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Neurological and Neuro Trauma Assessment
Neurological and Neuro Trauma Assessment
and Neuro‐
Neurological and Neuro‐ • Clinical examination still essential skill
trauma Assessment
Assessment
The Society of Neurological Surgeons
Neurological Surgeons
Bootcamp
6 Essential Parts of a Neurologic Exam Assessment of Mental Status
1) Mental Status and Cognitive Function - Level of Consciousness: (alert, somnolent,
obtunded)
2) Language - Orientation: (to time, place, examiner, situation) -
3) Cranial Nerves Attention span
4) Motor System - Mood and affect: (labile, apathetic, dysphoric,
euphoric, anxious irritable)
5) Sensory System
- Disorders of thinking and perception:
6) Reflexes (hallucination, delusion, paranoia)
Cognitive Function Language
• Common Knowledge
• Aphasias
- "Who’s the president?"
- Fluent (Wernicke’s) aphasia
• Memory
- Short term recall - Non‐fluent (Broca’s) aphasia
• Name 3 common objects, then name them - Conduction aphasia
again after 5 minutes - Transcortical aphasias
- Long term
• Verifiable events from the past
Aphasias Assessment of Cranial Nerves
Assessment of Cranial Nerves Assessment of Cranial Nerves
Assessment of Cranial Nerves Pupils
Mydriasis Miosis
Disorder Cause Note Disorder Cause Note
rd
3 nerve Diabetes, aneurysm, Often acute; diabetes: Horner’s syndrome Congenital, lesions of the Ptosis, depression of the
trauma, temporal lobe, pupil usually spared brain stem/cord. C8‐T2 upper lid + impaired
herniation, tumor, roots. Pancoast tumor, ipsilateral upper facial
carotid, cavernous sinus, sweating
Tonic (Adie’s pupil) Idiopathic (? Viral) Unilateral, + arreflexia cluster headache
Argyll‐Robertson Syphilis, diabetes Irregular pupils
Topical drugs Scopolamine, atropine,
cocaine
Pontine Thrombosis, hemorrhage Small reactive
Assessment of Cranial Nerves Assessment of Cranial Nerves
Assessment of Cranial Nerves Assessment of Cranial Nerves
Assessment of Cranial Nerves Assessment of Cranial Nerves
Assessment of Motor Function Muscle Grading
American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Motor Key
Grade Strength
Root Function Muscle
0 Total paralysis
C5 Elbow flexors Biceps
1 Palpable or visible contraction
C6 Wrist extensors Extensor carpi radialis longus and
brevis 2 Active movement, full range of motion, gravity eliminated
C7 Elbow extensors Triceps 3 Active movement, full range of motion, against gravity
C8 Finger flexors Flexor digitorum profundus 4 Active movement, full range of motion, against gravity and
provides some resistance
T1 Finger abductors Abductor digiti minimi
5 Active movement, full range of motion, against gravity and
L2 Hip flexors Iliopsoas provides normal resistance
L3 Knee extensors Quadriceps NT Not tested
L4 Ankle dorsiflexors Tibialis anterior
L5 Long toe extensors Extensors hallucis longus
S1 Ankle plantar flexors Gastrocnemius, soleus
Assessment of Dermatomes
Deep Tendon Reflexes
Tendon Reflex Grading Scale
Examination Localization Effect
Knee extension
Patellar Tendon L3‐L4 (femoral n)
Achilles Tendon S1‐S2 (tibial n.) Plantar flexion of the foot
Reflex Examination Assessment of Radiculopathy
Root Distribution of Sensory Motor Weakness Reflex Loss
Level Loss
• Clonus C5 Shoulder, upper arm Shoulder abduction None
• Babinski C6 Anterior upper arm, Forearm flexion Biceps
• Hoffman radial forearm, thumb
nd rd
C7 2 , 3 finger Forearm extension, Triceps
• Bulbocavernosus wrist, handgrip
• Anal wink C8 th th
4 , 5 finger Wrist extension, None
intrinsic hand muscle
L4 Anterior thigh, inner Knee extension Patellar
calf, foot
L5 Outer calf, great toe Foot, toe dorsiflexion None
S1 Outer calf, foot, Knee flexion, foot Achilles
posterior thigh flexion
Clinical Syndromes Clinical Syndromes
• Central Cord Syndrome:
• Conus Medullaris Syndrome:
• Cervical region injury and leads to greater weakness in the
• Injury to the terminal spinal cord. Early incontinence,
upper limbs than in the lower limbs, with sacral sensory
perineal numbness and preserved Knee reflex. •
sparing.
