SCR Power Control

The Watlow
Educational Series
Book Six
SCR Power Control

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
SCR Power Control in the Thermal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Silicone Controlled Rectifier (SCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
SCR - A Modified Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Triac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
SCR Firing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Electrical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Zero-Cross Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Contactor Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Burst Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Phase Angle Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
SCR Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Power Control and Heater Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Electromechanical Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Mercury Displacement Relay (MDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Solid State Relay (SSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Burst Firing SCR Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Phase Angle Firing SCR Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Power Control Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Stable Resistance Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Variable Resistance Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Phase Angle Soft Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Phase Angle Current Limiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Transformer-Coupled Heating Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
SCR Selection Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3 Phase SCR Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Booklet Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Answers to Exercises and Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

© 1995 Watlow Electric Manufacturing Company. This document is protected

under U.S. copyright law. Any duplication, other than by Watlow employees,
without the express written consent of the publisher is forbidden.

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 Watlow Educational Series

The objectives of this booklet are to enable you to:

• Name at least 2 reasons for using SCR power controllers.

• Define what a SCR is and how it is used to allow AC to flow in both

directions.

• Define zero-cross switching and explain its benefit

• Name the 2 types of burst firing and explain the effect time base has on them.

• Explain phase angle firing and describe when it should be used.

• Name and explain the 2 features provided with many phase angle fired power
controllers.

• Explain the effects of using a SCR power controller on heater life.

• Describe which SCR firing methods should be used for which type of heater.

• Identify the proper SCR configuration for 3 phase heaters.

Introduction
A SCR power controller is an output device used for fast heater switching, to
switch higher amperage electric heaters, to control variable resistance heaters and
transformers coupled to resistance heaters. The many places where SCRs can be
applied gives you many possibilities to successfully provide unique
customer solutions!

This book provides a thorough introduction to SCR power control principles. We

first discover how a power controller fits into the thermal system. We then
explore SCRs themselves, examine the firing methods used in SCRs and then look
at how a power control affects heater life. From there, we journey through the
application of SCRs for switching various heating loads. Finally, we give you the
recommended SCR 3 phase configurations for various applications.

SCR Power Control in

The thermal system has a work load, heater, temperature sensor and temperature
the Thermal System controller (Figure 1). As you learned in Book 5 (Temperature Control), the
temperature controller output signals an output device to switch electric current
ON and OFF to the heater. The output device is usually built into the controller
case if possible (and that is what Figure 1 illustrates).

The ON and OFF switching causes the resistance element inside of a heater to go
through a continuous heating and cooling cycle (Figure 2). We know from Book
2 (Thermal Systems and Electric Heaters), that large temperature swings acceler-
ate the oxidation of the resistance element in a heater. This is bad, since it reduces
heater life.

3
SCR Power Control

SCR Power Control in Figure 1

A Typical Thermal System

Temperature cycling accelerates

oxidation by repeatedly cracking
the oxide coating on a resis- Sensor
Work
tance element. Cracking and Load
breaking off the protective oxide
layer exposes fresh metal to Temperature
Controlling
oxygen attack. Device
Heat Transfer Medium
Sensor
Input Heat
Source

Output

Figure 2
Resistance Element Temperature Swings Due to Slow ON/OFF Cycling

Temperature

Time

How can we reduce or eliminate the temperature swings of the heater's resistance
element? We use a SCR power controller in the thermal system! A SCR power
controller is made up of 3 distinct parts: the SCR (silicon controlled rectifier),
sophisticated electronics which switch the SCR ON and OFF and a heat sink to
dissipate the heat a SCR produces. A SCR is illustrated in Figure 3a. Examples of
SCR power controllers are shown in Figures 3b and 3c.

Figure 3

Firing Gate (Ring)

1
⁄2"

a. A 75 amp SCR “Chip” b. Watlow QPAC Power Controller c. Watlow DIN-a-mite Power Control

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 Watlow Educational Series
SCR Power Control in the
Thermal System (con’t) A SCR power controller is connected into the thermal system in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4
The Thermal System with a SCR Power Controller

Sensor
Work
Load

Heat Transfer Medium

Sensor
Temperature Input Heat
Controlling Source
Device
Power
Supply Process
Output
SCR
Power
Controller SCR
Output

What has changed? The temperature controller output is now connected to the
SCR power controller, not the heater. Notice that the current flowing to the heater
passes through the power controller. The SCR power controller can now control
the amount of electric current supplied from the power supply to the heater
(called load current).

How does the SCR control load current to the heater? First, the SCR power
controller receives a process output signal from a temperature controller. The
electronics use the signal to calculate how often the SCR must switch the heater
ON and OFF. The electronics then adjust load current by very rapidly switching
the SCR ON and OFF. This switching is often so fast, that the resistance element
experiences very little temperature fluctuation (Figure 5).

Figure 5
Reduced Element Temperature Swings Due to Very Fast ON/OFF Switching
Temperature

Time

5
SCR Power Control in the
Thermal System (con’t) Because the temperature swings are greatly reduced or even eliminated, heater
life increases dramatically! That is one of the major benefits of using SCR power
controllers. Especially for large, expensive heaters, the SCR allows the customer
to extend heater life as long as possible.

Of course, the next question (if you haven't asked it already) is: What is a SCR
and how does is control electric current to the heater? Excellent question! We
address this next

Silicon Controlled
The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is a semiconductor. Another name for a SCR
Rectifier (SCR) is a thyristor. Semiconductors, you may remember, are materials which are
usually electric insulators. However, under certain conditions, they become
electrical conductors. The most basic type of semiconductor is the diode. Diodes
are occasionally used in SCR power controllers as well as SCRs.

