T Cells

Cellular Response in Adaptive

Immunity

T Cells and T Cell Receptors Antigens and Antibodies

• Antigens are recognized specifically by antibodies or T
cell receptors.
• Antibodies and T cell receptors underlie the specificity
and diversity of the specific immune response.
• The immune system responds to the presence of an
antigen by:
• T cell receptors are dimers • Producing T cells with receptors that are specific to the
anchored in the plasma antigen determinants – the cellular response.
membrane.
• Producing B cells that secrete antibodies specific to the
• The receptors bind to antigen determinants – the humoral response.
antigens and MHC
molecules.

Phases of Response Phases of Response

 Killing Self Identifying Cells Humoral and Cellular Responses Interact

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The extraordinary diversity of antibodies
results in part from Animal
a. the action of monoclonal antibodies.
b. the splicing of protein molecules.
Reproduction
c. the action of cytotoxic T cells.
d. the rearrangement of genes.
e. their remarkable nonspecificity.

Hormone and Sex Characteristics Steroid Hormones

Hormone-Independent Characteristics (primary sexual
characteristics)
progesterone is a
• chromosomes (X, Y) precursor of testosterone
• gonads (testis, ovary)
Hormone-Dependent Characteristics (secondary sexual
characteristics)
• genitalia
testosterone is a
• brain (hypothalamus, pituitary, other structures) precursor of estrogen
• hormones
• behavior (courting, mating, nest building, nursing, rearing)

Fig. 41.02
 Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction Two Forms: Asexual Reproduction

Parthenogenesis Hormones Control Behavior

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In the early 1900s, oyster fishermen cut sea stars (starfish),
which are predators of oysters, into pieces and threw them
back into the sea. This practice led to an explosion in
a. other sea stars ate the pieces and were able to increase
their reproductive output.
b. each arm with a portion of the central disc regenerated
Gametogenesis
into a new individual.
c. competition was removed from the stronger sea stars that
were not caught, increase their reproductive output.
d. the oyster population grew due to this new food supply,
allowing the population of their predators to increase.
e. each arm could form a new individual through budding.
 Production of Male Gametes Production of Female Gametes
• At birth, oocytes are
arrested at prophase
of meiosis I.
• Meiosis I is the 1st
post-embryonic
division of oocytes.
It occurs during the
ovum maturation
phase of the ovarian
cycle.
• Meiosis II occurs in
the Fallopian tube
diploid diploid haploid after fertilization.
Fig. 42.03 Fig. 42.03

The Ovum Regulation of Fertilization

• Species specificity — sperms fertilize eggs of the

same (or highly closely related) species only.
• Cell specificity — sperms fertilize eggs only, not
other cells they encounter on the way.
• Number specificity — only one sperm fertilizes
an egg.

Fertilization

Preventing Polyspermy
 The Sperm The Acrosomal Reaction

Fig. 43.04

Centriole • Contact with the jelly coat induces the acrosome reaction,
Fig. 43.04 releasing acrosome enzymes that digest the jelly coat.

The Acrosomal Process and Sperm-Ovum Recognition The Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm-Ovum Recognition

Fig. 43.04

Fig. 43.04
• Bindin on the acrosomal process binds to bindin-receptors
on the vitelline envelope.
• The acrosomal process penetrates the vitelline membrane.
• Egg plasma membrane elaborates a fertilization cone to
meet the sperm.
• Fusion of the egg and sperm plasma membranes, actin
bundle, sperm nucleus and centriole enters egg.

Prevention of Polyspermy — Rapid Block

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The enzyme-containing cap at the front of the
head of a sperm is called the
a. bindin.
b. acrosome.
c. cortical granule.
Fig. 43.04
d. Golgi.
• Contact between acrosomal process and egg triggers e. fertilization cone.
influx of Na+ ions and release of Ca++ from internal store,
reversing the charge under the plasma membrane,
preventing further sperm-egg interaction.
 Prevention of Polyspermy — Slow Block

Oögenesis:
The Ovarian Cycle
• Increase in intracellular Ca++ promotes the fusion of cortical
granules with egg plasma membrane.
• Cortical granule enzymes break the bond between plasma
membrane and vitelline envelope, water influx swells the space
between the vitelline envelope and the plasma membrane.
• The vitelline envelope hardens.

The Female Reproductive Tract The Ovarian Cycle

corpus luteum

follicle

meiosis I
secondary oocytes

• At birth, female germ cells — primary oocytes, are arrested at

the prophase of meiosis I.
• During ovulation, the secondary oocyte is at the prophase of
meiosis II.

The Ovarian Cycle

corpus luteum

The Brain-Pituitary-Gonad Axis

follicle of the
Vertebrate Endocrine System
meiosis I
secondary oocytes

• After ovulation, the follicular cells become the corpus luteum.