Cauda Equina Syndrome:
• Brown‐Séquard syndrome:
• Injury to the lumbosacral nerve roots in the spinal
• Ipsilateral hemiplegia and loss of proprioceptive sensation
canal. Asymmetric lower limb weakness, leg pain,
with contralateral loss of pain and temperature sensations
numbness and absent reflexes. Delayed incontinence.
following a spinal hemisection.
• Anterior Cord Syndrome:
• Lesion causing variable loss of motor function and sensitivity
to pain and temperature; proprioception is preserved.
Neuro‐trauma Assessment Neuro‐trauma Assessment
• Hypotension (single SBP < 90mm Hg)
• Initial Survey • Doubles mortality
- ABCs • Hypoxia (apnea or cyanosis, or PaO2 < 60mmHg
• Blood Pressure on ABG)
• Oxygenation • Increases mortality
- GCS • Combination of both
- Pupils • Triples mortality
- Motor symmetry/strength • Increases the risk of bad outcome
Neuro‐trauma Assessment Neuro‐trauma Assessment
• Hypotension • Neurogenic shock
• Rarely attributable to head injury except: • Spinal cord injury above T1
• Terminal stages • Interruption of sympathetics
• Dysfunction of medulla • Loss of vascular tone (vasoconstrictors) below level of injury
• Cardiovascular collapse • Incidence increases with injuries above T6
• Infancy • Parasympathetics relatively unopposed
• Blood lost intracranially or in subgaleal space • Bradycardia
• Scalp wounds • Lower systemic vascular resistance
• Enough blood lost to cause hypovolemia • Venous pooling
Neuro‐trauma Assessment External Examination of the Cranium
• Visual inspection of the cranium:
•Initial Survey • Evidence of basal skull fracture
•Evidence of Injury • Raccoon’s eyes
• Battle sign
•Head
• CSF rhino/otorrhea
•Spine
• Check of facial fractures
•Eyes • Lefort fractures
•Tympanic Membranes • Orbital rim fracture
•CSF Leak • Periorbital edema, proptosis
• Cranio‐cervical auscultation
• Auscultate over globe of eye: bruits may indicate
traumatic C‐C fistula
• Auscultate over the carotid artery
Neuro‐trauma Assessment Neuro‐trauma Assessment
Never insert nasogastric tube into a patient with
•Evidence of basal skull fractures
•Raccoon's eyes suspected basilar skull fracture
•Battle’s sign
•CSF rhinorhea/ otorrhea
•Hemotympanum or laceration of external
auditory canal
Clinical Findings of CSF Leak Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS): 3‐15
• Determining if rhinorrhea or otorrhea is due to Glascow Coma Scale
CSF leak: Points Eye opening Verbal Motor
• Clear drainage unless CSF is infected or 6 ‐ ‐ Follow
mixed with blood commands
Neuro‐trauma Assessment Neuro‐trauma Assessment
• Clinical severity is graded by GCS • Combine clinical cues (mechanism) with
• Mild, GCS 13‐15
• Normal to lethargic
radiological findings and physical exam
• Mildly disoriented - History is critical
• Moderate, GCS 9‐12 - Exam is localizing
• Lethargic to obtunded
• Follows commands with arousal - Radiology is confirmatory
• Confused • Serial assessment is essential
• Severe, GCS 3‐8
• Comatose, no eye opening or verbalization - Mental status
• Does not follow commands - Focal findings
• Motor exam: ranges from localizing to posturing
Neuro‐trauma Assessment Neurological Assessment
• Combine clinical cues (mechanism) with
radiological findings and physical exam • Learn it all
- History is critical
• Learn how to divide it up ("focused
- Exam is localizing
exam")
- Radiology is confirmatory
• Serial assessment is essential • Never skip the important features •
- Mental status Document findings so others can
- Focal findings understand
- Radiology
Objectives
Emergency Cranial • Develop method for rapid, thorough
Assessment
Radiological Assessment interpretation of computed tomography (CT)
and MR imaging of the head
• Identify basic intracranial structures
• Identify intracranial brain shift, hemorrhage,
and fractures
The Society of Neurological Surgeons
Neurological Surgeons • Be able to communicate accurately to the
Bootcamp chief resident or attending the important
findings that may impact clinical decision
making and emergent patient management.