Diode
The diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one
direction. Electric current flows through a diode ONLY when the anode is
positive and the cathode is negative (Figure 6a). If the anode becomes negative
(and cathode positive), the diode shuts off.

Figure 6

+
+ Anode - Cathode
V 0
Current Flow
_
1st 2nd 3rd
cycle cycle cycle

a. Diagram of a diode b. Alternating Current (AC) through a Diode

Thus, when AC flows through the diode, only half of the wave can get through
(Figure 6b). Why? AC alternates its polarity every half cycle. Whenever AC is in
a negative alternation, the diode shuts off and doesn’t let any current through!
This is a problem, since the heater will only receive 1/2 of the available current.
Also, we can’t switch the diode ON and OFF to control current flow to the heater.
Is there something better? Yes! We can use a SCR.

SCR - A Modified Diode

The SCR is a modified diode (Figure 7a). The diode now has a “gate.” The gate
opens and closes the SCR (switches it ON and OFF). When the gate is “fired”
(opened), the SCR conducts current just like a diode. The gate stays open until
the polarity reverses (anode becomes negative and cathode positive). When the
gate closes, current flow stops (just like a diode). Until the gate if once again fired,
the SCR cannot conduct current in either direction!

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 Watlow Educational Series
SCR - A Modified Diode
(con’t) Thus, when a SCR is conducting AC, the gate must be fired at the beginning of each
cycle for current to flow (Figure 7b). If the gate is not fired, no current is
conducted by the SCR, even if the anode and cathode are the correct polarity. So
a SCR’s gate allows us to control current flow through the SCR. We did not have
this ability to control current flow with a diode.

Figure 7

Gate +
+ Anode - Cathode V 0
Current Flow
_
1st 2nd 3rd
cycle cycle cycle

a. Diagram of a SCR b. Alternating Current through a SCR

Unfortunately, the SCR (like the diode) only allows current to flow in one
direction. Since AC switches polarity every half cycle, only half of the available
power in AC is conducted through the SCR. This is not good. What can we do
to get current flow in both directions?

Simple. Two SCR’s are simply placed back-to-back in parallel (Figure 8a). When
the current is positive on the right side of the SCRs, SCR #1’s gate is fired and
conducts current. When AC changes polarity, SCR #2’s gate fires and conducts
current in the other direction. The result is that the full AC sine wave is sent to
the heater, allowing us to use the full power available (Figure 8b). This cycle
continues then until the gates are no longer fired (to stop current to the heater).

Figure 8

SCR #1
+
+
-
-
+
V 0
_
SCR #2

a. Diagram of a Pair of b. Alternating Current through

Back-to-Back SCRs Back-to-Back SCRs

Triac
You may have heard of a triac before. A triac is simply a modified set of back-to-
back SCRs. Instead of having two gates, there is only one (common) gate (Figure
9). This saves on space. Triacs are not used for voltages over 240 volts or large
currents. Why? A triac generates 1/3 more heat than a SCR pair due to the com-
mon gate, thus making it less efficient.

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SCR Power Control
Triac (con’t)
SCR Firing Methods
Electrical Noise
The higher the voltage switched,
the more electrical noise is
generated. This explains why
the static you hear on an AM
radio is vastly greater from a
lightning strike than a light
switch turning on and off!
Zero Cross Switching
8
Figure 9
Diagram of a Triac
Common Gate
We wanted to mention the triac, as you may hear of it from time to time. In fact,
some Watlow temperature controllers still use a triac as an output device to
switch small load currents.
We have learned about SCR’s, but still don’t know much about how SCR’s are
switched ON and OFF. We explore this next.
Before we explore SCR firing methods, let’s take a small step back and review
what electrical noise and zero-cross switching are. This will help us better under-
stand advantages and disadvantages of the various SCR firing methods.
Electrical noise (also known as radio frequency interference or RFI) is an electri-
cal impulse which travels along any electrically conductive medium or is radiat-
ed through the air. Sensitive electronic equipment using microprocessors and
integrated circuits may not function properly when they are exposed to electrical
noise. Why? It interferes with their ability to operate properly.
What are sources of electrical noise? Any electrical device which produces rapid
or large changes in voltage potential will generate electrical noise. Examples are
switches, relays, inductive loads (like motors, coils, solenoids), phase angle fired
SCRs, electrical welding machinery, fluorescent and neon lights, etc.
You can see and hear electrical noise when listening to an AM radio station. When
a light switch is switched or an electric motor is operated near the radio, you hear
“static” from the speakers. That static is really electrical noise picked up by the
radio and converted into sound. The electrical noise interferes with the radio’s
ability to process and output a clear AM radio signal. You can just imagine what
this “noise” does to sensitive electronic equipment!!
How do we eliminate electrical noise? Good question. At what point is the SCR’s
gate normally fired (opened)? Look at the AC waveforms through the SCR in
Figures 6 to 8. What do you see? The gate is always fired (switched ON) at zero
voltage. Why? To eliminate (or at least greatly reduce) electrical noise, we want
to switch the SCR ON and OFF at the lowest possible voltage - zero! See Figure
10. Switching the SCR ON when the AC sine wave crosses zero voltage is called
zero-cross switching.

