BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION
PRESENTATIONS, MEETINGS, MEMORANDUMS,
REPORT AND PROJECT WRITING

BY ADITYA SINGHAL
2K20/BBA/11
 Presentations
INTRODUCTION
Presenting information clearly and effectively is a key skill to get your message or opinion across
and, today, presentation skills are required in almost every field. Whether you are a student,
administrator, or executive, if you wish to start up your own business, apply for a grant, or stand for
an elected position, you may very well be asked to make a presentation. This can be a very daunting
prospect. This chapter is designed to help.

DEFINITION
A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking situations,
such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting, or briefing a team. To be effective, step-by-step
preparation and the method and means of presenting the information should be carefully
considered. A presentation concerns getting a message across to the listeners and may often contain
a 'persuasive' element, for example, a talk about the positive work of your organization, what you
could offer an employer, or why you should receive additional funding for a project.

BASIC TIPS
 Dress smartly: don't let your appearance distract you from what you are saying.
 Smile. Don't hunch up and shuffle your feet. Have an upright posture. Try to appear confident
and enthusiastic.
 Speak, firmly, and confidently as this makes you sound in control. Don't speak too quickly: you
are likely to speed up and raise the pitch of your voice when nervous. Give the audience time to
absorb each point. Don't talk in a monotone the whole time. Lift your head and address your
words to someone near the back of the audience. If you think people at the back can't hear, ask
them.
 Use silence to emphasize points. Before you make a key point pause: this tells the audience that
something important is coming. It's also the hallmark of a confident speaker as only these are
happy with silences. Nervous speakers tend to gabble on trying to fill every little gap.
 Keep within the allotted time for your talk.
 Eye contact is crucial to holding the attention of your audience. Look at everyone in the audience
from time to time, not just at your notes or the PowerPoint slides. Try to involve everyone, not
just those directly in front of you.
 Walk around a little and gesture with your hands. Bad presenters keep their hands on the
podium or in their pockets! Don't stand in one place glued to the spot hiding behind the podium!
Good presenters will walk from side to side and look at different parts of the audience.
 You could try to involve your audience by asking them a question.
 It’s OK to use humor, in moderation, but better to use anecdotes than to rattle off a string of
jokes.

REHEARSING YOUR PRESENTATION

Rehearsing your presentation is essential for practicing and assessing your timekeeping, body
language (such as eye contact and hand gestures), voice projection, the pace of speech, and logical
order of content. It gives presenters a chance to amend their presentation and envisage how they
will go about presenting on the day.
It may be useful to record your voice on a mobile phone, or video yourself and watch it back, noting
good points and areas for improvement.

Things to think about when you rehearse:

 Ideally rehearse in the venue that your presentation will take place in, or at least visit it to
familiarise yourself.
 Ask friends to sit and watch your presentation, and to give feedback at the end. You might ask
them to use the Assessing Oral Presentations document to help them to structure their feedback.
 Look at your watch or clock before and after your rehearsal to ensure you haven't gone over your
allocated time.
 Ask your friends to sit far back while you rehearse and ask them whether you are loud and clear
enough for them to hear, and whether your visual aids are easy to see/read.
 Practice using your visual aids. Click through your PowerPoint presentation (if you choose to use
this) several times, to ensure that you are familiar with the order of the slides and know how to
move forwards and backward through the slides
 Practice using your prompt cards with keywords or phrases to help you remember what to say
next. Then edit them to make them more useful.
 Ask friends to let you know if your gestures or movement are distracting. (See the Body Language
section for suggestions).
 Ensure that all the equipment you need is available and you feel confident about using it.
 Reflect on your rehearsal presentation; think which aspects you are happy with and how you will
improve on it for the 'real thing'. This How Did my Presentation Go? the document will enable
you to record your thoughts.

USING POWERPOINT, OVERHEAD PROJECTOR, OR FLIP CHART

You may be allowed to use an overhead projector (OHP), data projector, or flip chart as part of your
talk, if you think that you might like to use one, then it's wise to try to practice on one beforehand so
you know what you are doing!

 Before you start check the computer and the lighting: make sure no bright lights are
illuminating the screen.
 Stand to one side of the projector/flip chart, so the audience can see the material.
 Face and speak to your audience, not the screen. Inexperienced PowerPoint presenters have
their backs on the audience most of the time!
 All too often the slides are just a security blanket for the speaker, not visual aids for the
audience.
 Don't use too many slides: three or four should be sufficient for a short presentation. For a 15-
minute session, 8 would be the absolute maximum and probably less. Don't have too much
text on each slide - no more than about 40 words. Each slide should last for at least 2 minutes.
The more slides and the more words on each slide, the less the audience will listen- whereas
the fewer and simpler slides you have, the better you will communicate. Plan your
presentation carefully and only use slides where they will clarify points.
 Don't try to write too much on each slide: 30 to 40 words in large font size is ample for one
transparency. Use notes form and bullets rather than full sentences. It is very hard for a
member of the audience to read slides and listen simultaneously - they are unlikely to do
doing either well. The best slides contain just one word.
 Slides can contain prompts to remind you of what you will say next.
 Press w to blank the scene or to black it out (pressing any key restores the slides) when talking
about a point that does not require a slide thus reducing the distraction for the audience.
 Use large SANS fonts such as Verdana or Lucida Sans. DON'T PUT EVERYTHING IN THE UPPER
CASE AS THIS LOOKS CRUDE. Check that the slides are easy to read from a distance.
 Use color and bold for emphasis but don't use too much color. Have a good contrast e.g., dark
blue text on a cream background.
 A little humor can grab the attention of the audience.
 Don't get carried away with flashy PowerPoint transition effects as these may distract
attention from the content.

