Discretization Schemes for

Fractional-Order
Differentiators and
Integrators

ARUSHI AHUJA(27/EC/10)

ASHWYN SHARMA (28/EC/10)

AVINASH YADAV(29/EC/10)

AVNEENDRA KANVA(30/EC/10)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is done as a semester project as a part of the curriculum for sixth
semester for ECE. We are really thankful to our Mentor D.K UPADHYAY,
Electronics and communication division, Netaji Subhas Institute of
Technology , for his invaluable guidance and assistance, without which the
accomplishment of the task would have never been possible. We also thank him
for giving this opportunity to explore Fractional order differentiators and
integrators.

We also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to the Lab
Assistants.
 INDEX

S.NO TOPIC
1 FRACTIONAL ORDER DIFFERENTIATOR

2 FRACTIONAL ORDER INTEGRATOR

3 INTRODUCTION TO DISCRETIZATION OF FRACTIONAL ORDER

INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERENTIATORS
4 DIRECT DISCRETIZATION USING AL-ALAOUI OPERATOR

5 DIRECT DISCRETIZATION USING RECURSIVE

TUSTIN OPERATOR
6 ANALYSIS OF ONE-THIRD ORDER DIFFERENTIATOR &
INTEGRATOR

7 ANALYSIS OF ONE-FOURTH ORDER DIFFERENTIATOR &

INTEGRATOR

8 PERFORMANCE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

9 CONCLUSION

10 DIFFICULTIES FACED IN THE PROJECT

11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 FRACTIONAL ORDER DIFFERENTIATOR

The output of FOD is such that the order of the differentiation of input signal may
be either real or complex i.e. the power of the s (in the Laplace domain) is arbitrary
instead of integer only as in case of conventional differentiator.

The FOD circuit is constructed as shown in Fig.

The impedances used in the circuit are, Z1 = Z2 = R and ZFOE = Qs−α ,

[-1<α <1], where ZFOE is the impedance of FOE. In Fig.1, the first OP-AMP gives
the differentiated output (v01) in inverted form, which is fed to the second OP-
AMP. It is also an inverter with unity gain, which is used for further inversion to
generate vout.

Here from Fig

The performance of differentiator simulated in MATLAB is checked by using
triangular, sine, step and ramp input. In all these cases both the gain and the peak
amplitude of input signal of the differentiator have been considered as of unit
value.

OUTPUT WITH TRIANGULAR INPUT.

Response of the FOD with triangular input

(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5 (c) α = 0.9 (d) α = 1 (α is the order of differentiator)
OUTPUT WITH SINUSOIDAL INPUT.

Response of the FOD with Sinusoidal input

(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5(α Is the order of differentiator)

OUTPUT WITH RAMP INPUT.

Response of the FOD with ramp input of

differentiator
(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5 (c) α = 0.9 (d) α = 1(α is the order of differentiator)
OUTPUT WITH STEP INPUT.

Response of the FOD with step input

(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5 (c) α = 0.9 (d) α = 1 (α is the order of differentiator)
 FRACTIONAL ORDER INTEGRATOR

The output of fractional order integrator (FOI) like that of FOD is the integration
of the input, where the order of integration is arbitrary i.e. the power of s (in
(Laplace domain) is fraction instead of integer only as in case of conventional
integrator.

Then transfer function of the first OP-AMP is

The performance of the integrator is checked with the square, triangular, sine, and
step input.
Like differentiator here also in all these cases both the gain and the peak amplitude
of input signal of the integrator have been considered as of unit value.
OUTPUT WITH SQUARE WAVE.

Response of FOI with square wave input

(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5 (c) α = 0.9 (d) α = 1
(α is the order of integrator)

OUTPUT WITH TRIANGULAR WAVE.

Response of FOI with triangular wave input

(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5 (c) α = 0.9 (d) α = 1 (α is the order of integrator)
OUTPUT WITH SINUSOIDAL WAVE.

Response of FOI with sine wave input

(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5 (c) α = 0.9 (d) α = 1 (α is the order of integrator)

OUTPUT WITH STEP INPUT.

Response of FOI with step input

(a) α = 0.1 (b) α = 0.5 (c) α = 0.9 (d) α = 1 (α is the order of integrator).

The simulated results show that the response of the system is noticeably different
for the integer and non-integer values. It is further observed that for gradual change
of α (order of the differentiator and integrator) from 0 to 1, the FOS gives the
gradual change in the output response.
 INTRODUCTION TO DISCRETIZATION OF
FRACTIONAL ORDER INTEGRATORS AND
DIFFERENTIATORS

The term fractional calculus is more than 300 years old. It is a generalization of the
ordinary differentiation and integration to non-integer (arbitrary) order. There are
several applications of this mathematical phenomenon in mechanics, physics,
chemistry, control theory and so on.

Fractional order differentiators are in the form of Sγ where γ is a real number .

The output of FOD is such that the order of the differentiation of input signal may
be either real or complex i.e. the power of the s (in the Laplace domain) is arbitrary
instead of integer only as in case of conventional differentiator.

