WHAT IS CULTURE?

Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people,

encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.

It encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage,
music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how
we behave with loved ones, and a million other things.

The word "culture" was derived from a French term, which in turn derives from the
Latin "colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture.

The Philippines is a country that has varied cultural influences. Most of these influences
are results of previous colonization, deriving mainly from the culture of Spain and the United
States. Despite all of these influences, the old Asian culture of Filipinos has been retained and
are clearly seen in their way of life, beliefs and customs.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

Culture combines many elements to create a unique way of living for different people.

SYMBOLS. A symbol is anything that is used to stand for something else. People who share a
culture often attach a specific meaning to an object, gesture, sound, or image. For example, a
cross is a significant symbol to Christians. It is not simply two pieces of wood attached to each
other, nor is it just an old object of torture and execution. To Christians, it represents the basis
of their entire religion, and they have great reverence for the symbol. Another example is Mano
or Pagmamano.

LANGUAGE. It is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people. This
includes full languages as we usually think of them, such as English, Tagalog, etc. But it also
includes body language, slang, and common phrases that are unique to certain groups of
people. Another example of how cultural languages differ beyond vocabulary is the fact that
eye contact represents different meanings in different cultures. Examples are Lip Pointing,
Nodding and raising eyebrows with a smile, Silent looks.

VALUES. It is the culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are
deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture’s beliefs. It helps shape a
society by suggesting what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided. Values often
suggest how people should behave, but they don’t accurately reflect how people do behave.
Values portray an ideal culture; the standards society would like to embrace and live up to.

The term bahala na, which can be translated to whatever happens, happens, is one of
the more familiar phrases used in the country and is perhaps the most representative of how
Filipinos value adaptability and quick thinking. It exemplifies one’s belief in a higher power and
submitting one’s fate to elements that cannot be controlled.

NORMS. Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for behaving.
Norms are often divided into two types, formal norms, and informal norms. Formal norms, also
called mores and laws, refer to the standards of behavior considered the most important in any
society. Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior that
are considered less important but still influence how we behave.

LAYERS OF CULTURE

• The national level: associated with the nation as a whole

 • The regional level: associated with ethnic, linguistic, or religious differences that exist
within a nation
• The gender level- associated with gender differences (female vs. Male)
• The generation level- associated with the differences between grandparents and
parents, parents and children
• The social class level: associated with educational opportunities and differences in
occupation
• The corporate level- associated with the particular culture of an organization. Applicable
to those who are employed.

ETHNOCENTRISM vs. CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Despite how much humans have in common, cultural differences are far more prevalent than
cultural universals.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM. It is the idea that a person’s beliefs, values and practices should
be understood based on the person’s own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of
another.

ETHNOCENTRISM. It is the belief or attitude that one’s own culture is better than all
others, and should therefore serve as the standard frame for reference.

WHAT IS POPULAR CULTURE?

It is also called mass culture and pop culture) is generally recognized by members of a
society as a set of the practices, beliefs and objects that are dominant or ubiquitous in a society
at a given point in time. Heavily influenced in modern times by mass media, this collection of
ideas permeates the everyday lives of people in a given society. Therefore, popular culture has
a way of influencing an individual’s attitudes towards certain topics.

The culture of the Philippines comprises a blend of traditional Filipino and Spanish Catholic
traditions, with influences from America and other parts of Asia. The Filipinos are family
oriented and often religious with an appreciation for art, fashion, music and food.

 Filipinos are very resilient. In times of calamities and catastrophes, Filipinos always

manage to rise above the challenge. Instead of wallowing, they manage to pick
themselves up and smile.
 Filipinos take pride in their families. In the Philippines, it is family first. So whether you
are part of the immediate family or you belong to the fourth generation, you are treated
as a family member. Sometimes, even the closest of friends are considered family, too.
 Filipinos are very religious. In all corners of a Filipino house, you can find brazen images
of crosses and other religious paraphernalia. They go to church every Sunday, or
sometimes even twice or three times a week.
 Filipinos are very respectful. From the moment they are born into this world, they are
already taught how to be respectful by using these simple catchphrases—po and opo,
words that end sentences when addressing elders. They have a culture of pagmamano,
which is where they raise the backs of the hands of their elders to their foreheads as a
sign of respect.
 Filipinos help one another. More popularly known as bayanihan, Filipinos help one
another—without expecting anything in return—so that undertaking their tasks and
responsibilities become much easier. Sometimes this is called “community spirit.”
 Filipinos value traditions and culture. For Filipinos, traditions in their home and in their
family are important. They usually set aside a specific day for a certain celebration like
 festivals, birthday parties, reunions, etc. And of course, every gathering is dedicated to
keeping up with each other over sumptuous food.
 Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebrations. Even as early as August, you can
hear Christmas songs and jingles being played in the malls or in the restaurants in the
Philippines. The mood becomes festive, with many people shopping and in good spirits.
Christmas celebrations last until around the first or second week of January.
 Filipinos love to eat. Aside from breakfast, lunch, and dinner, Filipinos manage to
squeeze in a little meal in between, too. Whether they eat every hour or every three
hours, they savour every bite.
 Filipinos love to sing. This is the reason why karaoke has become so prevalent. As part
of their recreation, Filipinos spend some quality time with their families or friends
singing or belting out new and old songs.
 Filipinos love art and architecture. Filipinos have a penchant for bringing art and
architecture to a whole new level. They love to design creatively, to think intuitively, and
have a passion for anything different and unique.

