MUTH 151: Theory and Analysis 2

Prof. Biamonte

REVIEW HANDOUTS

Contents

What is music theory and why study it? .................................................................2

Rhythm and meter ..................................................................................................3
Metric notation ......................................................................................................4
Clefs and staff notation ..........................................................................................5
Major scales and key signatures .............................................................................6
Key signature help .................................................................................................7
Circle of fifths ........................................................................................................8
Intervals and inversions ..........................................................................................9
Scale theory: how major scales relate to intervals and triads ...................................10
Scale types .............................................................................................................11
Triads .....................................................................................................................12
Seventh chords .......................................................................................................13
Inversions and figured bass ....................................................................................14
Harmonic analysis: a step-by-step guide .................................................................15
 What is music theory?
Music theory is the study of the language of music:
its forms, patterns, grammar and syntax.

Why study music theory?

To better understand music, and why it sounds good.
Knowing music theory enriches your appreciation of music.
You can listen to music in greater depth,
learn music more quickly,
and perform it more expressively.

What DOES make music sound good?

A few basic principles of pitch organization are:

• mostly conjunct melodic motion: melodies use more steps than leaps
• acoustic consonance: chords are built of 3rds, 4ths (between upper voices), 5ths, 6ths, and 8ves
• harmonic consistency: chords are structurally similar (stacked thirds)
• “macroharmonies” (background collections) of 5 to 8 diatonic notes
• centricity: the tonic is an important goal and point of rest

A few basic principles of structure and form are:

• near-symmetry: many musical structures are almost, but not perfectly, symmetrical
• contrast: musical forms are often delineated by changes in one or more musical parameters
(melodic shape or contour, harmonic progression, key, texture, register, etc.)
• repetition or return: it is satisfying to recognize immediate repetitions of passages or sections,
or returns after contrasting material
 RHYTHM and METER:
TERMS TO KNOW

BASICS:
rhythm: organization of notes in time
attack: beginning of a note
duration: length of a note

beat: underlying even pulse

downbeat: first, accented beat in a measure
upbeat: last, unaccented beat in a measure
off-beat: the “and” of each beat; also used to mean beats 2 and 4 in quadruple meters

bar or measure: one grouping of beats, indicated by a bar line

tempo: speed of the beat (and thus, of a performance of a work)

meter: grouping of beats into duple, triple, or quadruple patterns of accented and unaccented
(strong and weak) beats
simple meter: subdivides the beat into two equal parts
compound meter: subdivides the beat into three equal parts
NOTE: the time signature for compound meter indicates the subdivision, not the beat
asymmetrical or additive meter: combinations of groupings of 2 and 3
(5 = 2+3 or 3+2; 7 = 2+2+3, 2+3+2, or 3+2+2; 8 = 3+3+2, 3+2+3, or 2+3+3)

NOTATION:
dotted notes and rests: add one-half the value of the note or rest
tie: connects two notes across a bar line or a beat, combining their values
triplets: three notes are compressed into the space that would normally be occupied by two
(each note of a triplet is 2/3 of its normal value)
tuplets: two notes are expanded into the space that would normally be occupied by three
(each note of a tuplet is 1½ times its normal value)

ADVANCED CONCEPTS:
syncopation: rhythmic figure that accents weak beats or off-beats (often through agogic accent)
agogic accent: rhythmic accent or emphasis created by placing a long note on a weak beat
hemiola: shift from groupings of 2 beats to groupings of 3 beats or vice versa; usually lasts for 6 beats
metric shift: downbeat is temporarily displaced, usually moved forward or backward by one beat
hypermeter: grouping into patterns of accented and unaccented (strong & weak) measures, rather than beats
 METRIC NOTATION

Beam notes within a beat together:

3
24 k k k k k z k k z k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k z k k k k k k
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
3
44 k k k k k k k k k z k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k z k k
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
3
34 k k k k k k k z k k z k k z k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

68 k k k k k k k z k k k k k z k k ks ks k ks k ks k k k k k k k k k k k k k k k
2

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

Some more examples:

24 ks k k k k ks 24 k k k k k k 34 k z k k k 34 k z ks k k 44 k k k k k k k k j 44 k k k k k k k k j
bad good bad good bad good

68 k z ks k k 68 k z k k k 68 k k k k k 68 k ks k k k 98 k k k k k k z k k k ks k k k k z k k
7

bad good bad good bad good

In duple and quadruple meters ( 24 , 44 , 48 , 68 ), don’t beam across the middle of the bar:

24 k k k k k k 24 k k k k k k 24 k k k k 24 k k k k 44 k k k k k k k k k 44 k k k k k k k k k
bad good bad good bad good

48 ksz k k k ks 48 k z k k k k 68 k z k k k k k 68 k z k k k k k 68 k k k k 68 k ks ks k
7

bad good bad good bad good

In 34 , use two quarter rests rather than a half rest.

In duple meters, don’t write a rest across the middle of the measure.