Its discretization is a key step in digital implementation.. The most common

discretization method uses the Al-Alaoui operator via continued fraction expansion
(CFE).
The approximate discretization is minimum phase and stable.
The output of fractional order integrator (FOI) like that of FOD is the integration
of the input, where the order of integration is arbitrary i.e. the power of s (in
(Laplace domain) is fraction instead of integer only as in case of conventional
integrator.

The theory of fractional-order derivative was developed mainly in the 19th

century.The most common application of fractional order differentiators is seen in
control systems which employ controllers that apply fractional order control(FOC)
to enhance the system control performance, an example of this is the CRONE
system.Another prominent example is the PIλDµ where λ and µ are positive real
numbers . The key step in digital implementation of a FOC is the numerical
evaluation or discretization of the fractional-order differentiator. In general, there
are two discretization methods: direct discretization and indirect discretization.
.

In indirect methods, two steps are required, i.e., frequency domain fitting in
continuous time domain first and then discretizing the fit s-transfer function.
S to z transforms play major role in the discretization. The s to z transform should
be such that,
1) The imaginary axis in the s-plane be mapped onto the unit circle in z plane
2) A stable analog transfer function be transformed into a stable digital transfer
function.

Property 1 preserves the frequency selective properties of the continuous system,

whereas property 2 ensures that stable continuous systems are mapped into stable
discrete systems. Bilinear transform and backward difference transform were the
most widely used s to z transforms. In case of backward difference transform, the
imaginary axis of the s-plane maps as a circle of radius ½ centered at z = 1/2.
Bilinear transform satisfies the above two conditions but it produces warping
effect.

We will focus on the direct discretization method that uses Al-Alaoui operator
which is a newly proposed method , it’s a mixture of the Eulers and Tustin
operators.

Fractional order differentiator (FOD) and fractional order integrator (FOI) have
been simulated in Matlab. The effect of change of order (α) has been observed with
different input signals to the differentiator and integrator. The orders are taken as
0.25, 0.33 and 1. It has been shown that the value of α has significant effect in
system behavior. The simulated results for few typical cases have been compared
with the experimentally obtained output of FOD and FOI circuits. Here fractional
order means non-integer values.
 DIRECT DISCRETIZATION USING AL-ALAOUI
OPERATOR

The recursive expansion of the Tustin operator or trapezoidal rule is with large
error in the high frequency range. To have a better approximation in the high
frequency range, here we use the Al-Alaoui operator which is a weighted sum of
the rectangular rule or Euler operator and the trapezoidal rule. This will give a new
straight forward scheme using continued fraction expansion (CFE) to discretize the
fractional-order derivative with the aid of a symbolic computation tool.

The Al-Alaoui operator is a mixed scheme of Euler and Tustin operators. Based on
the Al-Alaoui operator, the generating function for discretization is

!! ±! 8 !!
𝑧 !! ±!
 𝑤 𝑧 = ( ∗ (1 − 𝑧 /(1 + )
7𝑇 7

Clearly, the equation is an infinite order of rational discrete-time transfer function.

To approximate it with a finite order rational one, continued fraction
expansion (CFE) is an efficient way.
In general, any function G(z) can be represented by continued fractions in the
form of

𝑏! 𝑧
𝐺 𝑍 = 𝑎! 𝑧 +
𝑏! 𝑧
𝑎! 𝑧 +
𝑏! 𝑧
𝑎! 𝑧 +
𝑎! 𝑧 +. ..    . . .
 
 
 
where the coefficients ai and bi are either rational functions of the variable
z or constants. By truncation, an approximate rational function,

 
±!
±! !!
8 1−𝑧
𝐷 ±! ≈  𝐶𝐹𝐸           𝑝, 𝑞
7𝑇 𝑧 !!
1+ 7
 ! ±! ! ! !!
!
=
!" !! ! !!

where CFE{u} denotes the continued fraction expansion of u; p and

q are the orders of the approximation and P and Q are polynomials of
degrees p and q. Normally, we can set p = q = n.

The CFE scheme presented contains two tuning parameters, namely p and q, while
in the recursive Tustin method introduced, there is only one tuning parameter,
n.The optimal choice of these parameters is possible based on a quantitative
measure. One possibility is the use of the least squares (LS) error between the
continuous-frequency response and discretized frequency response. Note that in
practice, p and q can usually be set equal. So, in both discretization methods, there
is only one tuning knob which will be more attractive in practice. Compared to the
frequency-banded fitting method, the direct discretization Al-Alaoui method is
straightforward and no band-pass weighting filter is assumed.
 DIRECT DISCRETIZATION USING RECURSIVE
TUSTIN OPERATOR
One of the key points of Tustin discretization of fractional-order differentiator is
how to get a recursive formula similar to above equation in the preceding
subsection. Here, we introduce the so-called Muir-recursion scheme, which was
originally used in geophysical data processing with applications to petroleum
prospecting. The Muir-recursion was motivated in computing the vertical plane
wave reflection response via the impedance of a stack of n-layered earth. This
scheme can be used in recursive discretization of fractional-order differentiator of
Tustin generating function. In the following, without loss of generality, assume
that r € [-1,1]. In order to simplify the presentation, we only give the recursive
formula for r is:
 
