EM sensor were designed to be inclined, as depicted in Fig. 1b, which aimed to evaluate the

corrosion of embedded steel by externally positioning the apparatus on the concrete structures,

-p
especially for main rebars in concrete beams and columns. In this regard, the inclined surfaces of

the EM sensor can directly touch the surface of concrete structures, reducing the field of air in the
re
testing area compared to that with normal surfaces, as shown in Fig. 1a. The reduction of field of
lP

air in the testing area can lead to a higher magnetic flux density [34], which in return increases the

sensitivity of the EM sensor. Once corrosion occurred, the changes in magnetic properties due to
na

the mass loss or the reduction in cross-sectional area of steel alter the magnetic flux passing

through the Hall-effect sensor on the testing surface. Thereby, the output voltage of Hall-effect

sensor is altered accordingly. The corresponding magnetic flux density at each output voltage can
ur

be obtained by connecting to a gauss meter.

Jo

A silicon steel with a thickness of 10 mm was used to prepare the EM sensor. To prevent the

corrosion of silicon steel during experiment, layer of zinc was coated on the surface of silicon steel,

as shown in Fig. 1c. Coil with 50 turns was wound on one side of the steel (Fig 1b). The driving

7
direct current through the coil was 1 A. A gauss-meter was employed to measure the magnetic flux

density in the testing area through the Hall-effect sensor.

of
ro
-p
re
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic illustration of the external electromagnetic (EM) sensor. (b) Dimensions of
the EM sensor (unit: mm). (c) Galvanized silicon steel.
lP

2.2 Experimental procedures

na

Concrete specimens with the mixture proportion shown in Table 2 were prepared. The dimensions

of concrete specimens were 80 mm  20 mm, as shown in Fig. 2. A plain carbon steel bar with a
ur

diameter of 16 mm was embedded at the center of each concrete. Two ends of the embedded steel

bar were coated by epoxy resin and tape, providing an exposed length of 20 cm in concrete
Jo

specimens. The reason of using plain steel instead of ribbed steel is to avoid the effect of ribs on

the magnetic flux density sensed by the Hall-effect sensor. To initiate the corrosion of embedded

steel, 3.5 wt.% NaCl was added during the mixing of concrete. After casting, specimens were

cured in an environmental chamber with 95% relative humidity and 20  2 C for 28 days.

8
Table 2 Concrete mixture proportion (for 1 m3), used in this study.
Material Content (kg/m3)
Type Ⅰcement 358
Water 190
Fine aggregate 717
Coarse aggregate 1075
NaCl 3.5 wt.% (by mass of cement)

After curing, the corrosion propagation of embedded steel bars was accelerated by the impressed

current method. Schematic illustration of the setup for the accelerated corrosion test was shown in

of
Fig. 2. Each concrete specimen was embraced by a sponge which soaked up 3.5 wt.% NaCl

solution, keeping the concrete wet [37,38]. The wet sponge was then surrounded by a stainless

ro
steel mesh. To avoid the loss of moisture in the sponge, a plastic sheet wrapped the stainless steel

-p
mesh. During the accelerated corrosion test, the embedded steel bar was connected to the anode

while the stainless steel mesh was connected to the cathode. The time required to obtain the desired
re
corrosion level was firstly estimated using Faraday’s second Law of Electrolysis [39]. The

impressed current density used in this study was 600 μA/cm2. The durations of impressing current
lP

were designed to be 100 h, 200 h, 300 h, 400 h, 500 h, and 600 h. Three specimens were prepared

for each duration of accelerated corrosion test.

na
ur
Jo

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of accelerated corrosion test setup.

9
To calculate the mass loss of corroding steels, the steel bars were weighed before and after the

accelerated corrosion test. Prior to the preparation of concrete specimens, all the non-corroding

steel bars were degreased and weighed. After the corrosion test, the concrete specimens were

broken and the corroding steel bars were carefully removed from the concrete. A mechanical

cleaning process using a bristle brush was performed twice, according to the ASTM G1-03 [5]. It

should be noted that, same cleaning process was applied to non-corroding control specimens and

of
the extent of mass loss from cleaning was found to be negligible.

ro
The magnetic flux density of steel bars in concrete was measured by a gauss-meter which was

-p
connected to the external EM sensor (Fig. 3), before and after the accelerated corrosion test.
re
lP

DC power

Spiral coil
na
ur

Sensor
Silicon steel
Gauss
Jo

meter

Fig. 3. Measuring the magnetic flux density through the EM sensor.