34 k m 34 k n n 34 m k k 34 n n k k 24 ks n ks 42 ks o o ks 44 k k m k 44 k k n n k
bad good bad good bad good bad good
 CLEFS and STAFF NOTATION

In most modern music notation systems,

time is shown on a horizontal axis and
pitch is shown on a vertical axis

In staff notation, consecutive pitches are shown on alternating lines and spaces.
A clef at the beginning of the staff identifies one specific pitch by letter name.

/
clef de do

/
bass clef/
clef de fa

/
treble clef/
clef de sol

note names in treble clef (G clef): note names in bass clef (F clef):

a b
F A
E D Grass F
C B Eat D
A G Cows B
F All
E G
 MAJOR SCALES AND KEY SIGNATURES

i i i i i i
MAJOR SCALES:
ii
The interval pattern of the major scale, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
from the lowest note to the highest, is: W W H W W W H
(W = whole step, H = half step)

There are two half steps in the major scale, between degrees 3 and 4, and between 7 and 8
These half steps create a gravitational pull: scale degree 7 is unstable and wants to resolve up to 8: 7→8
scale degree 4 is unstable and wants to resolve down to 3: 4→3
(this symbol  is called a caret and is used to mean “scale degree”)
There are two ways to construct a scale:
the hard way: using accidentals (sharps, flats, etc.) to create the correct interval pattern
the easy way: using the key signature

KEY SIGNATURES:
In key signatures with sharps, the sharps are always used in the same order: F C G D A E B
the first sharp in a key signature will always be F, the second sharp will always be C, and so on
This is also the order of the number of sharps in the sharp keys, shifted forward by two letter names
the major key with 1 sharp is G major, and the sharp is F
the major key with 2 sharps is D major, and the sharps are F and C
the major key with 3 sharps is A major, and the sharps are F, C, and G

In key signatures with flats, the flats are always used in the same order: B E A D G C F
this is the exact reverse of the order of the sharps
the first flat in a key signature will always be B, the second flat will always be E, and so on
This is also the order of the number of flats in the flat keys, shifted backward by one letter name
the major key with 1 flat is F major, and the flat is B
the major key with 2 flats is B major, and the flats are B and E
the major key with 3 flats is E major, and the flats are B, E, and A

Identifying key signatures:

The letter name of a major key with sharps in the key signature is the letter above the last sharp
if the last sharp is C, the key is D major
if the last sharp is G, the key is A major
if the last sharp is D, the key is E major
The letter name of a major key with flats in the key signature is the same as the second-to-last flat
if the flats are B and E, the key is B major
if the flats are B, E, and A, the key is E major
if the flats are B, E, A, and D, the key is A major

If you want to know why it works this way, see the “Heavy Scale Theory” handout.
 KEY SIGNATURE HELP

You do not need to remember the order of the sharps (F C G D A E B) or flats (B E A D G C F) in order
to recognize key signatures. You will need to know this information for other things, such as constructing
intervals or scales, and later on, chord progressions. But for purposes of the Basic Skills test, you only need to
know the number of sharps or flats in a key signature, as they will always be in the same order anyway.

To learn to identify the key signatures quickly, you can

1. Memorize all of them. Flash cards or the theory websites listed on the syllabus will help you with this.
OR
2. Memorize some of them, and figure out the rest.

The important trick to remember is that for every letter name except C, there are only 2 major keys (C has 3).
Each letter has 1 “natural” name (F, C, G, D, E, A, B) and 1 flat or sharp (F, C/C, G, D, E, A, B).
The total of flats and sharps in the signatures of 2 major keys with the same letter name will always add up to 7.

Here’s a diagram of this:

major key C G D A E B F C
number of sharps 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

major key C G D A E B F C
number of flats 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

At this point, you may say to yourself, what about the minor key signatures?
Don’t I need to know those too? Yes you do!

Here’s how to figure them out:

for every major key, the tonic of the minor key that has the same key signature is down a minor third.

There are several ways to calculate a minor third down from a note:
• It is the sixth degree of the major scale beginning on that note.
• It is down one whole step plus one half step. Make sure you use the right letter name.
(The relative minor of A major is f, not g.)
• It is down three half steps. Again, make sure you use the right letter name.
(The relative minor of B major is g, not a.)
 CIRCLE OF FIFTHS

Moving clockwise around the circle (the “sharp direction”) adds 1 sharp or subtracts 1 flat from the key signature.
Moving counterclockwise (the “flat direction”) adds 1 flat or subtracts 1 sharp.

The circle of fifths can help you remember the key signatures, but it also maps the distance of key relationships.
Keys that are across from each other are distantly related, and have few notes in common.
Keys that are next to each other (adjacent pie slices) on the circle of fifths are closely related, and have all but
one note in common.

Keys that are shown within the same pie slices are so closely related they are called relative keys.
Relative keys have different tonics, but use the same notes. Example: C major and A minor are relatives.
The relative minor of a major key is a minor third below.

