FI-210 Student Workbook

Wildland Fire Origin
and Cause Determination

FI-210
Student Workbook
NFES 2817 SEPTEMBER, 2005
Wildland Fire Origin
and Cause Determination
FI-210
Student Workbook
SEPTEMBER, 2005
NFES 2817
Sponsored for NWCG publication by the NWCG Training Working Team. The use of trade, firm,
or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader and
does not constitute an endorsement by the National Wildfire Coordinating Group of any product
or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.
Comments regarding the content of this publication should be directed to:

National Interagency Fire Center, Fire Training, 3833 S. Development Ave., Boise, Idaho 83705.
E-mail: nwcg_standards@nifc.blm.gov.
Additional copies of this publication may be ordered from National Interagency Fire Center,
ATTN: Great Basin Cache Supply Office, 3833 South Development Avenue, Boise, Idaho 83705.
Order NFES 2817.
PREFACE
Wildland Fire Origin and Cause Determination, FI-210, has been developed by an
interagency development group with guidance from the National Interagency Fire
Center (NIFC), Fire Training under authority of the National Wildfire Coordinating
Group (NWCG). The development group consists of the following representatives:
Paul Steensland
U.S. Forest Service, LE&I, Washington Office
Brian Garvey
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources/IAA
Gary White
Bureau of Land Management
John Carpenter
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center
Mike Heath
South Carolina Forestry Commission
Rick Gibson
Oregon Department of Forestry
Alan Foster
National Park Service
Gary Hilton and James Nanamkin

Bureau of Indian Affairs
Gary Jagodzinski
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
David LeMay and Chris Parker

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection
i
Dr. David Icove
Tennessee Valley Authority Police
John Barnes
New Zealand Fire Service
Billy Smith
Florida State Fire Marshal/ NASFM
Howard Herman and Terry Van Nest

Alberta Sustainable Resource Development/Forest Protection Division
Ken Ness
Saskatchewan Environment and Resource Management
Richard Woods
New South Wales Rural Fire Service
Fabian Crowe
Victoria Country Fire Authority
Noble Dunn, Project Leader

Marion Matthews, Project Leader
Sue Hickman, Editorial Assistant
NIFC Training
The NWCG appreciates the efforts of these personnel and all those who have
contributed to the development of this training product.
ii
CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................................................................. i
DETAILED LESSON OUTLINE
Unit 0: Introduction and Certification.......................................................... 0.1
Unit 1: Professional Standards for Wildland Fire Investigators................... 1.1
Unit 2: Fire Behavior and Burn Pattern Indicators ...................................... 2.1
Lesson 2A ........................................................................................... 2A.1
Lesson 2B ........................................................................................... 2B.1
Lesson 2C ........................................................................................... 2C.1
Unit 3: Fire Scene Evidence ........................................................................ 3.1
Unit 4: Fire Investigation Methodology ....................................................... 4.1
Unit 5: Witness Interviewing ........................................................................ 5.1
Unit 6: Ignition Factors and Sources .......................................................... 6.1
Lesson 6A ........................................................................................... 6A.1
Lesson 6B ........................................................................................... 6B.1
Lesson 6C ........................................................................................... 6C.1
Lesson 6D ........................................................................................... 6D.1
Unit 7: Arson Recognition .......................................................................... 7.1
Unit 8: Court Preparation and Testimony.................................................... 8.1
iii
iv
Wildland Fire Origin and Cause Determination, FI-210
Unit 0 – Introduction and Certification
OBJECTIVES: During this unit, the instructor will:
1. Introduce instructors, course coordinator, and

students.
2. Discuss administrative concerns.
3. Present the course objectives.
4. Discuss completed pre-course work assignments.
5. Explain the course evaluation system.
6. Describe the Wildland Fire Investigation certification

process.
7. Identify the three proposed levels of Wildland Fire

Investigators.
8. Explain the membership of the Wildland Fire

Investigator Working Team.
0.1
0.2
I. INTRODUCTIONS
II. ADMINISTRATIVE CONCERNS
III. COURSE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the course, students will have the necessary information
to:
• Identify the elements of the NWCG Fire Investigation Certification

program.
• Perform the common roles and responsibilities of a Wildland Fire

Investigator (INVF) involved in an initial investigation environment.
• Practice wildland fire investigation methods, evidence collection, and

documentation processes in a realistic environment.
• Identify the laws, regulations, and related court procedures associated

with administrative, civil, and criminal litigation processes.
IV. PRE-COURSE WORK
V. STUDENT PERFORMANCE
A. Unit Objectives
Unit objectives define what is expected upon completion of that unit.
1. Unit objectives will be presented at the beginning of each unit.
2. These objectives will be measured by field exercises.
0.3
B. Practical Exercises
There will be three practical exercises and one practical examination:
1. Instructors will demonstrate how the exercises work.
2. The three practice exercises are ungraded so students can learn

the process.
3. The practical examination will be a group exercise graded by the

cadre.
To satisfy the above objectives, the student will be required to

participate in the entire course and complete all exercises and
assignments.
C. Grading Values
1. Final written exam: 80%
2. Practical examination: 20%
D. Course Evaluation
Students will be given the opportunity to evaluate the instructors and

the course.
0.4
VI. THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS
A. Evolution of Wildland Fire Investigation Certification
1. Supreme Court decisions over the last 25 years have forced

change.
2. The National Fire Protection Association reacted by publishing

NFPA 921 and 1033.
3. NFPA 921 and 1033 used increasingly by investigators and

litigators.
4. Certified Fire Investigator programs began to emerge such as

the International Association of Arson Investigators (IAAI).
B. NFPA 921 Guidelines
NFPA 921 - Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigation (2001)
1. Guidelines for systematic fire investigation and analysis.
2. Scientific findings, court rulings, technical trends.
0.5
C. NFPA 1033 Standards
NFPA 1033 - Standards for Professional Qualifications for Fire

Investigation (1998)
Minimum job performance requirements for private and public:
• Scene examination
• Scene documentation
• Evidence collection/preservation
• Information through interview/interrogation
• Post incident investigation
• Presentation of findings
VII. WILDLAND FIRE INVESTIGATOR CERTIFICATION
A. A National Initiative
1. Concept proposed by federal and state agency investigators to

NWCG in January 2000.
2. NWCG approved the concept in May 2000 and authorized the

creation of a national working team.
3. NWCG Fire Investigation Working Team first met in June of

2000.
0.6
B. Wildland Fire Investigator Working Team Membership
1. USDA Forest Service
2. Oregon Department of Forestry
3. USDI Bureau of Land Management
4. Minnesota Department of Natural resources (representing IAAI

and the Great Lakes Forest Fire Compact)
5. USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs
6. South Carolina Forestry Commission
7. Florida State Fire Marshal (representing the National