Other Filipino Culture

Filipino Family Values

 The family is the centre of the social structure and includes the nuclear family, aunts,
uncles, grandparents, cousins and honorary relations such as godparents, sponsors, and
close family friends.
 People get strength and stability from their family. As such, many children have several
godparents.
 It is common for members of the same family to work for the same company.

Filipino Concept of Shame

 Hiya is shame and is a motivating factor behind behaviour.

 It is a sense of social propriety and conforming to societal norms of behaviour.
 Filipinos believe they must live up to the accepted standards of behaviour and if they fail
to do so they bring shame not only upon themselves, but also upon their family.
 One indication of this might be a willingness to spend more than they can afford on a
party rather than be shamed by their economic circumstances.
 If someone is publicly embarrassed, criticized, or does not live up to expectations, they
feel shame and lose self-esteem.

Etiquette & Customs

 Initial greetings are formal and follow a set protocol of greeting the eldest or most
important person first.
 Use academic, professional, or honorific titles and the person's surname until you are
invited to use their first name, or even more frequently, their nickname. 

If you are invited to a Filipino's house:

 The best time to arrive is 15 to 30 minutes later if they are invited on a large party.
 Dress well. Appearances matter and you will be judged on how you dress.
 Compliment the hostess on the house. 

 
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND THEIR CULTURE

There are 50 million indigenous people in the world. Almost 5% of the world’s
population. They are spread throughout the entire world.

Let us define first the word indigenous. The term indigenous means originating or occurring
naturally.

So indigenous people refers to any ethnic group that resides in its original location, practices a
traditional culture, and speaks a minority language. They are the first people to have lived in a
place. They are the first culture to settle in an area. Before it was called Philippines, many
people have already stayed in our country. However, this definition is not all encompassing.
Some indigenous groups may have lost their traditional language, but are otherwise considered
an indigenous ethnic group. Other ethnic groups may have been displaced from their original
homeland but have retained most of their indigenous culture. The very term indigenous peoples is
confusing because most people in the world are “indigenous” to their countries in the sense of having
been born in them, being descended from people who were born in them.  There is a lot of
movement in people. For you to be considered as a part of the indigenous group, you should be
the first to stay in the place and is currently staying in the place.

Indigenous people are group of individuals sharing common bonds of language, customs,
traditions, and other distinctive cultural traits. They are inheritors and practitioners of unique
cultures and ways of relating to people and the environment. They have retained social, cultural,
economic and political characteristics that are distinct from those of the dominant societies in which
they live. Indigenous peoples claim their lands because they were there first or have occupied them
since then. They are also groups that have been conquered by peoples racially, ethnically or culturally
different from themselves.

They have thus been subordinated by or incorporated in alien states which treat them as outsiders and,
usually, as inferiors. Since they had not developed their own states and are not integral to the states
that now actually or potentially rule over them,

indigenous peoples are often referred to as “tribal.” The phrase tribal peoples is unfortunately
imprecise. Nowadays it is used as a kind of shorthand to refer to small-scale, pre-industrial societies that
live in comparative isolation and manage their affairs without any centralized authority such as the
state.  
The Philippines is a culturally diverse country with an estimated 14- 17 million
Indigenous Peoples (IPs) belonging to 110 ethno-linguistic groups (a group that has common
language and culture). They are mainly concentrated in Northern Luzon (Cordillera
Administrative Region, 33%) and Mindanao (61%), with some groups in the Visayas area. They
continued to live in their relatively isolated, self-sufficient communities, at the time when most
lowland communities had already been integrated into a single colony under Spain in the 1700s
and 1800s.

They were able to preserve the culture and traditions of their “ethnos” or “tribe” as
reflected in their communal views on land, their cooperative work exchanges, their communal
rituals, their songs, dances, and folklore. Instead of hierarchical governments, each of these
communities had its own council of elders who customarily settled clan or tribal wars to restore
peace and unity.

LUZON “ IGOROT “

Igorot is the general name for the people of the Cordillera region, in the Philippines
island of Luzon. It refers to any of various ethnic groups in the mountains of northern Luzon,
Philippines. The word "Igorot" is an eponym, derived from the archaic Tagalog term for
"mountain people" (formed from the prefix i-, "dweller of" and golot, "mountain range").
These natives are important because they comprise a part of the rich Filipino culture. They
were known in earlier days for their wars and practice of headhunting. Agricultural terracing
and farming are their principal means of livelihood. Their main cultivation is rice. They cultivate
sweet potatoes too. They use to raise pigs and chickens, primarily for the numerous rituals and
sacrifices. This indigenous population covers six provinces in the middle of Northern Luzon –
Abra, Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Mountain Province. There are eight ethno-linguistic
groups in the Cordillera, namely, Bontoc, Isneg, Kalinga, Kankanaey, Tingguian, Yapayao, Ibaloi,
and Ifugao.