Another important relationship that is not well modeled by the circle of fifths is that of parallel keys.
Parallel keys have the same tonic, but different notes. Example: C major and C minor.
The parallel minor of a major key is three moves in the flat direction (counterclockwise).

d a e
g b
c f
f c
b g
e/d
 INTERVALS:

Unisons, 4ths, 5ths, and 8ves (1, 4, 5, 8) are perfect intervals and come in one basic size.
2nds, 3rds, 6ths and 7ths (2, 3, 6, 7) are imperfect intervals and come in two basic sizes, major and minor.

There are two ways to construct an interval:

The hard way: count letter names to find the correct size, then half steps to find the correct quality.
The easy way: count up from the tonic of a major scale, and then adjust the quality if necessary.
All the diatonic intervals above the tonic of a major scale are either major or perfect.

When a major or perfect interval is made larger by a half step, it becomes augmented.
When a minor or perfect interval is made smaller by a half step, it becomes diminished.

diagram of interval qualities:

(each line crossed represents a half step)

augmented

perfect major
minor
diminished

interval table:
half steps abbrev. interval name example enharmonic equivalent
0 P1 perfect unison C–C C–D = diminished second
1 m2 minor second (half step) C–D C–C = augmented unison
2 M2 major second (whole tone) C–D C–E = diminished third
3 m3 minor third C–E C–D = augmented second
4 M3 major third C–E C–F = diminished fourth
5 P4 perfect fourth C–F C–E = augmented third
6 A4 augmented fourth (tritone) C–F C–G = diminished fifth
6 d5 diminished fifth (tritone) C–G C–F = augmented fourth
7 P5 perfect fifth C–G C–A = diminished sixth
8 m6 minor sixth C–A C–G = augmented fifth
9 M6 major sixth C–A C–B = diminished seventh
10 m7 minor seventh C–B C–A = augmented sixth
11 M7 major seventh C–B C–C = diminished octave
12 P8 perfect octave C–C C–B = augmented seventh

interval inversion:
To invert an interval, you exchange the relative positions of the notes: imagine the lower note an octave up, or
the higher note an octave down. You will have the same two notes, but a different size of interval in between.
When you invert an interval, the sizes add up to 9, not 8, because you are counting the middle note twice.
When you invert an interval, qualities are exchanged: major becomes minor and vice versa, augmented becomes
diminished and vice versa, except for perfect, which remains the same.
 SCALE THEORY:
HOW MAJOR SCALES RELATE TO INTERVALS AND KEY SIGNATURES

i i i i i
a generic major scale:
iii
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
W W H W W W H
(W = whole step, H = half step)

The major scale can be thought of as two tetrachords (groups of 4 notes) with the same interval pattern:
W W H (whole step – whole step – half step)
The two W W H tetrachords are separated by a whole step, creating the pattern W W H W W W H

Moving along the circle of fifths in the sharp direction (clockwise, in order of increasing sharps):
the upper tetrachord of each scale becomes the lower tetrachord of the next scale
the upper half step of each scale, 7–8, becomes the lower half step of the next scale, 3–4
thus, each added sharp creates a new 7–8 upper half step
this is why the tonic (8) of a sharp key is a half step above the last sharp (7)

Moving along the circle of fifths in the flat direction (counterclockwise, in order of increasing flats):
the lower tetrachord of each scale becomes the upper tetrachord of the next scale
the lower half step of each scale, 3–4, becomes the upper half step of the next scale, 7–8
thus, each added flat creates a new lower 3–4 half step, which becomes 7–8 of the next key
this is why the tonic of a flat key is the second-to-last flat (8, not the last flat, which is 4)

Here’s a diagram showing how this works:

(Half steps are marked with ˅ )
┌── C major ──┐
┌── F major ──┐┌── G major ──┐
┌── B major ──┐

┌── D major ──┐
┌── E major ──┐ CDEFGABC ┌── A major ──┐
┌── A major ──┐

FGAB  ˅ ˅ 
DEF G ┌── E major ──┐

B CDE  ˅ ˅ ABC D 
˅ ˅
E F G A E F G A
A B C D ˅ ˅ B C D E
˅ ˅
etc.
For example:
Moving clockwise, the half step B–C, which is 7–8 of C major, becomes 3–4 of G major
F–G, the new 7–8 half step in G major, then becomes 3–4 of D major
Moving counterclockwise, the half step E–F, which is 3–4 of C major, becomes 7–8 of F major
A–B, the new 3–4 half step in F major, then becomes 7–8 of B major
 SCALE TYPES

major scale = notes of major key signature

aiiiiiiii
interval pattern: WWHWWWH
examples: C D E F G A B C (shown)
D E F G A B C D

natural minor scale = notes of minor key signature

interval pattern: WHWWHWW
f ff i i i
examples: C D E F G A B C (shown) a ii i i i
D E F G A B C D