Association of State Fire Marshals)
8. Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC)
9. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
10. Tennessee Valley Authority
11. National Park Service
12. California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection

(representing the Western States Fire Managers Association)
13. Saskatchewan Environment and Resource Management
0.7
14. Alberta Forest Protection Division
Canada represents their Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre

(National Training Group and Resource Management Working
Group)
15. Australia – New South Wales Fire Service (joined in 2002)
16. Australia – Victoria CFA (joined in 2003)
17. New Zealand Fire Service (joined in 2002)
C. Wildland Fire Investigator Certification Standards
1. A standard was drafted in 2000 and peer reviewed nationally

early in 2001.
2. The FIWT reviewed and evaluated over 160 written comments.
3. The standard was revised and reviewed and approved by other

NWCG working teams (Incident Operations WT and Training
WT).
4. Submitted to NWCG and approved in October 2001.
5. NWCG position descriptions will be published in the Wildland

and Prescribed Fire Qualifications Guide (PMS 310-1).
6. NWCG policy mandates the standard to be progressively tiered

and performance based.
0.8
7. There are three proposed levels of certification described as
Wildland Fire Investigator:
• INF1 – Case Management

• INF2 – Case Development
• INVF – Origin and Cause
Currently, in the 310-1, the certified level is INVF.
8. Performance based position task books will be completed for

each level.
9. NWCG training will be required for each level.
10. Additional training is also recommended for each level.
11. Employing agency certifies using NWCG standards.
D. Wildland Fire Investigator Certification Standards for an INVF
1. Minimum skills for fire origin and cause determination:
• Fire behavior
• Fire ignition sources and factors
• Burn pattern interpretation
• Basic investigation methodology and techniques
2. Position task book and proficiency exercise.
3. Completion of FI-210 training.
4. Recommended training (NWCG):
• S-190, FI-110, and I-200
0.9
E. Wildland Fire Investigator Certification Standards for proposed INF2
1. Case development skills for more complex civil and criminal

case development:
• Intermediate fire behavior.
• More complex origin and cause determinations.
• Managing investigation team.
• Enhanced knowledge of civil and criminal processes.
• Strategies and techniques for arson investigation.
• S-290 and I-300
0.10
F. Wildland Fire Investigator Certification Standards for proposed INF1
1. Case litigation management skills for more complex civil and

criminal case:
• Management of large and complex cases (civil and

criminal) through the litigation phase.
• Advanced fire behavior knowledge.
• Leadership and organization in task force operations.
• Oversight responsibilities in training and agency

certification.
• S-390 and I-400
0.11
G. Wildland Fire Investigator Certification Standards Summary
1. NWCG position descriptions published in the Wildland and

Prescribed Fire Qualifications Guide (PMS 310-1).
2. Three proposed levels for certified Wildland Fire Investigators:
• INF1, INF2, and INVF
3. Position task books at each required level (proficiency exercises

integral to performance testing).
4. NWCG training curriculum required:
• FI-210, FI-310, and FI-410
5. Other training recommended:
• FI-110, S-130, S-190, S-290, and S-390
6. Employing agency certifies using NWCG standards and job

aids.
7. Wildland Fire Investigator certification represents the minimum

requirements for investigators to perform at various levels.
This is the beginning of what an individual will need to become a

proficient investigator.
Your dedication and commitment to learning and improving your skills

will fashion your future as an investigator.
0.12
Unit 1 – Professional Standards for Wildland Fire Investigators
OBJECTIVES: Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the fundamentals of investigation.
2. Explain the elements of a professional code of ethics.
3. Identify court decisions that affect wildland fire

investigation.
1.1
1.2
I. FUNDAMENTALS OF INVESTIGATION
Fire investigation must be a team effort; it is a blend of fire service and law
enforcement personnel. Without this cooperation, investigative success
becomes increasingly elusive.
A. Definition of an Investigation
1. A systematic methodology and examination.
2. Documentation of unbiased fact.
3. Interaction with people and assessing physical objects.
4. Competent use of science, technical skill, and intuition.
5. Professionally prepared results to meet administrative or legal

mandate.
B. Components of an Investigation
1. Identify issues that determine the subject matter of the

investigation.
2. Determine and document what is known about the subject

matter.
3. Identify for further inquiry, what is unknown about the subject

matter.
4. Identify sources of information about what is unknown.
5. Outline a course of action to gather facts pertinent to the

inquiry.
6. Document and report what has been discovered in a competent

format.
1.3
C. Objectives of an Investigation
Answer – “who, what, where, when, why and how.”
D. Relationship of Investigation to Litigation and other Outcomes
1. Burdens of proof
• Preponderance of the evidence.
• Beyond a reasonable doubt.
2. Standards of admissibility may affect an investigator’s work
• Understand the type of forum where the investigation will

be reviewed.
• The investigation must be sufficient and reliable for

agency or legal decision.
• Understand the differences between adversarial forums

(administrative, civil, and criminal).
E. Differences Between Adversarial Forums
1. Administrative
Evidence of a type commonly relied upon by reasonably

prudent persons in conduct of their serious affairs is admissible.
2. Civil
Rules of civil procedure and evidence codes determine what is

admissible.
3. Criminal
Rules of criminal procedure and evidence code strictly

determine what is admissible.
1.4
II. PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS
A. Elements of Professional Ethics
1. Conduct investigations in a manner that inspires the confidence

of the public.
2. Provide disclosure and finding of fact in an unbiased and

competent fashion.
3. Avoid alliances that are inconsistent with an honest unbiased

investigation.
4. Maintain confidentiality and professionalism for the protection

of innocent parties.
B. Operational Standards for Professional Performance
1. Respond to incidents and complete your work in a safe manner.
2. Conduct investigations according to your jurisdictional law and

agency policy.
3. Protect the area of origin and provide for scene security.
4. Cooperate with other investigating agencies.
5. Keep your supervisor informed.
6. Document and report incidents of conflict of interest.
7. Assess the scope of the investigation and request assistance if

needed.
8. Conduct a thorough examination of the scene.
1.5
9. Identify, document, collect, and preserve evidence.
10. Identify, interview, and treat all witnesses fairly and with respect.
11. Make prompt and effective referrals to other agencies.
12. Generate a competent report and identify follow up actions.
III. LEGAL HISTORY
Significant evolutionary change in the last 25 years in the legal system has
been associated with the admissibility of evidence and expert testimony.
Various court rulings have given dimension to how courts determine who
may be recognized as an expert witness and what is admissible as evidence.
Judges serve as the “gatekeeper.” Investigators need to meet the “test” to be

recognized as an expert witness.
Search and seizure must be consistent with law for admissibility of evidence.
A. Court Decisions Affecting Wildland Fire Investigation
1. Frye v. U.S. (1923) – expert testimony
• General acceptance rule

