Form and Function

Homeostasis
(Gk. homeo = same; stasis = standing)
 iClicker test run
• What do organisms need to survive?

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 Learning Objectives

• To survive, animals must

– extract energy and nutrients from the
environment
– build all internal structures they need
– eliminate toxins and metabolic waste products
– sense the environment and respond to it in
various ways, including movement
– maintain constant conditions in their internal
environments
– reproduce
 Learning Objectives

Cells of larger animals must be served by an

internal environment of extracellular fluid.
Some cells are specialized to contribute to
the maintenance of the internal
environment.
• Tissues: Groups of similar specialized
cells. Four types:
– Epithelial, Muscle, Connective, Nervous
 CUNY Researcher

Dr. PoKay Ma Dr. Karl Fath

Neurobiology Cell Biolgy

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Cells Make our Organs
Cells Come in Lots of Shapes
 Tissue Types

• Cells are organized into 4 types of tissues

• Each tissue has defined form and function
• What is the form and function of:
– Epithelial tissue
– Connective tissue
– Muscular tissue
– Neural tissue
• Where do you find each tissue?
Cell of Epithelium
Epithelial Tissue
Form and Function
Muscle Tissue

What is the form?

What is the function?
Where do you find it?
Connective Tissue

What is the form?

What is the function?
Where do you find it?
Neural Tissue

What is the form?

What is the function?
Where do you find it?
 Neural Tissue

What is the form?

What is the function?
Where do you find it?
Coming Together for Greater Function
Function in Different Environments
Function in Different Environments
 External and Internal Environments

External Environment
• Variable
• Source of energy and
nutrient Internal Environment
• Repository of waste • Stable
• Responses to changes in
both the external and the
internal environments
Homeostatic Regulation of the Internal Environment

• temperature (thermoregulation) — 37ºC

• pH (buffering) — plasma pH 7.35
• fluid volume, electrolyte concentration
(osmoregulation) — plasma osmolarity: 300 mOsm
• blood flow, blood volume, blood pressure
(haemodynamics) — systolic/diastolic pressure:
120/80 mm Hg
• glucose, other fuel (energetics) — plasma glucose:
0.1%
 Organization of Homeostatic Systems
• Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems are the effectors
of homeostasis.
• Each organ system contributes to a part of the overall
homeostasis.
• Most organ systems are involved in homeostasis of more
than one parameter:
• respiratory system — O2, CO2, pH
• cardiovascular system — fluid pressure, fluid volume,
electrolyte balance
• renal system — fluid volume, fluid pressure, electrolyte
balance, pH, erythrocyte concentration, nitrogen level
 Homeostatic Systems

• Stability – A homeostatic
system must be stable.
An unstable system cannot
reach steady state.
• Set-point — reference point
against which homeostatic
adjustments are made.
 Homeostatic Systems

• Sensors – detect changes in

the external environment;
monitor stability in the
internal environment with
reference to the set-point.
• Regulator – in response to
perturbation, make
adjustments to bring system
back to set point.
Adjustments must be
bidirectional.
 Homeostatic Systems
• Feedback loops
negative feedback: return
activity to set-point, prevent
internal changes, stabilizing.

positive feedback: amplify

changes, destabilizing (not a
common feature of
homeostasis).
Thermoregulation
 Human Thermobiology

tissue damage, seizure,

41ºC liver and brain cell death
reduce heat production
increase heat loss
core temperature

37ºC normal zone

reduce heat loss
increase heat production

34ºC confusion, slow reaction

loss of consciousness

26ºC brain damage

 Temperature and Life

• Temperature sets the limits for life.

• The freezing point of water sets the lower limit.
• The denaturation temperature of protein sets the
upper limit.
• The major impact of temperature is on the rate of
chemical reactions: Metabolic rates varies with
temperature.
 Thermoregulatory Strategies

Ectotherms (G. ecto = outside) – body temperature dependent

on external source of heat; body temperature follows ambient
temperature.
Endotherms (G. endo = inside) – temperature regulators –
body temperature maintained at preset temperature
Heterotherms (G. heteros = other, different) – partial
regulators – body temperature maintained at preset
temperature under some conditions, and follows ambient
temperature under other conditions
Temperature and Metabolism in Endotherms and Ectotherms

Fig. 40.10
 Ectothermy and Endothermy

advantage challenge

Maintaining constant
Energetically physiological activities
Ectotherms
inexpensive under widely changing
thermal conditions.