 BONTOC

They live in the area surrounding the community of Bontoc in the mountains of Luzon It is a
group of former headhunters that has traditionally lived by hunting, fishing and farming. The
Bontoc use dams, diverted streams and wooden troughs to irrigate agricultural land. The entire
community participates in the construction and maintenance of the irrigation system. Their
population is spread over 10 municipalities and 137 barrios, and each village has its own distinct
dialect, some of which are Sadanga, Guinaang Bontoc, and Bayyu. Bontoc comes from the word
buntuk, which means mountains and refers to the people of Mountain Province. Those living in
the capital town of Mountain Province often speak Bontok, and many speak Ilocano as well.

Bontoc House and Villages

Bontoc villages are organized in wards called ato. Each village has between 6 - 19 ato
and each ato has 14 to 50 houses. Each ato has its meeting-place, consisting of a circle of small
boulders, where the men assemble to discuss matters affecting the ato, such as war and peace; for the
ato is the political unit, and not the village as a whole.  The ato are set around a stone platform,
where headhunting ceremonies were held, and an unmarried girls dormitory and an unmarried
boys dormitory, which also serve as a club house and council room. As soon as children are three
or four years old, they leave the roof under which they were born. The boys should stay in a sort of
dormitory called “pabajunan” , as well as “ olog “ to girls. The children stays and sleeps on their
respective pabajunan and olog until they are grown up and married. The children go on sleeping in their
respective pabajunan and olog until they are grown up and married. A sort of trial marriage seems to
exist; the young men freely visit the olog—indeed, are expected to. If results follow, it is a marriage, and
the couple go to housekeeping; otherwise all the parties in interest are free. Marriage ties are
respected, adultery being punished with death.

Bontoc Religion

Traditional religion remains strong among the Bontoc, especially spirits associated with
the dead. These spirits, known as anito, lives in a spirit world in the mountains that is not unlike
the one people usually people live in. They consult on all characterized matters and relay their
answers through bird calls. Lumawig is their supreme deity.

Bontoc Clothes and Tattoos

Both men and women traditionally covered their bodies with tattoos, although the men
were only allowed to after having killed enemies in inter-tribal conflicts. Women wear bright
red hand-woven skirts, and used distinctive pieces of snake skeleton as hairpieces. Today, many
of the Bontoc cultures and traditions are rarely practiced and slowly disappearing.

 ISNEG

They live in the Province of Apayao, the northwesterly region of Luzon. They used to live
mostly along large rivers and on hillsides. Now they also live in many cities, mainly in Kalanasan.
The Spaniards referred to them as los Apayaos (referring to the river along which they live) and
los Mandayas (taken from the Isneg term meaning “upstream”). Isnag, the Isneg language, is
spoken by around 300,000 people. Ilocano is generally spoken by about three-fourths of the region's
total population. The Isneg settlements are mostly along the river, but they do farming up the hills at certain
times of year. 

They are slender, have a graceful stature, are kind, hospitable, generous, and
courageous. Brave men were called Mengal, and the bravest of them were called Kamenglan.
The Mengal wore red scarves around their heads. They were tattooed on their arms and
shoulders for every head they took in battle.

Isneg House and Villages

Their houses are built close together, for security and companionship. They are usually very
colorful and built on four large posts. Another house they have is called a Binuron. It is a large
rectangular multi family house built on 15 large pillers.

Isneg Religion

There are more than 300 spirits that they pray too. There are no gods, just good and bad spirits.
Many rituals are performed to the good spirits for prosperity, health, etc. They also have rituals
to keep the bad spirits away.

Isneg Rituals/Beliefs

Say-am is a feast celebrated by an affluent Isneg family, usually accompanied by wining,

eating, and dancing. An important special ritual is the say-am, which is performed before an assembly
of people, for important social occasions, such as a successful headhunt (in the past), the removal of
mourning clothes, and other events left to the discretion of wealthy families. The outlay in terms of food
preparation is enormous, and can only be afforded by the rich. To these occasions, shamans and
distinguished members of the hamlet such as the warriors, are invited. Only one shaman may officiate in
the rituals. In contrast, pildap is celebrated by the poorer members of the tribe when a family
transfers to another place or when someone seeks healing.

 KALINGA

They settled on the leveled or terraced areas on the slopes of steep mountains near rivers
and streams, as well as, large portions of open grasslands. As a result, principal sources of
livelihood among the Kalinga is the payaw (ricefields) and the uma (swidden farm). Recently
Kalinga people could be identified from a distance by their distinctive body art. Immersed in the
magnificent mountains, Kalinga people lived modest but passionate lives in a world where your skin
communicated your social status to the local community.

Historically, they attained leadership and respect through headhunting, along with other
skills. The name Kalinga believed to have originated from the Gaddang (Cagayan) and Ibanag
languages, means “headhunter.”