10
2.3 Experimental results
The results of the mass of steel and the corresponding magnetic flux density obtained by the EM

sensor before and after the accelerated corrosion test, were listed in Table 3. Based on the measured

results, the mass loss of corroding steel was calculated using Eq. (1) while the change of magnetic

flux density was calculated by Eq. (2).

Table 3 Results of mass and magnetic flux density of steel in concrete specimens.

of
Duration of accelerated Non-corroding steel Corroding steel
corrosion (h) Mass (g) Magnetic flux density (Gs) Mass (g) Magnetic flux density (Gs)
100 318.34 156.4 312.32 155.4

ro
317.35 156.3 311.29 155.3
317.46 156.3 311.05 155.2
200 316.59 156.3 304.05 154.1
316.91 156.3 304.20 154.0

-p
317.16 156.3 304.57 154.1
300 317.86 156.3 298.12 152.6
317.48 156.3 297.57 152.6
re
317.18 156.3 297.45 152.7
400 315.90 156.4 289.27 151.0
316.63 156.3 289.84 151.0
318.30 156.3 291.18 150.9
lP

500 316.97 156.3 283.08 149.3

315.96 156.3 281.80 149.2
316.90 156.3 282.29 149.2
600 317.42 156.3 276.15 147.4
317.22 156.3 275.35 147.4
na

316.30 156.3 274.54 147.3

m0  mi
ur

m  (1)
m0

B0  Bi
Jo

B  (2)
B0

where m0 and B0 are the mass and magnetic flux density of non-corroding steel, respectively; mi

and Bi are the mass and magnetic flux density of corroding steel, respectively.

11
As shown in Fig. 4, the change of magnetic flux density (B) was linearly proportional to the mass

loss of corroding steel (m). The fitted linear equation was expressed as Eq. (3), with an R-square

value of 0.9971.

B  0.4170  m (3)

where B (%) and m (%) are expressed as Eqs. (1) and (2).

of
8

ro
flux

Experimental results
magnetic flux

Linear fitting
Changeofofmagnetic

6
density (%)
(%)

-p
density

4
R2=0.9971
Change

re
2

0
lP

0 5 10 15
Mass loss (%)

Fig. 4. Change of magnetic flux density (%) versus mass loss (%).
na

Based on the relationship between B and m, the degree of steel corrosion in concrete can be

quantitatively determined by externally positioning the EM sensor on concrete structures. It should

ur

be noted that, the mass loss in Eq. (3) was obtained on the basis of accelerated corrosion
Jo

demonstrated in Fig. 2. The stainless steel mesh embraced the concrete specimens, leading to a

rather general corrosion of embedded steel than pitting corrosion [10,28,40], as shown in Fig. 5.

In the case of naturally chloride-induced corrosion, a non-uniform corrosion is generated due to

the formation of pits [23,41,42]. The detection of naturally non-uniform corrosion is currently

under investigation, which is not within the scope of this study.

12
 of
ro
Fig. 5. Examples of corroding steel after accelerated corrosion test.

3 Theoretical validation by numerical simulations

-p
re
Numerical simulations were carried out to simulate the electromagnetic field and to theoretically

compute the relationship between the change of magnetic flux density and the mass loss of steel.
lP

The well-known Maxwell’s equations [28,43] were solved on the basis of finite element method

(FEM) through COMSOL Multiphysics.

na

Fig. 6 demonstrated the EM sensor built in numerical simulation, whose geometry was identical
ur

to that in the experiment as shown in Fig. 1b. A magnetic field was generated by driving a direct

current through the coil. Two Hall-effect sensors were set at the inclined testing surfaces,
Jo

symmetrically about the horizontal x-axis (i.e., sensors 1 and 2). The magnetic properties were

governed by Eq. (4). The current density of the driving current through the coil was calculated by

Eq. (5).

13
B  0 r H (4)

N  I coil
J (5)
Acoil

where μ0 = 4  107 H/m is the permeability of vacuum; μr is the relative permeability of the

medium (i.e., the ratio between the permeability of the medium and the μ0), the values of which

are listed in Table 1; H is the magnetic field intensity (A/m); N = 50 is the number of coil turns; J

is the current density of the driving current (A/m2); Icoil = 1 A is the driving direct current; Acoil =

of
8.553  108 m2 is the cross-sectional area of coil.

ro
-p
re
lP
na

Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of the EM sensor built in numerical simulation.

ur

Since the accelerated corrosion method was employed in the experiment, in which the concrete

specimens were embraced by a stainless steel mesh, along with the addition of chloride during the
Jo

preparation of concrete, the steel bar was assumed to be subjected to uniform corrosion in the

simulation. The mass loss was then calculated by the change of cross-sectional area of steel, as

expressed in Eq. (6).