harmonic minor scale = natural minor with 7th degree raised ½ step
interval pattern: WHWWH(A2)H
f ff i i ei i
examples: C D E F G A B C (shown) a i i i i
D E F G A B C D

ascending melodic minor scale = natural minor with 6th and 7th degrees each raised ½ step
interval pattern: WHWWWWH
f ff i e i e i i

examples: C D E F G A B C (shown) a iii i
D E F G A B C D

descending melodic minor scale = natural minor

scale degree names: 1 tonic “home base”; first and last note of complete scale
2 supertonic a step above the tonic
3 mediant halfway between tonic and dominant
4 subdominant a 5th below the tonic
5 dominant a 5th above the tonic
6 submediant halfway between tonic and subdominant (below)
lowered 7 (nat. min.) subtonic a step below the tonic
7 leading tone a half step below the tonic
 TRIADS

Spelling: triads are constructed of two 3rds, and thus consist of alternating letters (C-E-G, not C-D-G)

Triad construction:
quality interval combination examples stability
major M3 + m3 = P5 C-E-G D-F-A consonant
minor m3 + M3 = P5 C-E-G D-F-A consonant
diminished m3 + m3 = d5 C-E-G D-F-A dissonant
augmented M3 + M3 = A5 C-E-G D-F-A dissonant

Patterns of accidentals:
major triads built on C, G, and F have the same accidental for all 3 notes (all natural, all sharp, or all flat)
minor triads built on C, G, and F have a lower accidental on the middle note
major triads built on D, A, and E have a higher accidental on the middle note
minor triads built on D, A, and E have the same accidental for all 3 notes
major triads built on B have a lower accidental on the bottom note
minor triads built on B have a higher accidental on the top note

Triads in a key:
in a major key: I, IV and V are major
ii, iii and vi are minor
viiº is diminished

in a minor key: i and iv are minor

V is diatonically minor, but is usually made major by raising the leading tone
III, VI and VII are major
iiº and viiº are diminished

iii
Diatonic triads in C major:

ii ii ii iii iii
a ii
I ii iii IV V vi vii°

Diatonic triads in A minor:

ii iii ii diii iii iii diii

a iii iii
i ii° III iv v V VI VII vii°
aug aug
(rare: ii) III =V (sometimes: vi°) = V/III
(enh.)
 SEVENTH CHORDS

There are five common types of seventh chords:

quality symbol base triad upper 3rd (5‒7) outer 7th 5ths (1–5, 3–7) function
major ∆7, maj7, M7 M M3 M7 P5, P5 S or T
dominant (maj.-min.) 7, dom7 M m3 m7 P5, d5 D
minor m7, mi7, -7 m m3 m7 P5, P5 S or T
half-diminished 7th ø
7, m75 d M3 m7 d5, P5 S or D
diminished 7th º7, dim7 d m3 d7 d5, d5 D

examples:
major 7th chords dominant 7th chords minor 7th chords half-dim. 7th chords diminished 7th chords

a ii f ii d dii f ii f f ii diii f f ii d diii ii f f f ii i f ii h f f ii f ii f f ii

f i f dii di
Common seventh chords in a major key:

ii ii ii ii f ii
a ii
ii7
ii7 IVI ∆V7 7 V7
V7 v i7
vi7 v øi7i ° 7
vii v ii° 7
viiº7
(borrowed
from minor)

Common seventh chords in a minor key:

ii ii i
a iii
ii diii i dii
iiº7
ii° 7 iv7
iv 7 V77
V V∆7I 7
VI VII7
V II7 viiº7
v ii° 7
(= (V7/III)
= V 7 /III)

In classical music, all seventh chords are dissonant.

The chordal 7th originated as a passing tone, which is why it still needs to resolve down by step.

Major and minor 7th chords are the most stable, because they have two perfect fifths.
(between the root and the chord 5th, and between the chord 3rd and 7th).
They usually function as subdominants, but can also be tonics (especially in vernacular music).

Dominant and half-diminished 7th chords are less stable because they have one P5 and one d5.
Dominant 7th chords almost always function as dominants (except in the blues, where they can be anything).
Half-diminished 7th chords can function as subdominants (iiø7 in minor) or dominants (viiø7 in major).

Diminished 7th chords are the least stable because both fifths are diminished.
They usually function as dominants (viiº7) or else as linear chords with no independent harmonic function.
 INVERSIONS AND FIGURED BASS

While we use Roman numerals to represent the function of a chord within a key,
the Arabic numbers of figured bass notation simply represent the collection of intervals above a bass note.
7 2
The figured bass for 7th-chord inversions is descending numerical series: , 65 , 43 , 42 or
A 7th chord in inversion can often be recognized by the 2nd (inverted 7th) between two of the voices

a ii ii ii f ii f iii f iiii f iii

i
(5) 6 6 7 6 (6) (6)
(3) (3) 4 (5) 5 4 (4)
(3) (3) 3 2
root pos. 1st inv. 2nd inv.
root pos. 1st inv. 2nd inv. 3rd inv.