Kalinga society may be stratified into lawa or kapus (poor) and the baknang (wealthy).
Among the signs of prestige and wealth are possessions of several ricefields, working animals,
heirlooms like china plates and jars, agate head/necklaces and brass gongs. 

Kalinga House and Villages

Kalinga have a number of house types, including: forny, buloy, fulong, buyoy,

and binalyon or finaryo, which is the distinctive Kalinga octagonal house of the elite. The forms
of the houses generally are organic forms responding to environmental imperatives.
The binalyon/finaryo type, however, is distinguished by the social ranking of the owners, who
are usually pangats the most respected persons in the community. Only ranking families can
own such houses.
Kalinga Religion

Anito are supernatural beings in general. The Kalinga recognize a creator god,

Kaboniyan, but invoke him only in moments of extreme and sudden crisis, such as an accidental
death or the destruction of the rice crop by a storm. They take for granted the good will of
the mandodwa (benevolent spirits) and focus their prayers, chants, and sacrifices on appeasing
malevolent spirits who, if neglected, bring illness and misfortune on humans by capturing their
souls.

Kalinga Rituals/Beliefs

For a month after a birth, the family refrains from eating beef, cow's milk, eel, frogs,
taro, and dog meat; the father may not leave the village; and no one who does not habitually
sleep in the house may enter it. At the end of the month, a medium sweeps the house with
an anaao (a palm-frond raincoat) and removes the four reeds that have been placed at the four
corners of the house as a sign of the taboo period. Over the first year and a half of its life,
six kontad ceremonies are held for the child, involving pig and chicken sacrifices, chanting, the
taking of pig's liver omens, and the erecting of a spirit house or platform.

IBALOI

The Ibaloi, also called Nabaloi or Inibaloy, are among the indigenous people collectively
known as the Benguet people who occupy the Northern part of Luzon, notably the
mountainous terrain of the Cordillera Administrative Region. The famous Baguio City is within
their territory. The Ibaloi are a mostly an agricultural people who cultivate rice in terraced
fields. However, many contemporary Ibaloi have integrated into the mainstream Filipino
culture. Maybe because of influences brought by advancements in different sectors.

The name Ibaloi is derived from i-, a prefix signifying "pertaining to" and badoy or house,
together then meaning "people who live in houses". Famous for their ancient tradition of
mummification, the Benguet people believe in supreme beings and spirits that guide their way
of living as well as their future.

The Ibalois, especially the affluent families, have an ancient tradition of preserving a
loved one's dead body through mummification. It is believed that mummification was intended
for leaders and individuals that are from the higher social ranks of the tribe. It is a complicated
process that takes about weeks or months and sometimes even years to accomplish. Dying
members of the tribe drank salty mixtures to begin the process. After death, the corpse is
properly cleaned and covered in salt and herbs before it is placed over a fire in a seated
position. Meanwhile, tobacco smoke is blown into the cadaver's mouth to dry its internal
organs and prevent insect infestation. This process helps remove fluids from the body. These
steps were performed continually over a period of weeks before the deceased were placed
fetal position into oval-shaped wooden coffins with decorative carvings. These practices
endured until the arrival of Spanish colonialists in 1500.

Currently, more than a hundred man-made burial caves have been found in the region,
with 15 of the caves containing preserved human mummies. The Kabayan Museum in Benguet
was named among the 100 most endangered sites in the world. It housed four mummies that
were eventually returned to the Timbac Caves in February 2004. There are still between 50 to
80 mummies left in their natural caves in Benguet. This ancient practice has since died
beginning in the 1500s when the Philippines was colonized by Spain. Although mummification is
no longer practiced among the Ibaloi people of Benguet Province, the tribe today still considers
the Kabayan caves to be sacred territory and performs rituals in the area.

Ibaloi Religion
 The traditional Ibaloi religion centered on ancestor worship; however, they are already
on the path to transformation. As traditional spirit worshippers, they sought the blessings of
their ancestors, asking for healing, prosperity and long lives. Thanks to the introduction of
Christianity in the 1950s, about 30 percent of the Ibaloi claim to be Christians. In more recent
years, a team of translators produced the New Testament and the "JESUS" film. Being exposed
to mother tongue Scripture has resulted in Christians showing love and grace to other people
groups and cooperating in mission outreaches to them.

Ibaloi Rituals/Beliefs

A popular native feast amongst the Ibalois is the Cañao Tradition. It is a thanksgiving
ritual that refers to several native feasts of the Ibaloi and Benguet people. There are different
types of cañao ceremonies, most of which involve massive preparations and revelry. It may be
performed for thanksgiving for the health of the community, there could be akanyao for a
bountiful harvest; a family kanyao may be performed for healing such as a very simple ritual of
"sedey" with the use of water and prayer; a "grand kanyao" has the focus of entertainment,
cultural shows and festivities. Among the most extravagant observances is the Pechit or Pesshet
that entails feeding the whole neighborhood. It involves sacrificing animals as well as an
offering of rice wine or tapuy.

A ritual is performed to appease the spirits, seek approval, or simply to give thanks or
appreciation. Tapuy ( rice wine) is an important offering since rice was a special commodity in
the past and was only served during special occasions. 