14
 S 0  Si
m  (6)
S0

where S0 is the cross-sectional area of non-corroding steel bar, Si is the cross-sectional area of

corroding steel bar.

The results of numerical simulation demonstrated that the change of magnetic flux density (B)

increased as the predefined mass loss increased, as shown in Table 4. The range of predefined

of
mass loss ratio in numerical simulation was determined by the experimental results in this study,

ro
as well as the results from long-term reinforcement corrosion in concrete [44–46]. According to

Eq. (3), the predicted mass loss of steel bar was then calculated at different values of B, which

-p
was given in Table 4 in comparison to the predefined values of mass loss. The correlation

coefficient (R2) between the predefined mass loss in numerical simulation and the predicted mass
re
loss by Eq. (3) was 0.9962, indicating a good accuracy of the developed EM sensor to
lP

quantitatively measure the corrosion of steel.

na

Table 4 Comparison of simulations and predictions based on experiments.

Change of magnetic flux Predefined mass loss Predicted mass loss
density (B, %) in (m, %) in numerical (m, %) by Eq. (3)
numerical simulation simulation
ur

0 0 0
0.63 2 1.51
1.41 4 3.38
2.43 6 5.83
Jo

3.58 8 8.58
4.23 10 10.14
5.21 12 12.49
5.98 14 14.34

15
4 Parametric study
As mentioned previously, in addition to the corrosion degree of steel bar, the magnetic flux lines

in the testing area of the EM sensor can be influenced by factors like the permeability of materials,

the dimension and position of steel, the magnetic field intensity, etc. Apparently, the magnetic flux

density depends on the permeability of medium. In the case of the external EM sensor, media

including air, concrete matrix, and embedded steel which possess different values of permeability

as listed in Table 1 were contained in the testing area. As such, change of the dimensions of

of
materials and their positions relative to each other may alter the magnetic flux density.

ro
Additionally, dissimilar to the permanent magnet, the magnetic field intensity of an electromagnet

can be changed by controlling the magnitude of driving current as well as the coil turns, thereby

-p
influencing the magnetic flux density [28,34,47]. Therefore, a comprehensive parametric study is

necessary to investigate the effects of aforementioned factors which could affect the accuracy and
re
sensitivity of the EM sensor.
lP

The EM sensor simulated in the parametric study was identical to Fig. 6. Five parameters were
na

investigated: diameter of steel bar (d) ranging from 10 mm to 20 mm with an increment of 2 mm,

length of steel bar (l) ranging from 0 mm to 30 mm with an increment of 2 mm, position of steel
ur

bar relative to the center point of the testing area (i.e., point O in Fig. 6) in the directions of x-axis

and y-axis, the distance between surfaces of the testing area (i.e., D in Fig. 6), as well as the
Jo

magnitude of magnetic field intensity. Different magnitudes of magnetic field intensity were

obtained by changing the driving current Icoil from 0.2 A to 1 A with an increment of 0.2 A, while

keeping the number of coil turns constant as 50. The arrangement and range in which these

parameters were varied were given in Table 5.

16
 Table 5 Parametric study.
Group Diameter Length of steel Distance relative to Distance relative to Distance between Magnitude of
Nos. of steel bar bar (l, mm) the center point O the center point O surfaces of testing magnetic field
(d, mm) in x-axis (x, mm) in y-axis (y, mm) area (D, mm) intensity
Ⅰ 10, 12, 14, 30 0 0 40 H
16, 18, 20
Ⅱ 16 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 0 0 40 H
12, 14, 16, 18,
20, 22, 24, 26,
28, 30
Ⅲ 16 30 0, 10, 20 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 40 H
10
Ⅳ 0 0 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 H

of
Ⅴ 16 30 0 0 80 H, 2H, 3H,
4H, 5H

ro
4.1 Dimension of steel bar
Fig. 7 presented the relationship between the diameter of steel bar and the magnetic flux density.