Function in a
Energetically costly to
constant
Endotherms maintain a constant
physiological
temperature.
condition.
The Heat Budget
 The Heat Budget
Heat in = Heat out
metabolic heat radiation
environmental heat conduction
(radiation convection
conduction evaporation
convection)

Fig. 40.12
 The Heat Budget

• Cellular respiration and metabolism produce heat as a

by-product. (Remember: ATP production and
expenditure are not 100% efficient.)
• Metabolic heat production is directly proportional to
body mass.
• Heat loss is directly proportional to surface area.
Therefore:
• Heat loss can be reduced by reducing surface area.
• Heat loss can be increased by increasing surface area.
 Volume, Surface Area, and Thermoregulation
• Relative heat loss is a function of surface area-to-volume
ratio.
• Larger animals have lower surface area-to-volume ratio
and relatively lower heat loss.
• Smaller animals have higher surface area-to-volume ratio
and relatively higher heat loss.

Fig. 5.02
Metabolic Rate is Inversely Proportional to Body Mass
• Smaller animals increase metabolic rate to overcome
relatively higher heat loss.
• Larger animals decrease metabolic rate to balance
relatively lower heat loss.

Metabolic rate = Mass3/4

Thermoregulation in
Ectotherms
 Thermoregulation in Ectotherms

• Behavioral adjustment – e.g. basking or

sheltering to maintain body temperature.
• Biochemical or metabolic adjustments –
e.g. isozymes to keep metabolic rate
constant.
• Physiological adjustment – e.g.
redirecting blood flow to conserve heat,
changing heart rate.
• Anatomical adaptation – e.g. hot fish
modify vasculature to conserve heat.
 Isozymes and Acclimatization
• Different isozymes have different optimal temperature.

winter
isozyme summer
isozyme

Fig. 8.20
Acclimatization in Ectotherms
Thermoregulation in
Endotherms
37ºC
 Human Thermobiology

tissue damage, seizure,

41ºC liver and brain cell death
reduce heat production
increase heat loss
core temperature

37ºC normal zone

reduce heat loss
increase heat production

34ºC confusion, slow reaction

loss of consciousness

26ºC brain damage

 Thermogram
Temperature is not uniform. Only the core is maintained
at 37ºC.
The Thermostat Regulates Temperature
The Mammalian Thermoregulatory Systems

Heat production Heat conservation Heat dissipation

Sweating
Shivering
Metabolic Salivating
Brown fat
Panting

Peripheral
vasoconstriction
Increase insulation: Peripheral
fat deposits, fur, vasodilation
Non-metabolic wool, feather, Behavioral/postural
piloerection adjustment
Behavioral/postural
adjustment
Ambient Temperature
and Metabolism
Metabolic Rate is Ambient Temperature-Dependent
set point = 37ºC
• Basal metabolic rate
is the rate required to
maintain minimal body
function.
• The thermoneutral
zone is the ambient
temperature at which
the basal metabolic
rate generates
sufficient heat to
maintain body thermoneutral zone

temperature.
Metabolic Rate is Ambient Temperature-Dependent
set point = 37ºC
• Below the lower
critical
temperature,
increase in metabolic
rate is necessary to
produce heat.
• Above the upper
critical
temperature,
increase in metabolic
thermoneutral zone
rate is necessary to
increase heat loss.
Figure 40.16
 Metabolic Heating
• Shivering ¾ rapid contraction of muscles generates
heat.
• Brown fat ¾ mitochondrial metabolic heat production.

Figure 40.05
Electron Transport Chain Generates Proton Gradient

Figure 9.9
Electron Transport Chain Generates Proton Gradient

Figure 9.9
 Thermogenin is a Proton Channel
Heat is produced when protons flowing through thermogenin
down their concentration gradient.

thermogenin

H+

Figure 9.9
 Metabolic Cooling

• Heat removal by vaporization ¾ sweating, salivating,

urinating.
• Increase ventilation ¾ panting.
• Cooling is more difficult than heating — activities that
cool the body also produce heat.
 iClicker
In response to a 10°C rise in ambient
temperature, an endotherm’s body
temperature will:
• a. rise with the ambient temperature.
• b. rise at a constant rate.
• c. fall to a set point, then become stable.
• d. rise to a set point, then become stable.
• e. remain relatively constant.
 iClicker
In regulatory systems, the phenomenon of
negative feedback:
• a. establishes a set point.
• b. brings about a return to set point.
• c. diminishes a response.
• d. disrupts homeostasis.
• e. cancels basal activity.
 iClicker
The upper temperature limit at which cells
can function is determined by the:
• a. boiling point of water.
• b. melting point of water.
• c. melting point of fats.
• d. denaturation point of nucleic acids.
• e. denaturation point of polypeptides.
 iClicker
Within the thermoneutral zone, the
metabolic rate of an endotherm is:
• a. neutral.
• b. low and independent of temperature.
• c. high and independent of temperature.
• d. near the basal metabolic rate.
• e. none of the above.