Food Science and Technology Module PDF

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FOOD Science AND Technology. Module pdf
Food Nutrition And Dietetics (Egerton University)
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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Food is anything solid or liquid which when swallowed digested and assimilated nourishes the
body
Food science – is the study of nature, composition and the chemical and physical changes that
occur under valid conditions of storage, processing and use of food components.
Food technology – is the application of the principals of food science and engineering so that
food of better quality is grown, processed and preserved in large quantities. The different areas
of study in food science and technology include :-
 Food chemistry
 Food microbiology
 Food engineering
 Food processing
The role of food science and tech in dietetic therapy is as follows
1. Meal planning for nutrient adequacy

2. Safety of food
3. Intervention programs for individuals, grouped and population
4. Increased food due to reduced wastage and deterioration
Food science and technology and food security
Food security – it is the access at all times to adequate safe, nutritious and healthy food that
meets dietary needs using socially acceptable ways for individuals and communities
Food insecurity can be caused by:-
i) Low food production

ii) Seasonal food shortages
iii) High food prices
iv) High levels of unemployment
v) Low level of nutrition education
vi) Cultural factors and taboos
vii) Policy failures

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Main areas of intervention of FST in food security
1. Food production
2. Food fortification
3. Micronutrients supplementation
4. Education for dietary change
Revision questions
1. Define the following terms
i) Food
ii) Food security
iii) Nutrients
2. Differentiate between food science and food technology
3. Explain the role of food science and tch in dietetic therapy
4. Highlight the area of FST intervention in food security
FOOD COMPOSITION
The food we eat is made up of three major kinds of nutrients
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Fats
It is also composed of vitamins, minerals and fibre
Food have been classified into different grups depending upon the nutritive value for
convenience of planning diet. The major food groups include
 Cereals and cereal products

 Fruits and vegetables
 Meat and meat products
 Poultry and eggs
 Milk and milk products
 Legume and root tubers
 Sea foods and fish
1. Briefly discuss in details the major classification for foods

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ENZYMES
They are proteins that occur in nature and speed up biochemical processes that would otherwise
take a long time.In food industry, enzymes are used to produce, food products e.g. wine, cheese,
corn syrup, baked foods etc.
Application of enzymes allows the manufacturers to produce more of a particular product in a

shorter amount of time thus increasing profit.When enzymes are used in the processing of foods,
they are not considered food themselves; they are not required to be listed on the label of end
product.
General characteristics of enzymes and factors affecting in food processing
1. Specificity
Enzymes are highly specific for their substances e.g. maltose acts only on maltose hydrolyzing it
to two molecules of glucose.
The bases of enzyme specifically are the existence of an active site in the enzyme. This is the
region where the substrate comes into contact with the enzyme.
2. Effect of temperature
Enzyme activity proceed very slowly at low temp, as temp increases in temp also increases the
denaturization of proteins since enzymes are proteins in nature and hence leads to inactive of
enzymes. Maximum activity of most enzymes ranges between 30-40oc and inactivation sets in
and is complete above 50-550c
enzyme
activity
30oc 40oc
Temp
This explains why fruits and vegetables that are prone to enzymatic browning are branched or
subjected to boiling H2O or live steam for a short period of time to inactivate enzymes.An
extreme decrease in temperature also inactivate the enzymes.

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3. effects of PH
PH is what defines the acidity and alkalinity of a medium and hence determines the enzyme
activity. All enzymes are active only within a narrow PH range and for every enzyme, there is a
PH of maximum activity known as optimum PH. most enzymes are active in PH range 4.5 -8.0
Enzyme activity
4.5 PH 8.0
4. Co-factors.
The reaction of enzyme is supported by enzyme co-factors also referred to as co-enzymes e.g.
Zinc
5. Inhibitors
These are substances that prevent normal functioning of enzymes
Types of enzymes of concern in food technology enzymes are categorized according to

compounds they act upon
Examples of enzymes:-
i) Carbohydrates e.g. Maltose, sucrose’s, amylases, glycosidase, glycosidase

ii) Protein e.g. Peptidases, pepsin, trypsin and proteases
iii) Fats e.g. Lipases
iv) Vitamin e.g. hydrolyses, oxidizes
Effects of enzymes on quality of foods
1. Enzymatic browning
Browning can be observed on the cut surfaces of light coloured fruits and vegetation such as
apples , bananas etc. due to enzymatic action.The formation of brown colour is due to action
enzyme phenolase (polyphenoloxidase) tyrosinase/catecholase).When foods containing such
substrate are cut and exposed to air rapid browning of the cut surface take place

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2. Microbial spoilage
This occurs mostly in fruits where enzymes hasten the ripening process and beyond a certain
stage, they render the fruits too soft and unfit to eat.
If there is a bruised spot in the fruit, yeast would grow and produce enzymes which could spoil
the fruit
3. Oxidation of ascorbic acid
Being a labile vitamin. Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized especially in presence of enzyme
ascorbic oxidase. This is facilitated by long exposure to air after cutting vegetable before
cooking or serving.
Application of enzymes in food production
Enzymes in bread making
By the action of amylase in flour used in bread making, dextrins and maltose are formed and this
provide the fermentable sugar for the yeast cells.
This enzymatic reactions continue in the baking process till the enzyme activity is destroyed as
the oven temp rises. The time and extent of changes due to carbohydrates in the flour determines
the softness, crust colour , volume and texture of baked product.
Production of alcoholic drinks
Peptic enzymes play an important part in fruit ripening maintaining the viscosity of processed
foods and in textural changes.
The haziness noticed in wines is due to peptic substances.
Peptinases are used in classifying alcoholic drinks.
Application meal tenderization
The art of using enzyme for tenderizing meat is an old one.
Wrapping of meat on pawpaw or papaya leaves before cooking results in tenderization. this is the
result of the action of enzyme papain on meat proteins.

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Other enzymes used for meat tenderization are
- Bromelin from pineapples

- Ficin from figs
- Trypsin from pancrease
- Fungala enzymesx
The enzyme catalyse the hydrolases of meat proteins and also hydrolyse the elastin or connective
tissue .Tenderizing enzymes remain active until the meat is heated .papain is inactive at 55oc
Cheese making
Enzymes help in the ripening of cheese. these enxymes are formed by micro-organisms and they
act on peptones and peptide and other substances to form produvts like amino acids , amines,
fatty acids, esters, aldetydes, alcohols and ketones that gives its characterstic flavor.
Tea production
The important constituent of tea contributing to the flavor are caffeine, polyphenols and essential
oils.Polyphenols present in tea have anti-oxidant activity.During fermentation, polyphenol
substances/stannins roxidized by phenoloxidase and some new phenolye products
result.Enzymes help to cause desirable enzymatic browning during fermentation.The higher the
content of enzymes in tea leaves the better the quality.
Revision questions
I. Define an enzyme
II. Discuss general characteristics of enzyme and factors affecting in food processing

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FOOD ADDITIVES
They are substances not naturally present in a food but added during its preparation and
remaining in the finished product to preserve flavor, enhance taste and appearance.
They include anything added during the production, processing treatment, packaging, transport
and storage of a food.
Importance /functions of food additives
1. Maintain product consistency e.g. Emulsifier stabilizer anti-caking agents etc.

2. To improve or preserve the nutrient value-many foods and drinks are fortified and
enriched to improve the nutritional status of the population e.g. Vitamins, mineral that
may be low or completely lacking in a food.
3. Maintain the wholesomeness of foods- preservatives reduce the spoilage that air, fungi,
bacteria or yeast can cause . They also keep fresh from turning brown when exposed to
air.
4. Controlling the acidity and alkalinity and provide leavening .Specific additives help to
change the acid base balance of food to obtain that taste color and flavor. Leavening
agents that release acids when they are heated react with baking soda to help biscuits,
cakes and other baked products rise.
5. They provide colour and enhance flavor
Addititives could be natural ( e.g turmeric) or synthetic.
6. To produce easy to prepare convenient foods in a society that is busy and spends less
time in the kitchen than in the past.
7. To produce new food products that is of different shapes and colour.
Advantages of food additives
1. They allow our growing urban population to have a variety of foods all year round.
2. They make many possible convenient without the inconvenience of daily shopping.
3. They help to reduce food spoilage and reduce the risk of food poisoning.
4. They help to improve colour and flavor of food thus increasing customer acceptability of
the food product.