-p
The value of magnetic flux density was obtained by Hall-effect sensor 1 in Fig. 6 (sensors 1 and 2
re
yielded same value since they were positioned symmetrically about the x-axis). As can be seen,

the magnetic flux density increased with increasing the diameter of steel. Generally, as the
lP

diameter increased, the volume of steel in the testing area of the EM sensor increased, resulting in

a higher magnetic flux density due to a considerably larger relative permeability of carbon steel
na

compared to the concrete or air (Table 1).

200
Magnetic flux density (B, Gs)

ur

180

160
Jo

140

120

100
10 12 14 16 18 20
Diameter of steel bar (d, mm)

Fig. 7. Magnetic flux density versus diameter of steel bar.

17
In terms of the length of steel bar, as shown in Fig. 8, the magnetic flux density was relatively low

when the length of steel equaled to 0, due to the relatively small permeability of concrete and air.

As the length of steel increased from 0 to 2 mm, the magnetic flux density significantly increased

from approximate 80 Gs to 122 Gs. Nevertheless, no variation of the magnetic flux density

exhibited when the length of steel was greater than the thickness of the EM sensor (i.e., the

thickness of the silicon steel which was 10 mm in this study). This is due to that, the magnetic flux

of
tends to flow through the path with the least reluctance (i.e., magnetic resistance) [48].

ro
180
Magnetic flux density (B, Gs)

150
-p
re
120
lP

90

60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
na

Length of steel bar (l, mm)

Fig. 8. Magnetic flux density versus length of steel bar.

ur

4.2 Position of steel bar

Examples of simulated magnetic field distribution and corresponding magnetic flux density in the
Jo

cases of various steel positions, were depicted in Fig. 9. Coordinate (x = 0, y = 0) represented the

center point O in Fig. 6. The results of magnetic flux density obtained by Hall-effect sensors 1 and

2 in the cases of different steel positions were shown in Fig. 10. As sensors 1 and 2 were positioned

symmetrically about the x-axis, identical results were obtained by sensors 1 and 2 in the cases of

18
y  0. By increasing the absolute value of x-coordinate of steel while keeping its y-coordinate as

0, the magnetic flux density obtained by sensors gradually decreased. As can be seen in Fig. 10,

with a certain y-coordinate, the highest value of magnetic flux density was provided in the case of

x = 0. Nevertheless, due to the inclination at the testing surfaces, higher value of magnetic flux

density was sensed when the x-coordinate of steel was positive (e.g., x  10, y  0), compared with

the corresponding negative x-coordinate with the same absolute value (e.g., x  10, y  0). In the

of
cases of x  0, as steel bar headed toward the sensor 1 (i.e., y-coordinate increased from 0 to a

higher positive value), the magnetic flux density obtained by sensor 1 gradually increased while

ro
that of sensor 2 decreased, and vice versa when the y-coordinate decreased from 0 to a more

-p
negative value. re
Magnetic flux density
(B, Gs)
lP
na

x = 10, y = 0 x = 0, y = 0 x = 10, y = 0
ur
Jo

x = 0, y = 10 x = 0, y = 0 x = 0, y = 10

Fig. 9. Examples of simulated magnetic field and magnetic flux density of the EM sensor as the
position of steel bar varied (unit of coordinate: mm).

19
 Sensor 1 Sensor 2
x = 20 mm x = 20 mm
Magnetic flux density (B, Gs)

x = 10 mm x = 10 mm
x = 0 mm x = 0 mm
x = 10 mm x = 10 mm
x = 20 mm x = 20 mm

of
ro
y – axis (mm)

-p
Fig. 10. Magnetic flux density versus positions of steel bar in x-axis and y-axis.
re
The magnetic flux density sensed by the Hall-effect sensor is closely related to the position of steel

bar in both x-coordinate and y-coordinate, indicating the potential of the EM sensor to locate the
lP

position of steel embedded in concrete.

na

4.3 Distance between the testing surfaces

Fig. 11 showed the relationship between magnetic flux density and mass loss of steel bar in the
ur

cases of various distance between testing surfaces (i.e., D in Fig. 6). As the distance D increased

while keeping the dimension of steel constant, the sensed magnetic flux density decreased due to
Jo

the increased proportion of concrete and air in the testing area of the EM sensor. Specially, it

should be emphasized that, with increasing the distance, the sensitivity of the EM sensor to

quantitatively detect corrosion decreased as well. As can be seen in Table 6, the shortest distance

20
(i.e., D = 40 mm in this study) yielded the highest slope of magnetic flux density versus mass loss

of steel.