Suprasellar
Caudate
Interpeduncular
Thalamus
Quadrideminal
Parietal Lobe
Choroid Plexus
6 year old girl, MVA, pediatric GCS 7T, left side weakness 6 year old girl, MVA, pediatric GCS 7T, left side weakness
Recognition
Intracerebral Hemorrhage
IPH, IVH, Acute Hydrocephalus
• Hypertensive IPH
- 50% in basal ganglia
- 15% thalamus
- 10‐15% pons
Frontal Occipital
Third Horns
Fourth
Intraventricular Hemorrhage
Traumatic Contusions
Aneurysmal SAH w/ IVH HTN w/ IVH
47 year old gentleman, was drunk, fall, LOC, 47 year old gentleman, was drunk, fall, LOC,
GCS 7T (E2, M4, V1T), PERRL, In cervical collar GCS 7T (E2, M4, V1T), PERRL, In cervical collar
EVD placed, Medical management of ICP, gradually improved over several days,
neck cleared after extubation and improvement in neuro status
18 year old male, shot in head while sitting in car, GCS 15 with no focal deficits, 18 year old male, shot in head while sitting in car, GCS 15 with no focal deficits,
open scalp wound over skull fracture open scalp wound over skull fracture
Scalp debrided,
bullet fragment
extracted, wound
closed
• Cisternal Effacement
• Midline Shift
Cerebral Edema
Basal Cistern Effacement
• Vasogenic: from
brain tumor
- BBB disrupted
- Responds to
steroids
• Cytotoxic: from
trauma
- BBB closed
- NO steroids
• Depressed
• Open Depressed
Reconstruction
Open
Depressed
Skull
Fracture
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Carotid canal
Jugular fossa
Basilar
Sphenoid sinus
Skull
Carotid canal
Fracture
T1 Weighted Image of the Normal T2 Weighted Image of the Normal
Brain Brain
- Cytotoxic edema
Left: DWI
Right: ADC map
C
spine injury: location
Emergency
Spinal type neurologic sequelae T
Assessment
Radiological Assessment 1. cervical . . . . . brainstem, cord or root
3. lumbar . . . . . . conus or root
cord injury: deficit patterns spine injury: types
a. contusions
2. incomplete deficit (syndromes) b. strains + / - dislocation
c. sprains
a. central cord d. complete ligamentous disruption
b. anterior cord
c. Brown‐Sequard 2. fractures
d. posterior cord
e. conus/epiconus
stability:
1. stable
3. complete functional transection
2. unstable
spine injury: muscular/ligamentous spine injury: ligamentous
anterior longitudinal
1. contusions
posterior longitudinal
2. strains
spinal Imaging after trauma ‐ indications
spine injury: facet joints
1. clinical indications
2. clinical rationale
Which patients need imaging of the cervical spine? Which patients need imaging of the cervical spine?