Resolving 7th chords:

In classical music, the chord tone of the 7th normally resolves down by step.
V2 normally resolves to I6, because 4 in the bass, which is the chord 7th, resolves down to 3.

In V7, viiø7, and viiº7, the leading tone normally resolves up by semitone.
V 65 normally resolves to I 53 , because 7 in the bass (the chord 3rd) resolves up to 1.

The tritones in dominant, half-diminished, and diminished 7th chords usually resolve
by step in contrary motion.

a jj jj j jj j j jj
j j fj
jj j
j
j
j j
j jj jj j jj f jj fj
b j
V7 I V2 I6 V 65 I( 53 ) viiø7 I vii°7 i6
 HARMONIC ANALYSIS
a step-by-step guide

1. Decide which notes are part of the harmony (structural) and which are nonharmonic tones (ornamental).
This is an art rather than a science, but here are some general guidelines:
Chord tones are more likely to be of long duration or repeated, on the beat, and/or part of a leap or
arpeggiation. Also, bass notes are likely to be chord tones.
Nonharmonic tones are more likely to be short, on a weak beat or weak part of the beat, stepwise,
and in the upper voices
IMPORTANT: this is a sweeping generalization with many exceptions!
For example, suspensions are always on the beat and may be of long duration.
Pedal points, by definition, are of long duration and are very often in the bass.
Use your musical judgment! If you can’t decide, proceed to step 2 and see which notes make
more sense as part of a chord.

2. Identify the letter name of the chord root.

Rearrange the chord tones as a stack of thirds, if possible: root, 3rd, 5th, and 7th if present.
The bottom note is the chord root.
If you can’t do this, rethink which notes are part of the chord. Remember that the chord may be
incomplete. If a chord tone is missing, it is most likely to be the chord fifth.

3. Determine the chord quality.

Now you know the chord-chart symbol (chord root plus quality—for example, Cmaj7, D°, etc.).

4. Identify the chord inversion, according to which chord tone is in the bass.
Now you have the figured bass for the chord. (Since the figured bass numbers represent the intervals above
the bass, you don’t actually need to know the chord root to do this—but it’s probably easier if you do).

5. Identify the chord within the key.

This requires looking at the surrounding chords to determine what key you are in. Identifying the scale
degree of the chord root gives you the Roman numeral for the chord.

6. Determine the function of the chord within its context.

Is it at the beginning of a phrase, the goal of a phrase, or somewhere in the middle?
Is it an important structural chord, or a less important passing or neighboring chord prolonging some
surrounding harmony? Is the chord stable or unstable?

Only the first and last of these steps constitute analysis, and require you to use your musical judgment.
The steps in between are just labeling.
 CADENCE TYPES:

authentic: V(7)–I
in a perfect authentic cadence (PAC), V and I are in root position, and the root of I (1) is in the soprano voice
in an imperfect authentic cadence (IAC), the 3rd or 5th of I (3 or 5) is in the soprano)
voice-leading: the leading tone resolves up by step to the tonic; the 7th of V7 resolves down by step to 3
function: authentic cadences are the only type that provides both harmonic and melodic closure, so they
are the only choice for a strong final cadence

deceptive: V–vi or V–VI

in a deceptive cadence (DC), the submediant triad substitutes for the tonic
the leading tone still resolves to the tonic note, but the chord is not the expected I or i
voice-leading: doubling the 3rd of the submediant chord often avoid perfect parallels with
the dominant chord that precedes it
function: deceptive cadences provide melodic but not harmonic closure, so they are not final cadences
usually, a deceptive cadence results in a “one more time” effect, in which the approach to the cadence
is repeated, this time achieving harmonic as well as melodic closure with an authentic cadence

plagal: IV–I or iv–i

the plagal cadence, sometimes called the “amen” cadence, confirms closure rather than accomplishes it
voice-leading: scale degrees 6 and 4 in the subdominant triad are upper neighbors to 5 and 3 in the tonic
function: plagal cadences provide weak harmonic closure but no melodic closure,
because the tonic note is already present in the subdominant triad
plagal cadences typically occur after authentic cadences, as a prolongation of the tonic

half: to V
half cadences arrive on the dominant; they often occur at the midpoint of a phrase or period
can be approached from the tonic, any diatonic pre-dominant harmony (ii(º), IV or iv, vi or VI),
an applied dominant, a chromatic pre-dominant such as II6 or +6, or a cadential six-four chord
voice-leading: often ()6 descends to 5 and ()4 ascends to 5
function: because the goal of a half cadence is the dominant, it is an “open-ended” cadence;
it can serve as the harmonic goal of a phrase but does not provide harmonic or melodic resolution
Phrygian cadence: a special subtype of half cadence, iv6–V in minor
voice-leading: bass moves down by half step to 5; often the soprano moves up by step to 5,
creating contrary motion between the outer voices
function: same as half cadence

