Hormones

Endocrine Systems
(Greek: endo = within; krinein = to separate)
 Learning Objectives

• Describe the structural feature of

hormones that determines whether they
act on surface or cytoplasmic receptors.
• Explain how different target cells in the
body can respond differently to a single
hormone.
• Discuss scientific thinking about the
evolutionary history of hormones in
multicellular animals.
 Hormone Defined

• a regulatory substance produced in an

organism and transported in tissue fluids
such as blood or sap to stimulate specific
cells or tissues into action.

• a product of living cells that circulates in

body fluids (as blood) or sap and
produces a specific often stimulatory
effect on the activity of cells usually
remote from its point of origin
Autocrine vs Paracrine
 Hormones are Chemical Signals
Endocrines

• Hormone-secreting cells
are endocrine cells
• Hormone-receiving cells
are target cells
• Target cells must have
appropriate hormone
receptors to respond

Fig. 41.01
Three Classes of Hormones
 iClicker
If you want to make a name for yourself in science by
identifying a type of hormone that has never been
discovered before, you should focus your research on
which of the following distinct groups of compounds?
a. Steroids
b. Proteins
c. Peptides
d. Carbohydrates
e. Amines
Example of Hormone- Fight vs Flight
Major Endocrine Organs in Mammals
 Hormones Circulate Around the Body

Chemical signaling was critical for the

evolution of multicellular organisms.
Even sponges, that do not have a nervous
system, have intercellular chemical
communication.
Signaling molecules are highly conserved,
but their functions differ.
 Hormones Affect Target Cells

As organisms diversified, the same

hormone–receptor systems diversified to
serve different functions.
– Example: The hormone prolactin
Prolactin’s Structure Is Conserved
Prolactin’s Structure Is Conserved
Prolactin’s Functions Have Evolved
 Features of Hormones

• Secreted by gland cells located in endocrine organs.

• Affect metabolism and activity of distant target cells
and tissues.
• Integrated with the nervous system. Top-down,
hierarchical regulatory chain — brain-pituitary-gland
axis.
• Homeostatic functions: coordinates anatomical,
physiological and behavioral stability.
Pituitary Hormones
- Form and Function
- Feedback loops
 The Hypothalamus-Pituitary System

Think- Form and Function

Fig. 41.10 Fig. 41.09
The Endocrine System and Nervous System
Work Together
Anterior pituitary: Originates from gut
epithelial tissue; controlled by hypothalamic
neurohormones that travel via the blood.
Posterior pituitary: Originates from neural
tissue; contains the axons of
hypothalamic neurons that release
neurohormones.
The Anterior Pituitary Is Controlled by the
Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus-Pituitary System

Think- who, what, where, when, why?

 iClicker
The posterior pituitary
a. synthesizes oxytocin.
b. is under the control of hypothalamic
releasing hormones.
c. secretes tropic hormones.
d. secretes neurohormones.
e. is under feedback control by thyroxine.
 Feedback Loops of the Hypothalamus-Anterior Pituitary-
Endocrine Gland Axis
• Two hierarchical,
superimposing pathways:
(a) a stimulatory brain-
pituitary-gland pathway;
and
(b) a feedback inhibitory
pathway.
• Hormones lower in the
stimulatory hierarchy
feedback inhibit
hormones higher in the
hierarchy.
 Negative Feedback

A B
stimulus

-
 Negative Feedback

B + C
+ - - +
A D
stimulus

-
 Thyroid Hormone:
Control of Metabolism
 Major Endocrine Organs in Mammals
thyroxine
Thyroxine
 Tetraiodo- and Triiodo-Thyroxine

T4

T3

T3 is the physiologically more active form of thyroxine.

Fig. p 858
Thyrotropes

Fig. 41.12
Thyroglobin and Thyroxine Production
 Feedback Loop
low or high
ambient
temperature

thyrotropin releasing
hormone (TRH)

thyrotropin/thyroid
stimulating hormone
(TSH)

thyroid gland

thyroxine
 iClicker
T3 and T4
a. are made from the amino acid tyrosine.
b. require iodine for their production.
c. are transported to the blood.
d. differ by number of iodine atoms.
e. All of the above
 Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism

• Hyperthyroidism – over
production of thyroxine.
• Hypothyroidism – under
production of thyroxine.
• The 2 abnormalities
produce the same
symptom: goiter.
• In both cases, the
negative feedback loop is
compromised.

Fig. 41.13
 Hyperthyroidism

• Direct stimulation
of thyroxine
production and thyrotropin
release by an releasing
hormone (TRH)
antibody that is not
subject to feedback
regulation.
thyrotropin/thyroid
• Thyroid gland stimulating
hypertrophies hormone (TSH)
under constant
stimulation. thyroid gland

stimulation
thyroxine
 Hypothyroidism
• Lack of functional
thyroxine reduces
the strength of
thyrotropin
negative feedback.
releasing
• TSH release is not hormone (TRH)

feedback
inhibited.
TSH level X thyrotropin/thyroid
remains high. stimulating
hormone (TSH)
• Thyroid gland
hypertrophies thyroid gland
under constant
stimulation. thyroxine
Hormonal Regulation of Calcium
Glucose Homeostasis:
Insulin
Insulin
The Immune System
CUNY Researcher

Dr. Mika Vesanen

(Ph.D., University of Helsinki)
Immunology
 Learning Objectives
• Animals Use Innate and Adaptive Mechanisms for
Defense
• Innate Defenses Are Nonspecific
• Adaptive Defenses Are Specific
• The Humoral Adaptive Response Involves
Antibodies
• The Cellular Adaptive Response Involves T Cells
and Receptors
• Malfunctions in Immunity Can Be Harmful
Innate Defenses in Horseshoe Crab
Cell Signaling and Defense
 The Lymphatic System

The major organs of the

immune system include:
• the spleen
• the thymus
• the bone marrow
• the lymph nodes
The immune system consists
of highly specialized cells
and molecules.