Case 1: mild/moderate trauma patient Case 2: mild/moderate trauma patient
- no loss of consciousness - altered mental status (patient is obtunded and/or
- normal mental status (and not intoxicated) intoxicated)
- no neck pain or tenderness - neck pain or tenderness
- no neurologic deficit - neurologic symptoms or deficit
1. boney ‐ fractures/dislocations
Case 3: severe multi‐system trauma patient a. X‐rays - AP, lateral, open‐mouth odontoid
b. CT scan
2. ligamentous
3. disk injury
cervical: 7
spine injury: alignment
lordotic curve
1. pre‐vertebral fascia
thoracic: 12 1
2. anterior marginal line
kyphotic curve
3. posterior marginal line 2
3
4. spino‐laminar line
normal cervical spine normal cervical spine
occiput to T1
bone integrity
alignment: of
vertebral bodies
laminae
facets
lordotic curve
unilateral facet disruption
Bilateral facet fracture/dislocation:
“jumped” or locked facets
cord contusion Upper Cervical Spine: C1 – C2
• Atlantodental interval
hyperextension/axial loading
(ADI)
thoracic and lumbar vertebra thoracic and lumbar vertebra
"minor" fractures:
lumbar
Class A: vertebral body compression Burst fracture
compression fracture
Anterior column failure
Middle and posterior columns intact
Unstable if >50% compression or
>20 degrees angulation
burst fracture
Anterior and middle column failure
Retropulsion of bone into canal
Often have neurologic deficit
Unstable
flexion/distraction
Class B: distraction (+ flexion/extension) posterior ligamentous injury
Class C: three‐column injury with rotation fracture‐dislocation
fracture‐dislocation
shear injury
unstable
neurologic deficit
Objectives
ICP Management 1. Monro‐Kellie Doctrine
2. Normal and pathological ICP
3. Indications for ICP monitoring (TBI
Guidelines)
4. Normal and pathological CPP (variation by
age)
The Society of Neurological Surgeons
Neurological Surgeons
Bootcamp 5. ICP Management
- 1st Tier Therapies
- 2nd Tier Therapies
Intracranial Pressure
Critical Recognition of ICP
Why is it important? What would be the clinical cost of loss of
volume from each of the 3 compartments?
Autoregulation Autoregulation
• The tendency of the brain to keep AVDO2
constant, at any level of CMRO2 or, to keep
• Metabolic
- Higher or lower CBF proportional to demands of
CBF constant when CMRO2 and AVDO2 are
brain (CMRO2) already constant. All occurs by adjusting the
• Pressure diameter of resistance vessels (25 ‐ 500 µ).
- CBF unchanged despite changes in BP, ICP or both • CMRO2 = AVDO2 x CBF
• Viscosity
- CBF unchanged despite changes in blood viscosity
CBF= CPP/CVR
CPP=MAP‐ICP
1. 2.
Check for 30‐degree head elevation
Open EVD for ICP > 20 for 10 minutes and then close and transduce ICP
* Repeat once
* If ICP > 20 keep open at 15 above midbrain, and proceed with ICP module
3. Hypothermia
Topic Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Prophylactic There are There are Pooled data indicate
Hypothermia insufficient insufficient that prophylactic
data data hypothermia is
not significantly
associated with
decreased mortality
when compared with
normothermic
controls.
Hyperosmolar Therapy
4. Topic Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Hyperosmolar There are Mannitol is Restrict
Therapy insufficient data effective for Mannitol use
control of prior to ICP
raised (ICP) at monitoring to
Keep Body temperature < 37.5 doses of 0.25 patients with
gm/kg to 1 g/kg signs of
body weight. transtentorial
herniation
Hyperventilation
6. Topic Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Hyperventilation There are Prophylactic Hyperventilation is
insufficient hyperventilation recommended as a temporizing
data (PaCO2 of 25 mm measure for the reduction of
Hg or less) is not (ICP).
recommended. Hyperventilation should be
avoided during the first 24
hours after injury when cerebral
blood flow (CBF) is often
critically reduced.
If hyperventilation is used,
jugular venous oxygen
saturation (SjO2) or brain tissue
oxygen tension (PbrO2)
measurements are
recommended to monitor
oxygen delivery.
8.
7.
9. Case Example
• 27 y/o patient after ATV accident
• Needs to be intubated at the scene •
• Decompressive Does not open eyes
Hemicraniectomy • no movement in his arms but
cramping‐ extending his legs
• Bilateral Frontal
Craniectomy
Injury Decompression
Seizure Prophylaxis
Topic Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Antiseizure There are Anticonvulsants n/a
Prophylaxis Insufficient are indicated to
data decrease the incidence
of early PTS (within 7
days of injury).