DELIVERING AN EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

An effective presenter needs to be flexible, energetic, and enthusiastic. This guide will help you turn
your written presentation into an imaginative public performance. Making a presentation puts you
on public display. An audience not only listens to your ideas but also responds to the way you use
your voice and your body. You need more than a well-written presentation to make an impact. You
will also need to deliver it in a lively, flexible, and interesting way. In this leaflet, we suggest many
ideas for invoking energy in your presentation style.

SIX STEPS TO BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE PRESENTER

1. Practice
The more familiar you are with your material the more you will be able to inspire your
audience’s trust and confidence. If possible, stand up in a room and deliver your presentation to
the walls. Familiarize yourself with the words and phrases in your presentation. Familiarize
yourself with the main thrust of your argument and explore how the individual elements of your
presentation piece together. This will help you to keep to your chosen objectives and avoid
distractions when it comes to your actual delivery. One can practice by “READING & LEARNING “
2. Assert yourself
An effective presenter needs to be assertive, not aggressive.
 Posture
It is important to appear confident at all times. Different postures create different moods. A very
formal, upright and still posture will create a very different atmosphere from a relaxed and
active one. Remember to match your physical behaviour to the objectives underpinning your
presentation. If you want to be either formal or informal, make deliberate choices about your
physical style and stick to these.
 Presence
Have the confidence to fill your space in front of an audience. Avoid apologizing for your
presence by saying “sorry” (although you must be polite if circumstances demand— e.g. the
session is running overtime, or the microphone has stopped working). Also, avoid physical
apologies by hiding behind a desk or lectern. You must be confident that the audience wants to
listen and that you have something interesting to tell them. Don’t be afraid to wait for an
audience to settle down before you start speaking or to ask for quiet if this does not happen.
3. Make contact with your audience
One of the key challenges faced by the presenter is to establish links with her/his audience.
Making contact helps to maintain an audience's interest and encourages them to believe that
you are genuinely interested in talking to them. You can make contact with your audience in the
following ways:
 Eye contact
 Eye contact is part of everyday communication. Making eye contact with individuals gives them
a sense of involvement in your presentation and helps to convey your objectives on a personal
level. Make sure that you share eye contact with all members of a small audience and all areas
of a large audience. Regularly shift your focus around the room, not so that you look nervous,
but to help involve as many people as possible in your talk.
 Gesture
Presenters will look awkward if they keep their hands in their pockets or rooted firmly at their
sides. Use gestures to welcome your audience, to add emphasis to your main points, or to
indicate an ending. Make sure that all gestures are controlled and precise. Too much movement
will appear nervous and unfocused.
 Spoken contact
Pose rhetorical questions that you can then respond to. Allow the audience to ask questions or
clarify details at the end of your presentation. Questioning your audience engages them in a
more stimulating way than simply asking them to sit and listen to your speech.
 Language
Make use of language that will pique the interest of your audience. When discussing visual aids,
begin by saying, "If we look at this slide, we can see that." Throughout your presentation, use
welcoming and engaging language.
4. Use your voice
Play around with the volume, pace, and pitch of your voice when practicing your presentation.
Speaking too loudly or too quietly can make it difficult for your audience to follow your talk. To
add life to your presentation, try changing the pace of your delivery. Always try to convey
enthusiasm and energy through your use of your voice. Find different ways of saying the same
sentence. Explore different ways to add emphasis to your main points. The voice is a very flexible
and powerful tool and can be used in many different ways.  
5. Breathe
Always remember to breathe steadily and deeply. If you are anxious about making a
presentation your breathing will become fast and shallow. This will affect the quality of your
voice and your ability to speak clearly. Don't be afraid to slow down the pace of your
presentation if your breathing becomes uncomfortable.
6. Drink
Drink a warm cup of tea to relax your throat and ease your speaking voice. Only use humour if
you know it will work. Humour needs to be relaxed and confident. If used badly, it will heighten
the senses of awkwardness and anxiety. If it's not appropriate, don't use it at all.

HANDLING QUESTIONS
Many presentations today are followed up with a question-and-answer period. To some people, this
can be the most exciting part of the presentation.