Zero Cross Switching (con’t)
Contactor Firing
Burst Firing
Time base is basically the
“cycle time” programmed into
the SCR power controller
instead of being set in the tem-
perature controller. However,
the time base is often not user
selectable.
Watlow Educational Series
Figure 10
+
V 0
_
SCR Switch-on-Points
Because it takes a bit of time for the gate to fully open after it has been “fired,” a
SCR typically switches at 1 to 1.5 volts. This “forward voltage drop” produces a
very small amount of electrical noise and generates some heat. How do we get
the heat away from the SCR? As with SSRs, we use a heat sink to dissipate the
heat from the SCR. All SCR power controls usually use heat sinks.
A SCR power control can be used as a contactor. Contactor is just another word
for a relay. Typically, it is only used as a contactor if it is switching very high
amperage loads (usually over 75 to 100 amps). The control output signal required
by the SCR is some type of ON/OFF signal, like a switched DC signal. Thus, the
SCR can function just like a large relay or SSR. Of course the SCR is zero-cross
switched to minimize electrical noise.
Using SCRs as contactors to control heaters is not recommended. You don’t gain
much. You gain much more by using burst firing SCR power controllers.
Burst firing SCR power controllers provide short “bursts” of load current to the
heater. These short bursts of current provide just the right amount of power
requested by the temperature control output. How many and how often these
“bursts” of current occur depends on the time base of the power controller.
The time base is basically the same thing as the cycle time in a temperature con-
troller. With SCR power controllers, however, the time base is set by the power
control itself. It is not set in the temperature controller. The burst firing SCR
power controller can use two types of time bases: fixed and variable.
Fixed Time Base
A fixed time base means that the “cycle time” on the SCR power controller is
permanently set or fixed (not adjustable). During this time period (1 second, for
example), the SCR power controller will turn the SCR ON and OFF to provide the
correct percentage of power to the heater. If this sounds similar to how a SSR is
switched ON and OFF, you are absolutely right. Let’s work through some exam-
ples to clarify this.
9
Burst Firing (con’t)
Example: A temperature controller’s process output commands the SCR power
controller to provide 40% power. The SCR has a fixed time base of 1 second. The
power supply is 60 hertz (60 cycles per second) AC. How is the SCR burst fired
to provide 40% power to the heater during this 1 second time period?

The SCR power controller uses the percent power requirement (40%) to calculate
how many AC cycles should be allowed through the SCR during 1 second. The
result (shown in Figure 11a) is that the first 24 cycles (40% of 60 cycles) will be
allowed through the SCR. The SCR is then turned off for the other 36 cycles (60%
of 60 cycles).

Example: If the process output demands a 90% power requirement, how many
cycles will the SCR allow through (time base = 1 second)?

The SCR is fired enough to allow 54 cycles (90% of 60 cycles) through (Figure
11b). After 54 cycles, the SCR is not fired for the remaining 6 cycles (10% of 60
cycles).

Figure 11

24 Cycles ON 36 Cycles OFF

a. Burst Firing with Fixed Time Base - 40% Power Requirement

54 Cycles ON 6 Cycles OF

b. Burst Firing with Fixed Time Base - 90% Power Requirement

See how this works? Notice that we are still switching the heater ON and OFF.
We are just switching it ON and OFF (or cycling) within the 1 second time base.
As the power requirement changes, the number of AC cycles allowed through the
SCR per second also changes. The load current flowing to the heater is not truly
continuous, but provides a much smoother flow of power to the heater.

Exercise One

A burst firing SCR is used with a 1 second time base. If 20% power is required,
how many ON cycles and OFF cycles are there each second. A 60 Hz power
supply is used. Draw a diagram to illustrate this. Answer on page 25.

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 Watlow Educational Series
Variable Time Base
A SCR power controller with a variable time base changes the time base
according to the power requirement. Burst firing with a variable time base uses
the smallest possible number of AC cycles to deliver the required percentage
power to the heater. Again let’s do 2 examples and compare these to the fixed
time base examples on the previous page.

Example: A temperature controllerís process output commands the SCR power

controller to provide 40% power. The SCR has a variable time base. The power
supply is 60 hertz (60 cycles per second) AC. How is the SCR burst fired to
provide 40% power to the heater during a 1 second time period?

First, the variable time base SCR calculates the smallest possible number of cycles
to produce 40% power. For 40% power, 2 AC cycles out of every 5 cycles (2⁄5 =
40%) are allowed through the SCR (Figure 12a). Compare this to a fixed time base
at 40% power - 24 cycles are ON and 36 cycles are OFF.

Example: If the process output demands a 90% power requirement, how many
cycles will the SCR allow through using a variable time base?

Now the SCR will be ON 9 out of every 10 cycles (9/10 = 90%). Notice how the
time base changed from 5 cycles in Figure 12a to 10 cycles in Figure 12b! Now
you know how variable time base got its name? The time base changes to
deliver the shortest possible bursts of power to the heater.

Figure 12

+
V 0
_

2 Cycles ON 3 Cycles OFF

a. Burst Firing with Variable Time Base - 40% Power Requirement

+
V 0
_
1 Cycle OFF
9 Cycles ON

b. Burst Firing with Variable Time Base - 90% Power Requirement

What is the main advantage of
variable time base over fixed
time base? Because variable
time base typically switches the
heater ON and OFF more quick-
ly, heater life is greatly
increased.
Why is variable time base preferred over a fixed time base? As you can see from
our analysis above, the ON/OFF switching of the heater happens much more
quickly with variable time base. We know that the more quickly the heater is
switched, the less temperature variations the resistance element has. The nearly
constant load current to the heater keeps the heater’s resistance element temper-
ature nearly constant. This provides a longer heater life.