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Disadvantages of using food additives.
1. Some food additives are toxic if a large amount is used e.g. Sodium benzoate.
2. Some food additives may be casinogenic e.g. Sodium nitrate has showed to cause cancer
in mice and may also cause cancer to human beings.
Many food colourings used in the past has showed to cause cancer.
3. Some additives may have side effects such as allergies and hyperactivity.
Types of food additives
Anti-oxidants – they are added to fats and fat containing substances to retard oxidation and
thereby prolong their wholesomeness, palatability and keeping time.
It should not contribute an objectionable odour, flavor or colour to the fat or food in which it is
present.
Antioxidant include :- phenolic compounds, tocopherols etc.
Tocopherols act as biological antioxidants in plant and animal tissue but they are less or rarely
used coz they are more expensive than synthetic antioxidants.
Antioxidants also help to reduce the browning of cut fruits and vegetables (maillard reactions)
2. Acid –modifiers
They are used to control acidity and alkalinity of a food. They are also used to develop acid
flavor in baking powder in sweets, setting off the jam etc.
Examples of acids used include:- citric, tartanic acid, malic acid, acetic acid (vinegar), lactic acid
from dairy foods ascorbic acid etc.
Foaming agents
They are used to ensure that bubbles are evenly distributed e.g. Icecream
4. Sweeteners
They are substances rather than carbohydrates which have characteristic sweetness e.g. Sorbital
found in fruits. It is approx ½ as sweet as sucrose. It is stable in high temperature therefore used
to make confectionary e.g. Sweets and jam.
It can be used by diabetics.

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Saccharine is 300 times sweeter than sucrose. It is popular with the diet conscious people. It is
used in production of soft drinks and diabetic foods. However it has an after taste.
Aspartame – it is a mixture of aspartic acid and phenyplanine. It is 200 times sweater than
sucrose..
It is suitable if sweetening soft drinks. However, it is unsuitable for children suffering from a
genetic deficiency called phenyl ketonuria
5. Thickeners
They are added to processed food products to thicken basically liquids e.g. soups.
6. Nutritive agents.
During the processing of some foods, nutrients are lost and this may be replaced by the
manufacturer by addition of nutrients to enrich or fortify them e.g. Vit A and D are added to
margarine and calcium is added to white bread, by law fruit juices have extra vit C added, iodine
is added to salt.
7. Flavor enhancers
They are added to strengthen the flavor of the end product e.g. strawberry, vanilla, monosodium
glutamate (for meat products)
8. Humectants
They are to food to make them soft and prevent them from going dry e.g. glycerol found in cake
mixes.
9. ABT-caking agents
They are added to prevent powders from caking in the packet e.g. calcium silicate added to icing
sugar to stop it going lumpy
Other food additives includes anti-foaming agents e.g. in pineapple juice to prevent it from
frothing too much.
Flour improvers, raising agents, glazing agents are added to give a shine to confectionery.

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Legislation of food additives
The use food and drug administration has a list of food additives that are considered safe.
Many have not been tested but are considered safe by most scientists. Substances are put on the
GRAS list (Generally Recognized As Safe list).
Some that are allowed may be harmful but should be on the label.
Prohibitions on food additives controls to use and limits of any food additives are outlined by the
food law.
The primary aims of the legislation controlling are:-
 To protect the health of consumers

 To prevent food fraud
The food safety act prohibits addition to food of any substances that may be injurious to health.
Revision Questions
1. Explain the meaning and importance of food additives in foods

2. Define a food additive
3. Distinguish various types of food additive
4. Apply various types of food additives in food production
5. Explain the legislation on food additives

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CONTAMINANTS
Contaminants – are residues that become part of food as a result of processing, handling and
distribution of food.
Occurrence and types of contaminants:-
The main contaminants in food industry include:-
1. Geo – contaminants e.g. heavy metals like lead and mercury

2. Pesticides – are substances intended for preventing destroying or repelling any pest.
A pesticide is generally a chemical or biological agent that through its effect deters/ incapacitate
/kills or otherwise discourages pests. They include organochloride, organophosphates, herbicide,
fertilizers, anti-biotics, hormones (like those found in chicken, beef and veal)
3. Industrial fall-out – these refers to the surface contamination originating from sources
such as overhead electrical cables, metals in the manufacturing factory etc.
Heavy metal poisoning from elements such as lead and mercury caused by industrial fall-
out eventually build in the tissues of predators such shark and whale.
- Industrial fall-out include acid rain and chlorofloral carbons (CFC)
Methods of control of contaminants is food industry
Prohibition:Legislative authorities have been taken numerous steps to protect consumer against
food that is detrimental to his health
Withdrawal:Where specific premises fail to meet the conditions of approval or licensing, the
appropriate approval or license may be withdrawn.Where raw agricultural products are
produced, market withdrawal capabilities from the point of processing are essential
Controlling application.:Official standards have been prescribed if ordinary fertilizer and for
each type of a fertilizer have a minimum and maximum amount that can be used.
Enforcing standards on them:Environment protection agencies give licenses for use e.g.
enforcing pesticides requirement.
Revision Questions
1. Identify the type and sources of food contaminants

2. Explain the methods used to control contamination in food industries.

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TOXIC CONSTITUENTS AND ANTI-NUTRIENTS
(Toxins) Toxic constituents are substances created by plants and animals that are poisonous to
human.
Anti-inutrients are natural or synthetic compounds that interfere with absorption of nutrients in
the human body.
Occurrence and type of toxic constituents
1. Cyanogenic glycosides
They are present in a number of food plants and seeds hydrogen cyanide is released from
cynogenic glycosides when fresh plant materials are brocken down e.g. as in chewing which
allows enzymes and cyanogenic glycosides to come together releasing hydrogen cyanide.
Cassava is detoxified by chopping and griding in running H2O prior to preparation
Cyanide is one of the most potent rapidly acting poisonous known.
Cyanide inhibit active sites of cells causing them to die very quickly.
The human body rapidly detoxifies cyanide and an adult human can withstand 50-60 ppm for an
1hr without serious consequences
However , exposure to concentrations of 200-500 ppm for 30 minutes is usually fatal.
2. Dhurrin in sorghum/millet
Dhurrin is found mainly in the leaves and germinating seeds of sorghum.
It plays the role of defense against herbivore attack.
The content of cynanogenic glycoside dhurrin in sorghum vary depending on plant age and
growth conditions.
The cyanide potential is highest shortly after onset of germination.
3. Amygdelin (Vit BIT/Laterine)

- It mostly occurs in nuts and almonds.It is also found in plants such as lima beans and
sorghum.Cyanide is believed to be the active cancer willing ingredient in latelline.
- Amygdelin is also common in macadamia nutsWhen amygdelin containing seeds are
crushed and moistened free cyanide is formed.