• Rule 702 (1975) – broadened admissibility
2. Daubert v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceutical Company (1993) –

expert testimony
• Relevance and reliability

• Judge as gatekeeper
3. Kumho v. Carmichael (1997) – expert testimony
• Scientific vs. Technical
1.6
B. Frye v. United States (1923)
1. U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1923 established the threshold

standard for admissibility of expert testimony in federal cases.
“The data and methodology for expert’s opinion be generally

accepted.”
This became the universal standard.
2. Federal Rules of Evidence (1975)
Federal rules of evidence changed in 1975 with adoption of Rule

702.
The intent of Rule 702 was to broaden and simplify the

admission of expert testimony.
• “…if scientific, technical or other specialized knowledge

will assist the trier of fact to understand a fact in issue, a
witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill,
experience, training or education may testify thereto in the
form of an opinion.”
• Rule 702 broadened admissibility.
• It did not address the legal standards for measuring the

foundation of the expert’s conclusions.
1.7
C. Daubert v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceutical Company (1993)
1. U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1993 based on a product

liability case involving anti-nausea drugs.
2. The defendant in this case presented 30 published studies. The

plaintiff put on the testimony of eight expert witnesses.
3. The case was challenged on the basis of the expert testimony.
4. The plaintiff’s experts, using the Frye standard, were

disregarded by the court.
5. The lower court was upheld by the circuit court but overturned
by the Supreme Court.
6. The court then proceeded to set what has now been interpreted
as the new standard for admissibility for expert testimony.
7. Summary:
• The “new standard” is a two-part analysis that the trial

judge must apply.
• The first criterion is...that the testimony must be relevant

to the issue at hand.
• The second criterion is…the testimony must be reliable.
1.8
• To determine reliability the trial judge, acting as the
“gatekeeper,” must apply a non-exclusive four-part test to
the expert’s methodology.
– Can the theory or technique used to arrive at the

opinion be tested?
– Has it been subjected to peer review and

publication?
– Is there a known or potential rate of error?
– Is there a level of general acceptance in that

particular discipline’s community?
8. Effects of Daubert
• Questions arise from the definition and terms used in Rule

702 and the Daubert ruling.
• Daubert was being interpreted differently from jurisdiction

to jurisdiction.
• It was unclear if a different standard would be applied

regarding testifying on scientific knowledge or technical
knowledge.
• The debate whether “fire investigation” is a science or a

technical skill is ongoing.
1.9
D. Kumho v. Carmichael (1997)
1. U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1997 based on a case involving

a Daubert issue.
2. The debate was over “scientific” vs. “technical expertise.”
3. The appellate court overturned a decision of a lower court that

had excluded the expert testimony of a witness who was
testifying as an expert based on training and experience rather
than scientific methodology.
4. This decision is critical to the investigator in that the court is

saying there is no clear distinction between “scientific” and
“technical” expert witnesses.
5. This is what the court decision supports:
• Expert witnesses must establish a foundation of both

relevance and reliability as described in Daubert.
• The four-part Daubert test is a flexible standard that may

not apply in all cases.
• It is up to the judge, as the “gatekeeper,” to ensure that

expert witnesses are subjected to scrutiny in compliance
with the spirit of Daubert.
• The judge will use a framework of criteria that may use

some or all of the Daubert criteria.
• The investigator must be prepared to show that their

methodology was reliable by validating each facet of the
investigation.
1.10
E. Implications for Wildland Fire Investigators
• Investigators must prepare cases to withstand the challenges of

adversarial forums.
• They need to properly document findings and present them in

court in a logical, systematic and scientifically valid manner.
• Scrutiny needs to be applied to determine whether “scientific

methodology,” “technical skills,” or a blend of both disciplines
would provide a scientifically valid foundation. A blend is
usually recommended.
• The investigation process may rely on “technical skill” where the

conclusion should be corroborated and supported by “scientific
methodology.”
• Failure to do a complete and thorough job will subject the

investigator’s methods, competence and qualifications to attack
by the defense that will result in loss of credibility, exclusion of
testimony, and legal consequence.
1.11
1.12
Unit 2 – Fire Behavior and Burn Pattern Indicators
Unit 2 is divided into three lessons (2A, 2B, and 2C). The objectives are the same
for each lesson and will be discussed in Lesson 2A.
2.1
2.2
Lesson 2A – Fire Behavior and Burn Pattern Indicators
1. Describe the effects of fire on combustible and non-

combustible objects.
2. Describe and classify the various indicator categories.
3. Correctly assess the fire vectors within the various

indicator categories.
4. Explain the underlying fire science principles that

govern the formation of the indicators.
5. Apply a systematic methodology and use the various

indicators to trace fire progression back to the area
and point of origin.
6. Describe the general appearance of the indicator.
7. Explain the fire behavior behind its formation.
8. List general reliability/potential rate of error.
9. Describe characteristics for each directional category.
10. Correlate to NFPA 921 – Wildland Chapter, current

edition.
2A.1
2A.2
I. INTRODUCTION
Fire burns according to set scientific principles. It will leave identifiable and
reliable physical evidence of its passage.
To the trained eye, these indicators will lead the investigator to the origin just
as a road map leads a motorist to their destination.
Becoming proficient at reading these indicators will come with training,

practice, and experience.
II. BURN PATTERN TERMINOLOGY
A. Fire Progression
The progress outwards from the point of origin, where the ignition
source came into contact with the first materials ignited.
The investigation will attempt to retrace progression back to the origin.
B. Fire Vectors
Based on physical characteristics, the indicator will show a direction of

fire travel. These are referred to as “fire vectors.”
Fire vectors are used to identify transition zones and distinguish

between areas of fire spread.
Fire vectors are characterized as advancing, backing, or lateral, and are

associated with the various parts of the fire:
• Head: Advancing
• Heel: Backing
• Flanks: Lateral
2A.3
1. Advancing fire
• Rapid fire spread with higher intensity.
• Influenced by wind, slope, or fuel type.
• Also called head fire, forward fire, or a run.
• Will usually be distinguished by macroscale indicators.
• Recommended diagramming symbol: (Red)
2. Backing fire
• Slower rate of spread and lower intensity.
• Backs against the wind or down a slope.
• Also called heel fire.
• Distinguished by microscale indicators.
• Recommended diagramming symbol: U (Blue)
3. Lateral fire
• Rate of spread and intensity will usually fall somewhere

between advancing and backing.
• Spread lateral to main direction of fire travel.
• Recommended diagramming symbol: > (Yellow/Orange)
Note: A solid triangle ∆ may be substituted for the > if

it shows better on the diagram.
2A.4
C. Transition Zone
Area where the fire transitions from one direction to another (either
backing, lateral or advancing). Characterized by change in appearance
of indicators.
When change is from advancing, to flanking, to backing, within a

limited area, it may be the specific origin.
Transition zones are the key to accurately interpreting burn patterns.