200 D=40 mm D=50 mm

Magnetic flux density (B, Gs)

D=60 mm D=70 mm
D=80 mm

150

100

of
50

ro
0
0 5 10 15 20
Mass loss (%)

-p
Fig. 11. Magnetic flux density versus mass loss of steel, in the cases of difference distances between
testing surfaces (D).
re
Table 6 Slope of magnetic flux density versus mass loss at different distances.
Distance between surfaces Slope of magnetic flux density versus
lP

of testing area (D, mm) mass loss in Fig. 11 (absolute value)

40 0.41
50 0.30
60 0.20
70 0.15
na

80 0.13
ur

4.4 Magnetic field intensity

As Fig. 12 presented, the value of magnetic flux density as well as the slope of magnetic flux
Jo

density versus mass loss increased with increasing the magnetic field intensity. Table 7 listed the

results of corresponding slope.

21
 200

Magnetic flux density (B, Gs)

H 2H 3H
4H 5H

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20
Mass loss (%)

of
Fig. 12. Magnetic flux density versus mass loss of steel, in the cases of different magnitudes of
magnetic field intensity.

ro
Table 7 Slope of magnetic flux density versus mass loss at different magnetic field intensities.

-p
Magnitude of magnetic Slope of magnetic flux density versus
field intensity mass loss in Fig. 12 (absolute value)
H 0.13
2H 0.26
re
3H 0.40
4H 0.53
5H 0.66
lP

With regard to the application of the EM sensor on concrete structures, the distance between the

testing surfaces (D) of the EM sensor may need to be adjusted according to the thickness of
na

concrete cover. According to the effects of D discussed in section 4.3, in the case of concrete with

a large-thickness cover, the sensitivity of the EM sensor in corrosion evaluation decreased due to
ur

the increased proportion of concrete matrix and air. Nevertheless, such loss of sensitivity can be
Jo

compensated by increasing the magnetic field intensity, which can be easily achieved by

controlling the driving current and the number of coil turns.

22
5 Conclusions
In the present study, an external electromagnetic (EM) sensor with inclined testing surfaces was

developed to quantitatively measure the corrosion of steel in concrete. In light of the inclination at

the testing surfaces, the EM sensor can be externally positioned on concrete structures, reducing

the field of air between surfaces of testing area compared to sensors with normal surface.

Accelerated corrosion method was applied to obtain different corrosion levels of steel embedded

of
in concrete specimens. Gauss-meter was used to measure the magnetic flux density on the basis of

ro
Hall-effect sensor. The change of magnetic flux density has a good accuracy in estimating the mass

loss of steel, both from experimental results and theoretical calculation through numerical

simulations.

-p
re
The influences of the dimension and position of steel bar, the distance between testing surfaces of
lP

the EM sensor, and the magnitude of magnetic field intensity were investigated by numerical

simulations. Results indicated that,

na

1. The magnetic flux density is directly proportional to the diameter of steel bar. In terms of the

steel length, when the length is no greater than the thickness of the EM sensor, the magnetic
ur

flux density increases with increasing the steel length. Whereas, no observable effect on the

magnetic flux density is exhibited once the steel length goes beyond the thickness of the sensor.
Jo

2. The change of steel position relative to the EM sensor significantly affects the results of

magnetic flux density, indicating its feasibility to locate the position of steel in concrete.

3. The sensitivity of the EM sensor in measuring the mass loss of corroding steel reduces as the

distance between the testing surfaces increases. It indicates that it may not effectively detect

corrosion in the case of large thickness of concrete cover. Nevertheless, at the same distance,

23
 the sensitivity can be increased by increasing the magnetic field intensity, which can be

achieved by changing the driving direct current and the number of coil turns.

Author contribution statement

Chuanqing Fu: Conceptualization, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
Jiahui Huang: Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing- Original draft.
Zheng Dong: Formal analysis, Writing- Original draft, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

of
Wenjie Yan: Investigation.
Xiang-Lin Gu: Writing- Reviewing and Editing, Supervision.

ro
Acknowledgement

-p
This research project was financially supported by the National Basic Research Program (Grant
re
No. 2015CB655103), of the People’s Republic of China and the National Natural Science

Foundation (Grant Nos. 51678529 and 51978620).

lP
na

Reference
[1] Broomfield J P, Corrosion of steel in concrete: understanding, investigation and repair, CRC

Press, 2002.
ur

[2] Gjørv O E, Durability design of concrete structures in severe environments, 2014.

