2020-2021

Tema 58. Evolución política, social y económica del Reino Unido e Irlanda desde
1945. Su presencia en la Comunidad Europea. Panorama literario de este periodo en
estos países.

Topic 58. Political, social and economic development in the United Kingdom and
Ireland since 1945. Their presence in the European Community. Literary panorama
in these countries.

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© 2021, Granada, by Stephen Pearse Hughes. All rights reserved. Any copying or distribution,
partial or otherwise, may not be undertaken without the express authorisation of the author.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction and justification

2. British socio-economic and political development after World War II
2.1 From Post War to Thatcher: 1945-1979
2.2 From Thatcher to present day
3. Northern Ireland and the Eire since World War II
4. The presence of the UK and Ireland in the European Union
5. Literature in the UK and Ireland
5.1 Poetry
5.2 Novels
5.3 Drama
6. Pedagogical and curricular considerations
7. Conclusion
References

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1. Introduction
This year marks the centenary of the creation of Northern Ireland, which was created after the process
of the partition of Ireland in 2021 after years of occupation by British forced. This ‘celebration’ is
somewhat contentious and represents a sore point for those who may hold other aspirations for this
part of the country. The partition of Ireland, however, is also playing an important role more recent
events, with the decision of the United Kingdom to leave the European Union. This decision has been
filled with controversy at many different levels, but the most problematic area has been the question of
the land border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Here, the majority of those from
the north voted against Brexit, while those in the south remain firmly within the EU.
These recent events surrounding Brexit and the commemorations of the establishment of Northern
Ireland as part of the United Kingdom are just two examples which highlight the close, yet fragile
relationship that has existed between these regions throughout history. Understanding the socio-
economic and political events that have led up to the current relationship between the UK, Ireland, and,
indeed, Europe is important in helping students have a greater cultural appreciation of the current state
of affairs. Part of this cultural appreciation may also involve the consideration of developments in the
area of literature. Indeed, prose, poetry and drama in Britain and Ireland have passed through an
important period of transition, moving from traditional forms of writing on to fantasy and experimental
forms, which are having a direct impact on what students are able to read today.
In this topic, the major aspects related to these social areas within the two neighbouring nations will
be examined; in addition, some of the major themes and works present in post-war literature will also
be treated. At the same time, a number of pedagogical considerations will be proposed with a view to
providing ways in which to bring some of the aspects discussed in the topic closer to teenagers living
and studying in Spain today.

2. British socio-economic and political development after World War II

The end of the Second World War in Britain marked a major change in British life. With the loss of the
Empire and its status as a world power, Britain was faced with the aftermath of a large scale loss of life,
a need to take care of the wounded and a massive economic debt. Ireland, for its part, was a relatively
impoverished nation which was heavily dependent on agriculture. This section will examine the
contrasting ways in which these two nations faced their separate and shared crisis from 1945 until today.

2.1 From Post War to Thatcher: 1945-1979

The suffering caused by World War II strengthened the belief in democracies and this had significant
effects on the development of social policies. After the war, Labour had gained credibility as a political

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party and they promised nationalisation of key infrastructures. Important milestones in the United
Kingdom during this period in terms of society, politics and economics include the following:
• Late 1940s:
o the creation of the National Health Service;
o the beginning of the Commonwealth;
o the official beginning of the Irish Republic.
• 1950s:
o the Conservative efforts for the UK to be recognised as a world power; this included the
development of nuclear arms in Britain
o the coronation of Elizabeth II
o the introduction of commercial television (ITV)
• 1960s:
o The introduction of comprehensive education
o The beginning of the Beatles
o The legalisation of homosexuality
o The winning of the World Cup in football
• 1970s
o The start of ‘The Troubles’ in Northern Ireland
o The modernisation of the British currency
o The incorporation of Britain into the European Economic Community

As indicated, there were positive developments such as the entry into the European Economic
Community in 1973, as well as the beneficial economic repercussions of the discovery of gas and oil in
the North Sea. In the end, however, the negative aspects of the period took their toll and, after a number
financial woes, strikes and social disturbances, the labour party lost the elections at the end of the
decade. In 1979, the Conservative, Margaret Thatcher, became the first female Prime Minister of Britain.