 IFUGAO

The Ifugao call themselves as i-pugao or "inhabitants of the known earth"; other variations
of the name are Ifugaw, Ipugao, and Yfugao. They live primarily in the province of Ifugao in
Central Cordillera, in Northern Luzon. The name is supposed to have come from ipugo which
means "from the hill." The Amganad Ifugao (Ifugaw) populate the central part of Ifugao
Province and has two dialects: Burnay and Banaue.

They depend their source of living on the surrounding natural resources such as forests
and rice terraces. Agricultural terracing is their principal means of livelihood along with farming.
Their social status is measured by the number of rice field granaries, family heirlooms, gold
earrings, carabaos (water buffaloes), as well as, prestige conferred through time and tradition.
The more affluent, known as kadangyan were usually generous by nature, giving rice to poor
neighbors in time of food shortage(s) and/or hardship(s). Furthermore, their culture was known
for their legal system, using one of the world's most extensive oral legal traditions specifying
the offense depending on the use of custom law; trial by elders (influenced in part by public
opinion); or trial by ordeal. The wealthy were subjected to greater fines than the poor.  

There are two sources of origin of Ifugao Law.

1. Taboo - The Ifugao word for taboo is paniyu. The root which appears in varying forms are :
iyu, iho, iyao and ihao. Such terms in general mean “evil” or “bad.”
Examples of paniyu are:
a.) Pregnant women may not wear a string of beads since the beads form a closed circle and
have a magic tendency to close her body and cause difficult childbirth.
b.) It is taboo for persons of other districts to pass through a rice field when it is being
harvested. It is also taboo for foreigners to enter a village when the village is observing its
ceremonial idleness, tungul at the close of harvest time. Any one who breaks this taboo are
subject to a fine, or if there is reasonable belief that, it could not be collected, he may be
subjected to the death penalty.
2. Customs. – This pertains to property, inheritance, water rights and to a great extent, family law and
procedure.

Ifugao Religion

About half of all Ifugaos have embraced Christianity but their animist beliefs have been
absorbed into their Christian beliefs. The Ifugao have traditionally believed their lives were
ruled by spirits called anitos. Many Ifugao still believe the universe was divided into five levels.
At the top is: 1) the heavens which itself has four "superimposed heavens." Beneath it is 2)
Pugao, the known land. Below is 3) the underworld and there is also 4) the world upstream and
5) the world downstream. Each area has a large number of spirits, each of which has a name
and is associated with hero ancestors, diseases, omens, messengers, celestial bodies.

Ifugao Rituals/Beliefs

During ceremonies that pay homage to the anitos (spritits) clan leaders wear
headdresses adorned with wild pig tusks, hornbill beaks and feathers and monkey skulls. The
hornbill is considered to be the messenger of the gods and the monkey is a comic symbol. 

During a festival to mark the planting of the crop or after the planting season is
completed, in March or February the Ifugao hold a ceremony known as ulpi in which they leave
the terraces for a few days and socialize, smoke and drink a palm liquor called bayah. During
the harvest in July they thank the spirits by sacrificing chickens and then study the blood for
omens. If everything is satisfactory the blood is smeared on wooden idols that watch over the
grain supply.

These are the five ethnolinguistic groups – Ibanag, Ilongot, Gaddang, Ikalahan and Isinai – who
together with the Agta/Aeta people inhabit the Caraballo mountain range in Eastern Central
Luzon. This range connects the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino and Nueva Ecija.

MINDANAO “ MORO & LUMAD”. The Moros practice Islam and the Lumads do not.

I. LUMAD is a generic term embracing all non-Muslim hill tribes of Mindanao. It is a Visayan
term that means “born and grown in the place”. They form the largest grouping of indigenous
peoples in the country which has a total population of 2.1 million. They can be found in almost
all provinces of Mindanao and they include the Subanen, Manobo, B’laan, T’boli, Mandaya,
Mansaka, Tiruray, Higaonon, Bagobo, Bukidnon, Tagkaolo, Banwaon, Dibabawon, Talaandig,
Mamanua, and Manguangan.

 MANOBO

The Manobo are several people groups who inhabit the island of Mindanao in the
Philippines. They speak one of the languages belonging to the Manobo language family. Their
origins can be traced back to the early Malay peoples who came from the surrounding islands
of Southeast Asia. The different subgoups are highly dispersed int the entire island of
Mindanao, there adapting to various environmental niches from coastal to mountains. Its name
came from the word Mansuba; man (person or people) and suba (river), meaning river people.
The most common lifestyle of the Manobo is that of agriculture. Unfortunately, their farming
methods are very primitive. They use and practice slash-and-burn agriculture, a farming system
called kaingin. Kaingin system is the cutting down and burning of trees and plant growth in an
area for cultivation purposes. This is a procedure in which fields are allowed to remain fallow
for certain periods of time so that areas of cultivation may be shifted from place to place.
 Social life for the Manobo is patriarchal (male-dominated). The head of the family is the
husband. The man is considered as the head of the family and he is the one who will make the
family decisions. Polygamy (having more than one wife at a time) is common and is allowed
according to a man's wealth. However, only a Royal, a Datu can practice polygamy, only with
the consent of the first wife and her parents. Their political structure similar with other tribes. A
ruler, called a sultan, is the head of the group. He can attain his position by virtue of wealth;
speaking ability and knowledge of customary law. He must also have proven his bravery and
leadership in battle as a bagani. Beneath him are the royal and non-royal classes. Only those
people belonging to the royal classes can aspire to the throne. This position can also be passed
on to a Datu's children, as long as they have the necessary qualifications. Those belonging to
the non-royal classes are under the power and authority of the royal classes. Each class is
interdependent on the others.