Fig. 42.01
 About 40% of Blood Volume is Cellular ¾ Hematocrit

Fig. 50.11
Leukocytes
Innate Immunity
 Innate Defenses are Non-specific
• Innate (nonspecific) defenses are mechanisms to stop pathogens from
invading or quickly eliminate those that do.
• “Innate,” means that no previous experience with the pathogen is
required. They work quickly
• Preventing invasion is the first line of innate defense:
• Physical barriers: skin is about 30 cell layers thick, sheds
constantly and is salty and dry—which inhibits microbial growth.
• Mucus in the nose, respiratory, digestive, and urogenital systems
traps microorganisms; cilia continuously move the mucus and its
trapped debris away.
Innate Response
 Innate and Adaptive Response

• The inflammatory response is an example of coordinated

cellular and molecular responses.
Endocytose Pathogens
Innate and Adaptive Response
Adaptive Immunity
 Adaptive (Specific or Acquired) Immunity

• Adaptive immunity possesses some marvelous features:

• Specificity
• Diversity
• Self versus Non-Self
• Memory
• Adaptive immunity is executed via two interactive
responses:
• Humoral immune response — B cell mediated.
• Cellular immune response — T cell mediated.
Humoral Immune Response
 Antigens and Antibodies
• Antibodies are molecules produced by B cells directed
against antigens.
• Antigens are organisms or molecules – usually originated
from outside the body – that stimulate the production of
antibodies.
• The immune system recognizes specific sites on antigens:
the antigenic determinants or epitopes.
• Each antigen typically has several antigenic determinants.
• Antibody-antigenic determinant matching is highly
specific.
Antigen Determinants and Antibodies Match Like Lock and Key

• Each antigen has many different antigenic determinants.

 B Cells Produce Antibodies

Fig. page 864

• Most antibodies produced by B cells are secreted and

circulate in the plasma.
• Some antibodies are expressed on the cell surface and
act as cell surface receptors of B cells.
Adaptive Immunity
 B Cells Produce Antibodies

• Memory and Effector T cells too.

Vaccine Response
 Antibodies
Ammunitions of the Humoral Defence
Structure of Immunoglobulins
Antibodies Cause Aggregation of Targets
Antibodies Cause Aggregation of Targets
 Antibodies Bring Antigens to Macrophages
• Variable regions of
antibodies bind to
antigen.
• Constant region of
antibodies bind to
specific receptors on
macrophases.
• Binding of antibodies
to macrophages
promotes
phagocytosis.
Genetic Basis of Antibody Diversity
 The Arsenal of Antibodies

• At birth, billions and billions of B cells with all possible

V, D, and J combinations have been produced.
• These B cells reside in the lymph nodes.
• In the event of an infection by a novel antigen, lymph
node B cells that happen to produce antibodies specific
for the antigen will be selected and activated.
Structure of Heavy-Chain Genes
Production of the Heavy Chain Gene

13.5 million possibilities.

 Clonal Selection

• Antigens are brought to

lymph nodes and presented to
B cells.
• An antigens “selects” and
activates B cells with “fitting”
antibodies.
• B cells with antibodies
specific for particular
antigenic determinants are
stimulated to proliferate. Fig. 42.08
 Clonal Selection

• Clones of B cells all

expressing the same
antibody are produced.
• Plasma cells enter systemic
circulation and release
antibodies.
• Memory cells remain in the
lymph nodes and respond to
subsequent antigen
onslaught.
Fig. 42.08
 Plasma B Cell

• Plasma B cells invest

exclusively in the
production of
antibodies. The entire
cytoplasm is packed
with rough
endoplasmic reticula.
• Plasma cells have a
lifespan of a few days.

Fig. 42.08
Memory Cells Accelerate Subsequent Immune Response

Fig. 42.09

• Clonal selection of specific B cells during first exposure.

• Activation of memory B cells, with the help of TH cells,
upon subsequent exposure.
Cellular Response in Adaptive
Immunity
T Cells
 T Cells and T Cell Receptors

• T cell receptors are dimers

anchored in the plasma
membrane.
• The receptors bind to
antigens and MHC
molecules.
 Antigens and Antibodies
• Antigens are recognized specifically by antibodies or T
cell receptors.
• Antibodies and T cell receptors underlie the specificity
and diversity of the specific immune response.
• The immune system responds to the presence of an
antigen by:
• Producing T cells with receptors that are specific to the
antigen determinants – the cellular response.
• Producing B cells that secrete antibodies specific to the
antigen determinants – the humoral response.
Phases of Response
Phases of Response
Killing Self Identifying Cells
Humoral and Cellular Responses Interact
https://vax.herokuapp.com/
 Vacination
• Smallpox was eliminated by 1978 with the
help of extensive vaccination programs—a
stunning international success.
• Yet many people today refuse to be
vaccinated. This may harm other people:
about 80% of the population must have the
vaccine for “herd immunity” to be effective.
 No Mass Vaccination

Each host in contact with infected host becomes

infected (with a certain probability)

http://www.wfaa.com/news/health/Measles-outbreak-220420101.html
http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-swineflumap-fl,0,5956261.htmlstory
 Mass Vaccination

Outbreak attenuated (or averted) by

lack of susceptible hosts
 Vacination
• Smallpox was eliminated by 1978 with the
help of extensive vaccination programs—a
stunning international success.
• Yet many people today refuse to be
vaccinated. This may harm other people:
about 80% of the population must have the
vaccine for “herd immunity” to be effective.

What are the mechanisms and

implications of long-lasting immunity?