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4. Lytharism factor.
Lytharism is a paralytic disease affecting lower limbs toxic substances interfere with formation
of normal collagen in connective tissue.It is present in pulses.Most commonly found in India.
5. Favism factor (vifabafactor)
Found in vicafaba beans
Favism is haemolytic anaemia

It may cause death within 24-48 hrs of attack
This is brought about by eating broad beans and it affects metabolism of glutathione
6. Mycotoxins
 It is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organism of the fungus kingdom
commonly known as moulds.
 The mycotoxin is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi
readily colonize crops.
 Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of fungal infection of crops either
by eating directly by humans or by –being used as livestock feed.
 Tempereture treatment such as cooking and freezing do not destroy mycotoxins thus
mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition of being broken down in digestion so they
remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products.
Types of anti-nutrients
1. Enzyme inhibitors
They are molecules that bind enzymes and decrease their activity.
Not all molecules that bind enzymes are inhibitors. Enzyme activators bind to enzymes and
increase their enzymatic activities.
Proteins can be natural poisons or anti-nutrients e.g. Trypsin inhibitors, amylase inhibitor
Amylase inhibitors are also known as starch locus because they contain substances that prevent
dietary starches from being absorbed by the body.
Amylase inhibitor can be extracted from several types of plants especially those in legume
family. Currently available amylase inhibitors are extracted either from kidney bean white and

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red kidney bean or wheat. Amylase inhibitors are not essential nutrients and are normally not
produced in the body and so no deficiency is possible.
High content of amylase inhibitors reduce carbohydrate absorption in humans
2. Avidin in eggs
Avidin is a biotin protein produced in the oviducts of birds, reptiles and amphibians deposited in
the whites of their eggs.
Raw egg white contains a protein called avidin which deactivates biotin
Biotin is necessary for proper carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism and for proper utilization
of other B complex vitamins as well as healthy hair and skin
3. Goitrogens
They are substances that suppress thyroid gland by interfering with iodine uptake which can as a
result cause enlargement of thyroid gland.
They are common constituents of plants belonging to the crucifer family e.g.broccoli,
cauliflower, kales, mustard seeds etc.
4. Glucosinotes
Plants use substances derived from glucosinolates as a natural defence against herbivores.
These substances are responsible for the sharp and better taste found in food such as mustard,
cauliflower, broccolis turnips
5. Phytic and phenolic compounds
Phytates are phosphorous compounds found primarily in cereal grains, legumes and nuts.
They bind with minerals such as iron, calcium and zinc thus interfering with their absorption in
the body.
Phytic are phytic acids are storage form of phosphorus in the fiber of raw whole grains, legumes
seeds and nuts.
Phytates are not released through the digestive process
Through leavening phytic acid and phytates cause no problem . They are also destroyed through
baking food processing.
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Effects of toxic constituents and anti-nutrients
1. Acute toxicity
Is the harmful effect of toxic agent that manifest itself in seconds, minutes hours or days after
entering the patients body.
Due to toxicity described the adverse effects of a substance which result either from a simple
exposure or from multiple exposures in a short span of time usually less than 24hrs
Chronic toxicity describes adverse health effects from repeated exposure often at lower level of
substances over a long time of period which could be months or years
Other effects include
 Reduced growth
 Intolerance of nutrients.
2. Paralysis
Is loss of muscle function for one or more muscle
It can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage
3. Dementia
 Is the loss of mental function such as thinking, memory and reasoning that is severe
enough to interfere with a person daily functioning.
 It is not a disease it self but rather a group of symptoms that might accompany certain
diseases or symptoms.
 Sometimes it is irreversible or not when caused by a disease or injury but might be
reversible when caused by alcohol drugs etc.
 Reduced availability of nutrients.
Revision Questions
1. Distinguish between a toxin and anti-nutrient
2. Explain the occurrence of cyanogenic glycosides and toxic factors in food
3. Discuss the various types of anti-nutrients in food.
4. Explain the effects of toxic constituents and anti-nutrients on health and nutritional value
of foods.

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ASSIGNMENT 1
Discuss the various methods of removal or detoxification of

constituents and anti-nutrient from food.
NB: To be handed in with your examination answer booklet.

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FOOD PRESERVATION
It’s the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down spoilage, loss of quality
edibility and nutritional value thus allowing longer storage.
It usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, yeast, fungi and other micro organisms as
well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity.
Reasons /roles of food preservation
1. To eliminate any potential micro biology harm to the consumer.

2. T o add variety to the diet by making foods available out of season
3. To produce new products out of the food e.g. in fermentation also in the germ making
4. Maintain nutritional value of the food production of safe food products.
5. Maintain the quality of food and increase the shelf life
Principles of food preservation
1. Controlling of micro organisms

This can be done in the following ways:
Keeping microorganisms out of the food (asepsis)
Removing microorganisms from the food e.g. through filtration
Killing microorganisms and the spores
Delay microbial growth
2. Controlling self decomposition. This can be done by Inactivating endogenous enzymes
e.g. in blanching
3. Preventing or delaying chemical reactions of the food e.g. in fats
4. Controlling insects, rodents, birds, and other physical cause of food spoilage
METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION
Methods of preservation can be broadly classified into (3)
1. Physical methods e.g. pasteurization ,sterlizaton, control of water content ,radiation etc
2. Chemical methods e.g. salting ,curing, smoking and use of preservatives
3. Biological methods e.g. fermentation

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Food /radiation
Ionizing radiation can kill micro organisms thus used in food preservation
When food is radiated, energy passes through it and kills harmful bacteria
The energy is similar UVL and does not make the food radioactive
Fermentation
It is the breakdown of carbohydrates material by micro organisms or under anaerobic conditions
Several end products of fermentation particularly acids and alcohol ,inhibitory to the common
pathogenic micro organisms that may find their way in the foods.
Examples of food preserved through fermentation include:
 Cheese
 Butter
 Bread
 Alcoholic beverages etc
Advantage /benefit of fermentation
 Flavor and textural changes

 Increase nutritional value
 Increase digestibility of food due to the breakdown of indigestible proactive coating of
grains.
Dehydration and drying
 It involves complete removal of H20 under controlled conditions in such a way that food
quality is not altered.
 On reconstitution with h2o, dry foods are very close and visually indistinguishable from
the original foods used in their preparation
 Foods could be dried naturally e.g. for cereals and grains
 They could also be dried through controlled methods e.g. by air convention driers ,drum
or roller driers which is limited to liquid foods ,vacuum driers etc

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Chemical presevation
Involves addition of preservatives .A preservative is a chemical agent which serves to hinder or

mask desirable changes in food
Preservatives can be organic e.g. benzoic acid or inorganic e.g. sulphurdioxide
Other chemical preservative include vinegar, salts, sugar, wood smoke etc
Most chemical preservatives work by surrounding the microbial cells with a concentrated
solution which draws water out of the cells by osmosis. This renders the cells inactive.
Enzyme activity is also affected by the presence of high concentration of salts, acids, sugar etc as
it is in the curing of meat and meat products
Other chemical preservative include antioxidants, acids e.g. ethanoic acid, nitrates and nitrites in
meat,
products, sulphur dioxides in fruits and soft drinks.
Freezing and refrigeneration
When the temperature is reduced, the activities of most micro organism are slowed down until
they become dormant or inactive thus reduction in growth and multiplication.
Some types of microorganisms are reduced while other still thrive in low temperature.
Refrigeration
Refrigerators are used to store food for a short period and are usually set at 5 degrees
At this temperature, microbial activity still take place although it is slowed down
Freezing
The basic principles of refrigeration also apply to freezing, the temperatures are much lower in
freezing and foods can be stored for much longer periods.
In vegetables, enzymes action may produce a desirable effect on flavor and texture during
freezing.
The enzymes therefore must be destroyed during freezing but the chief effect of freezing is the
inability of micro-organism to grow.