To others, it can be their worst nightmare. Some presenters purposely avoid the question-and-
answer period altogether. Below provided is a 5-step approach to handling questions along with
some additional tips to make your next question and answer session go smoother.

1. Listen to the entire question BEFORE you begin to answer any questions. Too many people start
responding to a question before the entire question is even asked. Not waiting to hear the entire
question can result in you providing a response that had nothing to do with the question. Force
yourself to LISTEN to the entire question and make sure you understand the question.
2. Pause and allow yourself time to value the question and listener. REPEAT the question out loud
so the entire audience can hear it. It is important that everyone "hear" the question or the
answer you provide may not make sense to some of the people. By repeating the question, will
allow you some additional time to evaluate the question and formulate a response.
3. Credit the Person for asking the question. You may say something like, "That was a great
question" or, "Glad you asked that question" or even, "I get asked that question by many
people". One word of caution. If you credit one person for asking a question, be sure to credit
EVERYONE for asking a question. You don't want people to feel their question was not as
important.
4. Respond to the Question honestly and the best you can. If you do NOT know an answer to a
question, do not try to fake it. Be honest, and tell them you do not know but DO promise to
research the answer for them and DO get back to them.
5. Bridge to the next question by asking them a question. "Does that answer your question?", "Is
that the kind of information you were looking for?". This is critical... Once they respond to you,
"YES" you now have permission to go on to the next person. This also gives them one more
opportunity to say, "No" and allow them to clarify their question more by asking it again.
6. If you can't answer a question, just say so. Don't apologize. You then may say:
 Offer to research an answer, and then get back to the questioner later.
 Suggest resources that would help the questioner to address the question themselves.
 Ask for suggestions from the audience.

MEETINGS
DEFINITION
A meeting is a formal or informal deliberative assembly of individuals called to debate
certain issues and problems, and to take decisions. Formal meetings are held at definite
times, at a definite place, and usually for a definite duration to follow an agreed-upon
agenda.
TYPES OF MEETINGS
1. Status
 This kind of meeting is to bring everyone up to date on the state of the other peoples'
portions of a project. The participants are those reporting progress and those hearing it. An
agenda is required for this kind of meeting. It should last no more than fifteen minutes.
2. Action
 These meetings solve a particular problem. There are two kinds of action meeting, decision
making meetings and brainstorming meetings.
3. Decision making
 This should be an uncommon occurrence since decisions are usually taken by one person. A
the meeting may be needed if the decision is not clear cut and the decision-maker wants
suggestions or advice from others affected by it.
4. Brainstorming
 The purpose of this meeting is to come up with a variety of possible solutions to some
particular problem. Participants may include junior people as well as experienced designers.
Ideas from one person can inspire ideas in others people.
 One method is to get everyone to write down many ideas in a short time. This prevents
people from evaluating and rejecting ideas too soon. At the end of a brainstorming session
or in a separate meeting the evaluation of all the ideas takes place.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEETING
1. Conducting Meetings
 Running an effective business meeting can help the company produce results and meet
important goals. To make sure you have an effective meeting, here are some tips on how to
conduct effective meetings.
2. Outline your key meeting points with an agenda.
 An important part of conducting an effective business meeting is meeting planning and have
your key points written or typed out. Give the participants a copy of your agenda so that they
will know what to expect. Try to limit the number of points on your agenda.
3. Follow the agenda when you conduct the meeting:
 Make sure to follow your meeting plan. If the meeting starts to go off course or off-topic, steer
the meeting back to the topic at hand.
4. Start your meeting immediately:
 Start the meeting in time. This will help establish your role as the leader as well as utilize the
time you have.
5. Set a time limit for your meeting:
 Meetings shouldn't run too long; 30 minutes or shorter is a good length. Keeping the meeting
short will ensure that you are more efficient and use the time wisely, and your participants will
be more focused when they know the meeting is short. When your time limit has run out, end
your meeting. You can always cover other points in the next meeting.
6. Summarize the key points at the close of the meeting:
 Briefly go over what was discussed so that the participants will leave it in their minds. Give out
any assignments or instructions before closing, and end on time. Be sure to thank everyone for
their attendance and participation.

CONDUCTING AND PARTICIPATING IN MEETINGS

Report-writing groups should use the suggestions for conducting effective meetings. Your role in a
meeting will be that of either leader or participant. Good participation is also vital. Whether formal
or informal, the meetings will involve communication. The quality of the communication will
determine their success.