Look for these transition zones, not just individual directional
indicators.
III. ANATOMY OF A WILDFIRE
A. Transition Zones
Transition zones are affected by fuels, topography, weather (wind),

and their integrated relationship.
The fire behavior will register itself on fuels and non-combustible

materials in the form of fire direction indicators/vectors.
These indicators will form unique patterns within the transition zones.
• Fuel effect
• Wind change effect
• Spot-fire/rolling material effect
B. Indicator Categories
Indicators are classified into a variety of categories based on how they

are formed and the types of materials they are found on.
A category can exhibit any one of the three fire vectors, depending
upon the fire’s direction of travel.
2A.5
The physical appearance of objects within the category will be
different, dependent upon direction of fire travel.
1. Macroscale indicators
• Large single indicators or overall patterns that are readily

visible from a distance.
• Most often associated with areas of higher intensity

burning.
• Most commonly used to define advancing fire areas.
2. Microscale indicators
• Small individual indicators and patterns that are not easily

observable.
• They will become increasingly critical the closer you get

to the origin; they also become less noticeable.
3. Pattern clusters
• Areas within the burn characterized by multiple indicators

that exhibit consistent directional values.
• Most reliable with a variety of indicator categories.
4. Damage differential
• Underlying principle behind interpretation of all indicators.
• Change that occurs to an object after its interaction with

the fire. Dependent upon the type of object, length of
exposure, and intensity of the heat.
• Contrasting damage differential.
2A.6
5. Compare and contrast
• Investigative technique that involves comparing same

sized indicators within a category at separate locations.
• Look for differences or similarities in appearance, based

on their damage differential.
IV. SYSTEMATIC METHODOLOGY
Science-based series of prescribed steps used to determine a fire’s origin.
Collecting, analyzing, and documenting of data derived from empirical

observations.
Methodology meets or exceeds the recommended practices of NFPA 921.
A. General Principles of Burn Pattern Interpretation
These general principles will assist the investigator in recognizing and

interpreting burn pattern indicators.
Principles have been developed over many years. Apply under most
circumstances.
1. Always base your interpretation on the majority of the indicators

within an indicator class.
Single indicators, taken outside the overall context, may be

unreliable. Only reflects fire direction at that precise point (see
general principle #3).
2A.7
2. Always base your interpretation on the totality of the indicators.
Indicators classified into approximately 14 categories. Use as

many categories as possible. Scientific Method requires one to
consider all data.
a. A single indicator may be accurate within a 180° arc.
b. These course changes may be quite radical and brief in

duration.
Example: On a primarily north burning fire, indicator may

show that fire came from anywhere within a 180° arc,
transcribed along an east-to south-to-west transect.
3. Always interpret indicators within the context of fire behavior

principles.
a. Determine context of fire behavior prior to reading

patterns.
• Examine unburned fuels outside of origin.
• Use ash and residual fuels to reconstruct pre-

existing fuel conditions.
• Obtain accurate weather data.
• Interview on-scene witnesses.
2A.8
b. Burn indicators will usually become less pronounced as
you near the origin.
• Fires start small and grow more intense due to

external influences.
• Indicators are usually correspondingly subtle.
• Microscale indicators such as small twigs, leaves,

grass stems, pebbles, etc., will require close
examination.
4. Document the indicators as you proceed with the investigation.
• Fire spread diagram

• Directional flagging
• Helps keep focus and on track
• Accompany with ample photographs
• Critical for reconstructing methodology (Daubert)
5. Work from the area of most intense burning, to the area of least
intense burning, following the fire’s forward runs back to the
origin.
a. Often difficult to identify the specific origin area. This

method prevents inadvertently destroying the point of
origin.
b. Use macroscale indicators to locate areas of forward fire

progression.
c. May also identify multiple points of origin.
2A.9
6. Avoid attempts to prematurely locate the origin.
a. Indicators in the specific origin area are often subtle.

Work down to an area no less than 5' x 5'.
b. Do not succumb to pressure to complete the

investigation.
B. Preliminary fire shapes may be dependent on effective windspeeds.
Absent overriding fuel or slope influences, fire shapes may be

governed by effective windspeeds.
This may assist in defining the general origin area.
1. Direction of fire travel will be influenced by obstacles.
2. Fire will spread around and over obstacles, much as water will
flow around similar objects.
a. Obstacles can cause the fire to lose intensity and speed

and to change direction temporarily.
b. Obstacles will slow and alter the direction of fire spread.
2A.10
Lesson 2B – Fire Behavior and Burn Pattern Indicators
2B.1
2B.2
I. INDICATOR CATEGORIES
Indicators are based on the appearance of a combustible or non-combustible

object after its interaction with flame or heat.
They are classified into approximately 14 categories. Each of these indicator

categories can exhibit a different appearance, based on its directional value.
• Protection: (NFPA 23.4.6.1)
• Grass Stem: (NFPA 23.4.3)
• Foliage Freeze: (NFPA 23.4.5.2)
• Damage Differential: (NFPA 23.4.2)
• Depth of Char: (NFPA 23.4.6.3)
• Angle of Char: (NFPA 23.4.5.1. and 23.4.5.2)
• Spalling: (NFPA 23.4.6, 4.6)
• Curling: (NFPA 23.4.6.3)
• Sooting: (NFPA 23.4.6.2 and 23.4.6)
• Staining: (NFPA 23.4.6.2 and 23.4.6)
• Ash Deposits: (NFPA 23.4.4.1)
• Cupping: (NFPA 23.4.4.2)
• V-Patterns: (NFPA 23.4.1)
• Die-Out Patterns: (NFPA 23.4.4.3)
2B.3
The characteristics of these categories will be examined based upon:
• General description of appearance.
• Fire behavior dynamics that create the indicator.
• Known or potential rate of error (Daubert).
A. Protection Indicators
1. Description
Fuels will be unburned or exhibit a less damaged appearance on

the non-origin side.
Look for charring, staining, white ash, and clean burn lines on
sides of fuels and non-combustible objects.
Compare and contrast to other sides of objects. Lift or remove

objects to detect the degree of damage and protection.
Objects lying on the ground should be lifted. Clean burn line on

surface fuels on side facing the direction the fire came from,
ragged line on opposing side.
2. Fire behavior
A non-combustible object or the fuel itself shields fuels from the