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Types of freezing method
Slow freezing /sharp-Foods are placed at the temperature ranging from -4 to -30 degrees
Quick freezing-Lower temperature ranging from -32c to – 40c are used.
Fine crystals are formed. This helps to protect the structure of foods on thawing.
De-hydro freezing-Done in fruits and vegetables
Foods dried about 50% of their original weight and volume then frozen to preserve it .
The quality of fruits and vegetables does not change considerably.
EFFECTS OF FREEZING FOOD
Vitamin c and thiamine when vegetables are branched before freezing. Ascorbic acid is lost
during storage if the temperature is much above -18degrees.
Use of high temperatures for food preservation
Most bacterial, yeast, mould and enzymes are destroyed by heating a food at around 100oC.
However, some are resistant and higher temperature for destruction are required./
Heat destroys microorganisms by denaturing their cellular proteins particulary the essential
enzymes.
Factors that influence type and intensity of heating process used in food preservation.
Microbial load
Microorganisms resistance to heating process
The composition of food i.e. natural ph, acidify or a alkalinity
Canning
Involves the application of temp to food that are high enough to destroy essentially al
microorganisms present contamination.Degree of heat and length of time of heating vary with
the type of food and kinds of microorganisms targeted.Most fans are made of tin coiated steel or
glass..Acid foods e.g. Tomatoes and fruit juices are easily processed than low acid foods because
acids aid destruction of micro-organisms by heat.Acid foods can be processed safely if their
internal temp reaches 82.2oc

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Nutritive value of canned foods
In caned meat, thymine is lost if stored at 18oc or higher.
Ascorbic acid is well retained in citrus juices due to greater acidity.
Thiamine is preserved in vegetables e.g tomatoes because they require minimum amount of heat
due to their low PH.
Pasteurization
It is mostly used in liquids like milk and beer.Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills part but
not all microorganisms present and usually involves the application of temp below 100oc.It has
to primary objectives:-
 I.e. to kill pathogenic microorganisms and inactivate enzymes

 Milk is the most pa5steurized food product by high temperature short time method.
 Dry fruits like raizings, dates can also be pasteurized in their package.
Hurdle technology
Is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products are eliminated by combining more than
one approach.These approaches can be thought of “hurdles” the pathogen has to overcome if it is
to remain active in the food.The right combination of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are
eliminated or render harmless in the final product.It also ensures stability , organytic and
nutritional quality and the economic viability of food products.Hurdles used depends on the
taergetd pathogens.
Smoking
Increased shelf life is achieved by exposing food to smoke from burning plant materials such as
wood.It is done on food product such as meat , fish etc that have undergone curing.Selected
wood enhances flavor and presence of heat reduces h2o content in the food.Heat can also help to
kill some bacteria present.
Revision questions
1. Define food preservation , asepsis, fermentation, canning, preservatives

2. Explain the principles of food preservation
3. Discuss various methods of food preservation
4. Briefly discuss effects of preservation on nutritive value of foods.

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FOOD PACKAGING
It is the means by which protection is accorded to food material and the containers which are
designed to isolate the content to some degree from outside influence thereby minimizing
deterioration of quality.
It is a means of ensuring safe delivery of a food to a consumer so that the food product arrives in
a safe and sound condition at the most minimal cost to the consumer and producer.
Food packaging is a science and an art because as a science it involves procedures and
machinery and as an art it communicates, has aesthetic value and educates.
Packaging – is a physical container and a label that protect the food and ensures its safe delivery
to the ultimate consumer in sound conditions at the minimum overall cost.
Functions of packaging
1. To protect the food before sale from any physical damage, microbial spoilage, chemical
attack and other biological agents such as insects and rodents.
2. Helps in product preservation – packaging lengthens the extent of time a product would
be preserved.
 The better the packaging, the better the preservation of the quality of the product.
 It keeps oxygen out and prevents food from going stale
 It helps to prevent tampering thus improved conference of the consumer.
3. To advertise communicate or educate
The type of packaging used in a food product can either attract or communicate positively
to a consumer.Well finished food packaging materials communicates indirectly good
quality.A food packaging can also be labeled to give information to the consumer on the
contents in terms of amount, nutritional benefit e.g. Anti-ageing or digestion , cholesterol
level , shelf life, name producer or method of preparation.
4. Provide ease of dispensing the finished food product as well as distributing food from one
point to another.
5. To help in unitizing or put into groups small amounts of food products to serve in one
large pack.
6. To provide ease in processing or manufacturing process e.g. If dealing with high temp
during processing, the food may be packed with food packaging that is heat resistant and
when processing on high speed food can be packaged in a material that can withstand
high speed in manufacture.

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Types of packaging material
Packaging materials can be primary, secondary or tertiary based on their on their function.
Packaging materials can be flexible packaging e.g. Paper natural fibre, plastics, metal foil etc
Rigid packaging materials include – tin, aluminium , wood , steel , glass earthen ware.
Flexible packaging materials are the type of packaging materials that have the ability.
Advantages
 They are light in weight

 Flecible with respect to the shape of the food
 Can wrap food in small quantities
 Reasonalbly cheap and available.
Paper.
Paper can be used in the form of ligid or semiligid containers
 Can be untreated paper or improved /treated paper

 Treated paper is modified to have varying permeability to liquid and gases.
Advantages of using papers in food industry.
1. It is cheap
2. Light in weight
3. Recycled
4. It is readily available
5. Greatly versatile with reasonable machanicle strength.
6. .it is semi flexible therefore can take the shape of a food materials
Disadvantages of use and not appealing.
1. It not treated, rough and not appealing

2. In the long run will lead to deforestation.
3. Untreated paper is not safe liquid food products
4. The mechanical strength cannot resist burns/excess/overweight during transportation

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Plastics
It is the most commonly used but difficult to expose
Advantages
 Reduces cost of transportation

 It is light, strong e.g. When used to package sugar, yorghut,
 It is cheap to manufacture
 Can be recycled
Disadvantages
1. 10% of rubbish consist of plastic hence a problem in land fills because they are bulky and
degrade slowly
2. Interaction with food content emits some chemical compounds e.g. Dioxins which would
cause harm to the health of human.
Metal
Metal used include tin, aluminum , steal etc.
Metals are mostly used for packaging canned foods. Among the aluminium is oftenly used.
Advantages
1. Aluminium can be easily be recycled

2. Aluminium foils can be flexible and can take a shape of the food product.
3. It is light in weight and strong thus reducing transportation cost
4. Has good electrical and thermo conductivity
5. Has good resistance to corrosion
6. Relatively cheap than other metals like steel.
Disadvantages
 Aluminium is highly ductile and can tear food of high weight are packaged in aluminium
alone. This is overcome by alloying alluminium with small quantities of magnesium,
manganese, silicon and copper.
 Alluminium can be oxidized thus making welding difficult.
 Pure aluminium packages can be sold in liquids or solvents of low or high PH.

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 Alluminium does not alter or impart any order of to food alluminium does not alter or
impart any order of the food.
Glass
It is ideal if packaging liquid food products
Advantages
1. It is easy to recycle
2. Strong
3. It is impevious to moisture, gases, odours and micro-organisms
4. Is inert and do not react or migrate into the food
5. Can easily show the contents of a food thus increased consumer acceptability of the fod
product
Disadvantages
1. Weight and shape make it difficult if transport and storage.

2. Can easily break hence must be handled with care during processing, transportation and
use of the food contents.
Interaction between food product and packaging material
Lacquer and food used in cans.
They are oxyphenolic resins are used to protect lessen or do away with interactions between cans
and food. Lacquers must not only ensure inertia but also avoid altering properties of the food.
Migration of some monomers from lacquers to food have been observed.
The resulting effects include:- skin attacks , allergies, asthma, and inflammatory reactions.
Genotoxical effects and disruption of reproductive system has also observed.
Plastic packages and food contaminants
Dioxins in paper and chemicals in plastics can migrate into the food.
This have been observed with the change of taste to that of plastic found in plastic bottled water
that has been left in the sun.

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1. Sulphur compounds in food.
Sulphur compounds from packaging materials reacts and results in modification of the sensory
properties and flavor of foods containing dysulphides.
Wax paper with polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
They have shown to be have transferred to foods. Paper and cartons with metallic lining, has
shown contamination in foods which is usually iron
Requirements of a packaging material
Must keep the product safe and prevent any damage.