±! 2
 𝑤 𝑧 !! = ( ∗ (1 − 𝑧 !! )/(1 + 𝑧 !! ))±!
𝑇
±!
 𝑤 𝑧 !! = (2/T)+r lim An(z-1,r)
n->∞ An(z-1,r)
where,

A0(z-1,r)=1, An(z-1,r)=An-1(z-1,r)- cn * zn * An-1(z,r)

And,
cn= r/n when n is odd
cn= 0 when n is even

For any given order of approximation n; we can use MATLAB symbolic toolbox
to generate an expression for An(z-1,r) Therefore,

Sr = (2/T)+r * (An(z-1,r))
(An(z-1,r))
 ANALYSIS OF ONE-THIRD ORDER
DIFFERENTIATOR & INTEGRATOR

Using MATLAB bode plots for discretization of one -third order differentiator
and integrator by Al-Alaoui (CSE) as well as Al-Alaoui (TSE) method are
obtained .

They are as follows:

 ANALYSIS OF ONE-FOURTH ORDER
DIFFERENTIATOR & INTEGRATOR

Using MATLAB bode plots for discretization of one-fourth order differentiator

by Al-Alaoui (CSE) as well as Al-Alaoui (TSE) method are obtained .

They are as follows:

 PERFORMANCE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The simulation results are discussed as follows:

1) The frequency responses of the third order half differentiator based on the Al-
Alaoui operator obtained using TSE and CFE.
2) The magnitude plots of both the forms are in close conformity to the theoretical
results of continuous time domain half differentiator and the MATLAB results, but
the third order half differentiator obtained using CFE shows better performance in
terms of magnitude.

3) The phase of Al-Alaoui half differentiator approaches ~45° beyond 150 Hz. The
phase shift of the third order half differentiator obtained using TSE is observed to
be approximately linear.

4)The magnitude responses of the Al-Hsue operator based half differentiator

models match better with the theoretical results of half differentiator than the
results of Al-Alaoui and Hsue operator based models.

5)The phase response of Al-Alaoui operator based 3rd order half differentiator
model approximates 45°better than the Al-Hsue operator (CFE) based model and
the phase of Hsue operator and Al-Hsue operator (TSE) based 3rd order half
differentiator vary linearly over the frequency range 0 to 600 Hz.

6)  The frequency response of the third order half integrator based on the Al-Hsue
operator obtained using TSE and CFE are shown in Fig. 19.

7) The magnitude plot of the 3rd order half integrator obtained by CFE and TSE of
the Al-Hsue operator follow with the theoretical results of continuous-time domain
half integrator as well as the MATLAB simulation results, but the CFE results
match better.

8)  The phase of half integrator obtained using CFE approximates -45° over the
frequency range 100 to 900 Hz with a maximum error of ±5°. The phase of half
integrator obtained using TSE varies linearly from ~ -15° to ~ -50° over the
frequency range 100 to 900 Hz.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the analysis for one fourth order and one third order differentiators
The following observations are made:
Ø By observing the the pole-zero map, we observe that the Al-Alaoui
discretization method always gives a Z-transfer function with stable
minimum phase characteristics.

Ø Al-Alaoui method is a better method for discretization than the usage of

Tustin operator.

Ø After the linear phase compensation,the maximum phase error of the Al-
Alaoui operator based discretization scheme is around r *8:25 at 55% of
the Nyquist frequency.

Ø The Al-Alaoui method is straightforward and no band-pass weighting filter

is assumed.
 DIFFICULTIES FACED IN THE PROJECT

The project involved studying of discretization methods of fractional order

integrators and differentiators with the help of MATLAB

There were a certain number of difficulties that we faced while doing so

Ø The mathematical analysis of Al-Alaoui operator required intricate

knowledge of continuous fractional expansion, power series expansion of
Eulers operator.

Ø The analysis of the integrators and differentiators using MATLAB was

quite time absorbing as the codes were quite cumbersome .

Ø Numerical analysis of Al-Aloui operator is very complex.

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ø IEEE transactions on circuits and systems—I: fundamental theory and

applications, vol. 49, no. 3, march 2002, paper on Discretization Schemes
for Fractional-Order Differentiators and Integrators by Yang Quan
Chen and Kevin L. Moore.
Ø Paper by Maneesha Gupta, Pragya Varshney and G.S Visweswaran, “
Digital fractional order differentiator and integrator models based on first
order and higher order operators, International Journal of Circuit Theory
and Applications, John Wiley Publications DOI: 10.1002/cta.650, 2010,
vol.39, issue 5, pp 461-474, May 2011.

Ø http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/tp=&arnumber=989172&url=http%3A%2F%
2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D989172

Ø http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1879627

Ø Fractional Derivatives, Fractional Integrals, and Fractional Differential

Equations in Matlab by Ivo Petraš,Technical University of Košice,Slovak
Republic