Manobo House and Villages

The Manobo usually build their villages near small bodies of water or forest clearings,
although they also opt for hillsides, rivers, valleys, and plateaus. Their homes are elevated to
prevent attacks in times of pangayaw (clan wars). They also fashion their stairs out of a single
piece of sturdy round timber so it can be easily kept during night time to block the enemies
from breaking in. The communities are small, consisting of only 4-12 houses.

Manobo Religion

The religious beliefs of the Manobo revolve around the concept of many unseen spirits
interfering in the lives of humans. These spirits are both good and evil in nature and can raise
anger and pleasure. They also believe in multiple deities (GOD) headed by a central figure,
Diwata (God); they're animist, they also believe in ancestral spirits and unseen beings inhabiting
the animate( living) and inanimate objects ( not alive) found throughout their environment.
They believe that these spirits can intrude on human activities to accomplish their desires. The
spirits are also believed to have human characteristics. They are both good and evil in nature
and can be evoked to both anger and pleasure.

Manawbanaw, the god Responsible for the Manobo system of Taboos. He is the god of

rain, thunder and lightning. He punishes Taboo breakers! especially those who treat animals
contemptuously with a power called "nayew or "nanit. One punishment that he sends Taboo
breakers in hailstorm that would melt into a lake in which the whole village of Taboo breakers
drown and are transformed into crocodiles.

Like Ifugaos , Monobos also believe that there are 4 worlds. The cosmology of Manobo
consists of four worlds the many layered langit (skyworld), pasak or yungsud to
mamasak(earth world), yunsud nimaybowan( underworld), and kulaguan (the paradise where
the epic heros dwell).

Manobo Rituals/Beliefs
Throughout the year, the elders of the Manobo tribe are  looking for the star-lit sky to
determine the season of planting, harvesting, fishing and hunting. Each star can bring a
different message and will guide the tribal group  in their traditional way of living. This practice
is called Pamiteun,  the Manobos' indigenous way of understanding the stars. Nowadays only
the members of the older generation of farmers will continue to use the Pamiteun but they are
passing the knowledge to the present generation, to learn the old way of living, keep their
culture and traditions alive and deepen their consciousness about their own culture.
  T’BOLI

They primarily live in the South Cotabato province of Mindanao Island, centering on Lake
Sebu (TauSebu is another of the people's names) which is located in the southern part of the
Philippines. The T'boli speak a Malayo-Polynesian language called Tboli. In addition to their
native language, many of the T'boli also speak Ilongo or Bilaan. They are farmers who practice
the swidden (slash and burn) method of agriculture. This involves cutting the forest growth,
burning the debris, and planting in the clearing. The bulk of their produce is for household
consumption, but some of it is used in bartering for other household necessities. To supplement
their incomes, the T'boli sometimes sell bananas and other forest produce in nearby markets. Food is
also provided through hunting, gathering forest produce, and fishing.

T’boli House and Villages

The T'boli live in "long-houses" that are built on six-foot stilts. Homes are generally
about 50 feet long and nearly 30 feet wide. They are typically constructed of bamboo, wood,
and palm fronds. It has low walls, big windows, high roofing. The people do not live in towns or
villages, but live apart from each other in their widely separated houses. However, close
relatives lives in clusters with 4-5 houses.

T’boli Religion

Over 95 percent of the T’boli are still animist and have retained their religious practices
and belief system. The rest are either Christianized or Islamized. They follow their traditional
animistic religion, believing that aspects of nature have spirits. If the spirits are not appeased,
they can cause the people much harm. Although they believe in a great pantheon of gods, the
two most important are Kadaw la Sambad and Bulon la Mogow. They also place large wooden
statues of the gods in their homes and fields. They frequently offer food and liquor to the gods
for appeasement.

T’boli Rituals/Beliefs

A T'boli legend tells that the T'boli are descendants of the survivors of a great flood. A man
named Dwata warned the people of an impending great flood. But the tribe refused to listen,
except for two couples, La Bebe and La Lomi, and Tamfeles and La Kagef. Dwata told them to
take shelter in a bamboo so huge they could fit inside and in this way survive the flood. The
story tells that the first couple are the ancestors of the T'boli and other highland ethnic
groups The second couple descended the other Filipino indigenous groups.

