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Traffic Engineering
Traffic Engineering
Traffic Engineering
Definition: - it is that branch of engg which deals with the improvement of traffic performance of road
networks and terminals.
Or
It is the science of measuring traffic and travel, the study of the basic laws relating to traffic flow and
generation and application of this knowledge to the professional practice of planning, designing and
operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient movement of persons and goods.
1. Traffic characteristics
Road user characteristics:
Involved--- human in the form of ‘pedestrians, drivers, cyclist, motorist.
Factors
a. Physicals
b. Mental
c. Psychological
d. Environmental
a. Physical: -
Vision include ‘acuity of vision’, ‘peripheral vision’, ‘eye movement’, ‘glare vision and
recovery’, and ‘depth judgment’, hearing, strength, general respond to traffic situations.
Acuity of vision - field of clearest vision cone of 3 degree, in vertical plane the field of clear vision is 2/3 rd
of that of horizontal plane.
Peripheral vision - vision around the vehicle by the eye
Eye movement - for seeing around features we have to move our eye, the total time taken for the eye
movement depends on some of the physical characteristics including response stimuli.
Glare vision and recovery- it is response of bright light and darkness i.e. adoptability to change of light
(light to dark or dark to light).
Depth judgment – judging depth distance on the road and speed of vehicles used to respond when any
things happening on road.
b. Mental: -
Knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience, literacy
Knowledge – It of vehicle characteristics, traffic rule, traffic behavior, driving practice and rxn to and
situations.
Skill – it is based on the driving practice and responds to any bad situation on the road.
Intelligence & Literacy – understanding the traffic situations, regulations, special instructions and timely
action
Experience –reactions to any traffic situations become more instantaneous with experience.
c. Psychological: -
It affects the reaction to traffic situations of road user to a great extent. It includes the
emotional factors like attentiveness, fear, anger, impatience, superstition, general attitude towards traffic,
regulation and maturity.
Impatience is most dangerous factor it causes many accidents, it is due to some annoying reason on the
road or at the home or elsewhere.
d. Environmental factors: -
It affects the traffic behavior of road user and traffic characteristics, facilities to the
traffic, atmosphere conditions and the locality. The adoptability to different traffic stream characteristics
depends on the driver’s characteristics as well as the motivation. Mainly the reaction time is influence by
PIEV theory but it is mostly affected by environmental and modifying factors and also based on road user
characteristics.
Driver’s characteristics such as simple rxn time, depth judgment, field vision, visual acuity, glare
recovery, respond to traffic situations can also be affected by alcohol, illness, fatigue and drugs. These
reduce the alertness but increase the rxn time.
Vehicular characteristics
Affects the design and traffic performance as road is design for some vehicles not for all types
of vehicles. Vehicles standards should be uniform for a country. Standards mean dimensions
and weight of vehicles.
It is classified in two types
1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics
1. Static characteristics: -
It includes the dimensions, weight and maximum turning angle (for steering).
Dimensions mean height of vehicle, height of drives seat (visibility distance), and height of head light (for
head light distance in night (mainly in valley curve), chassis clearance (for speed breaker and adulations
on the road), length (show the capacity of vehicles also affects the visibility, overtaking distance, braking
distance, maneuverability of vehicles. Gross weight, axle and wheel loads of vehicle govern the structural
design of pavements and cross drainage structures.
2. Dynamic characteristics: -
It includes speed & accelerations (depends on power of engine and the resistance to be overcome
in geometric design), braking characteristics and some aspects of vehicle body design. The stability of
vehicles and its safe movement in horizontal curves depends on width of wheel base and height of center
of gravity. Riding comfort on vertical curves is due to suspension system of the vehicle.
Speed of vehicle: -
It affects sight distance, super elevation, length of transition curve(on horizontal and vertical
curve), limiting radii of horizontal curves, width of pavement, design gradient, capacity of traffic lane,
design and control measures on intersections.
Braking characteristics: -
It is used to measure the skid resistance of road under prevailing conditions at the desired speed.
