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Block Work
Block Work
Block Work
Composite - insulation filled Composite - bonded insulation Sound absorbing - insulation filled
MANUFACTURE
Dense concrete blocks, which may be hollow, cellular
or solid in form are manufactured from natural
dense aggregates including crushed granite, lime-
stone and gravel. Medium and lightweight concrete
blocks are manufactured incorporating a wide range
of aggregates including expanded clay, expanded
Fig. 2.2 Co-ordinating sizes for blockwork
blast furnace slag, sintered ash and pumice. Concrete
is cast into moulds, vibrated and cured. Most aerated
The European Standard (BS EN 771–4: 2003) gives (aircrete or autoclaved aerated concrete) blocks are
the specification for autoclaved aerated concrete formed by the addition of aluminium powder to a
(AAC) masonry units. The maximum size of units fine mix of sand, lime, fly ash (pulverised-fuel ash)
within the standard is 1500 mm length 1000 mm and Portland cement. The hydrogen gas generated by
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Table 2.4 Typical relationship between density and thermal conductivity for concrete blocks
Nominal density 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 900 800 700 600 500 420
(kg/m3)
Typical thermal conductivity 1.5 1.10 0.83 0.63 0.47 0.36 0.27 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.10
(W/m K)
(Blocks of differing compositions will vary from these average figures.)
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Cavity wall partially filled with insulation Cavity wall fully filled with insulation
Solid wall
9.5mm plasterboard
(λ = 0.16 W/m K)
Fig. 2.5 Typical blockwork construction achieving U-values of at least 0.27 W/m2 K
Sound absorption
The majority of standard concrete blocks with hard
surfaces are highly reflective to sound, thus creating
long reverberation times within building enclosures.
Acoustic-absorbing concrete blocks are manufactured
with a slot on the exposed face which admits sound
into the central cavity (Fig. 2.1). Since the void space
is lined with sound-absorbing fibrous filler, incident Fig. 2.6 Block specials
sound is dissipated rather than reflected, significantly
reducing reverberation effects. Acoustic control
blocks in fairfaced concrete are suitable for use in applied surface colour. Most blocks are uniform in
swimming pools, sports halls, industrial buildings colour, but there is some variability with, for example,
and auditoria. flecked finishes. Textures range from polished,
smooth and weathered (sand- or shot-blasted) to stri-
ated and split face (Fig. 2.7); the latter intended to give
SPECIALS a random variability associated more with natural
Most manufacturers of blocks produce a range of spe- stone.
cials to match their standard ranges. Quoins, cavity Glazed masonry units are manufactured by the ap-
closers, splayed cills, flush or projecting copings, lintel plication of a thermosetting material to one or more
units, bullnose ends and radius blocks are generally faces of lightweight concrete blocks which are then
available, and other specials can be made to order heat-treated to cure the finish. The glazed blocks are
(Fig. 2.6). The use of specials in fairfaced blockwork available in an extensive range of durable bright
can greatly enhance visual qualities. Matching full- colours and are suitable for interior or exterior use.
length lintels may incorporate dummy joints and Where required, profiled blocks to individual designs
should bear on to full, not cut, blocks. can be glazed by this system. Most manufacturers
produce a range of specials to co-ordinate with their
standard fairfaced blocks although, as with special
FAIRFACED BLOCKS
bricks, they may be manufactured from a different
Fairfaced concrete blocks are available in a wide range batch of mix, and this may give rise to slight varia-
of colours from white, through buff, sandstone, yel- tions. In specific cases, such as individual lintel blocks,
low, to pink, blue, green and black. Frequently the specials are made by cutting standard blocks to ensure
colour is all through, although some blocks have an exact colour matching.
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Fig. 2.7 Split and polished architectural masonry finishes. Photographs: Courtesy of Lignacite Ltd
Fig. 2.8 Low density and high density units. Permission to reproduce extracts from BS EN 771–1: 2003 is granted by the British Standards
Institute
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Fig. 2.8 Continued. Hollow clay blocks in Greece. Photograph: Arthur Lyons
thermal conductivity of perforated unfired clay THIN LAYER MORTAR MASONRY SYSTEMS
blocks is typically 0.24 W/m K.)