Must keep the product clean and protect it from contamination
Must attract the customers to the product to increase salts and profit.
Must convey the information required by food labeling regulations.
Revision questions
i. Define food packaging , packaging

ii. State the functions of packaging
iii. Giving prons and cons for different various types of packaging material..
iv. Briefly discuss the interaction between food product and packaging material
v. Highlight for qualities of a good packaging material

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SPECIFIC FOOD PRODUCTS
Specific food products in food industries include the following:
1. Milk and milk products

2. Fats and oils
3. Fruits and vegetables
4. Meat and meat products
5. Cereals and pulses.
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
Milk – is whole fresh clean lactale secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more
healthy animals.
Market milk – it refers to fluid whole milk that is sold to individuals usually if direct
consumption.
Lactation – is the secretion of milk from mammary glands and the period of time that a mother
lactates to feed her young.
Milk synthesis – it refers to the continuous production of milk as the milk is being regularly and
thoroughly removed from the udder which is influenced by hormones.
Colostrums – is the yellowish coloured salty liquid that has very high serum protein content and
provides antibiotics to help protect the newborn until its own immune system is established.
NB about 60 days before next calving the cow is dried off, there is no milking during this stage
for 2 reasons
1. Milk has tappened off for maternal needs of the foetus.

2. The udder needs to prepare for the next cycle.
Milk composition
Milk is a complex mixture of lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and many other organic compounds
and inorganic salts dissolved in water.
The most variable component of milk is fat followed by protein

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Factors affecting composition of milk
1. Species.
2. Breed.
3. Individuality of the animal
4. Frequency of milking
5. Irregularity of milking
6. Frequent changes in the time and intervals of milking results in a low fat and solid fat
content (SNF)
7. Disease and abnormal condition
8. Season
9. age
10. administration of drugs and hormones – some drugs may affect temporary percentage of
fat while hormones increase in both field and fat%
Milk fat
The bulk of fat in the milk exist in the form of small globules in an oil water type of
emulsion.
The surface of fat globule is coated with a fat globule membrane which is rich in
phospholipids and protein
The membrane prevents the globules from coalescing together.
Milk fat contribute of milk and milk products.
It is a rich source of energy and contains essential fatty acids like linoliec and arachidoic
acid.
The most distinctive role of milk fat is that of flavor in most daily products.
Low melting point of milk fat gives a soft body soft texture and rich taste to daily
products like butter
Milk fats the therefore enhance consumer acceptability of food with milk and milk
products in them.

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Summary of Milk composition
Milk
Water Total solids
FATS (LIPIDS) (SNF) solid non-fat
Otierconstitution
Lactose Nitrogenous
E.g. enzymes
(milk sugar) substances
Bacteria
True fat Associated substances
Vitamins
Pigments
Phospholipids Cholesterol Carotene Vit A, D, E ,K Mineral matter

e.g. phosphorous
Citrates K, Na, Ca
Non protein Protein
Casein bactebumin lactoglobulin
Milk sugar
- Is also known as lactose

- Lactose exist only in milk in the form of a true solution
- Upon crystallization, the lactose present in milk forms hard and gritty crystals
- This characteristic is responsible for sandyness defect in ice cream and condensed milk.
- Lactose provide energy and helps to establish a mildly acidic reaction in the intestine
which checks the growth of bacteria.
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- When milk is heated, lactose react with protein and develops a brown colour.
- Lactose is easily fermented by bacteria to yield lactic acid and other organic acids.
- Lactose is also responsible for spoilage of milk and milk product by souring action on the
other hand souring action is important in the production of cultured milk products.
Milk proteins
Protein are amongst the most complex substances. They are vital for living organisms as
they constitute unindispensable amount of the individual body cells.
Milk proteins are complete proteins of high biological value i.e they contain all the
essential amino acids in fairly large amount
The amino acid present constitute of essential and non-essential amino acid.
Essential amino acid are necessary in the diet for the formation of body protein. Protein
of milk consist mainly of
1. Casein
2. Beta lactoglobulin
3. Alpha lactoabumin
Water
Is the medium in which the other main constituents are either dissolved or suspended.
A small portion of water is in the bound form being it firmly held by milk proteins and
phospholipids.
Ash/mineral matter
Practically all the mineral elements present in milk are essential for nutrition.
Milk is an excellent source of calcium and phosphosrus both of which together with vit d
are seential for bone formation chlorides, phosphates, sulphates, bicarbonates of sodium,
potassium and magnesium etc are present.
These minerals influence the condition and stability of proteins especially the casein
fraction.
Copper and ion are important in the development of off flavours in milk and milk
products. However milk is rather low in iron, copper and iodine.

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Vitamins
Vitamins are necessary food factors which are needed for normal growth, health and
reproduction of living organisms.
Milk is a good source of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K)
Water soluble vitamin of B complex group e.g. Thiamin, viboflavavin niacin, biotin ,
folic acid etc.
Vitamin A and D are present in the milk provided the cow is fed on green fodder and
exposed to sunlight respectively however milk is deficient of vitamin C
Phospholipids
In the milk there are three types of phospholipids i.e lecithin cephalin and sphingomylin
Lecithin forms an important constituent of fat globulin membrane and to contribute to the
richness of the flavor of milk and other daily products
It is highly sensitive to oxidative changes giving rise to oxidized or metallic flavor in
dairy products.
Phospholipids are the excellent emulsifying agents and serves to stabilize milk, fat
emulsion
Cholesterol
It appears to be present in true solution in the fat as part of fat globulin membrane complex.
Pigments
Avery fat soluble compound such as carotene and xanthophilis and water soluble vitamins e.g.
Riboflavin.
They are also responsible for the yellow colour in cream, butter and other fat rich dairy products.
Beside contributing to the colour of milk , carotene acts as an antioxidant and it is also a
precursor of vitamin A.

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Enzymes.
They are the biological catalyst which can fasten or retard chemical changes without themselves
participating in the reactions enxymes are protein like specific in their actions and inactivated by
it. The important milk enzymes and their specific actions include:-
Analyse (diastase) – is a starch splitting enxyme.
Lipase – is a fat splitiing enxyme and contribute to rancid flavor
Protease – protein splitting enxyme
Phosphatases– is capable of splitting phospholic acid esters
Pyroxidase and catalase – decompose hydrogen peroxide.
Casein – constitutes 80% of total nitrogen present in milk. Milk protein contains proteases,
peptones and milk enxymes casein is classified as a phosphoprotein because the phospholic acid
that is contained in its molecular structure.
Casein is a good source if essential amino acid and it can be separated from milk by the addition
of venin and enxyme secreted by young calves.
Milk quality and microbiology
Whole milk has distinctive quality of odour taste, and appearance.

These qualities are related to the feed given to the animal and the type of animal.
Co-agulation of milk is done by acidify it milk is slightly acidic with a ph of 6.6-6.7
Nearly all changes that take place in the taste, odour or appearance is as a result of the
activities of milk.
As the milk passes from the uder, bacteria are picked from the walls and passage ways.
Nearly all changes that take place in the flavor and appearance of the milk after it is
drawn from the cow are as a result of activities of micro-organisms of these
microorganisms, the most of importance in the dairy industry are the bacteria, moulds
and yeast.
Bacteria is the predominating amongst all.
All a few microorganisms are desirable as most cause undesirable changes.
Relatively small portions of micro-organism are disease producing types and are called
pathogen.

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Results of microbial growth in milk
Souring – is the most common and is caused by transformation of lactose in to lactic acid and
other acid compounds principles by lactic acid bacteria
The development of sour acid flavopur in the milk is due to volatile acids and compounds.
Souring and gassiness
It is caused by e-coli group which are commonly found in soil , manufactured etc and therefore
indicate contamination of milk and dairy products..
Aroma production
Is due to production of the desirable flavor compounds such as di-acetyl e.g. In ripened cream
and butter-proteolyses
Ropiness
long threads in milk that are formed due to microbial growth and results in the spoilage of milk
sweet curdling.
Is due to the production of an enzyme which curdles to milk without souring.
Destruction of microorganisms
This may be done by the means of:-
1. Heat
2. Different types of heat treatment (temp, time combination) are employed such as
pasteurization and sterilization to destroy or inherit growth of micro-organisms in milk or
milk products.
3. Ionizing radiation e.g. U.V radiation at different doses are applied to destroy
microorganisms.
4. High frequency sound waves e.g. Supersonic and ultrasonic sound waves are applied to
destroy the presence of micro organisms.
5. Chemicals e.g. Acids, alkalis, hydrogen peroxide etc are used in milk and milk products.