oncoming flame and heat.
In some cases, the fire will flow around or over the object,
leaving fuels undamaged or less damaged.
2B.4
a. Combustibles
• Stumps, grass clumps, brush stems, downed logs

and limbs, leaves, etc.
b. Non-combustibles
• Fuels behind rocks, dirt mounds, cans and other

similar objects.
3. Potential rate of error
Accurately shows fire direction, whether advancing or backing,

with the protection on the non-origin side.
Fire intensity affects the formation of this indicator, with low to

moderate intensity fires leaving the most reliable indicators.
Exception: fires backing into a strong wind or down a steep

slope or in areas of deep duff or other heavy fuel arrangements.
Under these conditions, damage may be on the opposing side or

equally distributed on both sides.
Exception: horizontal objects, such as limbs or logs that are

suspended above ground fuels.
Due to a Venturi effect, flame impingement may be greater on

the opposing side, causing more damage on the side facing the
direction the fire went.
2B.5
B. Grass Stem Indicators
1. Description
Charred remains of grass stems left in the fire’s wake will have
different appearances, based on direction of fire movement.
Generally, grass stem indicators will either be present and lying

on the ground or mostly consumed, dependent upon direction
of fire progress and/or intensity.
2. Fire Behavior
Generally, individual stalks of grasses or forbs with a stem

diameter of ¼" or less and a height of 24" or less.
As flame front approaches stalk, it will either burn it from the

top down or burn it off at the base, dependent upon whether fire
is advancing or backing.
a. Advancing
Grass stems will usually be completely consumed. An

inch or two of the base may remain standing if no duff is
present. The advancing flame front will begin consuming
the top of the stalk.
Ambient or fire generated winds blow remainder of the

stem into flames where it consumes completely, leaving a
clean or slicked off appearance.
Grass stems in the backing and lateral areas of the fire will
be impinged first at the base.
Fire weakens base and the wind or gravity causes stalk to

topple over into the already burned area, leaving the stalk
or seed head relatively intact.
2B.6
b. Grass stems may form recognizable patterns within the
specific origin area.
These stems reflect a transition zone.
• Backing to advancing
• Lateral areas
• Outlined with downed stems
c. Three common patterns:
(1) Circle pattern
• Fire backs away from point of origin in all

directions.
• No wind or slope influence.
• Grass stems fall inward in circular pattern.
(2) “U” or “V” pattern
• Fire influenced by wind shortly after ignition.
• Definite transition zone between backing and

advancing areas.
• Lateral areas visible.
• Grass stems fall inward along backing and

lateral transition zones forming a “U” or a
“V.”
2B.7
(3) Line pattern
• Fire almost immediately influenced by wind

or slope.
• Small patch of grass stems form line

perpendicular to fire spread.
• Grass stems fall into origin.
• May be difficult to observe.
This indicator is usually very reliable, particularly for determining

backing areas.
Reliability decreases under the following conditions:
• Matted or wind-thrown grass
• Heavy fuel accumulations
• Green or partially cured grass
• Backing into strong wind or down steep slope
• High intensity fires
• Re-sprouted grass several weeks after fire
• Grass clumps will have new growth on the non-origin

(protected) side
2B.8
C. Foliage Freeze Indicators
1. Description
Small branches, needles, and leaves on green vegetation take on

a windswept appearance and “freeze” in that position.
Vegetation may remain green in appearance or may look

scorched and blackened, depending on intensity of the fire.
Appearance may range from a dramatic, windswept look, to

only a slight drooping, depending upon the amount of heat
exposure and intensity of the wind, which may be associated
with the fire vector of the indicator.
2. Fire behavior
Indicator forms when heat from the passing flame softens green
vegetation. Vegetation bends with fire generated or ambient
winds.
Heat removes fuel moisture and the vegetation “freezes” into a

fixed position, accurately representing wind direction at time of
the fire’s passage.
Foliage freeze is a very accurate indicator of wind direction only.
This will usually coincide with fire direction and freeze will be
most evident in the advancing fire areas.
2B.9
Exceptions can include:
• Fires backing against strong winds or down steep slopes.
• Areas of heavy fuel accumulations where fire residency

may be lengthy.
• Ridge tops or other locations with a natural prevailing

wind.
Used to segregate advancing areas from backing areas by

comparing and contrasting effects on similar specimens.
Differences will usually be readily apparent.
D. Damage Differential Indicators
1. Description
Damage differential is the amount of fire-related destruction a

combustible object sustains.
Comparing opposing sides of an object assesses this indicator.

It is closely related to the protection indicator category.
2. Fire behavior
As heat and flame contact an object, the side facing the fire will
show deeper charring, more loss of material and more white ash
due to greater exposure to heat and flame.
2B.10
This indicator is relatively reliable.
Conditions that can reduce reliability include:
• Backing fire on steep slopes or against strong winds.
• Excessive deadfall or fuel accumulations on non-origin

sides of objects.
E. Depth of Char Indicators
1. Description
Sometimes referred to as “alligatoring.” Combustible material

appears to have fissured, scaly appearance similar to an
alligator’s hide.
Most commonly associated with finished lumber products, such

as boards and fence posts.
Contrary to previously published information, size and color of

scales have no bearing on fire intensity or direction.
Compare and contrast depth of char on opposing sides of

object.
2B.11
Most reliable when sampled from different sides of the same

object.
Exceptions can occur under the following conditions:
• Rot or other structural integrity damage.
• Uneven fuel moisture distribution.
• Irregular size and/or shape.
• Partial bark coverage on non-lumber materials.
• Pre-existing char from previous fires.
F. Angle of Char Indicators
1. Description
Also referred to as vertical char.
Standing fuels are burned at an angle that corresponds to a fire

vector, either advancing or backing.
Can be on foliage or trunks.
2. Fire behavior
Occurs on fuels that are higher than the average surrounding

fuels, therefore it is a relative condition.
Reliability is generally greater on individual specimens in open

canopy settings.
2B.12
On pole-like vertical fuels, eddy vortex causes flame wrap up
the backside of the object, leaving characteristic angle of char.
On foliage crowns, the flaming front will consume or char the

fuel at an angle that is consistent with its fire vector.
Backing will be parallel to slope. Advancing will be steeper than

the slope. Height of char angle is often correlated to fire
intensity.
This indicator is generally reliable, especially for assessing

advancing fire areas.
Exceptions include:
• Backing fire into a high wind in heavy fuel accumulations.
• Objects with flat surfaces, small diameters or short

heights may not exhibit char angle.
• Fuel accumulations on the uphill side of vertical fuels on

fires backing against wind.
• Old burns with pre-existing char patterns.
• Thin barked conifers may be evenly blackened on all

sides and all crown foliage removed.
2B.13
G. Spalling Indicators
1. Description
Spalling will appear as shallow, light colored craters or chips in