Examples:

j
perfect authentic imperfect authentic deceptive plagal half Phrygian

jj jj jj jj jj
aj j jj jj jj jj jj
jj j j jj jj j j j
j
jj
j j j j jj f jj jj
b
V I V I V vi IV I ii7 V iv6 V
 SIX-FOUR CHORD TYPES

Unlike root-position and first-inversion triads, second-inversion triads are unstable dissonances.
Avoid writing stand-alone six-four chords; they should almost always “belong” to a more stable triad.
The four basic types are below. The most common of these is the cadential 46 .

arpeggiated (oscillating if bass 1–5–1–5 etc.)

created through arpeggiation of bass, or melody in bass
prolongs or represents the parent triad (most often I)
voice-leading: bass moves to chord tone; other voices hold, repeat, or move to other chord tones

neighboring, also called pedal or auxiliary

can occur as complete or incomplete neighbor figure, in metrically weak or strong position
commonly occurs as IV 46 decorating I, or I 46 decorating V; rarely, ii 46 decorating vi
voice leading: bass sustains and is usually doubled; upper voices move by step creating parallel neighbor notes

passing
links two harmonies of same function (thus, prolongs that function)
harmonizes middle note of passing-third progression in bass, often part of a voice-exchange
most commonly, V 46 connects I and I6, or I 46 connects ii6 and IV6
usually in metrically weak position
often no resolution of 4th
voice leading: bass moves stepwise up or down a third; keep one common tone; other voices move by step

cadential
not truly 46 , a second-inversion tonic triad, but V 46 −− 53 , a double suspension embellishing the dominant
developed as extension of 4-3 suspension at cadence
decorates V chord at half or authentic cadence
always occurs in metrically strong position
voice leading: double the bass, which sustains or repeats; other voices move down by step to V or V7
to V7: 8-6-4 to 7-5-3 (or variants 8-6-4 to 8-7-3 and 6-6-4 to 7-5-3)

arpeggiated neighboring neighboring passing passing cadential

iii kk kk jj kkk kkk jj k kk kk
k k jj j
a k k
k k k k k k kk kk kk kk jj jj
i i k k
b
6 6 −
I 53 6
4 I IV 46 I V I 46 V I V 46 I 6 IV 6 I 46 IV V 46 −
5
3
 NONHARMONIC TONES

passing tone (P): usually fills in the interval of a 3rd, either within a chord or between two chords
less commonly, fills in a 2nd (chromatic passing tone) or 4th (double passing tone)

neighbor note (N) (or neighboring tone, or auxiliary note): decorates a repeated note
can be upper neighbor, lower neighbor, or both (double neighbor is also called a “changing tone”)
can be diatonic or chromatic
can be complete or incomplete

incomplete neighbor note (IN):

2 types: escape tone or échappée: an incomplete neighbor attached to the preceding note
approached by step (usually a change of direction), left by leap
appoggiatura/cambiata/reaching tone: incomplete neighbor attached to following note
approached by leap, resolved by step, usually downwards, on a strong beat
“appoggiatura” is also used for any stepwise ornament on a strong beat

suspension/retardation (S): a consonant note is repeated or held over into the next chord, where it becomes
dissonant, then resolves up or down by step
3 parts: preparation, suspension, resolution
preparation: the suspended note is part of the previous chord
suspension: the note, now dissonant, is tied or repeated (“articulated suspension”)
resolution: the note resolves to a chord tone
typical suspension figures: 9-8, 7-8, 7-6, 5-6, 6-5, 4-5, 4-3, 2-3 (9-10)
4-3 is the most common, “cadential” suspension decorating the leading tone of the V chord
6-5 is “consonant” suspension
rhythmic component: the dissonance is on a strong beat, its resolution on a weak beat

anticipation (ANT): a note belonging to the following chord is introduced early, on a weak beat
typically, the tonic note is approached by step from the leading tone

pedal point (PED): held throughout

comes from organ terminology (pedal keyboard played by feet, which tend to move more slowly than fingers)
most commonly in bass, but can be in middle or upper voice as well
existential question: is the pedal point dissonant against the overlying chords, or are the chords dissonant
against the pedal point?

chordal skip (CS): skip to a different chord tone (not, technically, a nonharmonic tone)

free tone: somewhat meaningless designation for a nonchord tone that cannot be explained
in any of the above ways

COMMON PHRASE STRUCTURES

PERIOD: an antecedent followed by a consequent, roughly equal in length (often 4+4 proportion)
antecedent: open-ended phrase that goes from tonic to dominant, ending with a half cadence
consequent: completes harmonic motion by resolving back to tonic, usually in an authentic cadence
periods can be parallel (same motivic material), contrasting (different motivic material), or in between

diagram of a parallel period

a (antecedent) a’ (consequent)
 
I or i V I or i V–I
HC PAC

diagram of a contrasting period

a (antecedent) b (consequent)
 