Thin layer mortar blockwork may be constructed with
mortar joints of only 2–3 mm, providing that the
Blockwork aircrete or equivalent blocks have been manufactured
to fine tolerances and on-site workmanship is good.
The special rapid-setting mortar sets typically within
FAIRFACED CONCRETE BLOCKWORK
30 minutes and the full bond strength is achieved after
Within fairfaced blockwork, an appropriate choice of only two hours, allowing more courses to be laid each
size is important to both co-ordination and visual day. In the case of brick and block cavity construction,
scale. Whilst blocks can be cut with a masonry cutter, the inner leaf is built first, providing a weatherproof
the addition of small pieces of block, or the widening enclosure as quickly as possible. The outer skin of
of perpends over the 10 mm standard, is unaccept- brickwork can subsequently be built up, using wall ties
able. The insertion of a thin jumper course at floor or fixed to the face, either screwed or hammered into the
lintel height may be a useful feature in adjusting the completed blockwork. Bed joints in thin layer mortar
coursing. Curved blockwork may be constructed blockwork do not co-ordinate with those of the brick-
from standard blocks, the permissible curvature work, so conventional cavity wall ties can only be used
being dependent upon the block size. The oversail if they are slope-tolerant.
between alternate courses should not normally ex- Usually inner leaf construction commences with a
ceed 4 mm in fairfaced work. If the internal radius is line of 440 215 mm standard height blocks, with
exposed, then the perpends can be maintained at 10 normal bedding mortar to compensate for varia-
mm with uncut blocks, but if the external radius is tions in the foundation level, followed by the larger
exposed, the blocks will require cutting on a splay. 440 or 620 430 mm high blocks, which should
For tighter curves specials will be required. weigh less than 20 kg for repeated lifting by one
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BOND
A running half-block bond is standard, but this may
be reduced to a quarter bond for aesthetic reasons.
Blockwork may incorporate banding of concrete
bricks, but because of differences in thermal and
moisture movement it is inadvisable to mix clay
Fig. 2.9 Fairfaced blockwork – IDP Offices, Glasgow. Architect: IDP. bricks with concrete blocks. Horizontal and vertical
Photograph: Courtesy of Ibstock Brick Ltd stack bond and more sophisticated variations, such as
basket-weave bond, may be used for infill panels
operative. Heavier blocks require mechanical lifting within framed structures (Fig. 2.10). Such panels will
or two-person handling. Thin-joint mortars, con- require reinforcement within alternate horizontal
sisting of polymer-modified 1 : 2 cement : sand mix bed-joints, to compensate for the lack of normal
with water-retaining and workability admixtures, are bonding.
factory pre-mixed and require only the addition of
water, preferably mixed in with an electrically- REINFORCEMENT
powered plasterer’s whisk. The mortar is applied man-
ually with a serrated scoop or through a pumped sys- Blockwork will require bed-joint reinforcement above
tem to achieve uniformity. and below openings where it is inappropriate to di-
The main advantages of thin-joint systems over vide the blockwork up into panels, with movement
traditional 10-mm-joint blockwork are: joints at the ends of the lintels. Bed-joint reinforce-
ment would be inserted into two bed joints above and
• increased productivity allowing storey-height below such openings (Fig. 2.11). Cover to bed rein-
inner leaves to be completed in one day; forcement should be at least 25 mm on the external
• up to 10% improved thermal performance due to faces and 13 mm on the internal faces. Combined ver-
reduced thermal bridging by the mortar; tical and horizontal reinforcement may be incorpo-
• improved airtightness of the construction; rated into hollow blockwork in accordance with BS
• the accuracy of the wall allows internal thin-coat 5628–2: 2000, where demanded by the calculated
sprayed plaster finishes to be used; stresses. Typical situations would be within retaining
• higher quality of construction and less wastage of basement walls, and large infill panels to a framed
mortar. structure.