To determine this we have to know about
1. Braking distance – distance upto which vehicle moves when brakes are fully applied.
2. Initial speed – that speed on which the vehicle is moving before application of brake.
3. Actual duration of brake application
Formula used
v 2=u2 +2 as
v=u+at
s=ut +0.5 a t 2
a
f=
g
v2
f=
2 gL
Where,
v= final speed (m/s), u= initial speed (m/s), a= acceleration (m/s 2), t= duration of brake application (s),
L= braking distance (m), f= skid resistance, g= acceleration due to gravity
Traffic studies
For analysis of traffic characteristics, help in deciding the geometric design feature and
traffic control for safe and efficient traffic movements. Collecting traffic data is called
traffic census.
The various traffic studies generally carried out are:
1) Traffic volume study
2) Speed studies
a) Spot speed study
b) Speed and delay study
3) Origin and destination (O&D) study
4) Traffic flow characteristics
5) Traffic capacity study
6) Parking study
7) Accidents study or the traffic flops
2. Manual counting – record by human on prescribed record sheet, possible to collect that data
which are not possible by mechanical counting, such as vehicle classification, turning movements and
counts where the loading conditions or no. of occupants are required. This is only adopted when there is
specific work is to be done i.e. on specific advantage.
SPEED STUDY
Speed of vehicle depends on many factors like geometric features, traffic conditions, time, place,
environmental conditions and driver.
Different types of speed
Spot speed – instantaneous speed of vehicle at particular location.
Average speed – average of spot speed of many vehicles pass from that point.
It is measured in two ways: -
1. Space mean speed – represents the average speed of vehicles in a certain road length of
road.
3.6 d n
V s= n
∑ ti
i=1
Where,
Vs= space-mean speed, kmph
d= length of road considered, m
n= number of individual vehicle observations
ti= observed travel time (sec) for ith vehicle to travel distance d, m.
2. Time mean speed – represents speed distribution of vehicle at a point on the roadway
and it is the instantaneous speed at that point.
n
∑ Vi
V t = i=1
n
Where Vt= time mean speed, kmph
Vi= observed instantaneous speed of ith vehicles, kmph
n= number of vehicles observed
In this method there is specified road length is taken in which two light source or pole is placed and at one
point observer is sitting and on the other side mirror inclined on 45 degree is kept so that image of vehicle
passing that source can be seen.
When any vehicle is passing from observer end then stop watch starts and when it crosses that far end
source its reflection is seen in mirror that time stop watch is stopped, it gives the time taken to travel the
specified distance on the road by vehicle.
Distance divided by the time (on stop watch) gives the speed (spot speed).
It has certain limitations like human bias may be there, rxn time is slow, and progress is too slow, no. of
samples is very less.
Other equipments are graphic recorder, electronic meter, radar meter, radar gun, photographic method. In
these entire radar gun is best suited as it gives actual value of speed.
Speed
120
V/C ratio is less then level of service is
Operating speed
80
60
40
20 V/C ratio
Passenger car unit (PCU)
All the vehicles on the road have different characteristics in physical sense, and all make the traffic a
heterogeneous traffic called mixed traffic flow. This cause problem in generalization any modification
for the traffic, so all the vehicles are converted into their equivalent PASSENGER CAR such that
they make an uniformity in traffic modification. It is based on vehicle size, weight, and most
importantly hindrance in traffic due to this vehicle.
Here some of the vehicle whose equivalent PCU is given
1. Car, Auto, Jeep 1.0
2. Rickshaw 1.5
3. Cycle, M/C, scooter 0.5
4. Bus, Truck 3.0
5. Horse cart 4.0
6. Small bullock cart 6.0
7. Big bullock cart 8.0
Traffics are converted into equivalent PCU.
PARKING STUDIES
Parking is that space where vehicles are stayed.
Various aspects to be investigated during parking studies are:
i. Parking demand
ii. Parking characteristics
iii. Parking space inventory
Two types of parking
1. On-street or Kerb parking.
2. Off street parking.
TRAFFIC ENVIRONMENT
Pollution by traffic: -
1. Noise pollution – unwanted sound cause by movement of vehicles and by horn of vehicles, which
are not liked by majority of people. Traffic is major source of noise pollution about 55% of total
noise pollution.