I or i V I or i V–I
HC PAC

SENTENCE: a basic idea (motive) and its repetition, followed by a longer unit
of continuation–cadential, often in a 2+2+4 or 4+4+8 proportion
presentation: basic idea + restatement
basic idea: usually on the tonic; often consists of two distinct motivic ideas
restatement: usually on the dominant; never an exact repetition, often sequential
continuation–cadential: longer phrase leading to a cadence (most often a half cadence), characterized by:
fragmentation: the basic idea is broken down into smaller units
liquidation: the basic idea loses its identifying characteristics, becomes conventional formula
harmonic acceleration: the rate of chord change increases up to the cadence

diagram of a sentence
a (basic idea) a’ (statement) b (continuation‒cadential)
  
I or i V ½a ½a
 ¼ a 
(I or i) V
HC

HOW CAN YOU TELL A PERIOD FROM A SENTENCE?

1. Different number of cadences: a period has two phrases, each ending with a cadence. The first is inconclusive
(usually a half cadence) and the second is conclusive (usually a perfect authentic cadence). The sentence is a
series of phrase fragments that often ends with a half cadence (but can also end with an authentic cadence).

2. Different proportions: usually the antecedent and consequent phrases of a period are of equal length, while
the proportions of the musical ideas in a sentence are short‒short‒long (2+2+4 or 4+4+8).

3. Different scheme of repetition: in a sentence, the brief motive that is the basic idea is restated immediately,
after 1 or 2 bars (depending on the length of the basic idea, which is usually 1 or 2 bars long).
In a parallel period, the basic idea is repeated at the beginning of the second phrase, following the half cadence.
In a contrasting period, the basic idea is usually not repeated at all.
 SOME BASIC MUSICAL FORMS

Musical forms are organized around the principles of repetition and contrast.
Formal sections are defined primarily by motivic or thematic structure (melody plus rhythm)
and harmonic or tonal structure (chord progressions and key progressions),
often reinforced by changes in texture, accompaniment pattern, register, etc.

The most common two-key schemes feature a modulation to the dominant or relative key, then back:
I – V – I I – vi – i
i – v – i i – III – i

BINARY FORM: two parts (A B or A A’), often repeated (AABB), often motivically related
most commonly, the first section ends with a half cadence or tonicizes another key
the second section returns to the tonic

TERNARY FORM: three parts (A B A) = exposition, contrasting middle section, recapitulation

contrasting B section is usually in another key, final A section is sometimes varied; also called ‘da capo’ form

ROUNDED BINARY FORM: A A B A, often repeated ( ||: A :||: B A :|| or AA BA BA)

A section is repeated, often with a different cadence the second time
ex: first A ends with HC, second A ends with PAC
or: first A ends with PAC, second A ends with HC in new key
contrasting B section can be in a new key, or use a contrasting chord progression in the home tonic key
recapitulation of A ends with PAC

Ternary and rounded binary have the same motivic structure (contrasting middle), but different proportions.

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO FUGUE

A fugue is a work of imitative polyphony with alternating thematic sections and episodes

Parts of a Fugue:
exposition: opening section in which each voice enters imitatively and states the subject or answer once
subject: main theme, on tonic
answer: subject transposed to dominant
real answer is exact transposition in the key of the dominant
tonal answer is adjusted transposition, on the chord of the dominant but in the key of the tonic
countersubject: countermelody to subject, usually stated after the subject or answer in each voice
episodes: lack complete statement of subject; often fragmented, sequential, modulatory

Diagram of a 4-voice fugue exposition, with voices entering from lowest (B) to highest (S):
S subject

A subject countersubject

T answer countersubject (free material)

B subject countersubject (free material) (free material)

 HARMONIC FUNCTION

Tonal music is hierarchical: some notes and chords are more stable than others.
The interplay of tension and stability is what gives music its sense of motion and progression through time.
The sense of tension and release is created largely through the interplay of consonance and dissonance.
There are two kinds of consonance and dissonance, acoustic and contextual.

Acoustic consonance and dissonance occurs between two or more notes, according to their relative frequencies.
In music theory, we measure this difference using intervals.
CONSONANCE DISSONANCE
P8 P5 sometimes P4 3rds & 6ths sometimes P4 2nds & 7ths tritones

In the same way, chords are acoustically consonant or dissonant, depending on the intervals they contain.
CONSONANCE DISSONANCE
maj & min added 6th min & maj half-dim aug & dim dom & dim alt & 9th
triads chords 7th chords 7th chords triads 7th chords chords

Contextual consonance and dissonance involves one or more notes, according to their stability within a key.

