Structural Mechanics (CE- 312)

Poisson's Ratio and Theories of Failure

Dr. Nauman KHURRAM

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING
& TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
 Review of Poisson’s Ratio
a) - Uniaxial Loading
The ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain is constant for
stresses within the proportional limit that is called Poisson’s ratio.
Lateral strain L
Poisson' s Ratio     
Longitudinal strain H

The minus sign indicates that a positive strain

(elongation) in the axial direction causes a
negative strain (contraction) in the transverse
directions. The transverse strain is uniform
throughout the cross section and is the same in
any direction in the plane of the cross section.
Generalized Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading (σy = σz = 0)
x x
x   y   z   Transverse dimensions contract as the
E E bar is stretched by an axial force P.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 2
 b) - Biaxial Loading
Considering an element of the material that is subjected simultaneously
to normal stresses in the x- and y- directions, as in Fig. (a)
Strain in x - direction is produced by the Inverting the strains into
both σx and σy Using superposition, we stresses for biaxial loading
write the combined effect of the two in the x-y plane (σz = 0).
normal stresses as
1 1  (    y ) E ( y    x ) E
x  ( x  y ) y  ( y  x ) z  ( x   y )   x y 
E E E 1  2 1  2
x

FIGURE: (a) Stresses acting on a material element in biaxial loading;

(b) two-dimensional view of stresses; (c) deformation of the element.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 3
 c) - Triaxial Loading
Hooke’s law for the triaxial loading is
obtained by adding the contribution of
σx , σy and σz to the strains.

x 
1
E

 x  ( y   z )  y 
1
E

 y  ( z   x )  z 
1
E

 z  ( x   y ) 
d) – Shear Strain
Experiments indicate that an element only deformed due to shear
strain, (e.g., γxy and ϵx=ϵy=0) and when its is subjected to shear stress
only (e.g., τxy).  xy
 xy 
G
 yz
 yz 
G
 zx
 zx 
G
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 4
Relationship Between Shear Modulus and Modulus of Elasticity
Considering the state of pure shear illustrated in Fig. (a). The
Mohr’s circle for this stress state in Fig.(b) shows that the principal
stresses are σ1 = τ xy and σ2 = -τ xy. Furthermore, the principal
directions are inclined at 45o to the xy- axes, as indicated in Fig. (c).

FIGURE. (a) State of pure shear; (b) Mohr’s circle for pure
shear; (c) principal stresses associated with pure shear.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 5
 Deriving the principal strain ε1 in terms of τxy.
(1  ) xy
E
1
E

1   1  2    xy  ( xy ) 
1
E
 (a)

Because the principal directions for stress and strain are the same,
the direction of ε1 is inclined at the angle θ = 45o to the x-axis.
x y x y  xy
 x   cos 2  sin 2 ( A)
2 2 2
Substituting ε x = ε y = 0 (this is a consequence of σx = σy = 0) and
2θ = 90o into Eq. (A).
It is often convenient to analyze
 
1  xy  xy (b) the deformation of an elastic
2 2G
body using three elastic
Comparing the Eq. (a) and Eq. (b) constants (E, G, and υ), but
(1  ) xy  xy only two of the constants are
E
  G independent.
E 2G 2(1  )

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 6

Dilation (Volumetric Strain): The change in volume per unit
volume of any material is called volumetric strain or dilation.
Bulk Modulus:
The ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain is called as
bulk modulus or volume modulus of elasticity.

Considering a cubical element of unit

volume is deforms into a rectangular
parallelepiped of volume (v) as shown
in Figure, when subjected to the
stresses σx, σy, σz.
v  (1   x ).(1   y ).(1   z ) (a)
Denoting by e the change
v  (1   x   y   z ) (b)
in volume of our element,
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 7
 Since the strains εx, εy, εz are much smaller than unity, their
products will be even smaller and may be omitted in the
expansion of the product.
Since the element had originally
e  v  1  (1   x   y   z )  1
a unit volume, the quantity e
e  x y z represents the change in volume
 x   y   z 2 ( x   y   z ) per unit volume; it is referred to
e  as the dilatation of the material.
E E
(1  2 ) Substituting for εx, εy, εz
e ( x   y   z )
E considering the Hook’s Law
3(1  2 )
e p A case of special interest is that
E
Volumetric pressure p of a body subjected to a uniform
K hydrostatic pressure p. Each of
Volumetric Strain e
E
the stress components is then
K equal to –p.
3(1  2 )
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 8
The constant k is known as the bulk modulus or modulus
of compression of the material. It is expressed in the same
units as the modulus of elasticity E, that is, in pascals or
in psi.
Observation and common sense indicate that a stable
material subjected to a hydrostatic pressure can only
decrease in volume; thus the dilatation e is negative, from
which it follows that the bulk modulus k is a positive
quantity. Further, possion’s ratio for a ductile material is
always more than zero and less than 0.5.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 9

THEORIES OF FAILURE
 Theories of Failure (also called as failure criteria) are used to
predict the failure under more complex loading by using data
obtained from a uniaxial tension or compression test.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 10