Jo

doi:10.1080/15732470903027736.

[3] R. Polder, C. Andrade, B. Elsener, Vennesland, J. Gulikers, R. Weidert, M. Raupach, Rilem

TC 154-EMC: electrochemical techniques for measuring metallic corrosion- test methods

for on site measurement of resistivity of concrete, Mater. Struct. Constr. 33 (2000) 603–611.

[4] A. Poursaee, Corrosion of steel in concrete structures, Wood- head Publishing Series in

24
 Civil and Structural Engineering, 2016.

https://app.knovel.com/web/toc.v/cid:kpCSCS0003/viewerType:toc//root_slug:corrosion-

steel-in-concrete (accessed December 23, 2018).

[5] ASTM G1-03, Standard practice for preparing, cleaning, and evaluating corrosion test, West

Conshohocken, 2017. doi:10.1520/G0001-03R11.2.

[6] A. Poursaee, Corrosion measurement techniques in steel reinforced concrete, J. ASTM Int.

8 (2011) 103283. doi:10.1520/jai103283.

of
[7] I. Khan, R. François, A. Castel, Prediction of reinforcement corrosion using corrosion

ro
induced cracks width in corroded reinforced concrete beams, Cem. Concr. Res. 56 (2014)

84–96. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.11.006.

[8]
-p
H. Ye, C. Fu, N. Jin, X. Jin, Performance of reinforced concrete beams corroded under
re
sustained service loads: A comparative study of two accelerated corrosion techniques,

Constr. Build. Mater. 162 (2018) 286–297. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.10.108.

lP

[9] K. Hornbostel, U.M. Angst, B. Elsener, C.K. Larsen, M.R. Geiker, Influence of mortar

resistivity on the rate-limiting step of chloride-induced macro-cell corrosion of reinforcing

na

steel, Corros. Sci. 110 (2016) 46–56. doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2016.04.011.

[10] M.M. Kashani, A.J. Crewe, N.A. Alexander, Use of a 3D optical measurement technique
ur

for stochastic corrosion pattern analysis of reinforcing bars subjected to accelerated

corrosion, Corros. Sci. 73 (2013) 208–221. doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2013.03.037.

Jo

[11] W.P. Zhang, B. Bin Zhou, X.L. Gu, H.C. Dai, Probability distribution model for cross-

sectional area of corroded reinforcing steel bars, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26 (2014) 822–832.

[12] Y. Kawasaki, T. Wakuda, T. Kobarai, M. Ohtsu, Corrosion mechanisms in reinforced

concrete by acoustic emission, Constr. Build. Mater. 48 (2013) 1240–1247.

25
 doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.02.020.

[13] X. Zou, T. Schmitt, D. Perloff, N. Wu, T.Y. Yu, X. Wang, Nondestructive corrosion

detection using fiber optic photoacoustic ultrasound generator, Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed.

62 (2015) 74–80. doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2014.11.004.

[14] F. Rumiche, J.E. Indacochea, M.L. Wang, Detection and monitoring of corrosion in

structural carbon steels using electromagnetic sensors, J. Eng. Mater. Technol. Trans.

ASME. 130 (2008) 0310081–0310087. doi:10.1115/1.2931145.

of
[15] G. Miller, P. Gaydecki, S. Quek, B.T. Fernandes, M.A.M. Zaid, Detection and imaging of

ro
surface corrosion on steel reinforcing bars using a phase-sensitive inductive sensor intended

for use with concrete, NDT E Int. 36 (2003) 19–26. doi:10.1016/S0963-8695(02)00057-9.

-p
[16] B. Elsener, J. Gulikers, R. Polder, M. Raupach, Rilem Tc 154-Emc: Half-cell potential
re
measurements- Potential mapping on reinforced concrete structures, Mater. Struct. 36 (2003)

461–471. doi:10.1007/BF02481526.
lP

[17] C. Andrade, C. Alonso, R. Polder, R. Cigna, O. Vennesland, M. Salta, A. Raharinaivo, B.

Elsener, Rilem Tc 154-Emc: Test methods for on-site corrosion rate measurement of steel
na

reinforcement in concrete by means of the polarization resistance method, Mater. Struct.

Constr. 37 (2004) 623–643. doi:10.1617/13952.

ur

[18] Ø. Vennesland, M. Raupach, C. Andrade, Recommendation of Rilem TC 154-EMC:

“Electrochemical techniques for measuring corrosion in concrete”-measurements with

Jo

embedded probes, Mater. Struct. Constr. 40 (2007) 745–758. doi:10.1617/s11527-006-

9219-4.