2.2 From Thatcher to present day

The Thatcher years were marked by privatisation, the introduction of Youth Training Programmes for
school leavers who did not work or continue studying, a hard-line approach against the IRA, the Falklands
war and the controversial Poll Tax.
Thatcher’s successor, John Major, had to deal with several problems within the country and within
his own party, and during the end of his leadership, he initiated peace talks with Northern Ireland. These
talks were continued by labour leader, Tony Blair, who won the elections in 1997 after the three previous
consecutive Conservative victories.
In addition to dealing with Northern Ireland, Blair led Britain into the war in Iraq under the false
claims that there were weapons of mass destruction. Labour was defeated in the 2010 elections after
the recession hit the UK and a coalition was formed between the Conservatives and the Liberal Party.
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Since the coalition government, Britain has had new elections and the Conservatives hold a slim majority
in parliament. During this time, the government has authorised two highly important referendums: one
for Scottish Independence and the other for UK independence from Europe. While the majority of
Scottish voters did not vote for independence from the UK, most voters in the UK itself did vote to break
away from the European Union.

3. Northern Ireland and the Eire since World War II

When we look at the history of Ireland since World War II, it is inevitable to talk about the part of the
island which belonged to the UK, which is Northern Ireland. As mentioned previously, consecutive
governments in the UK have had to deal with the actions of the Irish Republican Army and the situation
in Northern Ireland. Since the Government in Ireland Act in 1920, the island of Ireland has been divided
between the 6 counties in the north (Northern Ireland) and the remaining 26 counties of the Republic.
Northern Ireland itself was divided because the two thirds Protestant population wanted to remain in
the UK while the Catholic minority wished to be part of the rest of the island.
During most of the 20th century, the republic had no formal relations with Northern Ireland, but did
have a constitutional claim on that part of the island. Since the division, there had been several
important conflicts, mainly in the north. After decades of violence, however, there was a ceasefire and
talks between the IRA, the main political parties of Northern Ireland and the British and Irish
governments. All of the participants in the negotiation signed an agreement in 1998, called The Good
Friday Agreement.
The social and political landscape, then, has changed considerably from the beginnings of the
Troubles and the region is much more stable than it was a number of decades ago. This stability has
brought higher levels of economic growth, particularly in terms of tourism, which was once a sector
which was much more prevalent in the Republic.
For many years the Republic of Ireland had been one of the poorest countries in Europe, however,
during the years 1995 and 2000, there was a major period of economic growth which was fuelled by
foreign investment. Ireland had a well-educated and relatively inexpensive English-speaking workforce
and this led major companies, such as Microsoft as well as pharmaceutical companies and others to set
up business there. The Irish economy grew at over 9% during this time and was often referred to as the
Celtic Tiger and it continued to grow steadily until the economic recession hit in 2008.
The financial crisis affected Ireland more than many other countries; however, membership of
the European Union and its currency, the Euro, as well as its compliance to EU rules, helped Ireland to
survive the crisis and, indeed recover to have the highest levels of employment the last 70 years.

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4. The presence of the UK and Ireland in the European Union
In 1973, the UK and Ireland joined the European Economic Community (EEC). The origins of the European
Union dated back to the post-war years when Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the
Netherlands united in an effort to create political and economic stability and lasting peace. For Britain,
joining the EEC was not a smooth path and from the very beginning, Europe was (and is) seen in British
politics as something divisive and controversial. Since the 1970s, successive governments have
threatened to withdraw from the union. John Major, however, signed the Maastricht agreement in 1992,
and while the UK was able to opt out of the single currency, it did transfer some powers to Europe. This
transfer has received strong opposition by a growing number of Eurosceptics.
The recent financial crisis increased the level of Euroscepticism in the UK among large parts of the
conservative party and the population at large. Such was the level of controversy, that the conservative
leader, David Cameron blocked a new EU treaty in 2011 and in 2013 promised a referendum on the
nation's continued links with Europe, which resulted in the decision to leave.
There are a number of possible reasons that might explain the distance between Britain and the rest
of Europe. Firstly, Britain is an island nation which has had, what some consider, a glorious and
independent past. Other factors could include the fact that Britain has a relatively strong economy and
can make changes in the currency without depending on permission from the EU. Another issue is that
many see the transfer of certain powers to the EU as not being in the interests of the country. For
example, the International Court of Human Rights has occasionally overruled British court decisions in a
number of highly controversial cases.
Ireland, however, is another matter. As an island nation, Ireland not only joined the EEC, but also
formed part of the single currency, adopting the euro. Like the UK, the road to integration in the EEC
was not simple, although the reasons were quite different.
Ireland was not seen as a significant or powerful nation, it depended to a large extent on agriculture
and on commerce with the UK. Militarily, it was neutral and had refused to join NATO and it had heavy
restrictions on imports, which went against Europe's vision for free trade. In 1972, however, Ireland held
a referendum and the majority of the voting population showed their support for membership. In 1973,
the Irish government's application was accepted and since then, there has been a generally positive view
of the Irish inclusion in the union.
The UK and Ireland then, may have important cultural and geographical links, however, their inclusion
in and attitude towards the European Union is very different. Whether it be for historical reasons or
simply because each country sees differences in the benefits of being a member state or a combination