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SCR Power Control
Variable Time Base (con’t)

Exercise Two

A burst firing SCR uses a variable time base. If 20% power is required, how
many ON cycles and OFF cycles will provide 20% power to the heater? Draw
a diagram to illustrate this. Compare this to Exercise One. Answer on page
25.

Phase-Angle Firing
In this method of SCR firing, the proportioning action takes place every consecu-
tive half cycle in the AC sine wave. The time base then, is equal to one half AC
cycle! This is fast! The firing point is variable within this half cycle time period
to achieve a very accurate proportional control of electric current through the
SCR.

If the SCR gate is fired early in the half cycle, the power output of the heater is
high. Why? If most of the current gets through the SCR, the heater will produce
lots of power. If the gate is fired late in the half cycle, only a small increment of
power passes through the SCR. Then the amount of power (heat energy)
produced by the heater will be very little. If we again use the 40% and 90% power
requirement examples, you can see the affect of phase angle firing on the current
flow through the SCR (Figure 13).

Figure 13

+
V0
-

a. Phase Angle Firing - 40% Power Requirement

+
V0
-

b. Phase Angle Firing - 90% Power Requirement

The point at which the SCR’s gate is fired in the AC sine wave is continuously
variable across the half cycle. Where it is fired depends on the power required by
the heater. Current flow to the heater is practically continuous! Thus, there is no
temperature variation experienced by the resistance element in the heater. As a
result, phase angle firing provides us the best resistance element control and the
longest life possible.
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 Watlow Educational Series
Phase-Angle Firing (con’t)
As you may have noticed, when the SCR is phase angle fired, it is NOT zero-cross
switched! What problem will we have if it is not zero-cross switched? Right!
Phase angle fired SCRs generate a lot of electrical noise! The electrical noise
appears as voltage “spikes” on the AC sine wave (Figure 14). These voltage
spikes were left out of Figure 13 for clarity.

Figure 14

+
V 0
-

The “choppy” sine wave pattern in Figure 14 also produces harmonic frequencies
which can add to the electrical noise produced. In general, the electrical noise
produced is not a problem if electronic equipment is properly protected from this
electrical noise interference.

SCR Review
This is a good place to stop and review what we have discovered so far. Please
Questions take a few minutes to answer the following questions. Answers are on page 25.

1. A SCR power controller is like a relay, except that it can switch the heater ON
and OFF much more rapidly. This increases heater life. True or false.

2. Name the 3 main parts of a SCR power controller.

3. Diodes and SCRs conduct current in only both directions. True or false.

4. Why are back-to-back SCRs used?

5. Why do we prefer to use zero-cross switched SCRs?

6. Explain the difference between fixed and variable time base burst firing.

7. a.) Describe what phase angle firing is. b) In the left margin use diagrams
to compare variable time base burst firing and phase angle firing. Compare
them using a 60% power output on an AC 60 Hz power supply.

13
SCR Power Control
Power Control and
As we learned in Book 2 (Thermal Systems and Electric Heaters), all resistance
Heater Life elements eventually burn out. We also know that we can greatly extend heater
life by reducing the temperature cycling which the resistance element
experiences. That is where the true advantage of the SCR power control lies - it
greatly reduces the temperature cycling on the resistance wire.

Well, how much does it reduce this temperature cycling? At this point, let’s sum-
marize and compare what we know about the various types of output devices.
The point we want to compare is cycle time (or time base) and what effect it has
on resistance element temperature..

Electromechanical
Relay Normally, this type of relay operates on a cycle time of 10 seconds or longer.
When an ON/OFF cycle takes place over 10 to 30 seconds, the resistance element
temperature experiences very large temperature swings (Figure 15). Large
temperature swings accelerate resistance wire oxidation and burn out the heater
much more quickly.

Mercury Displacement
Relay (MDR) Because the MDR uses liquid mercury to make contact and conduct electricity,
the life of the MDR is much longer. Consequently, we can use a shorter cycle
time. The typical cycle time for MDRs is 4 to 5 seconds. Notice in Figure 16 the
dramatic reduction in resistance element temperature swings. This is a result of
quicker switching (cycling every 5 versus every 30 seconds).

The advantage of the MDR is not only in the longer life of the heater, but in the
longer life of the mercury relay itself. Even when switching so quickly, the MDR
will outlast an electromechanical relay.

Figure 15 Figure 16
Time-Temperature Profile for an Time-Temperature Profile for a MDR
Electromechanical Relay

2000°F

1700°F

1600°F

1500°F

1300°F
Electromechanical 30 Second Mercury Displacement Relay 5 Second
Cycle Time Cycle Time
Process Set Point: 1600°F Process Set Point: 1600°F
Overshoot: 300°F (1900°F) Overshoot: 50°F
Droop: 254°F (1346°F) Droop: 30°F
Internal Temperature 2100°F Internal Temperature 1830°F

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 Watlow Educational Series
Solid State Relay (SSR)
Since a SSR is solid state, it does not fail due to the mechanical wear or arcing of
the contacts cycling ON and OFF. It can operate on a cycle time of about 1
second. Again, because of the shorter cycle time, we see a further reduction in the
temperature swings of the resistance element (Figure 17). These are the same
temperature swings we expect to see if using a burst firing - fixed time base SCR
(1 second time base).