the surface of rocks within the fire spread area and as small
slabs or flakes exfoliated from the exposed rock surface.
2. Fire behavior
Spalling is caused by a breakdown in the surface tensile strength

of rocks exposed to heat.
The surface area expands at a faster rate than the interior,

causing small areas of rock to flake off.
Spalling can be caused by exposure to high temperatures for a

short period of time, or low temperatures for long periods of
time; therefore, establishing fire behavior context is important.
Moisture in the rock and type of rock (porous vs. non-porous

and pre-existing stress cracks), may influence the formation of
spalling.
Generally, this indicator is reliable for determining advancing fire

areas, but should be corroborated by comparing/contrasting and
pattern clusters.
Spalling may be less reliable in areas where there are heavy fuel
accumulations on the non-origin sides of rocks.
This is most likely to occur on the uphill sides of rocks on

slopes or in other areas with large amounts of deadfall or deep
duff.
2B.14
H. Curling Indicators
1. Description
Green leaves on succulent, uncured vegetation will bend and

curl inwards towards heat source.
Microscale indicator, often associated with backing areas. A

wide variety of plant species may show this indicator.
2. Fire behavior
Somewhat similar to foliage freezing.
Heat exposure to one side of the vegetation causes it to dry out

and shrink. Shrinkage causes edges to curl in towards the
source of the heat.
Can be very reliable on areas of low intensity fire, particularly

within the backing areas of the fire.
Exceptions include:
• Plants that are partially or completely cured.
• Uneven fuel accumulations.
• Direct flame impingement.
• Thick leaves with a strong central vein.
2B.15
I. Sooting Indicators
1. Description
Black, carbon-based soot is deposited on objects in the fire’s

path.
Soot deposits will be on the origin side of the object. Soot can
often be rubbed off with fingers.
2. Fire behavior
Smoke is the product of incomplete combustion.
Smoke is dispersed downwind or carried aloft in the convection

column.
Soot will adhere to objects in the flame’s path and remain

visible.
Rocks, cans, barbed wire, metal posts, etc., are most receptive.
Sooting will generally be a reliable indicator.
Exceptions include:
• Heavy fuel accumulations.
• Fire backing into strong wind or down steep slope.
2B.16
J. Staining Indicators
1. Description
Non-combustible objects will exhibit a glossy, varnish-like stain

on the origin side.
Color may range from a light yellow-orange to a dark brown.
Surface may be tacky and may have particles of windblown ash

adhering to it.
2. Fire behavior
Vaporized volatile oils and resins entrained in the flame and

smoke column are condensed onto cooler objects, leaving a
residue on the origin side surface.
This indicator is generally reliable.
Exceptions include:
• Backing fires into strong winds or down steep slopes.
• Objects located in heavy fuel accumulations.
• Lightweight objects, such as aluminum cans, may be

repositioned by strong winds, slope, or suppression
action, rendering them invalid.
2B.17
K. Ash Indicators
1. Description
White ash deposits on the origin sides of objects.
Fuels facing the origin will look lighter. Fuels will appear darker
on the non-origin side.
When viewed from a distance, this difference in coloration and

texture can often be very noticeable.
Must be viewed consistent with fire’s direction of travel.
2. Fire behavior
White ash is the product of complete combustion.
More white ash will be created on side with most exposure to

heat and flame.
White ash will also be dispersed downwind and layered onto the
surface of fuels and non-combustible objects.
Generally reliable when viewed within the first hour or two after
the fire’s passage. View towards head/heel.
Will quickly degrade and is susceptible to strong winds that may

disperse ash in directions that are inconsistent with the original
fire spread.
Some thin-barked conifers may show more white ash on the

non-origin side in the advancing fire areas.
2B.18
L. Cupping Indicators
1. Description
Cupping is a concave or cup-shaped pattern on grass stem

ends, small stumps, and terminal ends of brush and tree limbs.
The higher/sharper end will point towards the non-origin side.

This pattern is associated with advancing fire areas.
On small limbs, the terminal ends on the origin side may appear
to be blunted or rounded off, while the limbs on the non-origin
side will be tapered or pointed.
Partially charred tips of branches may be found on the ground

on the origin side.
Cup-shaped depressions in conifer bark will be created at the

base of small lower branches burned off by advancing fire.
2. Fire behavior
This indicator is closely related to angle of char.
Limbs facing approaching fire will have small tip ends exposed
to the flame, while limbs on the opposing side facing away from
the fire will have the fire exposure from along the stem, from the
base towards the tip, creating the tapered/pointed end.
This indicator is most commonly associated with fuels of ½"

diameter or smaller, but can be observed in larger fuels.
2B.19
This indicator is generally reliable in the advancing areas of the

fire.
Exceptions include:
• Backing fires in strong winds or down steep slopes.
• Large diameter fuels, such as stumps, where extended fire

residency may cause the cup to form in a direction
inconsistent with original fire spread direction.
• Small diameter fuels where there are heavy fuel

accumulations or when wind is gusty and erratic.
M. V-Pattern Indicators
1. Description
Overall V or U shape of the exterior perimeter of the fire.
Origin will usually be near the point of the V or in the curve of

the U. May be area of less intense burning.
Best viewed from aerial perspective.
2. Fire behavior
Basic fire spread principle based on the influence of wind or

slope.
Fire will spread outward at the head, in a generally V or U

shaped pattern.
Need to take fire behavior into context (wind direction and

slope).
2B.20
This pattern can be extremely reliable. Best viewed from an

aerial perspective.
Exceptions include:
• An alteration of the basic fire shape due to rolling material
• Wind shifts
• Fuel type changes
• Spot fires
• Burnout
• Other suppression activities
N. Die-Out Pattern Indicators
1. Description
Fingers or islands of less intensely burned areas or areas where

the fire has died out on its own.
2. Fire behavior
As the fire enters different fuel types, areas of increased fuel

moisture or areas of sparse fuel, it will decrease in intensity
leaving pockets or fingers of unburned or partially burned fuels.
This pattern is also commonly associated with backing fire

spread areas.
2B.21
These areas should not be mistaken for origins.
Burn indicators should be used to validate fire direction. They

may be helpful as macroscale indicators to establish general fire
spread direction.
2B.22
Lesson 2C – Fire Behavior and Burn Pattern Indicators
2C.1
2C.2
I. ADVANCING FIRE PATTERNS AND INDICATORS
• Macroscale Patterns
• Microscale Indicators
• Pattern Clusters
A. Macroscale Patterns
1. V or U patterns
• Consider overall context of fire environment and fire

behavior.
• Also need to consider fire suppression actions that may

have affected overall shape.
2. Foliage freeze
• Frozen vegetation will point in direction of advancing fire.
• Look for clusters to identify forward run areas.
• Contrast and compare to backing areas for differential