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MOVEMENT CONTROL
Concrete blockwork is subject to greater movements
than equivalent brickwork masonry. Therefore the
location and form of the movement joints require
greater design-detail consideration, to ensure that Fig. 2.11 Reinforced blockwork
inevitable movements are directed to the required
locations and do not cause unsightly stepped cracking located at intersecting walls, or other points of struc-
or fracture of individual blocks. Blockwork walls over 6 tural discontinuity, such as columns. Additionally,
m in length must be separated into a series of panels movement joints are required at changes in thickness,
with movement-control joints at approximately 6 m height or loading of walls, above and below wall open-
centres. Ideally, such movement joints should be ings, and adjacent to movement joints in the adjoining
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structure (Fig. 2.12). Wall ties should allow for differ- mm joints are by volume:
ential movement between the leaves in cavity construc-
tion and should be spaced at 900 mm horizontally and cement/lime/sand 1 : 1 : 5 to 1 : 1 : 6
450 mm vertically, for 50–75 mm cavities. cement/sand plasticiser 1 : 5 to 1 : 6
masonry cement/sand 1 : 4 to 1 : 5
MORTARS Below DPC level a stronger mix is required and sul-
The mortar must always be weaker than the blocks to fate-resisting cement may be necessary depending
allow for movement. The usual mixes for standard 10 upon soil conditions.
cement/sand 1:4
cement/lime/sand 1 : 1½ : 4½
FINISHES
Internal finishes
Plaster should be applied normally in two coats to 13
mm. Blocks intended for plastering have a textured
surface to give a good key. Dry lining may be fixed
with battens or directly with adhesive dabs to the
blockwork. Blockwork to be tiled should be first ren-
dered with a cement/sand mix. Fairfaced blockwork
may be left plain or painted.
External finishes
External boarding or hanging tiles should be fixed to
battens, separated from the blockwork with a breather
membrane. For external rendering a spatterdash coat
should be applied initially on dense blockwork,
followed by two coats of cement/lime/sand render.
The first 10 mm coat should be the stronger mix
(e.g. 1 : 1 : 6), the 5 mm second coat must be weaker
(e.g. 1 : 2 : 9). Cement/sand mixes are not recom-
mended as they are more susceptible to cracking and
crazing than mixes incorporating lime. The render
should terminate at damp-proof course level with a
Fig. 2.12 Blockwork movement joints drip or similar weathering detail.
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EARTH-RETAINING BLOCKWORK
A range of precast-cellular concrete-interlocking
blocks is manufactured for the construction of dry-
bed retaining walls. Soil is placed in the pockets of
each successive course to allow for planting. The rear
is backfilled with granular material to allow for
drainage. The size of the block determines the maxi-
Fig. 2.13 Beam and block flooring mum construction height, but over 20 m can be
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Fig. 2.14 Selection of concrete pavers and hard landscape to the Gateshead Millennium Bridge. Photographs: Courtesy of Marshalls plc
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achieved with very deep units. A face angle of 15° to BS 8000 Workmanship on building sites:
22° is typical to ensure stability, but other gradients Part 3: 2001 Code of practice for masonry.
are possible with the appropriate block systems. BS 8208 Guide to assessment of suitability of external
Limited wall curvature is possible without cutting the cavity walls for filling with thermal insulation:
standard blocks. The systems are used both for earth Part 1: 1985 Existing traditional cavity construction.
retention and to form acoustic barriers. BS 8215: 1991 Code of practice for design and instal-
lation of damp-proof courses in masonry construc-
tion.
References BS EN 413–1: 2004 Masonry cement. Composition,
specifications and conformity criteria.
BS EN 771 Specification for masonry units:
FURTHER READING
Part 3: 2003 Aggregate concrete masonry units.
British Cement Association. BCA guide to materials Part 4: 2003 Autoclaved aerated concrete masonry
for masonry mortar. Camberley: BCA. units.
Hugues, T. Grellich, K. and Peter, C. 2004: Detail prac- Part 5: 2003 Manufactured stone masonry units.
tice: Building with large clay blocks. Basle: Birkhäuser. BS EN 845 Specification for ancillary components for
Roper, P.A. 1987: A practical guide to blockwork. London: masonry:
International Thomson. Part 1: 2003 Ties, tension straps, hangers and brackets.
Taylor, E.S.Oliver- 1995: Mason bricklayer: Brickwork Part 2: 2003 Lintels.
and blockwork. Stem Systems. Part 3: 2003 Bed joint reinforcement of steel mesh-
work.