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of both, Ireland and the UK would seem to be heading in different directions in terms of Europe and its
future.

5. Literature in the UK and Ireland

The literary period between 1945 and 2000 in the UK and Ireland has been classified by many as the
postmodern era, although this has also been contested, particularly given the fact that a number of
modernists were still alive and publishing after WW II. The mood after World War II was one of profound
change, the position of the UK as a world power had shifted and traditional barriers between classes
were blurred. Initially, there was a return to “traditional” values and themes, such as good and evil, and
this later was to diversify, reflecting multi-cultural and modern global concerns.

5.1 Poetry
One of most important contributions to the literary scene in Ireland and the UK comes from the poets
of the time. While poetry still had a preoccupation with war and death, particularly in the immediate
aftermath of the war, there was also an emergence of more experimental work. One major development
in post-war poetry was the creation of ‘The Movement’ in the 1950s, which was a group of English poets
who moved away from post-romantic and modernist poetry and focused more on formal, traditional
verse and ordinary experiences.
W.H. Auden, was one of the key poets who turned away from modernist and Marxist thought towards
more traditional forms. This return to tradition can be seen in his poetry which deals with themes of
religious beliefs and morals as well as issues such as citizenship, love and the relationship with
humankind and nature. Like other poems, One of his writings 'Stop all the clocks', was made even more
famous with its appearance in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral.
The Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, born in 1914, wrote many famous poems about life and Wales. His
most famous work is Under Milk Wood, which was broadcast by the BBC in 1954 and deals with the
inhabitants of a small town in Wales.
The Irish poet, Seamus Heaney, who was born and raised in Northern Ireland and died in 2013, was
regarded by many as the greatest poet of the last half century. As a poet from Northern Ireland, much
of his work focuses on the troubles. Heaney won many awards, including the Nobel Prize for Literature,
and his work is frequently studied in English classes in secondary schools in the UK and Ireland.
Other important British poets include Philip Larkin and Ted Hughes, who were both offered the
position of Poet Laureate. These compatriots had very different styles of poetry. On the one hand,
Larkin’s is often considered to be anti-romantic, colloquial, pessimistic and full of irony. The poetry of

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Hughes is characterised by its focus on the beautiful yet violent forces of nature as well as on human
consciousness and the destructive effects of materialism on the world.
These differences in style point to a diversity in British poetry that continues today. Contemporary
poetry includes more traditional and modern forms, and incorporates as regional and global interests.
Similarly, there is often an emphasis on comprehensibility of poems, but at the same time, there is an
invitation to the reader to interpret meaning.
Current trends in poetry in the countries making up the British Isles point to a much greater role for
female poets, with writers such as Kate Tempest and Annie Freud taking the lead in contemporary poetic
writing. Additionally, there appears to be a return to longer poems with a focus on modern, yet universal
themes that tell personal stories of addiction and family conflict as well as wider concerns of the
environment war and immigration.