Burst Firing SCR Power

Control A variable time base - burst fired SCR further reduces the time base to a few AC
cycles. The switching time is now so short that the resistance element sees very
little if any temperature swings (Figure 18). This type of switching makes
resistance element heaters have a very long life. There is still temperature cycling
of the resistance element with very high watt density heaters.

Figure 17 Figure 18
Time-Temperature Profile for a SSR or SCR Time-Temperature Profile for a Burst Firing SCR
with 1 Second Time Base (Variable Time Base)

2000°F

1700°F

1600°F

1500°F

1300°F
Solid State Relay 1 Second Time Base SCR (with burst firing) Minimum16.6 millisecond time base
Process Set Point: 1600°F Process Set Point: 1600°F
Overshoot: 4°F Overshoot: 0
Droop: 5°F Droop: 0
Internal Temperature 1730°F Internal Temperature 1720°F

Phase Angle Firing

The time base for phase angle firing is one half cycle of the AC sine wave. The
SCR Power Control
heater switching is now so fast that there is NO temperature cycling of the resis-
tance element (Figure 19)! Even high watt density heaters will not experience
temperature cycling when phase angle firing is used. The resistance element (and
thus the heater) have the longest life with phase angle firing!

Figure 19
Time-Temperature Profile for Phase Angle Fired SCR

SCR (with phase angle) 8.3 to 10 millisecond time base

Process Set Point: 1600°F
Overshoot: 0
Droop: 0
Internal Temperature 1680°F
15
Burst Firing SCR Power
Control (con’t) An accelerated life test was done to determine which output device provides the
longest life. The results in Figure 20 once again confirm what we knew...quicker
ON/OFF switching leads to lower resistance element temperature swings. This,
in turn, greatly extends heater life!

Figure 20
Heater Life Vs. Time Base Relationship

SCR
Phase
Angle
Firing SCR
8000 Burst
Firing
7000
6000
Life (Hours)

5000
SSR
4000 Electro-
3000 Mechanical
MDR Relay
500
400
300
200
100

0
0 8.3 ms 33 ms 1 5 30

Cycle Time (Seconds)

Exercise Three

A customer wants to order a Watlow microprocessor-based PID temperature

controller. This controller is required because of the fast response and accu-
racy it offers. She is thinking of using electromechanical relays to switch the
heater loads. Is this a good choice? Based on what we just discussed and
what you know about output devices, what control output-output device
combination would you recommend? Explain your answer. Answer on page
25.

16

Power Control
Only a SSR or a SCR power
controller allow a customer to
take full advantage of a propor-
tioning (PID) temperature con-
troller’s capabilities.
Stable Resistance
Heaters
All Watlow heaters use nichrome
or other type of stable resis-
tance element. Special
designed heaters, however, may
employ temperature dependent
resistance elements.
Watlow Educational Series
If SCR power controllers and PID temperature controllers are so great, WHY do
customers still use thermostats and relays in many types of equipment? Think
about it a minute.... Good question, hey? Let’s find a good answer!
Most of the time, a customer uses the least expensive control system which will
do the job required. So, if a thermostat controls temperature within +- 25˚F and
the thermal system performs well, then a thermostat will be used. As more accu-
rate temperature control is required, the customer must use either ON/OFF or
PID controllers. These controllers are more expensive, but must be used to
provide accurate temperature control.
The mistake many customers make is to invest in an expensive PID temperature
controller and then to use electromechanical relays to do the power switching!
That defeats much of the purpose in using a PID temperature controller in the
first place! A PID control can do things very fast...an electromechanical relay can
only switch very slowly (due to long cycle time). It’s a mismatch.
To make the best use of a PID control’s capabilities, you must use a SSR or SCR
power controller to switch the heater (or cooling system) load.
That is basically how the selection of the temperature and power controls are
made. Let’s journey more specifically into application of SCR power controllers.
There are 3 types of heating loads which SCRs switch: Heaters with stable
resistance elements, heaters with variable resistance elements and transformer-
coupled heaters. We explore these types of heater control next.
These heaters have resistance elements which maintain a fairly constant resis-
tance value. For example, nichrome wire elements typically experience about a
5%+ increase in resistance at operating temperature. The resistance value may
increase 10%+ above the cold resistance if the temperature moves up toward
nichrome’s operating limit (close to 2000˚F or 1200˚C). However, a 5 to 10%
increase is not much. Other “stable” resistance elements increase somewhat more
than 10% as temperature increases. The majority of Watlow heaters use nichrome
or other stable resistance elements.
When switching nichrome element heaters, a SSR with a 1/2 to 1 second cycle
time setting is recommended. If higher amp switching or faster switching is
required to get better heater life (or quicker control response), use a variable time
base burst firing SCR power controller. Variable time base burst firing provides
excellent control, very little electrical noise and provides very long heater life.
The SCR Selection Chart (Figure 25 on page 20) shows this selection process more
clearly.
Notice that the chart does not recommend phase angle fired SCRs to control
stable resistance heating loads! Variable time base burst firing works just fine.
17
Variable Resistance
Heaters
The high in-rush current on start
up when using tungsten or
molybdenum-based resistance
elements will destroy a SCR
almost instantly (unless using I2t
fusing and soft start).
18
There are a few resistance element materials which show large resistance value
changes with temperature. Examples are tungsten, molybdenum, silicon carbide
and graphite element heaters. Tungsten elements are often used in high temper-
ature tungsten-quartz tubular heaters. Molybdenum, silicon carbide and graphite
heaters are used for high temperature ovens and applications as well. The graph
in Figure 21 shows the temperature dependent resistance values of tungsten and
molybdenum.
Figure 21
Temperature Dependent Resistance Values of Tungsten and Molybdenum
100
Specific Resistance microohm-cm
90
80
70
Tungsten
60
50
40
Molybdenum
30
20
10
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200
Temperature ˚C
Why is this large resistance value change a problem? Let’s use Ohm’s Law to
help us out. Ohm’s Law states that V = IR. The supply voltage to a heater is con-
stant. Therefore, the only terms that can change are current (I) and resistance (R).
If, for example, V = 230V and R = 23Ω at operating temperature, what is the cur-
rent through the tungsten element? It is 10 amps (230V/23Ω). What happens
when the heater is shut off? Per Figure 21, the resistance value of the tungsten
drops to about 1/15th its value at operating temperature! So the cold resistance
is about 1.53Ω.
What happens when the heater is switched on again? Since the resistance ele-
ment is cold, the current will be 15 times as large as at operating temperature (150
amps)! Why? Since the resistance dropped to 1/15th its “hot” value, the current
must increase by 15 times to make the equation 230V = 150 amps x 1.53Ω valid.
This large in-rush current will blow out the SCR and may damage the heater as
well.
How do we eliminate this problem? For these kinds of heaters, a phase angle
firing SCR power controller is required. To prevent the SCR from burning up on
heater start up, we use the soft start feature on a phase angle firing SCR. Figure
25 on page 20 shows you the selection process just described above.
 Watlow Educational Series
Variable Resistance Heaters
(con’t) Phase Angle Soft Start