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Safeguarding the milk supply
Safety milks freedom from pathogenic micro-organisms for human consumption, milk that is
both clean and safe is highly desirable.
The sanitation of milk supply can be safeguarded in two ways:-
Production and handling of raw milk in such a manner as to prevent its attack by pathogenic
organisms. This will require by (a) ensuring the health of dairy cattle by various control measure.
Safeguarding the health employees by various medical examines protection of water supply from
contamination by pathogenic organisms.
Pasteurization of milk/sterilization so as to kill all the pathogenic organisms present and

avoidance of any post process contamination.
COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF MILK.
Collection of milk
 Milk may be delivered in the milk plant in tankers by means of road or rail.
 Milk in the containers has to be graded, emptied, measured by weight or volume sampled
to provide continuity of supply to the pasteurizing equipment.
 In the absence of mechanical aids, the cans are official manually to the tipping pointing
where the milk is inspected. They are then passed to a can washer.
 The milk reception should be well planned and equipment well chosen to facilitate other
milk processing operations.
 This is especially important where large volumes are received
 Delay in performing plat form tests at the tipping points can meet deteriotion of milk,
increase in labor cost and increase in the operating cost.
 Market milk requires milk of high quality from the standpoint of good health, flavor,
sanitary quality, keeping quality and aesthetic quality.
 When milk is received at a milk plant should be at a temperature of 50c or below.
 The milk should be clean , sweet of pleasant flavor and free from off flavours and
reasonably free from strenuous materials.
 Contamination with antibiotics , pesticidies and other chemicals or metals is highly
undesirable . No abnormal milk should be accepted on the platform test.

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Milk reception operation
It is divided in the following operation
1. Unloading
2. Grading based on smell, odour appearance , temp, lactometer reading etc.
3. Sampling
4. Weighing
5. Testing
Processing of milk
Processing helps to procedure milk that has low or no bacteria found count , good flavor and
satisfactory keeping qualities . Operations of milk processing include:-
1. Clarification
2. Homogenization
3. Pasteurization
4. Sterilization
Clarification – the milk is passed through a centrifugal clarifier.
The speed is adjusted in such a way that cream is not separated but dirt, filth, cells from udder
and some bacteria are removed.
The clarified milk is ready for other processing e.g. Pasteurization.
Pasteurization
In general terms it is the heating of milk to a temperature which destroys microorganisms,

responsible T.B and fever and nearly all other microorganisms present in that product without
necessary affecting composition and proportion of the product. It follows rapid cooling to check
the growth of microorganisms resistant to temp used.
Also inactivates natural enzyme glycolipases.:

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General methods used in pasteurization include:-
Holding or batch system.
Cream or batch system.
Cream or milk or another product is brought to a temperature usually 65 oc and held for at least
30 inutes followed by rapid cooling.
High temperature short time method (HTST)/ continuous system.
In this process, cooked flavor is not imparted and cream line is not affected
(U.H.T) ultra high temp system
Milk is held for 3 sec at 93.4oc or for 1 sec at 149.5oc
U.H.T treated milk products keep longer than other products pasteurized by other methods
Pasteurized milk is cooled to 7oc or lower.
Role of phosphates in pasteurization.
Raw milk contain- alkaline phosphates. It is a build in indicator foe adequate pasteurization. This
enzyme has heat destruction characteristic that closely approximates the time, temperature and
exposures of proper pasteurization . Therefore alkaline phosphates activity beyond a certain level
is evident of inadequate processing of pasteuri5zed milk or cream.
This enzyme liberates phenol giving a deep blue colour with certain organic compound e.g. A
reaction with phenol phospholic acid compound.
Absence of blue colour reactions indicates complete pasteurization.
Effects of pasteurization on nutritive value
There are no changes except some slight decrease in vitamins like B,C,(ascorbic acid) and some
slight denaturization of the proteins e.g. betalactomoglobin ,immunoglobin,enzymes
,celiumalbumins etc.
Effects on flavor
Does not produce objectionable cooked flavors since flavoring compounds present in meat are
no way destroyed by pasteurization.

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Effect on microorganisms
Pasteurized products are not sterile
They contain vegetative organisms and spores still capable of growth.
Homogenization
Is a pro0cess of making a stable emulsion of milk fat and milk serum by mechanical treatment
rendering the mixture homogenous.
Warm milk for cream is passed through a small aperture under high pressure and velocity.
This makes a permanent and a uniform suspension of fat to an extent no visible cream separation
occurs in the milk.
Sterilization.
Is the heat treatment applied in bottles.
The milk bottles are heated to a temperature of 104 to 113 degrees Celsius for 15 – 40 min.
Bottles are left to cool naturally .Bottles of milk are passed through hot water tanks on conveyed
balls then to the cooling tanks .sterilized milk can be kept for several weeks without refrigeration
as long as it is not opened.
Concentrated milk
Thins include evaporated milk sweetened, condensed milk and dried milk made from both whole
and skimmed milk products. These milk products have a longer shelf life and some can be
reconstituted to their original form. When milk is heated to concentrate it by evaporating fat of
the moisture, color of the milk changes in aroma and flavor.
Evaporated milk
Its made by evaporating more than half of the water from the milk and a vacuum. It’s necessary
to fore warm milk 10 min to prevent coagulation of casein during sterilization after its canned.
Color and flavor are based preserved if sterilization is carried out at a high temperature for a
short time.

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Condensed milk
Its concentrated to about 1/3 of its original and has about 15% sugar added to the milk. Since the
finished products contain at least 40% of the sugar which acts as a preservative it’s not necessary
to sterilize before canning.
Dehydrated milk products
They include whole milk powder skimmed milk powder and infant milk foods. Milk powder can
be dehydrated to about 97% by spraying, drying and vacuum drying.
It has a good shelf life without refrigeration. It can be reconstituted to fluid milk. It is highly
hydroscopic ( it can easily be stored for only 6 months because of fats which can be oxidized).
Skimmed milk
Fat content is reduced to 0.5-2% by centrifugation, by removing fat from the milk not only taste
or flavor is reduced but soluble vitamins like A and D are reduced. Usually this milk is fortified
with vitamin A and D.
Ice cream
Ice cream is frozen dairy products constituting of whole milk .Skeemed milk, cream ,butter
,condensed milk products or dried milk products. Milk fats and milk solids, non fats constitute
about 60% of the total solids of ice cream.
These components give ice cream a rich flavor and improved body texture. In addition to dairy
products ice cream contains sugar , stabilizers emulsifiers flavoring materials water and air.
Sugar in addition to sweetening affects the smoothness of the resulting ice cream .it also lowers
the freezing point of ice cream mixtures so that it does not freeze in the freezer.
Stabilizers are used to prevent the formation of ice crystals during freezing. They form with
water in the formula and thereby improving the body texture of the ice cream.
Emulsifiers egg yolk helps to disperse the fat globules thought the mix and prevent them from
cramping together during the freezing and the mixing operation. Emulsifiers also help to make
ice-cream dry and stiff. Common flavoring materials used include vanilla, strawberry; chocolate
coffee etc. fruits and nuts are also added to improve the taste.