[19] ASTM C876-15, Standard test method for corrosion potentials of uncoated reinforcing steel

in concrete, 2016. doi:10.1520/C0876-15.2.

26
[20] M. Pour-Ghaz, O.B. Isgor, P. Ghods, Quantitative interpretation of half-cell potential

measurements in concrete structures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 21 (2009) 467–475.

doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2009)21.

[21] C. Andrade, J.A. González, Quantitative measurements of corrosion rate of reinforcing

steels embedded in concrete using polarization resistance measurements, Mater. Corros. 29

(1978) 515–519. doi:10.1002/maco.19780290804.

[22] H. Torbati-Sarraf, A. Poursaee, Corrosion of coupled steels with different microstructures

of
in concrete environment, Constr. Build. Mater. 167 (2018) 680–687.

ro
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.083.

[23] Z. Dong, A. Poursaee, Corrosion behavior of coupled active and passive reinforcing steels

-p
in simulated concrete pore solution, Constr. Build. Mater. 240 (2020) 117955.
re
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117955.

[24] L. Ding, H. Torbati-Sarraf, A. Poursaee, The influence of the sandblasting as a surface

lP

mechanical attrition treatment on the electrochemical behavior of carbon steel in different

pH solutions, Surf. Coatings Technol. 352 (2018) 112–119.

na

doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2018.08.013.

[25] D. V. Ribeiro, J.C.C. Abrantes, Application of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

ur

(EIS) to monitor the corrosion of reinforced concrete: A new approach, Constr. Build. Mater.

111 (2016) 98–104. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.047.

Jo

[26] G. Song, Equivalent circuit model for AC electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of

concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (2000) 1723–1730. doi:10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00400-2.

[27] A. Poursaee, C.M. Hansson, Potential pitfalls in assessing chloride-induced corrosion of

steel in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 39 (2009) 391–400.

27
 doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.01.015.

[28] Z. Li, Z. Jin, T. Zhao, P. Wang, Z. Li, C. Xiong, K. Zhang, Use of a novel electro-magnetic

apparatus to monitor corrosion of reinforced bar in concrete, Sensors Actuators, A Phys.

286 (2019) 14–27. doi:10.1016/j.sna.2018.12.024.

[29] J. Zhang, C. Liu, M. Sun, Z. Li, An innovative corrosion evaluation technique for reinforced

concrete structures using magnetic sensors, Constr. Build. Mater. 135 (2017) 68–75.

doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.157.

of
[30] Y. Gotoh, H. Hirano, M. Nakano, K. Fujiwara, N. Takahashi, Electromagnetic non-

ro
destructive testing of rust region in stell, INTERMAG ASIA 2005 Dig. IEEE Int. Magn.

Conf. 41 (2005) 212. doi:10.1109/intmag.2005.1463640.

-p
[31] R.F. Wright, P. Lu, J. Devkota, F. Lu, M. Ziomek-Moroz, P.R. Ohodnicki, Corrosion
re
sensors for structural health monitoring of oil and natural gas infrastructure: A review,

Sensors (Switzerland). 19 (2019). doi:10.3390/s19183964.

lP

[32] H. Zhang, L. Liao, R. Zhao, J. Zhou, M. Yang, R. Xia, The non-destructive test of steel

corrosion in reinforced concrete bridges using a micro-magnetic sensor, Sensors. 16 (2016).

na

doi:10.3390/s16091439.

[33] Y. Shi, C. Zhang, R. Li, M. Cai, G. Jia, Theory and application of magnetic flux leakage
ur

pipeline detection, Sensors (Switzerland). 15 (2015) 31036–31055.

doi:10.3390/s151229845.
Jo

[34] N. Ida, Sensors, actuators, and their interfaces - A multidisciplinary introduction, 2014.

[35] N.B.S. Gloria, M.C.L. Areiza, I.V.J. Miranda, J.M.A. Rebello, Development of a magnetic

sensor for detection and sizing of internal pipeline corrosion defects, NDT E Int. 42 (2009)

669–677. doi:10.1016/j.ndteint.2009.06.009.

28
[36] Z. Li, Z. Jin, X. Xu, T. Zhao, P. Wang, Z. Li, Combined application of novel

electromagnetic sensors and acoustic emission apparatus to monitor corrosion process of

reinforced bars in concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 245 (2020) 118472.

doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118472.