Learning Objectives
Unstable
Neurosurgical Patient: 1. Evaluation of stupor and coma
2. Management of status epilepticus 3.
Case Scenarios Evaluation and management of hypoxia 4.
Evaluation and management of sepsis 5.
Expanding posterior fossa mass
The Society of Neurological Surgeons
Neurological Surgeons
6. Back pain and weakness after spine surgery 7.
Bootcamp
Cerebral vasospasm after SAH
- Obtunded • Metabolic
• Moderately depressed consciousness, can be aroused with stimulation to - Both cerebral hemispheres are most commonly involved in a metabolic or toxic
answer questions, for example, but will likely lapse back into an obtunded insult that causes coma
state without verbal or light tactile stimuli
• Common causes:
- Stuporous - Loss of substrate of cerebral metabolism
• Deeply depressed consciousness, those who can only be aroused by vigorous » Hypoxia, hypoglycemia, global ischemia
and repeated stimuli and will lapse back into unresponsiveness as soon as - Derangement of normal physiology
such stimuli is withdrawn » Hypo‐ or hypernatremia, hyperglycemia, ongoing seizures, hypothyroidism
- Comatose - Toxins
• Total absence of awareness of self and environment even when externally » Drugs, hypercarbia, liver failure, renal failure, sepsis, meningitis
stimulated, regardless of the stimulus used
From The Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma, 3rd ed., by Plum and Posner Kandel & Schwartz Table 45‐1
Varelas Varelas
• Patients who are in coma for unknown reasons WHAT ELSE?
- Between 8‐30% of patients, depending on patient
population, show some form of seizure activity
• Patients with being treated for status epilepticus who
meet the following criteria
HCT !!!
- Receive long‐acting neuromuscular paralytic agents
- Have a prolonged postictal period (> 1‐2 hours)
- Are being treated for refractory SE
- OR have atypical features of their seizures suggestive of pseudoseizure
PATIENT 3 Increased
Cuff Leak Resistance
Replace Hand Ventilate Pass Suction
You are called to the bedside of a patient in Tube ↑ FiO2 Catheter
the ICU who has had a sudden drop in her No Obstruction
Obstruction
oxygen saturation. 30 y/o F, hospital day 20, DAI, Fix Mechanical
Problems
Check O2 Source
Ventilator Circuit
ventriculostomy, paralyzed, sedated, ICP high Check Tube
R/O Plug
teens consistently. What are you Chest
Physical Exam
Tube Obstruction
thinking? Tension
Pneumothorax
Persists
Replace
Lab / X-ray Tube
PATIENT 4 Sepsis
You are called to the bedside of a critically ill • Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome
patient with multiple injuries which include (SIRS)
DAI, pulmonary contusions, pelvic fracture, • Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome
bilateral femur fractures, status post (MODS)
exploratory celiotomy for ruptured abdominal • Sepsis - SIRS plus infection
viscus. The nurse is concerned because the
• Severe Sepsis - Sepsis plus MODS
patient, who is a 40 yo m, "looks septic".
Define what this means and what are you • Septic Shock - Severe Sepsis with Hypotension
going to do?