5.2 Novels
Novels after World War II involved a movement towards more realistic representations of life that
reflected the social changes that had taken place as a result of the conflict. It is difficult, however, to
point to identifiable movements in prose writing at this time and, in that sense, it is necessary to focus
on individual authors.
An important novelist before and after World War II George Orwell (1903-1950). One of his most
famous works, Animal Farm, was published at the end of World War II in 1945. The satire was based on
the Russian Revolution and on Stalin’s betrayal of its initial principles. Orwell’s experience during the
interwar period as well as World War II were also highly influential in terms of his novel “1984”,
published in 1949 (see Birch, 2009).
Born a year after George Orwell was the novelist and playwright Graham Greene (1904-1991). Some
of his most famous works, including “The Power and the Glory” and “The End of the Affair”, contain
many themes that are related to his faith as a Catholic. Others, such as “Our Man in Havana” and “The
Human Factor”, bring out his interest and knowledge of politics and the world of espionage.
A contemporary of these authors was also William Golding (1911-1993), who is famous for his novel
“Lord of the Flies”, in which many characters and events represent humanity’s struggle to maintain
civilisation and to resist savage urges. Living around the same time as Golding, London born Kingsley
Amis (1922-1995) is widely regarded as one of the best satirical writers of the 20th century.
A large number of popular writers today have been very influential particularly in the world of
television and cinema. This includes fantasy authors such as J.K. Rowling, who wrote the Harry Potter
series and science-fiction writers, such as Douglas Adams (The Hitch-hiker's Guide to the Galaxy) or
Arthur C. Clarke (2001, a Space Odyssey). Another important development comes from the boom in

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popularity of erotic literature, as can be seen in the success of Erika Mitchell James’ novel “Fifty Shades
of Grey”, which, in 2012, was named the best-selling book in British history.
Another important dimension of post-war novels comes in the form of English writers who have
international roots. Kazuo Ishiguro, who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017, is an English writer
who was born in Japan. His works include “The Remains of the Day” and “Never Let me Go” and, while
often focusing on aspects which could be regarded as ‘typically English’, his perspectives are influenced
by his native cultural heritage. Bombay-born Salman Rushdie is another British author. Rushdie has
written many works dealing with his own cultural background, including “The Satanic Verses”.
The future of novels from this region is likely to include “serious” writing, which requires a greater
effort in understanding. This form of writing, however, appears to have lost ground to more popular
forms of literature that either tap into the everyday concerns of ordinary people or, on the contrary,
continue to develop stories of fiction and fantasy. At the same time, the increased presence of female
writers, such as J.K. Rowling and E.L. James and authors from international backgrounds, like Ishiguro
and Rushdie point to trends that are likely to continue.

5.3 Drama
Like novels, the movements within the genre of drama are difficult to identify, and again, it is necessary
to consider individual authors. Directly after WWII the target audiences of many playwrights was the
middle class. This can be seen in the works of Terrence Rattigan in plays such as or The Deep Blue Sea
(1952). A shift appeared in the work of John Osbourne and Look back in Anger (1956), which focused on
the life of a working class man and engaged in more emotionally raw portrayals. To a certain extent, this
work is representative of other dramatists (and novelists) at the time who were involved in protesting
against social injustices.
Another important British playwright was the Nobel Prize winner, Harold Pinter, who wrote “The
Birthday Party” (1957) and “The Betrayal” (1978) as well as a number of screenplays. Pinter was
influenced by the French movement of the “Theatre of the absurd” and was influenced by existentialists
such as Camus and Sartre. Another writer associated with this type of theatre was Irish born Samuel
Beckett (1906-1989). Becjeyy is considered to be a late modernist or early postmodernist is perhaps
most famous for his play “Waiting for Godot”. This is actually a translation of his own version in French,
which was finished in 1949 and deals with two people who are waiting in vain for the arrival of a person
called Godot. Beckett won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1968 and his writings have included sombre
and comic overtones. Other Irish dramatists since Beckett have shown similar tendencies. Among these,
Brian Friel Tom Murphy have written tragicomic works.

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6. Pedagogical and curricular considerations
Recent British and Irish history and literary works have an enormous influence on popular literature,
television and cinema and, as such, may represent a source of meaningful and interesting input for
students of English. Indeed, the understanding and appreciation of literary works can be seen as
potential areas to help students develop receptive, productive and interactive skills as well as mediation
skills (see updated version of Common European Framework in CoE, 2020).
It is important to state that current legislation does consider contemporary literature as a valid
resource for the language class. In addition to being able to understand general and specific ideas in
contemporary texts, by the time students reach the final stages of non-compulsory secondary education,
they should also be able to give presentations on works of literature (see, MECD, 2015a).
The treatment of original novels, plays and poetry, however, may not be as pedagogically sound as
the use of other adapted narratives in secondary education. The nature of the writings due to the use
of colloquialisms and dialect, and complex issues and language involved, make original works less
suitable in terms of comprehensible input (see Krashen, 1985) and cognitive demands that would be
made upon students. When literature is treated in the classroom, then, it often arises as:
• a treatment of the lives of authors, the society in which they live(d) and on certain aspects of the
contributions they have made to literature today;
• the adaptation of stories or the use of age and level-appropriate works.