Soft start only operates during heater start up. When the signal is given to start
the heater, the temperature controller tells the SCR to switch full ON. However,
we know that if this happens, the SCR will be destroyed. So in this start up con-
dition, the soft start feature allows only a small amount of current through to the
heater. As time goes on, the current is gradually increased until full power is
finally applied to the heater (Figure 22). Soft start usually lasts for about 5 to 10
seconds, depending on the SCR power controller used.

Figure 22
Soft Start Illustrated

+
V 0
_
Time

Soft start essentially allows the resistance element to preheat or warm up. This
increases element resistance before the full load voltage is applied through the
SCR to the heater. This ensures that the SCR is not harmed and that the heater
will have a very long life.

Phase Angle Current Limiting

Soft start gradually increases the current flow and thus the power supplied to the
heater during initial heater start up. It is still possible, however, that after the soft
start (or at some other time during operation) too much current may pass through
the SCR. This, as we know, will destroy the SCR.

To prevent this from happening, a current sensing transformer is built into the
SCR power controller. The transformer senses the current flow through the SCR.
If the current is higher than the maximum, the power controller electronics reduce
the current to the maximum limit value (Figure 23).

When the load current through the SCR drops back below the maximum current
limit, then the full power of the AC sine wave is allowed through.

Figure 23
Current Limiting in Action

+
V0
_
Soft Start Current Limiting

19
Variable Resistance Heaters
(con’t)
Transformer-Coupled
Heating Loads
Low voltage Watlow ceramic
fiber heaters are often trans-
former-coupled.
SCR Selection Chart
20
Current limiting cannot help, though, when a short circuit occurs. When a short
circuit occurs there is almost no resistance in the circuit. The rise in current is so
swift that it destroys the SCR. The only way to prevent a short circuit from
destroying the SCR is by using an I2t fuse (pronounced eye-squared-tee). This
fuse will blow within 1⁄2 cycle of the short circuit condition. ALWAYS use I2t fuses
whenever SCR power controls are used! It is a small price to pay to protect the
customers investment!
Heaters used in very high temperature applications tend to have low voltage
ratings (say, 12 to 60V). Low voltage ratings are required, because the heaters
typically have very low resistance values. Using a lower voltage provides the
proper amount of current required to power the heaters.
A transformer is used to step down the high voltage power supply to the low
voltage required by the heater. A phase angle fired SCR is again required to con-
trol current flow through the transformer (and thus the heater). The transformer
and phase angle fired SCR are usually connected as shown in Figure 24. Notice
how the SCR power controller is connected on the HIGH VOLTAGE side of the
circuit. It is much less expensive to control high voltage and low current than the
other way around!
Figure 24
Typical Connection Scheme for Transformer-Coupled Heaters
SCR Power Controller
L1
High Low
Voltage Voltage Heater
Supply L2 Side
Transformer
A phase angle SCR is required, because it has a built-in circuit which ensures that
the transformer always receives alternating plus and minus AC voltage pulses. If,
for some reason, the transformer received two pulses of the same polarity, it could
overheat the transformer and blow the SCR. The SCR Selection Chart in Figure
25 again shows this for transformer-coupled heating loads.
To simplify our selection of the proper SCR power controller, we can use the flow
chart shown in Figure 25. First, we determine the type and resistance character-
istic of the load. Then, we find the recommended type of SCR firing method.
Finally, we find the type of temperature controller output required to signal the
SCR power controller.
Example: You have quoted a Watlow radiant panel heater to a customer. What
type of SCR power control can you recommend?
 Watlow Educational Series
SCR Selection Chart
(con’t) From Figure 25, we see that Watlow heaters are stable resistance loads. Thus, we
can choose a solid state contactor (SSR) or a burst firing SCR power controller.
The temperature controller output required for a SSR is a time proportioning out-
put (like switched DC). The temperature controller output required for a burst
firing SCR power controller is a process output (like 4-20mA).