TECHNIQUES OF CONDUCTING MEETINGS

1. Plan the Meeting
 Plan an agenda for a meeting by selecting items that need to be covered to achieve the
goals of the meeting. Items that explain or lead to other items should come before the
items that they explain. For informal meetings, you may find having a mental agenda
satisfactory. Word processing programs also have templates that may be helpful.
2. Follow the Plan.
 You should follow the plan for the meeting item by item. In most meetings, the
discussion tends to stray and new items tend to come up. As a leader, you should keep
the discussion on track. If new items come up during the meeting, you can take them up
at the end or perhaps postpone them for a future meeting.
3. Move the Discussion Along.
 As a leader, you should control the agenda. After one item has been covered, bring up
the next item. When the discussion moves off subject, move it back on subject. Do what
is needed to proceed through the items efficiently, but do not cut off discussion before
all the important points have been made.
4. Control Those Who Talk Too Much
 A few people usually tend to dominate the discussion. Your task as a leader is to control
them. When they begin to stray, duplicate, or bring in the irrelevant matter, you should
step in. You can do this tactfully by asking for other viewpoints or by summarizing.
5. Encourage Participation from Those Who Talk Too Little.
 In business groups, those who say little are often in positions lower than others. Your job
as a leader is to encourage these people to participate by asking them for their
viewpoints.
6. Control Time.
 When your meeting time is limited, you need to determine in advance how much time
will be needed to cover each item. You may find it helpful to announce the time goals at
the beginning of the meeting.
7. Take Minutes.
 What is said and what is heard in a meeting may not be remembered consistently by
participants. People at meetings may hear or interpret what is said differently. To ensure
you have an accurate, objective account of the topics covered, assign the task of
recording the meeting events. In particularly contentious or detailed discussions,
everyone must have a shared understanding.
TECHNIQUES FOR PARTICIPATING IN A MEETING
From the preceding discussion of the techniques that a leader should use, you can infer some of
the things that a participant should do. The following review emphasizes them.
1. Follow the Agenda.
 When an agenda exists, you should follow it. Specifically, you should not bring up items
not on the agenda or comment on such items if others bring them up. When there is no
agenda, you should stay within the general limits of the goal for the meeting.
2. Participate.
 The purpose of meetings is to get the input of everybody concerned. Thus, you should
participate. Your participation, however, should be meaningful. You should talk only
when you have something to contribute, but you should talk whenever you have
something to contribute. Practice professional etiquette as you work courteously and
cooperatively with others in the group
3. Cooperate.
 A meeting by its very nature requires cooperation from all the participants. Respect the
leader and her or his efforts to make progress. Respect the other participants, and work
with them in every practical way.
4. Be Courteous.
 Perhaps being courteous is a part of being cooperative. In any event, you should be
courteous to the other group members. Specifically, you should respect their rights and
opinions, and you should permit them to speak.
PREPARING FOR MEETINGS
The first step in preparing for a meeting is to make sure the meeting is really necessary. Meetings
can consume hundreds or thousands of dollars of productive time while taking people away from
other work, so don’t hold a meeting if some other form of communication (such as a blog post) can
serve the purpose as effectively. If a meeting is truly necessary, proceed with these four planning
tasks:
1. Define your purpose.
 Meetings can focus on exchanging information, reaching decisions, or collaborating to solve
problems or identify opportunities. Whatever your purpose, define the best possible result of
the meeting (such as “we carefully evaluated all three product ideas and decided which one to
invest in”). Use this hoped-for result to shape the direction and content of the meeting.38
2. Select participants for the meeting.
 The rule here is simple: Invite everyone who needs to be involved, and doesn’t invite anyone
who doesn’t. For decision-making meetings, for example, invite-only those people who are in a
direct position to help the meeting reach its objective. The more people you have, the longer it
will take to reach a consensus. Meetings with more than 10 or 12 people can become
unmanageable if everyone is expected to participate in the discussion and decision-making.
3. Choose the venue and the time.
 Online meetings (see page 98) are often the best way and sometimes the only way—to connect
people in multiple locations or to reach large audiences. For in-person meetings, review the
facility and the seating arrangements. Is theatre-style seating suitable, or do you need a
conference table or some other layout? Pay attention to room temperature, lighting, ventilation,
acoustics, and refreshments; these details can make or break a meeting. If you have control over
the timing, morning meetings are often more productive because people are generally more
alert and not yet engaged with the work of the day.
4. Set the agenda.
 The success of a meeting depends on the preparation of the participants. Distribute a carefully
written agenda to participants, giving them enough time to prepare as needed. A productive
agenda answers three key questions: What do we need to do in this meeting to accomplish our
goals? What issues are of greatest importance to all participants? What information must be
available to discuss these issues?