Parents arrange their children's marriages as early as just after birth. Taking a child's
illness as a sign that he or she needs a partner, parents will ask to borrow a bracelet or other
object belonging to a child with whom they wish to match their own; they give this to their sick
child. Once their child recovers, the family visits the other child's family to propose marriage.

Marriages are usually arranged by the families after lengthy negotiations. Weddings are colorful
celebrations that often require months of preparation. Monogamy (one husband, one wife) is
nearly always practiced. However, the rich may sometimes have multiple wives as a symbol of
prestige.

When the children reach puberty (12 to 13 years of age), a final marriage ceremony is held on a
bright moonlit night with no rain (rain symbolizes tears).

Mo Ninum is considered as the grandest wedding ritual of the T-boli tribe. It means the “feast
of making wine” from sugarcane. It is a day of feasting and drinking, celebration of propitiation,
soul cleansing and renewal of spiritual life. It is a set of six ceremonial and reciprocal feasts
where to families take turns in being hosts and guests. This reciprocal arrangement may last
two to seven years.

II. The Moro or Bangsamoro people are the Muslims in Mindanao composed of fourteen
groups, namely, Maranao, Maguindanao, Tausug, Samal, Yakan, Sangil, Palawani, Badjao, Kalibugan,
Jama-Mapun, Ipanun, Kalagan, Molbog, and Muslim.

 MARANAO

They are the largest non-Christian ethnic group in the Philippines. The name Maranao
means "People of the Lake" or "Lake Dwellers“, after their traditional territory in the area
surrounding Lake Lanao in the Bukidnon-Lanao Plateau. "Maranao" means "people of the lake"
referring to Lake Lanao in the province of Lanao del Sur. While the majority of Maranao live in
the area surrounding Lake Lanao, many have relocated to Manila as well as to other regions.
Maranao refers not just to a people group but also to their language, spoken by people living in
the provinces of Lanao del Sur and Lanao del Norte. They are one of the largest Islamic groups
in the Philippines, with the core areas being Marawi City, Lumba-a-bayabao, and Bayang.

The native Maranao have a fascinating culture that revolves around kulintang music, a
specific type of gong music, performed on a unique set of eight melodious gongs, that can be
found among both Muslim and non-Muslim groups of the Southern Philippines. The Kulintang,
traditionally considered a women's instrument, is an ancient instrumental form of music
composed on a row of horizontally-laid gongs and is played by striking the bosses of the gongs
with two wooden beaters. 

Maranao House and Villages

Maranao villages are composed of several families living in homes sans walls for
partition. They are allowed to be members of different villages simultaneously, without fear of
recrimination as outcasts due largely in part to the accepted bilateral relationships.

Maranao’s Religion

The Maranao are a splinter group of the Maguindanao who took up Islam; families
tracing their religious origins to Sharif Kabunsuan, who introduced the religion to the region. 

Maranao’s Rituals/Beliefs

The Maranaos are superstitious. They believe in the hidden powers of the ANTING-
ANTING amulets. These Items which they wear on their necks, arms or legs believed to bring
them good luck. Another tradition that is practiced by the Maranaos is called “parental”
marriage. Courting a Maranao lady could be difficult. A suitor should be the most hardworking
and patient bachelor in town. A go-between who will mediate for the contracting parties of the
groom needed. The parents of the groom contact the parents of the bride regarding the desire
of their son marry. The parents of both sides will have an agreement how much dowry will be
given by the parents of groom side to the parents of the bride side. The woman's family
announces the dowry. ( dowry is the amount of money given by the parents of the male side
before marrying the bride.) When all is settled, the wedding celebration takes place in fun and
merriment usually there will be a one-week celebration.

 TAUSUG

Tausug or Suluk  also called Joloano, Sulu, or Suluk, is the name of an Islamized tribal group
in the Sulu archipelago, and is taken from the words tau meaning man and sug meaning
current. Most of the Tausug reside on the island of Jolo, but some live scattered throughout the
other islands.
 Traditionally the Tausug are sailors, pearl divers and traders, their ancestral homelands in
the Sulu Archipelago have vigorous tidal currents that flow from the Sulu and China Seas to the
Celebes Sea. This translates literally into the name people of the current. Nowadays, The
livelihood of the Tausug is based primarily on agriculture and fishing, but some
cattle, chickens, ducks are also raised. The major cash crops are coconuts, coffee,
and fruit. Fishermen, whether part- or full-time, use motorized boats in offshore
coastal waters. Nets, hook and line, and various types of bamboo traps are used.

This homogeneous tribe is a blend of Malay and Indonesian races; they are widespread in
the Philippines and can be found mainly in coastal area communities. In the past the Tausug
were boisterous pirates who infested the waters from the Sulu seas but nowadays make a living
from agriculture, raising water buffaloes and fishing. Aside from being known as the best,
gallant and ferocious freedom fighters of the world the Tausug are famous for being the best
pearl divers in the world. 

TAUSUG House and Villages

The Tausug house typically consists of a single rectangular room, bamboo- or timber-
walled, with a thatched roof ( made of dried materials to shed water away from the inner roof)
, raised on posts about 2 to 3 meters above the ground. The structure is generally surrounded
by a series of elevated porches leading to a separate kitchen at the rear and is often enclosed
within a protective stockade encircling the house compound.