[37] J. Xia, W. liang Jin, L. yuan Li, Shear performance of reinforced concrete beams with

corroded stirrups in chloride environment, Corros. Sci. 53 (2011) 1794–1805.

doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2011.01.058.

of
[38] J. Xia, W.L. Jin, L.Y. Li, Effect of chloride-induced reinforcing steel corrosion on the

ro
flexural strength of reinforced concrete beams, Mag. Concr. Res. 64 (2012) 471–485.

doi:10.1680/macr.10.00169.

-p
[39] M.M. Kashani, A.J. Crewe, N.A. Alexander, Nonlinear stress-strain behaviour of corrosion-
re
damaged reinforcing bars including inelastic buckling, Eng. Struct. 48 (2013) 417–429.

doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.09.034.
lP

[40] S. Hong, G. Shi, F. Zheng, M. Liu, D. Hou, B. Dong, Characterization of the corrosion

profiles of reinforcement with different impressed current densities by X-ray micro-

na

computed tomography, Cem. Concr. Compos. 109 (2020) 103583.

doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2020.103583.
ur

[41] G.K. Glass, N.R. Buenfeld, Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in concrete, Prog. Struct.

Eng. Mater. 2 (2000) 448–458. doi:10.1002/pse.54.

Jo

[42] J. Shi, D. Wang, J. Ming, W. Sun, Long-Term Electrochemical Behavior of Low-Alloy

Steel in Simulated Concrete Pore Solution with Chlorides, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (2018)

04018042. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002194.

[43] N. Ida, Numerical modeling for electromagnetic non-destructive evaluation, Springer

29
 Science & Business Media, 1994.

[44] T. Vidal, A. Castel, R. François, Corrosion process and structural performance of a 17 year

old reinforced concrete beam stored in chloride environment, Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (2007)

1551–1561. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.08.004.

[45] R. François, I. Khan, V.H. Dang, Impact of corrosion on mechanical properties of steel

embedded in 27-year-old corroded reinforced concrete beams, Mater. Struct. Constr. 46

(2013) 899–910. doi:10.1617/s11527-012-9941-z.

of
[46] V.H. Dang, R. François, Influence of long-term corrosion in chloride environment on

ro
mechanical behaviour of RC beam, Eng. Struct. 48 (2013) 558–568.

doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.09.021.

-p
[47] Z. Li, Z. Jin, S. Shao, T. Zhao, P. Wang, Influence of moisture content on electromagnetic
re
response of concrete studied using a homemade apparatus, Sensors. 19 (2019) 1–15.

doi:10.1093/jof/65.12.902.
lP

[48] R.S. Okojie, C.W. Chang, R.D. Meredith, R. Thomas, G. Kopasakis, In-line

electromagnetic actuator for fuel modulation, 2018 Jt. Propuls. Conf. (2018).
na

doi:10.2514/6.2018-4820.
ur
Jo

30
Author biography

Chuanqing Fu received his Ph.D. degree from Zhejiang University in 2012. He was a Visiting

Scholar in Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (2015) and in Iowa State University

(2017). He is now a Professor in Zhejiang University of Technology. His research interests include

the durability of concrete structures, health monitoring systems and NDT techniques, as well as

the development of new, advanced structural materials.

of
Jiahui Huang received his B.S. degree in 2017 from Guilin University of Electronic Technology.

ro
Currently, he is working towards his M.S. degree in Zhejiang University of Technology. He is

-p
committed to the structural health monitoring and non-destructive testing technology.
re
Zheng Dong received a Ph.D. degree in Civil Engineering, Clemson University (2018). She is

now a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering,
lP

Tongji University. Her research interests include the durability of reinforced concrete structures,

corrosion and electrochemical behavior of steel, as well as NDT techniques.

na

Wenjie Yan received his B.S. degree in 2019 from Zhejiang University of Technology. Currently,
ur

he is working towards his M.S. degree in Zhejiang University of Technology. His research interests
Jo

include durability of concrete structures, and non-destructive testing technology.

Xiang-Lin Gu is now the Vice President of Tongji University, and a Professor in the Department

of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University. Currently, he is also

the vice president of the Chinese Regional RILEM Group. His research interests include the life-

31
cycle analysis and maintenance of structures, fundamental theories of reinforced concrete and

masonry structures, and computer simulation of engineering structures.

of
ro
-p
re
lP
na
ur
Jo

32