Vasospasm Treatment
• Pt 7 is already on nimodipine 60 mg per NGT
q4 hrs
• Bolus 1 liter NS, increase IV fluid rate
• Use vasopressors (such as phenylephrine) to
increase MAP goal to 100‐120 mm Hg
• Notify interventional neuroradiology team,
especially if above efforts do not quickly
reverse focal neurologic deficit, to consider
cerebral angioplasty
• Obstructive Hydrocephalus
- Dilatation of lateral and third ventricles with small, compressed or
normal size 4th ventricle
- Asymmetry or enlargement of lateral ventricle when obstruction is at
Foramen of Monro ( e.g. colloid cyst)
- Posterior fossa mass lesions (tumor, ICH, cyst), intraventricular mass
lesions (tumor, IVH, cyst), aqueductal stenosis
- Do NOT do lumbar puncture
Conclusions Case 1
• Involve experienced team members in significant
care decisions
• History
• When in doubt, keep the patient for observation
- 6 y.o. with post‐hemorrhagic hydrocephalus
• Listen to parents
- 3 days progressive fever and malaise
• Myelomeningocele patients may have protean
- Intermittent right sided headaches
forms of presentation and increased risk for
sudden deterioration - Last revision 3 years ago for obtundation
Case 1 Case 2
• History • Physical Examination
• Physical Examination • Imaging - 10 y.o. with - Alert
- Irritable - Axial imaging: ventricles myelomeningocele and - Baseline
- Neurological exam unchanged from last hydrocephalus - No papilledema
non‐focal well scan - One week of
- Temperature 102.5 F. progressive frontal
- Shunt x‐rays without headaches and neck • Radiology
- Inflamed right disconnection pain
tympanic membrane - Axial imaging
with effusion - One day of vomiting unchanged from well
• Diagnosis - Mother states these baseline (small
are typical malfunction ventricles)
- Otitis media symptoms - Shunt x‐rays without
- No surgical intervention - Last revision distant disconnection
Case 2 Case 3
Case 3 Case 4
• History • Physical Examination
• Diagnosis • Treatment
- 15 y.o. with congenital - Malaise, but normal
- Severe ventricular - Neurosurgeon hydrocephalus neurological exam
shunt malfunction attempts to drain CSF;
- Occasional mild - Temp 100.2 F.
shunt tap is dry
headaches, low grade - Incisions well‐healed;
- 1 gram/kg mannitol is fevers for 3 weeks
given no inflammation
- Anorexia - Abdomen slightly
- Last revision 5 months distended, non‐tender
• E.R. Course ago for severe headache
- Intubated and vomiting
- During CT, heart rate - Mother: "very different
drops to 40 from typical
malfunction symptoms"
Case 4 Case 4
Positioning
Surgical Pause: the TIME OUT
• Stop and Pay attention
• Anyone in the room can pull the stop cord •
There is zero tolerance to not doing it • Do it
Frontal approach Pterional approach Retrossigmoid approach
correctly, or do it over.
• Do it respectfully
• After it is done, there is time to review with
the team the steps and flow of the operation.
Midline suboccipital approach
The Surgical Pause - Time Out Hair and Neurosurgery: know what the
• Confirm: attending wants and the patient expects
- Confirm patient identity
- Confirm length, type of procedure and surgical • Most neurosurgeons prefer to shave hair on
site (left/right; spinal levels) the incision site.
- Confirm use of Foley catheter, prophylactic • Hair sparing craniotomies are getting
antibiotics, steroids, Mannitol, Dilantin®, etc…
common.
- Confirm availability of equipment (microscope,
CUSA®, c‐arm, retractors, implants, etc…) • Hair needs to be prepared and draped with
- Confirm availability of blood and blood standard sterile technique.
products • No difference in the incidence of infection.
- Confirm availability of ICU, frozen section - Tokimura H, et a. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2009 Dec;37(8):477‐80. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐(632 patients)
- Dvilevicius AE, et al. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2004 Mar;62(1):103‐7. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐(640 patients)
- Bekar A, et al. Acta Neurochir(Wien). 2001;143(6):533‐6 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐(1038 patients)
- Winston KR. Neurosurgery. 1992 Aug;31(2):320‐9. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐(303 patients)
Schubert W, Aldridge A. Repair and reconstruction of scalp and calvarial defects.
In Neurosurgical Operative Atlas, Vol 5., 199‐217, 1996.
Agarwal CA, et al. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 125: 532 ‐ 537, 2010
Temporalis fascia
Agarwal CA, et al. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 125: 532 ‐ 537, 2010
Agarwal CA, et al. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 125: 532 ‐ 537, 2010
U Shaped
Trauma Flap
Summary
• Communication and Documentation are part of your
professional responsibility