TAUSUG’s Religion

The strong-willed Tausug follow the Sunni Islamic beliefs and practices, Sunni Islam is
the largest branch of Islam, the word Sunni comes from the word Sunnah meaning tradition.
However, like many other Asian Muslims, they have retained many pre-Islamic religious beliefs
and rituals. apart from Allah or Tuhan, the Tausug also believe in spirits that inhabit nature,
especially rocks and trees, like the evil spirits named saytan and unseen creatures called jinn.
Their world is full of environmental spirits that are believed to cause sickness or good fortune.

Their concept of life after death is a mixture of Islamic and traditional beliefs. According
to the Tausug the human soul has four souls which leave the body when he dies, the life-soul
related with blood, the spirit-soul connected with dreams, the soul of breath, associated with
life and the transcendental soul. It is thought that the body then goes to hell, where his length
of punishment is determined by his misconduct while living on earth. Eventually, however, they
believe that all Tausug reach heaven.

TAUSUG’s Rituals/Beliefs

Marriage is ideally arranged by parents. Contacts between the sexes are restricted and
marriageable women are kept in relative seclusion to protect their value to their family as
political and economic assets. First and second cousins are favored spouses (with the exception
of the children of brothers).

The Pangalay, a traditional Tausug wedding dance and popularly known as

the fingernail dance is one of the most well known dances, accompanied by a kulintang
ensemble. This dance is distinctive because dancers use metal or golden nail extenders
or janggay, which make the fingers stiff and set them apart from the thumbs. The Pangalay
imitates the mythical Sarimanok bird, a reincarnation of a goddess who loved a mortal man,
after the dance, she removes her nails and drops them to the ground, hoping that a man will
gather them and will claim her for his bride. A Tausug marriage is usually arranged by parents,
with the exception of the children of brothers, first and second cousins are favoured spouses.
Marriageable women are kept in relative seclusion to protect their value to their family.
  BADJAO

Badjao or Bajau means man of the seas, this tribal group is known as the Sea Gypsies because
they live and fish in coastal areas and they move with the wind and the tide on their small
houseboats called vintas, they can be found in many coastal settlements and inhabit the waters
and shores of the Sulu archipelago. The men of the tribe are skilled fishermen specifically the
art of pantana fishing (spear fishing). The Badjao are also talented divers – diving for pearls. To
this day, these activities still play a major part in the lives of the Badjao people. They collect the
fish and pearls and sell them at the main markets in Cebu City. These activities are traditionally
their main source of income.

They're known as Sama Laus (Sea Sama) and are found living on houseboats where they make
their livelihood solely on the sea as expert fishermen, deep sea divers, and navigators. They
come to shore to barter their harvests for farmed produce such as fruits and cassava, as well as,
replenish their supplies and/or make repairs to their houseboats. Sinama is the language of
Badjao.

The Philippines has experienced a surge in population that has severely depleted fish
populations, leaving Badjao without anything to sustain their livelihood.  Recent changes in the
law have outright banned all fishing, sustainable and otherwise, in the areas where Badjao have
been fishing for centuries. Desperate for food, young men risk their lives and their boats every
night when fishing in these waters. Badjao men have lost their lives and their boats from the
simple act of fishing. With no options for families on the brink of starvation, children routinely
are sent to nearby cities to beg. Begging often provides a family enough resources to eat for
the Because families rely on this meager income, children essentially become slaves and are
forced to beg up to 12 hours a day. Uneducated and often ostracized by the majority people
group, they are left struggling to survive in modern society.

BADJAO House and Villages

By tradition, they travel by boat from one island to the other in search of fishing harvest.
This pagan tribe have sailed the seas for more than a thousand years, but because of over
fishing by other groups using everything from high-tech fishing trawlers, their life in the open
waters is drying up. They no longer live on boats, they live in thatch-roofed houses on bamboo
stilts on a small strip of land that nobody else wanted, somewhere  along the coastline of
Sarangani. 

BADJAO’s Religion

The Badjao people consider themselves to be Sunni Muslim. Many attend mosques and
participate in the daily prayers. They also believe they are descendants of Muhammad.Although
many believe this, a lot of Badjao people have a more animistic religious view. They have a
more spiritual way of life and way of looking at things. They believe in spirit boats and sailing
spirits away and worship the sea god- Omboh Dilaut. whenever a large catch of fish is brought
in and by setting a "spirit boat" adrift in the open sea, , mediums are also called upon to remove
illness causing spirits from this boat-dwellers community in times of epidemics

BADJAO’s Rituals/Beliefs

The spirits of the dead are kept in a grave and every period of Shaaban, the soul comes
back to our world. It is said that Allah permits the souls of the dead to return to this world. To
honor their return, the people offer special prayers to the dead and clean the grave areas. They
also believe that the dead can communicate with the living through the ritual ceremonies of
celebration, worship, and exorcism. To accept their new tribe, the Badjao throws newborn in
the deep-sea.