Normally, 1, 3, and 5 (the notes of the tonic triad) are stable, 2, 4, 6, and 7 (the other diatonic notes) are
unstable, and nondiatonic notes (2 and 4/5) and enharmonic notes (2, 6, etc.) are even less stable.
The tonic triad as a unit is also stable, and so are III (especially in minor) and VI, the chords a third away from
the tonic in either direction, which share two notes with the tonic triad and thus behave similarly.
*Note: this is true more generally—because our system of harmony consists of chords made of stacked thirds,
chords whose roots are a third apart share most of their notes, and typically behave the same way.
Subdominant-function chords such as II and IV are less stable, and dominants such as V and VII still less so.
Thus, within the context of a key, I is usually stable and V is usually unstable, even if they are both major triads.

Tonic chords are in the upper half of the circle:

I, VI, and sometimes III.

Subdominant chords are in the left half:

II, IV and VI.

Dominant chords are in the right half:

V, VII, and sometimes III.

All the chords are shown as major to simplify the

diagram, but this applies to other chord qualities too.
For example, subdominant chords include
ii, ii°, IV, iv, vi, and ()VI.
Harmonic function is correlated with the consonance or dissonance of a chord:
tonic chords are the most stable; they serve as points of rest
subdominant (also called pre-dominant) chords are less stable; they usually lead to dominant chords
dominant chords are the least stable; they create tension and usually resolve to tonic chords

Harmonic function is determined by two factors: chord identity and chord behavior.

Chord identity, in turn, is determined by two factors:

chord quality (= acoustic consonance/dissonance)
scale degree of chord root (= contextual consonance/dissonance)

Chord quality and harmonic function

triad qualities:
major or minor triads are acoustically consonant, and can have any function
diminished and augmented triads are acoustically dissonant, and usually function as dominants
seventh chord qualities:
major and minor 7th chords and added-6th chords are mildly dissonant
they can function as tonics, but are most often subdominants
half-diminished 7th chords are somewhat more dissonant and usually function as subdominants
dominant and diminished 7th chords are still more dissonant and usually function as dominants

Scale degree and harmonic function

Chords built on 1 are usually tonics.
Chords built on 2 are usually subdominants (this includes II).
Chords built on 3 are either tonics (III in minor) or dominants (iii or III in major, IIIaug in minor)
Chords built on 4 are subdominants (IV and iv).
Chords built on 5 are dominants.
Chords built on 6 are either tonics (as in a deceptive cadence) or subdominants.
Chords built on 7 are usually dominants (this includes VII).

Note that chord quality and scale degree usually correlate with the same harmonic function:
for example, the most common seventh chords built on 2 are minor 7th chords (in major) and
half-diminished 7th chords (in minor), which have subdominant function
the most common seventh chord built on 5 is a dominant 7th, which has dominant function

Chord behavior
The most important determinant of harmonic function is what the chord actually does.
For example, if it moves to a dominant, it is most likely a subdominant (or pre-dominant).
If it is between two dominant chords, it is most likely an expansion of the dominant.
 HARMONIC PROGRESSIONS

chord functions: in major in minor typical progressions

tonic: I (vi) i (III, VI) can go to any other chord
dominant: V and viiº V and viiº goes to tonic
pre-dominant: ii, IV, vi iiº, iv, VI usually go to dominant, but can go to tonic

typical harmonic progressions

I or i can go to any other chord in the key.
ii(º) usually goes to the dominant, but can also go to a tonic-function chord
iii in major, moves by 5th to vi or viiº, or by step to IV
III in minor, functions as tonic substitute: can go to any other chord
IV or iv usually goes to the dominant, but can also go to a tonic-function chord
V goes to the tonic, or the submediant in a deceptive cadence ( = tonic substitute)
vi or VI pre-dominant or tonic substitute; can go to any other chord
viiº goes to the tonic, or V(7) and then the tonic

expanding a simple progression in major in minor

The simplest complete progression is dominant to tonic: V–I V–i
You can add a chord in order to begin on the tonic: I–V–I i–V–i
You can also add a pre-dominant chord that sets up the dominant: I–ii–V–I i–iiº–V–i
I–IV–V–I i–iv–V–i
I–vi–V–I i–VI–V–i
You can use all the pre-dominants in a descending chain of 3rds: I–vi–IV–ii–V–I i–VI–iv–iiº–V–i

a quick guide to harmonizing a melody

in major:
scale degree in melody: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
chord choices: I ii iii IV V vi viiº (any of these
vi viiº I ii iii IV V can be 7th chords
IV V vi viiº I ii iii as well as triads)
if next note is down by step: ii7 iii7 IV7 V7 vi7 viiø7

in minor:
() ()  () 
scale degree in melody: 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 7
 ()
chord choices: i iiº III IV V VI viº VII viiº
VI viiº i iiº III iv IV v V
iv V VI viiº i iiº ii III III+
if the next note is down by step: iiø7 III7 iv7 V7 vi7 viiº7 viiø7
(7th resolves down)
RULES of VOICE-LEADING

 no parallel fifths or octaves

 the leading tone in V, V7 and viiº must resolve up by a half step
 the seventh of V7 must resolve down

CHORD VOICING and DOUBLING

 do not double the leading tone or seventh of a chord
 keep the three upper voices no more than an octave apart