CONDUCTING AND CONTRIBUTING TO EFFICIENT MEETINGS

Everyone in a meeting shares the responsibility for making the meeting productive. If you’re the
leader, however, you have an extra degree of responsibility and accountability. The following
guidelines will help leaders and participants contribute to more effective meetings:
1. Keep the discussion on track
 A good meeting draws out the best ideas and information the group has to offer. Good leaders
occasionally need to guide, mediate, probe, stimulate, summarize, and redirect discussions that
have gotten off track.
2. Follow agreed-on rules
 The larger the meeting, the more formal you need to be to maintain order. Formal meetings use
parliamentary procedure, a time-tested method for planning and running effective meetings.
The best-known guide to this procedure is Robert’s Rules of Order.
3. Encourage participation
 You may discover that some participants are too quiet and others are too talkative. Draw out
nonparticipants by asking for their input. For the overly talkative, you can say that time is limited
and others need to be heard.
4. Participate actively
 Make a point to contribute to the progress of the meeting and the smooth interaction of
participants. Use your listening skills and powers of observation to size up the interpersonal
dynamics of the group, then adapt your behavior to help the group achieve its goals. Speak up if
you have something useful to say, but don’t talk or ask questions just to demonstrate how much
you know about the subject at hand.
5. Use mobile devices respectfully
 Tweeting key points from a convention speech or using your phone or tablet to jot down
essential ideas and follow-up questions can be productive and respectful ways to use a device
 during a meeting. Checking Facebook or working on unrelated tasks is not. If you intend to use
your device to take notes during a meeting, consider letting the meeting leader know that’s
what you’re doing.
6. Close effectively
 After the meeting, verify that the objectives have been met or arrange for follow-up work if
needed. Summarize the general conclusion of the discussion and any actions that need to be
taken. Make sure all participants have a chance to clear up any misunderstandings.

MEETING PRODUCTIVITY CHECKLIST

1. Prepare carefully.
 Make sure the meeting is necessary
 Decide on your purpose
 Select participants carefully
 Choose the venue and the time
 Establish and distribute a clear agenda
2. Lead effectively and participate fully.
 Keep the meeting on track
 Follow agreed-on rules
 Encourage participation
 Participate actively
 Close effectively
3. Put the results to effective use.
 Distribute meeting minutes to participants and other interested parties
 Make sure task assignments are communicated

AGENDA
Before the meeting starts you need to let all those invited to attend the meeting what it is that's to
be discussed and the order that these items will be mentioned. Known as an Agenda, this lets
everyone prepare for the meeting in advance so that they can bring up any important points at the
relevant time. A formal agenda should always contain the following information:
1. The word Agenda
2. The name of the organization, group, or person calling the meeting
3. The date and time of the meeting
4. The meeting venue
5. Apologies
6. Minutes of the Last Meeting
7. Matters Arising
8. Your meeting's topics listed one after the other
9. Any Other Business
10. Date and Time of Next Meeting
 The first 4 points here make up the header section for the Agenda, so the order of the
information may vary - as in the example agenda shown above, where the word 'Agenda'
appears after the rest of the header information.
 A numbered list should then be given, with 5 of the points fixed as shown in the list above, and
any points specific to this particular meeting listed in the middle of them.
 That is, start with Apologies (who can't attend the meeting), Minutes of the Last Meeting (even
for a first meeting - this just becomes 'not relevant), and Matters Arising (points still to be
addressed from the previous meeting's minutes).
 Next, come specific points for this meeting, and then round off with Any Other Business
(sometimes abbreviated to AOCB - for Any Other Current Business) where any relevant items not
already discussed in the meeting can be mentioned.
 Finally, the last point on the Agenda should be a note of when the next meeting will be.

Office memorandums
DEFINITION
Memorandums, or memos, are a form of a letter written inside the business. Though in rare
cases they may be used in communicating outside the business, they are usually exchanged
internally by employees in the conduct of their work. Originally, they were used only in hard
copy, but with the advent of computers, they are now often processed electronically. Their
function of communicating within the business has been largely taken over by email. Even
so, they still are a part of many companies’ communications. They are especially useful in
communicating with employees who do not use computers in their work.
MEMORANDUM FORMALITY
Memos usually are messages sent and received by people who work with and know one
another, they tend to use casual or informal language. Even so, their degree of formality
ranges from one extreme to the other. At one end are the casual notes that workers
exchange. At the other are the formal messages written by lower-ranking workers to their
top administrators. The typical memorandum falls somewhere between these extremes.
STRUCTURE
The strategies for writing memos are much like those for writing other business messages,
especially email. Short, simple memos are often written in casual or informal language,
much like short, simple email messages. Longer, more formal memos are appropriately
organized in the patterns appropriate for the longer, more formal messages. Like most of
the other business messages, most memos are written in a direct pattern, usually beginning
with the most important point and working down. And memos conveying sensitive or
negative information are written in an indirect order.
MEMO FORMAT
An organization may use more than one format for its memos, or it may specify one format
to be used throughout the organization. Some organizations use printed memo stationery;
others ask writers to use customized word processing templates. Both formats typically
contain the guide words To, From, and Subject (in that order); they may also include the
word Date. These guide words replace the date, inside address, and salutation included in a
letter. The culture of the organization will determine whether courtesy or professional titles
are included with the names in the To and from sections of the memo. The body of the
memo is keyed flush with the left margin a triple space beneath the Subject. As with letters,
the text is single-spaced within and double-spaced between paragraphs.
 Addressees