damage.
2C.3
3. Grass stem
• Stems burned off at bases.
• No heads or stalks.
• “Clean” burn
• May be some heads or stalks outlining flanks, particularly

the windward flank.
• May form V or U shape.
4. White ash deposits
• Contrast and compare. Generally, more white ash will be

associated with advancing fire area.
• White ash from residual burning in ground fuels will be

deposited on side facing the origin, but may be dispersed
downwind.
5. Angle of char
• Look for consistent pattern to appear in advancing areas.
• Angle will be steeper than the slope and lowest on origin

side of fire.
• Look for clusters that will define the forward runs.
• Contrast and compare to backing and flanking areas.
2C.4
B. Advancing Fire Microscale Indicators
Individual microscale indicators should be used to validate macroscale

patterns.
Microscale indicators should also be located and marked in advancing

fire areas that do not have macroscale patterns.
Where possible, look for pattern clusters.
1. Protection indicators
• Fuels shielded from damage on non-origin side
• Down logs and tree limbs
• Pine cones
• Grass clumps
• Stumps
• Brush
2. Grass stem indicators
• Generally a lack of residual stems compared to backing

areas.
• Individual stems and clumps will be burned off at basal

area at angle steeper than slope.
2C.5
• Appearance of more intense burning on origin side.
• White ash
• Deeper char
4. Depth of char
• Deeper char on side facing origin.
• Protection on non-origin side.
5. Angle of char
• “Wrapping” of char pattern on pole-like fuels at an angle

that is steeper than the slope.
• Angle of char in tree and brush crowns steeper than the

slope.
• Lowest end of the angle will be on the origin side. Visible

on even small specimens.
6. Spalling
• Spalling may be observed on rocks within the advancing

fire area.
• Usually concentrated on the origin side of the rock and

absent or substantially less on the non-origin side.
2C.6
7. Curling
• Is usually not associated with advancing fire areas unless

the fire is burning with a low intensity.
• Look for curling on the origin side of vegetation.
8. Sooting
• Soot deposits on origin side on rocks, cans, bottles and

other objects.
9. Staining
• Will appear on the origin side of objects within the

advancing fire area.
• It will generally be more pronounced than the stains on

similar-sized objects within the backing areas.
10. Ash deposits
• Will be heaviest on the origin sides of objects.
• Contrast and compare opposing sides.
11. Cupping
• Look for cupping on the ends of branches, grass stems

and brush stubs within the advancing areas.
• The lower end of the cup will be on the origin side of the
object.
• On smaller branches, the cupping will be tapered and

longer on the non-origin side and blunted or rounded on
the origin side.
2C.7
C. Pattern Clusters
Look for groups of indicators from a variety of categories that show

consistent fire vectors:
• Staining
• Protection
• Damage differential
• White ash deposits
II. BACKING FIRE PATTERNS AND INDICATORS
• Macroscale Patterns
• Microscale Indicators
• Pattern Clusters
A. Backing Macroscale Indicators
Backing areas of the fire may be characterized by the following

macroscale patterns:
• Areas of less intense burning (defined by a drooped appearance

of foliage freeze).
• Deposits of residual unburned grass stems.
• An angle of char that is parallel to the slope.
• Less complete consumption of fine fuels.
• A lack of white ash.
2C.8
1. Foliage freeze
• Vegetation within the backing areas will usually appear

much less windswept when compared to the advancing
areas.
• Appearance may be drooped, due to the fact that gravity

overcomes the wind influence.
2. Grass stems
• Backing areas will often be characterized by a littering of

unburned or partially burned grass stems and/or seed
heads.
• The majority of the stems or seed heads will point

towards the fire’s origin.
3. Angle of char
• Angle of char within the backing areas of the fire will

usually be parallel to the slope.
• Some pole type fuels may show an “L” or barber chair

burn pattern. This may be due to a fuel accumulation or a
catface or other exposed fuel condition.
• The overall pattern will still remain parallel to the slope.
4. White ash
• Backing areas of the fire will usually be characterized by a

lack of white ash, when compared to the advancing areas
of the fire.
• Overall appearance of the burned materials will be darker.
2C.9
B. Backing Microscale Indicators
As with advancing areas, individual microscale indicators should be

used to validate macroscale patterns. Microscale indicators should
also be located and marked in backing fire areas that do not have
macroscale patterns.
Where possible, look for pattern clusters.
1. Protection
• Within the backing areas, the amount of protection will

often be noticeably greater than advancing areas and on
generally smaller objects.
• Protection will usually be on the non-origin side, however,

objects may exhibit even burning on all sides.
2. Grass stem
• Will be one of the more common and reliable indicators.
• Individual heads and stems will point generally towards

the origin.
• Remember 180° rule.
3. Foliage freeze
• Usually not associated with backing fire.
• May be observed when fire is backing into strong wind or

located above area of residual burning.
• Compare/contrast
• Will be on correspondingly lower shrubs and may appear

drooped.
2C.10
• The amount of damage associated with backing areas will

usually be less than that in the advancing areas.
• Look for more unburned fuels and more protection.
• Backing areas will often appear to have more “color” as a

result.
5. Depth of char
• Depth of char will be less in the backing areas and will

normally be confined to the origin side of objects.
• In low intensity backing fires, larger items may not be

charred at all, only surface scorched.
6. Angle of char
• Will be parallel to slope, whether backing downslope on a

hill or against the wind on flat ground.
7. Spalling
• Spalling is usually not associated with backing areas.
• If spalling is noticed, look for fuel accumulations and

compare and contrast with spalling on the same type
rocks in the advancing area.
• Spalling should be on the origin side.
2C.11
8. Curling
• Curling is often noted on small objects within the backing

areas.
• The leaves will curl towards the origin side (heat source).
9. Sooting
• Sooting is usually not as heavy within the backing areas.
• Look for it on the origin side of objects.
• Look for it on relatively small objects.
10. Staining
• Staining will also be less noticeable in the backing areas,

and may be very subtle.
• Similar to sooting, look for it on small pebbles, rocks and

other similar items.
11. White ash
• Backing areas are often characterized by a lack of white

ash, or less white ash than the advancing areas.
• White ash will usually be found only on very fine fuels,

and at levels that are generally closer to the ground.
• White ash will usually be on the origin side.
2C.12
12. Cupping
• Cupping is usually not associated with backing areas.
• Cupping in backing areas is usually the result of high

winds or long-term fire residency.
13. Die-out patterns
• Backing areas often have perimeters that are composed of

numerous die-outs.
• The fire edge will often appear ragged and patchy and will
have islands and fingers of unburned or partially burned
fuels.
C. Backing Pattern Clusters
As in areas of advancing fire spread, look for backing indicator cluster