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Flavored milk
Flavored milk contain banana, straw berry ,chocolate, coffee, and any other edible flavor.
Edible food color and cone sugar. It can either be pasteurized or sterilized.
Co2 is added to the milk to create a unique sensation in the mouth that makes milk more thirst
quenching .it increase the shelf life by displacing some of the O2 needed for the spoilage bacteria
to grow.
Cream
This is milk fat separated from milk by centrifugation creams containing various amounts of fats
are made to meet different requirements , the high % of fat help to give a more stable form . it
can be used in baked products as well as salad dressing.
Cream is pasteurized to kill the spoilage bacteria.
Yoghurt (curd)
Yoghurt is ranked 2 nd to milk in the extent of consumption. Milk is boiled and cooled to about
50c and a tea spoon of curd from an earlier from an earlier produced batch of curd is added and
mixed thoroughly. The lactic acid bacteria present in this sample of curd, curdle the milk. They
utilize the lactose in milk and break it down to lactic acid. The formation of lactic acid increases
the rancidity of milk.
Riboflavin and thiamin content increases during curd formation.
Effects of heat on milk
A number of changes occur in milk due to heat and the extent of changes depends on the
temperature and period of heating.
The changes affect the color, flavor and the viscosity of milk. Brown color is due to reaction of
milk products proteins with reducing sugars such as lactose. The dispersion of calcium phosphate
in milk is decreases when the milk is heated and part of precipitated to the bottom along with the
coagulated lacto albumin. Volatile elements such as iodine are lost when milk is heated.
Scum formation- As the temperature of heating increases a scum forms at the top and can be
removed. As soon as its removed another layer of scam forms. The milk boils overdue to scum
formed.

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The scum is a tough leathery insoluble layer. The scum is forced upwards due to the pressure
build up under it and the milk flows out of the pan under this pressure.Boiling is over is
increased when the pan is covered during heating of the milk.The scum consists of a mesh of a
coagulated albumin, mineral salts such as calcium phosphate and fat globule . Scum formation
can be prevented by agitation or stirring during heating of milk.To reduce scorching of heated
milk specialized milk boilers and milk cookers can be used.

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MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS
The term meat refers to muscles of warm blooded four legged animals. It also includes organs of
these animals of all is the name given to edible parts taken from inside the carcass of meat e.g.
liver , kidney , heart ,brain ,tongue etc.
Types of meat
Beef – is the meat of cattle over 1 yr. old..

Lamb/mutton- meat from sheep that is 12 months old or below.
Veal- meat from cattle slaughtered 3-4 wks. After birth e.g. a calf.
Pork/bacon – meat from pig, best meat from pig is between 3-12 months old.
Game
Poultry
Goat
Yearling mutton – meat obtained from young sheep 12- 20 months old.
Organ meat- e.g. liver, kidney, lungs, heart etc.
Composition of meat
Meat is agood source of high biological value proteins and fats . The proportion of nutrients in
the meat depends on the kind of animal ,the type of cut and species.
The protein content of meat decreases with increase on the fat content. The average protein
content of meat range from 10 – 40%. Other components include water and minerals .
Protein
It constitutes about 15 – 20% of the weight of lean meat and its high biological value .
proteinsare of two types:
1. Collagen
2. Elastin
Collagen:
Its abundant in tendons, skins, bone vascular systems of the animal and connective tissue sheaths
surrounding muscles. Collagen contributes toughens. it increases with age and hence greater
difficulties’ in chewing meat of older animals than those from younger ones .

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Elastin
It’s tougher than collagen and is constituent of ligaments, no changes occur during heating and it
doesn’t t matter as elastin quality is low. Fish protein has a higher biological value than meat
proteins.
Fat
Meat is found in two forms:
Adipose tissue – which forms the exterior layer of fat in connective tissue
Marbling – which is the distribution of fat thought the muscles .
Meat fat are rich in saturated fatty acids the cholesterol content of meat is about 75mg/100gms
The lean portion of meat contains of phospholipids and these are located in the membrane of the
cell. The fatty acids in the lean portion of the meat have a higher portion of unsaturated fatty
acids than tissue fat.
Minerals
Meat is a good source of phosphorous ,iron ,calcium and magnesium and some trace elements
Calcium and magnesium are essential components of the contraction and relaxation cycle. Iron is
part of the red pigment and influences the color of meat .
Zinc is found as a component of enzymes present in meat .liver is an excellent source of iron as
well as vitamin B 12 and A.
Unless the cooking of water is discarded , minerals and water soluble vitamins are not lost to a
greater extent from meat.
Water
It’s the largest single component of muscle by weight ,changes of water levels is considered to
influence the tenderness , texture and juiciness of meat as well as yield cooked meat..
Structure of meat
An individual muscle is made up of muscle fibre which is surrounded by connective tissue .

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Muscle tissue
Muscle is a complex structure, the smallest unit of muscle is called a muscle fibre.
Many muscle fibres are joined by connective tissues to form bundles called fasculi. The fasculli
together with fat deposits are covered with thick membrane and attached to the bone.
Muscle fibres do not increase in number after the animal is born ,before individual fibres grow
larger by increase in the number of myofibrils within and between and between the muscles
,fatty deposits occur . fibres are made up of myofibrils which are surrounded by a complex
system of tubules and vessels.
Connective tissues
They will bind the fibres together .the meat is connected to the bone by means of connective
tissue , collagen and elastin are two types of connective tissues . during cooking collagen is
softened and is converted to gelatin.
Fatty tissues
Made up with connective tissues with embedded fat cells , fat is deposited under the skin around
the glands organ’s between and within muscle fibres.
Bones
The appearance of a bone is an indicator of the part of the animal form which the cut of meat is
taken .They are either short or long
Long bones are hollow and contain yellow marrow other bone contain red marrow are spongy
inside.
Pigments
Myoglobin is the pigment in it that gives the characteristic’s red color in it.
The greater the amount of myoglobin the darker the color of the meat. As the animal ages , the
amount of myoglobin increase.Raw meat when allowed to stand in the refrigerator changes its
color from red to brownish red.If myoglobin is heated the color changes from red to brown.
The slaughter of animals is controlled by law.

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Main stages of slaughtering
Rest Stunning Breeding Removal of

intestines and oftal
Hanging
Post mortem changes in meat
Muscle is highly specialized tissue, converse chemical energy to mechanical energy.
Just before an animal is slaughtered, the muscles are soft and pliable but immediately upon
death as metabolism in the cell is interrupted , the process begin that link of stiffening of the
carcass.
Meat has the chemical and structural characteristics of muscles with death, a series of
biochemical reactions initiate some changes that transform the muscle into meat.
Within the first 24 hrs and 48 hrs these changes establish all the quality attributes of meat.
They include:
Increased acidity – at slaughter most of the blood is removed from the body, the blood therefore
no longer carries nutrients and oxygen to the muscles nor carries away waste .
As the oxygen supply of muscles is depleted, the aerobic (oxygenated)pathway for energy
metabolism cannot function .For a .time, the aerobic pathway of glucose metabolism takes over
the yield ATP.Glucose is derived from glycogen stored in the muscles ,This pathway yield lactic
acid since there is no blood to transport it to liver for glucose and glycogen synthesis.It
accumulates in the muscles and decreases the pit.The PH depends on the amount of stored
glycogen at the slaughter, changes in ph. affect meat quality. If PH decreases is too rapid in
preserve of body, muscles and proteins are denatures with accompanying loss of water holding
capacity High PH remains – meat will be dark with dry surface as water is highly bound in
proteins

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Rigor mortis
This refers to the general stiffening that occurs at animal carcass a short time after death as a
result of metabolic changes. At the moment of death energy in from ATP is used to maintain
integrity of the muscles.
When ATP stores are depleted the muscles cross bridges from between acting and myosin to
from actomyosin and the muscles contracts. Therefore there is loss of muscle elasticity increased
tension and shortening.
Meat cooked in rigor tends to be tough. After a day or 2 the period passes and the meat becomes
tender.Tenderness increases with increased length of holding period.This process is called ageing
Ageing
Refers to the softening of the shift muscles of animal after holding for some time.
Tenderness in the meat increases with holding time.ageing is the resolution of rigormortis and is
that to result in alteration in the structure of myofibrils.Muscle fibre increase their water holding
capacity which increases the tenderness . musckle also contain proteolytic enxymes called
cathepsin which may have some effects on structural changes.holding condition should be
carefully controlled. uncontrolled condition may allow putrefactive bacteria to grow controlled
conditions of holding are:-
a) temperature of holding should have a range of 34-36of

b) CO2 in the altmosophere
c) 70% humidity
This helps to keep the meat in a good condition 4 3 to 6 weks. after ageing process the meat is
ready for sell.The process of ageing is called ripening of meat.
Carcass inspection and grading
Inspection
All meat must be inspected before selling by a qualified personnel.
Animals must be inspected before slaughter and some eliminated.
The ones that are passed are slaughtered. Each carcass and organs are examined.