Both elements help to bring important cultural aspects to life within the context of the language class.
Indeed, as indicated in national and regional guidelines for the treatement of Key Competences (MECD,
2015b; Consejería, 2016; 2020) competence in cultural expression means that students should know,
understand, appreciate and critically value cultural and artistic manifestations. At the same time,
working on cultural topics can favour teamwork and collective efforts as students use a variety of
strategies together in order to be able to improve their understanding and to complete shorter activities
and longer tasks or projects. In addition to the above-mentioned activity types, other tasks or projects
could include:

• the completion of a webquest on areas and people from the UK and Ireland today
• comparison between Spain and the UK and Ireland
• the use of modern Irish and British songs
• engagement in an eTwinning project with the UK and/or Ireland

The important point here is that tasks are appropriate to students in terms of age, interest and language
level (Harmer ,2012; Newby et al., 2007). At the same time, they should provide students with

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comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985), opportunities to notice salient language points (Schmidt, 1990),
and the chance to produce their own oral and written texts (Swain, 1985).

7. Conclusion
The recent history of the United Kingdom and Ireland has had a number of important implications both
for the countries directly involved and for their European neighbours. Political and social developments
have been shaped by membership of Europe and have also contributed to enriching perspectives of
other member states. The current situation with Brexit has left many EU citizens with uncertainties in
terms of trade, employment and travel and this is particularly true in the case of the Republic of Ireland,
which shares a land border with the UK. Important mutual influences between these countries and the
rest of Europe, however, are present. Just one area of this influence can be seen in the development of
literature since World War II. Poetry, prose and drama have advanced to take in a wider, more-inclusive
and modern perspective and continue to expand along these lines.
Ireland and the UK are popular destinations for Spanish students who wish to improve their
English and, given this level of popularity, it would be useful for students to become more culturally
aware of the developments which have contributed to the configuration of the island. The history of
Ireland and its relationship with neighbouring Britain as well as their links with the European Union have
multiple areas of educational interest. By examining the differences between these two islands, it is,
perhaps, possible to address the issue of cultural diversity within two countries which have a shared
language. In the case of both nations, we can find many areas of historical, musical and literary interest
which may go beyond the English class and be developed in other subjects.

Legislation
Consejería (2016). Orden de 14 de julio de 2016, por la que se desarrolla el currículo correspondiente
al Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía.
Consejería (2020). INSTRUCCIÓN 9/2020, de 15 de junio, de la Dirección General de Ordenación y
Evaluación Educativa, por la que se establecen aspectos de organización y funcionamiento para
los centros que imparten Educación Secundaria Obligatoria
MECD (2015a). Real Decreto 1105/2014, de 26 de diciembre, por el que se establece el currículo
básico de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria y del Bachillerato.
MECD (2015b). Orden ECD/65/2015, de 21 de enero, por la que se describen las relaciones entre las
competencias, los contenidos y los criterios de evaluación de la educación primaria, la
educación secundaria obligatoria y el bachillerato.

References
Birch, D. (2009). The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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CoE (2020). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment.
Companion volume with new descriptors. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Dedman, M. (1996), The Origins and Development of the European Union 1945 – 1995:A History of
European Integration. Routledge.
Goldman, J. (2004). Modernism, 1910–1945 Image to Apocalypse. Basingstoke: Palgrave-MacMillan.
Harmer, J. (2012). Essential Teacher Knowledge. London: Pearson.
Newby, D., Allan, R., Fenner, A.B., Komorowska, H., Jones, B. and Soghikian, K. (2007). European Portfolio
for Student Teachers of Languages. Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages.
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11,
129-158.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass, & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second
language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, MZ: Newbury House.

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