Writer's Courtesy
Initial Titles

Elelments of a
Memorandum

Second
Subject Line
Page

Body

The following guidelines will help you effectively format-specific memo elements:
1. Addressees
When sending a memo to a long list of people, including the notation See distribution list or
See below in the to position at the top; then list the names at the end of the memo. Arrange
this list alphabetically, except when high-ranking officials deserve more prominent
placement. You can also address memos to groups of people—All Sales Representatives,
Production groups, New Product teams.
2. Courtesy titles
You need not use courtesy titles anywhere in a memo; first initials and last names, first
names, or even initials alone are often sufficient. However, use a courtesy title if you would
use one in a face-to-face encounter with the person.
3. Subject line
The subject line of a memo helps busy colleagues quickly find out what your memo is about,
so take care to make it concise and compelling.
4. Body
Start the body of the memo on the second or third line below the heading. Like the body of
a letter, it’s usually single-spaced with blank lines between paragraphs. Indenting
paragraphs are optional. Handle lists, important passages, and subheadings as you do in
letters.
5. Second page
If the memo carries over to a second page, head the second page just as you head the
second page of a letter.
6. Writer’s initials
Unlike a letter, a memo doesn’t require a complimentary close or a signature because your
name is already prominent at the top. However, you may initial the memo—either beside
the name appearing at the top of the memo or the bottom of the memo.
ADVANTAGES OF MEMOS
The same message in a memo can be addressed to several individuals. If you want to send
the same memo to specific employees, you can list all the names and place a checkmark
after a different name on each copy. Or, you can list all the names and request that the
memo be routed from the first-named person through the last-named person. Entire groups
can be addressed in a memo and individual copies can be given to each member of the
group, or the memo may be placed on a bulletin board.
Memos are less formal than letters and may require less time to compose. Internal
messages should be clear and accurate, but they usually do not have to be as polished as
letters. Business-related e-mail directed to an external receiver should be informal, not
casual. Writers should use correct grammar and punctuation; spelling errors should be
corrected.
Memos are visual. Written messages make a more lasting impression than do oral messages.
LETTER VS MEMO
Business memos are internal documents sent to employees to convey information about the
company, while business letters are external communiqués, often related to sales activities
or customer needs or to query a vendor or government agency. The formatting is different
for both, and learning how to properly create each will help you more effectively
communicate your message. Memos are often sent to notify staff members about a meeting
or new policy the company feels is important enough to warrant more than word-of-mouth
dissemination. Memos are often informal, with less attention to structure, formatting,
grammar, and quality of the paper. Letters are more formal documents sent to people
outside your company. They can include requests for information or clarification from a
government agency; responses to customer complaints or queries; or pitches or proposals
to vendors, customers, or the media.
 Letters are usually put on high-quality paper, rather than copy paper, and are carefully
proofread to avoid even the smallest mistake.
 A letter is a short or long message that is sent by one person to another while a memo is
a short message that is sent by a person to another.
 A letter is more formal and contains more information while a memo is informal and is
very short.
 A memo is more concise and to the point as compared to a letter. A letter is exchanged
between businesses and their clients while a memo is exchanged between individuals
within an organization.
 A memo usually has a header that states where it is from and whom it is intended for
while a letter may or may not have this feature.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEMO AND EMAIL
A memo, short for a memorandum, is used for internal business communication. Memos
are normally less formal and shorter than letters. E-mail, the electronic version of a memo,
is gradually replacing print memos as the primary method for communicating within an
organization. Uses of Memos and E-mail Memos and e-mail may be used to communicate
upward to superiors, downward to subordinates, laterally to peers, and diagonally to other
members of a network. Information of all kinds can be conveyed from one department to
another through memos and e-mail. Also, e-mail may be used as a cost-effective alternative
to long-distance telephone calls when requesting information and responding to inquiries; it
may also be used as a cover document for attached files. Because e-mail is neither protected
nor private, it should not be used to discuss confidential information or significant issues.
Also, writers should refrain from using e-mail for long messages or documents requiring a
paper copy.
WRITING STRATEGIES OF A MEMO
1. Step 1
 Send your memo only to those individuals who need to see it. For a communications
strategy, you will want to include your management team, sales, and anyone who has
been, or will be, involved in the communications planning process. If it is confidential,
you will want to both limit the audience to only those who need the information and
note that the contents are confidential at the top of the memo.
2. Step 2
 State the purpose of your memo in your opening paragraph. Make your opening
statement direct so that the reader clearly understands why he should pay attention. For
example, you might write: “This memo details the communication strategy as
determined by the task force selected by the agency last month.”
3. Step 3
 Write the context of the memo or the background information. For example, it might be
that the communications team had been meeting for several weeks and identified a key
objective but could not come up with an agreed-upon strategy.
4. Step 4
 Write your task. This is the action that was taken. In this case, it might be that you were
tasked with assembling a smaller group, including several people from outside the
communications department, to develop some strategies and solicit feedback.
5. Step 5
 Write your summary segment. If your task was to generate a strategy, your summary
would reveal the communications strategy that you, and any others involved, have
developed. For example, your strategy might be to initiate public relations activities
using a combination of agency resources and in-house personnel to reach your agreed-
upon objectives.
6. Step 6
 Write your discussion to provide details that support the summary. You may include
reminders that the chosen strategy needs to be feasible, should be the one most likely
to be effective, and that the purpose of a strategy is to achieve the stated objectives
with the resources available. Include alternative strategies that were reviewed, along
with their pros and cons or an explanation of why they were discarded.
7. Step 7
 Write your closing segment. This is where you list action items or offer to be a resource
if there are questions or you want to set up a follow-up meeting for further discussion.
You also want to note here if there are attachments with the memo. For example, you
might include notes from the strategy meeting or a copy of the communications plan
that includes the objective and key messages -- items that are crucial in determining the
communications strategy. You may also indicate that selecting tactics appropriate to the
strategy will be the next step and give a time frame and responsible party for that.