• If fertilization and implantation occurred, the corpus luteum is
maintained. If not, the corpus luteum degenerates, and the
cycle begins anew.
 Regulation of Ovarian Steroid Hormones Hormonal Changes During the Ovarian Cycle

• Negative feedback inhibition of

• Negative feedback GnRH by estrogen keeps FSH and
regulation of GnRH and LH levels low during the follicular
LH and FSH occurs phase of the ovarian cycle.
throughout most of the • Negative feedback inhibition of
ovarian cycle. GnRH by estrogen and
progesterone keeps FSH and LH
• LH and FSH levels levels low during the luteal phase
remains relatively of the cycle.

constant. • Positive feedback excitation of

GnRH produces a large LH surge
• Except during ovulation. and a smaller FSH surge in the
midst of the ovarian cycle
stimulates ovulation.

The Female Reproductive Tract

Regulation
of the
Uterine Cycle

The Ovarian Cycle and the Uterine Cycle

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In women, a drug that blocks the LH surge
would most immediately prevent
a. a peak in estrogen.
b. ovulation.
c. a peak in progesterone.
d. implantation of a fertilized egg.
e. degeneration of the corpus luteum.
 Hormone Levels During Pregnancy

• Over the course of

pregnancy, CG level
is maintained.

Pregnancy • Estrogen and

progesterone levels
increase steadily.
• The estrogen-to-
progesterone ratio
increases slowly.

Estrogen and Progesterone in Early Pregnancy Estrogen in Late Pregnancy

Estrogen
• Produced by placenta. Estrogen
• Stimulates endometrial and • Stimulates synthesis and
mammary duct growth. insertion of oxytocin
• Suppresses prolactin action receptors in myometrial
and lactation. muscles.
• Stimulates formation of gap
Progesterone
junctions between
• Produced by placenta and
myometrial muscles.
corpus luteum.
• Stimulates endometrial
growth.
• Suppresses LH and FSH
release.
• Suppresses myometrial
contraction.

Birth Control
 19
42
Animal Development

Cell fate restriction, determination.

Key steps in embryogenesis.
Is cell fate irreversible?

Key Steps in Embryogenesis Development: The process in which a multicellular organism

undergoes a series of progressive changes that characterizes its
life cycle.

• Establishment of axes: dorsal-ventral, anterior-posterior,

left-right.
• Production of large numbers of pluripotent cells: cleavage.
• Arrangement of pluripotent cells into tissue layers that
resemble an organism: gastrulation.
• Organogenesis: neurulation, cardiogenesis, etc.
• Establishment of body segments: somitogenesis.
 Processes underlying development Fertilization Initiates Development
• determination — sets the fate of cells Dorsal-ventral (DV) axis is determined by point of sperm entry
(i.e., what they will become), prior to emergence of type-specific
characteristics.
Sperm enters the animal
• differentiation — the process by which structurally and hemisphere—rotation of
functionally distinct cell types arise cortical cytoplasm toward site
of entry establishes dorsal-
• morphogenesis — organization and arrangement of cells. ventral axis.

• growth — increase in size of body and organs via cell division, Site of sperm entry becomes the
cell expansion. ventral region; the gray
crescent (a band of pigmented
(Lots of different model systems used for developmental studies.) cytoplasm opposite the site of
sperm entry, visible in some
amphibian species) becomes
Cells in the early embryo arise from repeated mitoses and soon begin to
the dorsal region of embryo.
differ in terms of which genes are expressed. How?

Determination and differentiation occur largely because of differential gene

expression.

Fertilization Initiates Development

Beta Catenin
GSK3
Vesicles with GSK inhibitor

Cleavage Types

Complete Cleavage Incomplete Cleavage

• In eggs with relatively large amount of

• In relatively small eggs, or eggs with a relatively small yolk, the early cleavage furrows do not
amount of yolk, the entire egg is divided. cut through the entire egg.
 Superficial Cleavage

Cytoplasmic Segregation

https://learninglink.oup.com/ebook
/access/content/life-12e-student-
resources/hillis12e-life-chapter-
• In insect eggs, nuclei divide in the middle of the egg 42-animation-1
without cell division. The nuclei then migrate to the
periphery of the egg to form the blastula.

How Is Cell Fate Established? Cytoplasmic segregation

• Sea urchin
• Cytoplasmic segregation (unequal
embryos
cytokinesis): Factors that are unequally
bisected
distributed in the cytoplasm may end horizontally or
up in some daughter cells, but not vertically at
others the 8-cell
• Induction (cell-to-cell communication): stage.
Factors secreted by certain cells
determine fate of other cells.