1. BRITTLE MATERIALS
(a)- Maximum Normal Stress Theory
It was previously stated that brittle materials, such as gray
cast iron, tend to fail suddenly by fracture with no apparent
yielding. In a tension test, the fracture occurs when the
normal stress reaches the ultimate stress σult. Also, brittle
fracture occurs in a torsion test due to tension since the
plane of fracture for an element is at 45° to the shear
direction. The fracture surface is therefore helical
The maximum-normal-stress theory states that a brittle
material will fail when the maximum tensile stress, in the
material reaches a value that is equal to the ultimate normal
stress the material can sustain when it is subjected to simple
tension.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 11
if the stress coordinates at a point in the material fall on the
boundary or outside the shaded area, the material is said to
fracture. This theory is generally credited to W. Rankine,
who proposed it in the mid-1800s. Experimentally it has been
found to be in close agreement with the behavior of brittle
materials that have stress–strain diagrams that are similar in
both tension and compression.
 1   ult ,  2   ult

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 12

(b)- Mohr’s Theory
Mohr’s theory of failure is used for materials that have
different properties in tension and compression. To apply the
theory, we must know the ultimate tensile stress (σult)t and the
ultimate compressive stress (σult)c of the material, which are
determined from uniaxial load tests.
The Mohr’s circles for these two states of stress are drawn on
a single diagram, as shown in Fig. (a). The failure envelope
for Mohr’s theory is obtained by drawing two lines that are
tangent to the circles. A given state of stress is considered safe
if its Mohr’s circle lies entirely within the failure envelope,
which is the shaded area in Fig. (a). If any part of the circle is
tangent to, or extends beyond the failure envelope, the theory
predicts failure.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 13

Mohr’s theory can be refined if the ultimate shear stress τult,
obtainable from torsion tests, is also known. The Mohr’s circle
corresponding to this test can be added to the diagram, as
shown in Fig. (b). The failure envelope is now obtained by
drawing curves that are tangent to each of the three circles.

FIGURE: Mohr’s failure criterion. States of stress represented by

points inside the shaded region are safe against failure.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 14
2. DUCTILE MATERIALS
(a)- Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory (Tresca’s Yield Criterion)
The most common type of yielding of a
ductile material such as steel is caused by
slipping. The edges of the planes of slipping
as they appear on the surface of the strip are
referred to as Lüder’s lines. These lines
clearly indicate the slip planes in the strip,
which occur at approximately 45° with the
axis of the strip. The slipping that occurs is
caused by shear stress.
The theory states that yielding of the material begins when the
absolute maximum shear stress in the material reaches the
shear stress that causes the same material to yield when it is
subjected only to axial tension.
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 15
Therefore, to avoid failure, it is required that τabs, max in the
material must be less than or equal to σy /2 where is σy
determined from a simple tension test.

For application we need to express the absolute maximum shear

stress in terms of the principal stresses using stress transformation
By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 16
A graph of these equations is given in Figure Clearly, if any
point of the material is subjected to plane stress, and its in-
plane principal stresses are represented by a coordinate (σ1,
σ2) plotted on the boundary or outside the shaded hexagonal
area shown in this figure, the material will yield at the point
and failure is said to occur.

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 17

(b) Maximum-Distortion-Energy Theory
It was stated that an external loading will deform a material,
causing it to store energy internally throughout its volume.
The energy per unit volume of material is called the strain-
energy density, and if the material is subjected to a uniaxial
stress the strain-energy density,
1
u   .
2
If the material is subjected to triaxial stress, then each
principal stress contributes a portion of the total strain-energy
density. 1 1 1
u   1. 1   2 . 2   3 . 3 (a) 1 
1
1  ( 2   3 )
2 2 2 E
 2   2  ( 3  1 )
1
Substituting the value of ε1, ε2 and ε3 E

u
1
2E

 12   2 2   3 2  2 ( 1 2   1 3   3 2  (b) 3   3  (1   2 )
1
E

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 18

The strain-energy density is considered as the sum of two parts
Average Energy Distortion Energy
The energy needed to cause a The energy needed to distort
volume change of the element (change the shape of) the
with no change in shape element
 1.dist  ( 1   avg )
 avg 
1   2   3 
 2.dist  ( 2   avg )
3
 3.dist  ( 3   avg )

= +

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 19

According to this criterion, also known as the von Mises
criterion, after the German-American applied mathematician
Richard von Mises (1883–1953), a given structural
component is safe as long as the maximum value of the
distortion energy per unit volume in that material remains
smaller than the distortion energy per unit volume required
to cause yield in a tensile-test specimen of the same material.
To obtain the distortion energy per unit volume, we will
substitute σ1.dist , σ2.dist , σ2.dist , and σavg values in Eq (b) and
simplifying
1 
ud  
( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2  (c ) E
3E  G
2(1  )
ud 
1
6G
 
( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2 (d )

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 20

In the case of plane stress, σ3 = 0 ud 
1
6G

 12   1. 2   2 2  ( e)

For Uniaxial Tension Test, σ1 = σy and σ2 = σ3 = 0

ud y  1
6G
 
 y2 (f)

Since Maximum distortion energy require ud = (ud)y

 12   1. 2   2 2   y 2 This is the equation of an ellipse

By: Dr. Nauman KHURRAM Department of Civil Engineering, UET Lahore 21