Figure 25
SCR Selection Chart

Characteristics
Notes: of the Load
*1. Nichrome heater elements
change resistance less than
Stable *1 Resistance *2 Inductance *3
two times in their operat- Resistance Change
ing temperature range.

*2. Heaters that change resis- Typical

Nichrome Tungsten Transformer
Cartridge Quartz
tance include: Load Circulation Silicon Carbide
• Tungsten changes over 16 Strip Glo Bars
Tubular Molybdenum
times from cold to hot Mica Strip Graphite
• Silicon carbide changes Quartz
Radiant
with temperature and age
• Molybdenum and graphite
change resistance with the
temperature and are often SCR
used on the secondary of a Firing Solid State Burst Phase Phase
Contactor Firing Angle Angle
transformer Method
Required

*3. Transformers can become

DC saturated if two pulses
of the same polarity are Temperature
applied in sequence which Control
Output Time Process Process Process
can cause overheating and Required Proportioning (Analog) (Analog) (Analog)
high currents that will
damage the SCR. Burst fir-
ing should not be applied.

Exercise Four

A customer wants to use a Watlow tubular immersion heater. The heater is

rated for 480VAC, 3 phase, 50kW. He wants to use a thermostat connected up
to an electromechanical relay to control thermal system temperature.

The customer also requires accurate temperature control and fast

response to temperature changes. Based on the heater and customer
requirements, recommend the best temperature controller (thermostat,
ON/OFF or PID), control output and switching device to meet customer
requirements. Use Figure 25 if necessary. Answers on page 25.

21
3 Phase SCR Power Control
Contact a Watlow sales agent or
Watlow Controls factory for more
detailed information on switch-
ing heaters with SCR power
controllers.
22
It is actually quite simple to apply SCR power controllers to single and three
phase powered heaters. Single phase heaters are connected as shown in Figure
26. Notice that only one set of back-to-back SCRs is used to control current to the
heater. Of course, proper fusing must be used!
Figure 26
Single Phase SCR Power Control
L1
L2
There are many types of 3 phase connections for SCR power controllers. Each is
dependent on the type of SCR firing required. The first is used for burst fired,
3 phase control. Figure 27 shows that only 2 back-to-back SCRs are required to
control a burst fired, 3ph heater. This is the least expensive way to control burst
fired, 3 phase heaters. Remember that burst firing means that the SCRs are zero-
cross switched.
Figure 27
Three Phase-Two Leg SCR Power Control (Burst Firing Only)
L1
L2
L3
When phase angle fired power control is required, the least expensive way to go
is to use a hybrid 3 pair SCR/Diode combination (Figure 28). This is less
expensive than 3 pairs of back-to-back SCRs and generates less heat. This hybrid
design can be used for burst fired control of 3ph heaters, but is normally not
recommended.
Figure 28
Three Phase-Three Leg Hybrid SCR Power Control (Phase Angle Firing Only)
L1
L2
L3
 Watlow Educational Series
3 Phase SCR Power Control
(con’t) Another alternative for phase angle fired 3ph heaters, is to use a set of 3 back-to-
back SCRs (Figure 29). This control scheme must be used when there is an
unbalanced load (resistances of various legs are different). It also must be used
for delta-to-delta 3ph transformer control.

Figure 29
Three Phase-Three Leg SCR Power Control (Phase Angle Firing Only)

L1

L2

L3

Finally, when a 3ph, 4 wire (grounded wye) heater must be controlled, 3 back-to-
back SCRs are again used with an uncontrolled neutral (Figure 30). This is for
burst fired control applications.

Figure 30
Three Phase-Four Wire SCR Power Control (Burst Firing Only)

L1

L2

L3

Booklet Review
We’ve come a long way on our journey through SCR power control! Now, let’s
Questions
review by putting into practice what you have so diligently studied. Answer the
following questions. If you can’t answer a question, go back into the book and
review that section. Answers to all questions are on page 26.

1. Why do we use a SCR power controller in a thermal system?

a) To increase work load life.

b) To increase electromechanical relay life.
c) To increase heater life.
d) To increase the ability of a PID temperature controller to respond to
temperature changes in the work load and increase heater life.
e) Both a and c are correct.

2. Briefly explain why SCR's are placed back-to-back in parallel.

23
Booklet Review Questions
(con’t) 3. What does "time base" mean?

a. It is similar to cycle time on a PID temperature controller.

b. The number of cycles per second (hertz).
c. The time required for the work load to reach set point.
d. The time during which a SCR power controller cycles the heater ON and
OFF.
e. Only a and d are correct.
f. Only a and c are correct.

4. A PID temperature controller has a 0-5VDC process output. The process

signal is fed to a burst firing SCR power controller (with a variable time base).
The power supply has 230VAC, 60Hz. The process output signal is 3.5 volts.
What is the current flow through the SCR to the heater?

a. 42 cycles ON, 18 cycles OFF.

b. 7 cycles ON, 10 cycles OFF.
c. 7 cycles ON, 3 cycles OFF.
d. 3 cycles ON, 1 cycle OFF.