How is cell fate determined?—Cytoplasmic segregation Cytoplasmic Determinants

• Cytoplasmic determinants become
unevenly distributed in the egg
(horizontal) (vertical) cytoplasm.
• As cleavage proceeds, cytoplasmic
determinants are segregated into
subsets of cells.
• Cells that have inherited different
cytoplasmic determinants take on
different fates.
 The Germ Layers- FROGS
• Ectoderm — (eventual) outermost layer, gives rise to epidermis
and nervous system.
• Mesoderm — (eventual) middle layer, gives rise to muscles,
bones, heart, blood, kidney and gonads.

Gastrulation • Endoderm — (eventual) innermost layer, gives rise to lining of

digestive and respiratory tract, and visceral organs.
Making the 3 germ layer
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm

The Fate Map Gastrulation in the Frog

Blastula stage
• During gastrulation, cells
• Cells located in
different parts of the move to new positions and
blastula are destined form the three germ layers
to become different
types of tissues. from which differentiated
• Fate maps, derived tissues develop.
by a method called
“lineage tracing,” tell • Bottle-shaped cells at the
you what part of the
embryo is going to dorsal lip of the blastopore
become/end up enter the interior of the
where.
blastula along the inner
surface of the overlying cells.

Gastrulation in the Frog

• The process brings cells
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destined to become
mesodermal and The mesoderm
endodermal tissue to the a. is located on the outside of the embryo.
inside. b. is found in blastula-stage embryos.
• Internalized mesodermal c. lies between the endoderm and the
cells surround
ectoderm.
endodermal cells.
d. gives rise to the lining (inner epithelium)
• Ectodermal cells are left
of the gut.
on the outside.
e. is formed during cleavage.
Gastrulation in Sea Urchins

The Organizer
Master Regulator of Embryonic
Cell Fate

• Gastrulation is the rearrangement of cells of

the blastula to bring them to positions
consistent with their fates.

Transplantation of the Dorsal Lip Transplantation of the Dorsal Lip

Spemann/Mangold
(Secondary nervous system
from cells fated to become epidermis)
• Not only does the
transplanted dorsal lip of
the blastopore retain its
own fate when
transplanted to a new
position, it changes the fate
of the adjacent cells in the
recipient.
• Spemann called the dorsal
lip the organizer, because
it organizes the cells
around it to form a new
axis/embryo, and induced
cells that would otherwise
form skin to form neural
tissue (!) This result
launched a 70 year hunt for
the “neural inducing”
signal.

Organogenesis

Neurulation
Cell Fate by Induction

Neurulation
 Neurulation Segmentation of the Body-Somite Formation

• During neurulation, the dorsal ectoderm thickens

(neural plate), bends, and folds upwards to become
the neural tube (fore-, mid-, hindbrain, and spinal
cord).
• The neural tube pinches off from the ectoderm and
How do individual somites know what to become (neck vertebrae, vertebrae with
becomes internalized. ribs? etc.). Or, more generally, what regulates anterior-posterior identity in the
embryo?

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A body plan consisting of repeating segments that are
modified during development into structures such as
vertebrae, ribs, and muscles depends on the production of
cells by Genetic Regulation
a. the neural tube.
b. somites.
c. neural crest cells.
d. endoderm.
e. the notochord.

How Does Gene Expression Determine Pattern Hox Genes Control Mammalian Body Segmentation
Formation? In mice, Hox
genes also
Hox genes are shared by control
all animals. differentiation
Hox genes are along the
expressed in different anterior–
combinations along posterior body
the length of the fly axis.
embryo. They Gene expression
determine what each patterns are
segment will become. the same as
Hox genes are found in their order on
two clusters, in the the
same order (!!) as the chromosome.
segments whose Different
functions they segments of
determine—head, the embryo
body, tail. receive
different
combinations
Hox Genes in Drosophila Determine Segment Identity of Hox gene
products.
 A Homeotic Mutation in Drosophila
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The mesoderm of the anterior part of a
vertebrate embryo is programmed to
produce forelegs rather than hind legs by
a. convergent extension.
b. neural crest cells.
•
•
Clues to hox gene function came from homeotic mutants.
Antennapedia mutation—legs grow in place of antennae.
c. Hox genes.
• The homeobox is a 180-bp sequence that encodes a 60-amino acid (protein)
sequence called the homeodomain.
d. the spacing of somites in the embryo.
• The homeodomain binds to a specific DNA sequence in promoters of target e. the archenteron.
genes.

Apoptosis and Pattern Formation

Cell Death in
Development
• Apoptosis is the coordinated, programmed death of cells.
• Apoptotic events are important during embryogenesis.

• Current text book chapter 20 figure 19

Restriction of Fate
Development can also be thought of as the progressive restriction of potential.

Stem Cells if there is time

https://learninglink.oup.com/ebook
/access/content/life-12e-student- Totipotent Pluripotent Multipotent Unipotent
resources/hillis12e-life-chapter- A zygote (fertilized egg) is totipotent: It can give rise to every cell type in the adult
42-animation-2 body.
Later in development, most cells lose totipotency and become determined.