2. Air pollution – emission of harmful gases by the vehicles caused air pollution.
Noise pollution:-
When noise increases its limit then this pollution comes in picture. IRC has listed acceptable limit
of noise in different area of traffic.
1. Rural area 25 – 35 dB.
2. Suburban area 30 – 40 dB.
3. Residential area (urban) 35 – 45 dB.
4. Urban (residential+ business) 40 – 45 dB.
5. City 45 – 50 dB.
6. Industrial 50 – 60 dB.
In any case it must not increase more than 60 dB.
Measures to reduce noise level: -
1. Motor vehicle control
2. Land use control
3. Tree along road
4. Buffer zone
5. Use of noise barrier – raised portion on the side of road.
Modal study
Noise level = 10.15+ 12.4* log (QW) – 0.041V – 0.465 d.
Where,
Qw= no. of vehicles d= distance from edge.
V = speed, kmph
Air pollution: -
It is caused by the emission of harmful gases as a byproduct from the vehicles.
Constituents of air pollution
CO, CO2, Hydro Carbon, NO2, SO2, Lead, Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
% contribution in air pollution by different types of vehicles in the traffic:-
Type %contribution
2 wheeler 77.7
Car 11.5
3 wheeler 5.4
Trucks 3.4
Buses 2.0
ACCIDENTS STUDIES: -
Objectives of accidents studies are: -
1. To evaluate safety.
2. To evaluate existing design.
3. To support purposed designs.
4. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the problem.
5. To compute financial losses.
6. To give economic justification.
Causes of accidents:
i. The road user – it involves driver, pedestrians, and passengers.
ii. The vehicles – it includes vehicle defects, and vehicle characteristics.
iii. The road and its conditions – it includes road conditions, road design, and poor design of
road.
iv. Environmental factors and other factors – it includes weather, unmanned crossing, animals,
incorrect sign, and no prior notice.
Accidents studies and records:
i. Collections of accidents data – it includes time location, people involved, nature of accidents,
road and vehicles conditions, primary cause of accidents and accidents losses.
ii. Accidents report – it is a form a part of report which is to submitted to police authorities for
legal actions.
iii. Accidents record – it includes
a. Locations files – useful to check the locations of accidents.
b. Spot maps – shows the accidents by spot, pin or symbols on a map.
c. Condition diagram – it is a drawing to scale showing all important physical conditions of
an accidents location to be studied.
d. Collisions diagram – drawing showing approximate path of vehicles and pedestrians
involved in the accidents.
Accidents investigation:
Following investigations are to be carried out when accidents occurs:
i. Recording general observations
a. Measurement of length of skid marks due to partial and full skidding.
b. Recording the relative position of vehicles and object involved.
c. Details of accidents, injuries, and damage.
d. Condition diagram of accidents locations.
ii. Drivers test
a. Alcohol content
b. Test on drivers characteristics like reaction time, distance judgment, angle of clear vision,
glare vision and recovery.
iii. Skid resistance of pavement surface
iv. Vehicle test
a. Test on conditions of brakes and steering.
b. Test on essential accessories and general conditions of vehicle
v. Probable cause of accidents
vi. Cost analysis
a. Injuries and fatalities.
b. Damage to vehicle.
c. Property damage.
d. Investigation and legal proceedings.
Analysis of individual traffic accidents:
Modes of vehicular accidents
1. A moving vehicle collides with parked vehicle.
2. Two vehicles approaching from two opposite direction collide each other.
3. Collision at intersections.
4. Moving vehicle collides with stationary object like tree, building etc.
All the above listed things are related to speed of vehicle.
Black spot – it is that area on road which is most prone to accidents.
Analysis of speed of vehicles
1. By considering conservation of energy
a. Work done by friction to reduce the energy (speed) of vehicles when brakes are applied.
b. Momentum conservation before and after collision.
Situations in accidents
Before collision – reduction of kinetic energy due to application of brakes and frictional force
overcome that energy.
i.e.
Kinetic energy of vehicle = work done by frictional force (skid resistance* skid marks* weight)
At collision – momentum of both vehicles before and after collision remains same
Before collision the speed of vehicle is same as it is obtained from step – 1.
After collision – both vehicle just combine and move some distance with another speed.
Energy conservation is used to find out its final velocity before it stops.