5. Which of the answers in question #4 above is correct if the SCR power

controller has a fixed time base of 1 second?

6. A quartz tubular heater uses tungsten resistance elements. What method of

SCR firing and options should be chosen for this heater?

a. Burst firing, fixed time base, current limiting.

b. Burst firing, variable time base, current limiting.
c. Phase angle firing, soft start, current limiting.
d. Both a and b are correct.

7. A set of Watlow Multicell heaters is used to heat gases to very high tempera-
tures. The heaters are rated 480VAC, 3ph, 20,000W. Which temperature
control method, control output and output device would you choose to
control these heaters. Please explain your answer.

8. Molybdenum disilicide heating elements are used in a high temperature

furnace application. Which temperature control method, control output and
output device would you choose to control these heaters. Please explain your
answer.

9. A low voltage ceramic fiber heater is operated on 60VAC. A transformer is

used to step down the voltage. What method of SCR power control do you
recommend for this application? Please explain your answer.

24
 Watlow Educational Series

Answers to Exercises
Answers to Exercises
and Review Questions
Exercise 1: First we multiply 20% (0.2) by 60Hz to calculate the number of ON
cycles per second. 60 x 0.2 = 12 cycles. Therefore, in one second, at 20% power,
there are 12 ON cycles followed by 48 OFF cycles. See Figure 31a below.

Exercise 2: With variable time base, we have to find the smallest combination of
ON/OFF cycles which will provide 20% power. From Exercise One, we know
that 20% power is 12 cycles ON, 48 cycles OFF. We then reduce this proportion to
its smallest possible value. We can divide both numbers by 12. The result is
1 cycle ON/4 cycles OFF. This will provide 20% power to the heater. See Figure
31b below.

Figure 31

+
V 0
_

12 Cycles ON 48 Cycles OFF

a. Fixed Time Base of 1 Second - Burst Firing Under 20% Power

+ 1 Cycle
ON
1 Cycle
ON
V 0
_ 4 Cycles 4 Cycles
OFF
OFF

b. Variable Time Base - Burst Firing Under 20% Power

Exercise 3: In any case, electromechanical relays are not a good choice. This is
especially true since fast response and accuracy are required. It is much better to
use at least a SSR, or perhaps a SCR power controller.

Assuming an external SSR is used, either a switched DC control output or inter-

nal SSR must be used to switch the external SSR. Use a fast cycle time (about 1
second).
If a SCR power controller is used, use a process control output and a variable time
base burst firing SCR.

Exercise 4: DO NOT USE THE THERMOSTAT! Use a PID temperature controller

with a process output (like 4-20 mA) and a variable time base burst firing SCR
power controller

Answers to SCR Review Questions - Page 13

1. True. A SCR power controller switches power ON and OFF to the heater in
much the same way as a relay. The faster switching increases heater life.

2. The SCR, control electronics and heat sink.

25
Answers to Exercises and
Review Questions (con’t) 3. False. They conduct current in only one direction.

4. This allows current to flow in both directions. One SCR conducts current in
one direction, the other SCR conducts current in the other direction.

5. This greatly reduces electrical noise, because SCR switching takes place at or
near zero volts.

6. In fixed time base, ON and OFF switching of the SCR must always take place
during a fixed time period (like 1 second). Variable time base continually
varies the time period (or number of cycles) to provide the quickest switch-
ing possible.

7. a) Phase angle firing fires the SCR each consecutive half cycle. The power
flow through the SCR is varied by firing the SCR either earlier or later in that
half cycle.

b) The smallest possible number of cycles required to get a 60% power flow
is 3 cycles ON out of 5 cycles (3/5 = 60%). Thus the total time base is 5 cycles.
Figure 32 below illustrates this.

Figure 32

+
V 0
_ 3 2
Cycles Cycles
ON OFF

5 Cycles
Time Base

Answers to Booklet Review Questions - Page 23

1. d) To increase the ability of a PID temperature controller to respond to

temperature changes in the work load and increase heater life.

2. They are placed back-to-back in parallel so that AC current can flow both
ways through the SCR pair. One SCR is used for current in one direction, one
SCR is used for current in the other direction.

3. e) Only a and d are correct.

4. c) 7 cycles ON, 3 cycles OFF

5. a) 42 cycles ON, 18 cycles OFF.

6. c) Phase angle firing, soft start, current limiting

7. Use a PID temperature controller, a process output (like 4-20mA or

0-5VDC), and a burst firing, variable time base SCR power controller.
Use the 3 phase, 2 back-to-back SCR controller shown in Figure 27. This
temperature and power control system will provide the best life and
temperature control.

26
 Watlow Educational Series
Answers to Exercises and
Review Questions (con’t) 8. Molybdenum is (per Figures 21 and 25), one of the resistance elements that
has a high change in resistance due to temperature. Therefore, a PID tem-
perature control, process control output and phase angle fired SCR power
controller are required. The phase angle control should have soft start and
current limiting.

9. Transformers (per Figure 25) require phase angle fired SCR power
controllers. Soft start and current limiting are required features.

27
 Designer and Manufacturer of Industrial
Heaters, Sensors and Controls

Watlow St. Louis • 12001 Lackland Road • St. Louis, MO 63146 USA • Phone: 314-878-4600 • FAX: 314-434-1020

For information on other training books and materials available from

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