BS EN 934–3: 2003 Admixtures for masonry mortar.
STANDARDS BS EN 998–2: 2003 Specification for mortar for ma-
sonry. Masonry mortar.
BS 743: 1970 Materials for damp-proof courses. BS EN 1745: 2002 Masonry and masonry products.
BS 1243: 1978 Specification for metal ties for cavity Methods for determining design thermal values.
wall construction. BS EN 1806: 2000 Chimneys – clay/ceramic flue blocks
BS 5628 Code of practice for use of masonry: for single wall chimneys.
Part 1: 1992 Structural use of unreinforced masonry. BS EN 1858: 2003 Chimneys – components – concrete
Part 2: 2000 Structural use of reinforced and pre- flue blocks.
stressed masonry. BS EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures:
Part 3: 2001 Materials and components, design and Part 1.1: 2005 Rules for reinforced and unreinforced
workmanship. masonry.
BS 5977 Lintels: Part 1.2: 2005 Structural fire design.
Part 1: 1981 Method for assessment of load.
BS 6073 Precast concrete masonry units:
Part 1: 1981 Specifications for precast concrete ma- BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT
sonry units.
PUBLICATIONS
Part 2: 1981 Method for specifying precast concrete
masonry units. BRE Special digests
BS 6100 Glossary of building and civil engineering
BRE SD1: 2005 Concrete in aggressive ground.
terms:
BRE SD4: 2003 Masonry walls and beam and block
Part 5 Masonry.
floors: U-values and building regulations.
Sec. 5.1: 1992 Terms common to masonry.
Sec. 5.3: 1984 Brick and blocks.
BS 6457: 1984 Specification for reconstructed stone
BRE Digests
masonry units.
BS 6717: 2001 Precast, unreinforced concrete paving BRE Digest 359: 1991 Repairing brick and block ma-
blocks. sonry.
BS 7533 Part 10: 2004 Pavements constructed of clay, BRE Digest 360: 1991 Testing bond strength of ma-
natural stone or concrete pavers. sonry.
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BRE Digest 362: 1991 Building mortars. BRE GBG 62: 2004 Retro-installation of bed joint re-
BRE Digest 380: 1993 Damp-proof courses. inforcement in masonry.
BRE Digest 401: 1995 Replacing wall ties. BRE GBG 66: 2005 Building masonry with lime-
BRE Digest 432: 1998 Aircrete: thin joint mortar based bedding mortars.
system.
BRE Digest 460: 2001 Bricks, blocks and masonry BRE Information papers
made from aggregate concrete (Parts 1 and 2).
BRE Digest 461: 2001 Corrosion of metal components BRE IP 10/96 Reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete
in walls. planks.
BRE Digest 468: 2002 AAC ‘aircrete’ blocks and ma- BRE IP 2/98 Mortars for blockwork: improved ther-
sonry. mal performance.
BRE Digest 487: 2004 Structural fire engineering de- BRE IP 14/98 Blocks with recycled aggregate: beam-
sign. Part 4 Materials behaviour: masonry. and-block floors.
BRE IP 1/99 Untied cavity party walls – structural
performance when using AAC blockwork.
BRE Good building guides BRE IP 7/05 Aircrete tongue and grooved block ma-
sonry.
BRE GBG 14: 1994 Building simple plan brick or
blockwork free-standing walls.
ADVISORY ORGANISATIONS
BRE GBG 27: 1996 Building brickwork or blockwork
retaining walls. British Concrete Masonry Association, Grove
BRE GBG 44: 2000 Insulating masonry cavity walls Crescent House, 18 Grove Place, Bedford MK40 3JJ
(Parts 1 and 2). (01234 353745).
BRE GBG 50: 2002 Insulating solid masonry walls. Concrete Block Association. 60 Charles Street,
BRE GBG 54: 2003 Construction site communica- Leicester LE1 1FB (0116 253 6161).
tion. Part 2 Masonry. Mortar Industry Association, 156 Buckingham Palace
BRE GBG 58: 2003 Thin layer masonry mortar. Road, London SW1W 9TR (020 7730 8194).