SAMPLE MEMORANDUM

MEMORANDUM

TO: Suresh Agarwal, Store Manager

FROM: Deepak Dutta, Assistant Manager

DATE: March 18, 2014

RE: Dress Code

Issues A number of our clients have expressed their concern over the way certain sales associates are
dressed. Clients complain their clothing does not reflect our store’s good image and quality of service,
and instead makes them look trashy and unprofessional. I think it is necessary for us to establish and
enforce a dress code for all our store employees. Some of the items that can no longer be considered
appropriate are excessively baggy pants and T-shirts, low cut blouses, and any garment that exposes
the chest and back. I would like to discuss this issue with you at your convenience, and also answer
any questions you may have. Please contact me at XXX-XXXX.

DD

SIZE
 Memos and most business letters are prepared on standard-size paper, which measures
81/2 by 11 inches. Letters from business executives are sometimes placed on 71/4- by
10-inch high-quality stationery called executive stationery
 Memos can be produced on pastel-colored paper to distinguish them from external
correspondence. In addition, memos are sometimes produced on various colors of paper
for routing to separate departments. Light-colored papers are appropriate, but bright or
dark colors make reading difficult and may seem too frivolous.

Report and Project Writing

REPORT WRITING

DEFINITION
A business report is an orderly communication of factual information that serves a business
purpose. Reports seek to present facts. They avoid human biases as much as possible. Not
all reports are business reports. Research scientists, medical doctors, ministers, students,
and many others write them. The word communication in our definition is broad in
meaning. It covers all ways of transmitting meaning: speaking, writing, using graphics.

OBJECTIVE
A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information and
evidence are presented, analyzed, and applied to a particular problem or issue. The
information is presented in a structured format making use of sections and headings so
that the information is easy to locate and follow. The report brief may outline the purpose,
audience, and problem or issue that your report must address, together with any specific
requirements for format or structure.

TYPES OF REPORTS
Different types of reports used in business are:
1. INFORMATIONAL REPORTS.
 These reports present facts about certain given activity in detail without any notes or
suggestions. Whatever is gathered is reported without giving anything by way of either
explanation or any suggestion. A vice-chancellor asking about the number of candidates
appearing at a particular examination naturally seeks only information of the fact of course
without any comment. Generally, such reports are routine. Sometimes they may fall under the
statutory routine category. A company registrar asking for allotment return within the
stipulation period is nothing but informational routine, falling under statutory but routine
report.
2. ANALYTICAL REPORTS.
 These reports contain facts along with analytical explanations offered by the reporter himself or
may be asked for by the one who is seeking the report. Such reports contain the narration of
facts, collected data, and information, classified and tabulated data and also, explanatory notes
followed by the conclusions arrived at or interpretations. A company chairman may ask for a
report on falling trends in sales in a particular area. He will in this case be naturally interested in
knowing all the details including that of the opinion of any of the investigators.
3. RESEARCH REPORTS.
 These reports are based on some research work conducted by either an individual or a group of
individuals on a given problem. Indian oil company might have asked its research division to find
some substitute for petrol, and if such a study is conducted then a report shall be submitted by
the research division detailing its findings and then offering their suggestions, including the
conclusions at which the division has arrived at as to whether such a substitute is these and if it
is there can the same be put to use with advantage and effectively. All details shall naturally be
asked and have to be given. Such a report is the result of research.
4. STATUTORY REPORTS.
 These reports are to be presented according to the requirements of a particular law or a rule or
a custom now has become a rule. The auditor reports to the company registrar have to be
submitted as per the requirements of the country's legal requirement. A return on
compensation paid to factory workers during a period by a factory has to be submitted to
competent authorities periodically. These reports are generally prepared in the prescribed form
as the rules have prescribed.
5. NON-STATUTORY REPORTS.
  These reports are not like legal requirements or rules wants; therefore, the reports are to be
prepared and submitted. These reports are required to be prepared and submitted: (i) for the
administrative and other conveniences, (ii) for deciding a matter (iii) for policy formulations, (iv)
for projecting the future, or (v) anything alike so that efficient and smooth functioning may be
assured and a proper and necessary decision may be taken to see that everything goes well and
the objectives of the organization are achieved with assured success.
6. ROUTINE REPORTS.
 These reports are required to be prepared and submitted periodically on matters required by the
organization to help the management of the organization to take decisions in matters relating to
day-to-day affairs. The main objectives of routine reports are to let the management know as to
what is happening in the organization, what is its progress where the deviation is, what
measures have been taken in solving the problems and what to do so that the organization may
run smoothly and efficiently. Routine reports are generally brief. They only give the facts. No
comments or explanations are usually offered in such reports. Generally, forms are prescribed
for the preparation and submission of such reports.
7. SPECIAL REPORTS.
 Such a type of report is especially required to be prepared and submitted on matters of special
nature. Due to an accident, the death of the foreman has occurred in a factory. The factory
manager may ask for a detailed report from the head foreman. Such a report is classified as
special reports. These reports contain not only facts and details but they may contain
suggestions, comments, and explanations as well.