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Grading
It is the procedure where meat or meat products with common characteristics are segregated into
standardized groups. The grading is for quality characteristics > the major purpose behind it is to
facilitate the merchandizing and marketing of meat products.
There are two general types of grades quality and quantity
i)Quality:Meat is categorized on bases of palatability. Quality factors include maturity of the

animal, marbling of fat within muscles, color and texture of limit.
ii)Quantity (yield):Are designated in terms of yield or productivity proportionate amount of

sellable retail cuts, that can be obtained from carcass.
Grades are indicated by number 1, 2,3,4,5 where i indicated the highest yield.
Factors affection the quality of meat. This include
Tenderness
Flavor
Water, holding capacity
Spoilage and deterioration of meat.
Meat tenderness-tenderization
Connection tissue determines tenderness of meat
Meat that is difficult to cut or hard to chew is said to be taugh it has longer and thicker muscle
fibre.It has a longer tough meat has more connective tissue than tender meat. These two are
related to the tage of the animals and activity of the muscle.Certain procedures in the food
preparation can increase the tenderness of tough meat.The muscle fibres and connective tissue
may be broken by mechanicall action as in mincing or bashing with a rolling pin or meat
hammering.Protyolitic enzymes may be used to digest muscle fibre and connective tissue
partially.
Commercially prepared tenderizes may be used or enxymes obtained directly from the source
e.g. Bromelin from fresh pineabple , ficing from fresh figs and papein from the leaves of
pawpaw.Substance that increase the a dresssion or water holding capacity of the muscle- fibre
proteins may be used as tenderizers, and this include acids, alkali and salt.Acid e.g. Lemon joice,
vinegar, wine and tomatoes alkali, darken meat.

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Artificial methods of meat tenderization
a) Mechanical methods
Pounding cutting, grinding, kneadling or pinning and using ultra sonic vibration . This cut or
break muscle fibres and connective tissue>
b) Use of enzymes
Wrapping of meat with papaya leaves result in tenderization due to action of papein on meat
proteins. Gromelin from pineabple, ficin from figs, trypsin from opancrease and fungal enxymes
are also used.
To achieve uniform tenderness, papein may be injected into the veins of animals10 min before
slaughter.Freeze, drying meat and dehydrating it in water containing proteolytic enxymes is also
effective.Over tenderization by enxymes, however changes texture in meat and results in loss of
flalvour and juiciness
c) Use of low levels of salts
Salt increases water holding capacity of muscle fibres results in tenderness and juiciness.Salt also
saliblizes meat protein.Freeze drying meat can be rehydrated in a weak solution. Salt use include
sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate and sodium phosphate or potassium phosphate
d) Changes of PH
Decreasing or increasing ph increase hydration and tenderness.Soaking beef for 48 hours in

concentrated vinegar increase tenderness and juiciness
Water holding capacity
This is the ability of meat to retain its water during application of external forces such as cutting,
heating, grinding or pressing.Water in meat has locations bound, immobilize, free where water-
holding capacity is lowest, the iso-electric point.PH determining H2O holding changes in PH
increases alteration.
The flavor
The flavor meat is largely due to extractive and fat. flavor is more pronounce in less tender cuts
of meat.muscles from older animals or well exercised parts have more extractive than the
muscles of young animals or less use parts.

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The flavor of extracting is not fully understood but it is known that they include soluble in
organic salts, lactic acid and nitrogenous compounds.
Fat has a distinct effect on the flavor and aroma of meat. The aroma from fat during cooking is
largely responsible for smells associated with different meat.
In dry methods of cooking, the extractive and fat settle on the surface of meat. This is why the
meat on the outside of5 a joint is more tasty than interior.
In moist methods of cooking, the extractive and fat pass into the cooking liquid so unless this is
used in the recipe a source to accompany the dish much of the flavor will be lost.
There is an association between flavor cooking times. If less tender cuts of beef cooked in a
pressure cooker or microwave oven, the flavor is not well developed as in beef cooked by longer
more convection methods.
Colour.The colour of meat is due to pigment myogblim. This is pigment accounts from about
75% of the total pigment of red meat.
Some muscles contain more of the meat pigment than other e.g. leg of pigmentation is related to
muscle use well its myoglobin content.
The degree of pigmentation is related to muscle use well used muscles and those of older animals
darker.The colour of meat changes during cooking.When heating, the pigment myoglobin is
oxidized to form oxymyoglobin. This is associated with a change in colour from purple-red to
right-red. With further heating, the meat become greyish brown due to formation of denature
globins hemichrome.The protein in pigment is denatured and iron in the pigment is oxidised.
v) Spoilage and deterioration of meat.
Spoilage of meat occurs in a matter of hour on days if it is untreated. The meat becomes
unappetizing, poisonous or infections. Spoilage is caused by infections and decomposed by
bacteria and fungi which are born by the animal itself, by people handling the meat and the
implements.
Factors that cause meat spoilage include:-
Microorganism,exposure to air and improper feeding techniques.

Deteriorative conditions include abnormal colour, off odours abdominal texture, of flavor,
foreign material, slime formation, formations of pockets of gas or swelling and microbial growth
(especially mould)

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Some meat become soft and morshy.Colour changes that incidates micriobial spoilage include:-
redpolls, blue, green, purple, yellow, green brownish –black abnormal pink, cream or white.
ASSIGNMENT 2 (CAT)
 Differentiate between quality control and quality assurance.
 Discuss factos that could determine the quality of finished products.
 Highlight organoleptic characteristics that are use to determine the quality and
standards of food in food industries.
 Discuss the various ways that can be used to assess the quality of foods in food
production.
THE END

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FOOD Science AND Technology. Module pdf

Food Nutrition And Dietetics (Egerton University)

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

The role of food science and tech in dietetic therapy is as follows

1. Meal planning for nutrient adequacy

Food science and technology and food security

Food insecurity can be caused by:-

i) Low food production

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

The food we eat is made up of three major kinds of nutrients

It is also composed of vitamins, minerals and fibre

 Cereals and cereal products

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

Application of enzymes allows the manufacturers to produce more of a particular product in a

General characteristics of enzymes and factors affecting in food processing

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

These are substances that prevent normal functioning of enzymes

Types of enzymes of concern in food technology enzymes are categorized according to

i) Carbohydrates e.g. Maltose, sucrose’s, amylases, glycosidase, glycosidase

Effects of enzymes on quality of foods

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

3. Oxidation of ascorbic acid

Application of enzymes in food production

Enzymes in bread making

Production of alcoholic drinks

The haziness noticed in wines is due to peptic substances.

Peptinases are used in classifying alcoholic drinks.

Application meal tenderization

The art of using enzyme for tenderizing meat is an old one.

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

- Bromelin from pineapples

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

Importance /functions of food additives

1. Maintain product consistency e.g. Emulsifier stabilizer anti-caking agents etc.

Advantages of food additives

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

Types of food additives

Antioxidant include :- phenolic compounds, tocopherols etc.

It can be used by diabetics.

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

The primary aims of the legislation controlling are:-

 To protect the health of consumers

1. Explain the meaning and importance of food additives in foods

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FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY MODULE

Occurrence and types of contaminants:-

The main contaminants in food industry include:-

1. Geo – contaminants e.g. heavy metals like lead and mercury

Methods of control of contaminants is food industry

1. Identify the type and sources of food contaminants