USE OF SUBTOPICS IN INFORMATION REPORTS

 If the problem concerns a need for information, you will need to figure out the areas about
which information is needed. Illustrating this type of situation is the problem of preparing a
report that reviews Company X’s activities during the past quarter. This is an informational
report problem—that is, it requires no analysis, no conclusion, no recommendation. It requires
only that information be presented. The main effort, in this case, is to determine which
subdivisions of the overall topic should be covered. After thoroughly evaluating the possibilities,
you might come up with a plan like this:

Subtopics:
1. Production
2. Sales and promotion
3. Financial status
4. Computer systems
5. Product development
6. Human resources

FORMAT OF A REPORT
The report has two formats:
1. Memo Format, when it is written within your department or company.
2. Letter Format, when it is written for outside your company.

PARTS OF A REPORT
There are usually 4 parts.
1. Summary
2. Background (which is optional and not always necessary)
3. Body (main contents) The content may even include a simple, small chart or diagram (if it
contains lots of information, is complex or several pages, then include it in the
“attachments” section).
4. Recommendation or Conclusion (use either one, depending on the subject/purpose of your
report).

PROJECT WRITING

DEFINITION
 Project proposals are documents that define your project's start and end dates,
objectives, and goals. They explain to stakeholders why your project ideas should be
carried out. Stakeholders should be persuaded to support your ideas after reading about
them in a well-written document.

HOW TO CREATE A PROJECT COMMUNICATION PLAN

1. Start with your broader project plan.
 A thoroughly built project plan should contain much of the information that you will
ultimately need to include in your project communication plan, making it an ideal place
to start when crafting your strategy.

 The project plan should detail how the project will be executed, how it will be
monitored, and how it will be controlled—all of which should inform your
communication plan. Similarly, the project plan should contain a list of stakeholders,
which will help you define your audience, preferred communication methods, timelines,
and communication cadence.

2. Evaluate the organizational climate.

 How your organization is structured and how communication is viewed through the lens
of the organization’s culture will naturally have a major impact on how you
communicate about your project. You must understand these factors to create a
communication plan that will accommodate these needs.

 Depending on the geographic distribution of your organization’s facilities and resources,

for example, it’s possible that individuals working on the same project may be located
across the country, or even around the globe. While organizations that operate virtually
have likely built this type of communication into the fabric of the business out of
necessity, organizations that are not geographically scattered may consider face-to-face
communication the norm. It’s important to identify and acknowledge aspects like this
when developing your project communication plan to ensure you are creating an
approach that plays to your contributors’ strengths.
 Keep In Mind: Though many organizations might be accustomed to face-to-face
meetings and updates, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced organizations across
industries to transition to remote work. Understanding how you can facilitate remote
communication while maintaining the face-to-face relationship building that your
organization values will be critical to your success.

3. Evaluate your organizational processes.

 Depending on your organization’s maturity, there’s a very good chance that there are
already processes in place that you may refer to inform your communication plan. By
identifying the processes and templates that have succeeded in the past, you can save
yourself valuable time and effort.

 Explore previous projects to determine what communication plans looked like at your
organization in the past. If there were issues with how communication played out in that
plan, do your best to understand the shortcomings so that you can make adjustments in
your approach. Similarly, if it went well, understand how you can replicate that success.

 Also, consider conducting an audit of the information systems and technologies which
are already being used throughout your organization. Embracing the means of
communication that your organization is already familiar with and comfortable with will
make this practice that much easier and more streamlined, as opposed to adding new—
and potentially unnecessary—tools.