patterns.
Generally, these will be on a smaller scale and harder to discern than

advancing fire cluster patterns.
2C.13
III. LATERAL FIRE PATTERNS AND INDICATORS
Lateral fire spread is a transitional fire state created by fuel, topography and
wind.
Areas of lateral fire spread may exhibit indicators and patterns that have
characteristics of both advancing and backing fire vectors.
One flank may burn hotter and leave directional indicators more consistent
with advancing fire spread.
The other flank may burn with less intensity and leave backing-type
indicators.
As wind and slope influence change, so can intensity on opposing flanks.
A. Heat Flame Exposure Indicators
Protection, sooting, staining, damage differential, white ash, and depth

of char indicators will frequently show on the side closest to (not
necessarily facing), the fire origin.
They will often be at a 45° to 90° angle to the direction of advancing

fire spread.
B. Wind Influenced Indicators
Foliage freeze, cupping and angle of char indicators will usually be

generally aligned with those in the advancing fire areas.
Grass stems may fall into the perimeter of the fire area, pointing in the
direction the fire came from (45 to 90 degrees), or may consume
completely, dependent upon fire intensity.
It may be possible to define flanks by strips of unburned or partially

burned fuel. These may alternate as wind and slope influences change.
2C.14
The instructor will show slides that depict various fire indicators and patterns.
Describe the following for each slide:
1. Indicator Category: protection, staining, angle of char, etc.
2. Fire Vector: advancing, backing, or lateral (if this can be determined from the
slide).
3. Direction of Fire Spread: relative to the slide (the fire spread from the top left
to bottom right, top to bottom, etc.).
2C.15
2C.16
Unit 3 – Fire Scene Evidence
1. Describe the types of physical evidence associated

with a fire investigation.
2. Describe the legal requirements to maintain its

admissibility.
3. Describe the methods of documentation, collection,

storage, and maintaining chain of custody.
4. Describe how a variety of photographic techniques

can be used in the collection and documentation of the
investigation.
5. Describe the various techniques of and differences

between sketching and diagramming fire scenes.
3.1
3.2
I. TYPES OF EVIDENCE
Evidence is classified into two broad categories based on how it proves a

fact at issue:
• Direct
• Circumstantial
Additionally, evidence is further categorized by type:
• Testimonial
• Physical
• Documentary
• Judicial notice
A. Direct Evidence
Tangible or clear evidence that proves a fact directly and with no

inference.
Example: A witness observes the defendant at the scene, setting the

fire.
B. Circumstantial Evidence
Tends to prove a fact indirectly, through inference. Eyewitnesses to

wildland fires are an infrequent occurrence. Most cases will rest on a
foundation of circumstantial evidence.
Example: Tire prints that match the defendant’s vehicle are recovered
at the scene; DNA is recovered from the device.
3.3
C. Testimonial
Evidence which is testified to by a witness. First hand knowledge that

is derived from something they saw or experienced.
Example: Witness observes defendant ignite unscreened burn barrel.
D. Physical or Demonstrative
A tangible item or object that can be used to establish a fact.
Examples: footwear impression, ignition source, etc.
E. Documentary
Writings or other documents used to establish a fact.
Examples: burning permits, ownership maps, etc.
F. Judicial Notice
Facts that are common knowledge. Most fire cases will rely primarily
on physical and testimonial evidence.
Examples: Independence Day always occurs on July 4th; a match

applied to dry grass will likely ignite it.
3.4
II. ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE
A. Relevance
Evidence must have some connection to the facts of the case. It must
be pertinent to the issues of trial and must assist the trier of fact in
proving facts in dispute.
B. Authentication and Identification
Is the evidence competent? It must be shown that the evidence is the

same item that was recovered by the investigator and that it has not
been tampered with, altered, or contaminated between discovery,
analysis, and time of trial.
C. Methods to Ensure Competence
1. Keep the object in exclusive custody and control in a secured

area.
2. Maintain a complete written record of chain of custody that

tracks the evidence each time custody changes (tag).
3. Mark the object in a distinctive manner so it is immediately

recognizable.
4. Evidence may be admissible provided it was obtained legally

under one or more of the following circumstances:
a. Plain view
Evidence and contraband may be legally seized as long as

it is immediately incriminating and was observed by an
official who was legally present.
3.5
b. Exigent circumstances
Evidence may be seized if sufficient emergency

circumstances exist that could cause destruction or loss
of evidence.
c. Consent
Where there is an expectation of privacy, a person who

has a controlling interest in the area to be searched may
give their consent to authorities.
d. Abandonment
It may be legal to search property that has been

abandoned by its owner.
Most prosecutors will not recommend a search based on

these grounds since establishing abandonment in a
wildland setting would be difficult.
e. Warrant (Criminal or Administrative)
This method is clearly preferred. A court order directing

the investigator to search for and seize specific items.
Some jurisdictions allow for an administrative warrant.

Legal justification needed is substantially less than a
criminal warrant.
In most wildland fire investigations, the investigator can

expect to recover the majority of evidence under the plain
view doctrine and exigent circumstances.
3.6
D. Michigan v. Tyler
Supreme Court established legal authority for fire investigators to

conduct a warrantless search for evidence of the cause and origin of a
fire, based on public safety concerns and/or exigent circumstances.
E. Michigan v. Clifford
The court further defined legal parameters regarding the legality of an

origin and cause investigation conducted while emergency or exigent
circumstances exist.
III. DOCUMENTATION OF EVIDENCE
A. Photograph Evidence in Place
Take sufficient photographs to document in its original state, prior to

handling.
If the actual size of the object is an evidentiary issue (such as tire or

shoe impressions), take several photographs with a straight edge ruler
alongside the object for comparison purposes.
Mark its location on the fire scene diagram, cross referencing with
measurements to a fixed point.
• Right angle transect

• Azimuth method
• Intersecting arcs
B. Document the Evidence
• Assign an evidence number

• Record on evidence log
• Fill out tag or label for later identification
• Familiarize yourself with NFPA 921 procedures
3.7
IV. COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION PROCEDURES
A. Non-Fragile Fire Cause Objects
Items that are less subject to damage from heat and flame, and when
collected.
1. Non-fragile items
• Metal fragments
• Catalytic converter matrices
• Welding slag
• Powerline hardware
2. Collection procedures
• Carefully pick up and place in folded paper bindle.

• Place into hard sided container.
• Pack in cotton to keep fragile edges from breaking off.
• Seal and tag.
B. Fragile Fire Cause Objects
Objects that are relatively susceptible to damage from heat and flame
and can be easily damaged or destroyed during the collection process.
1. Fragile items
• Cigarette remains
• Matches
• Fusees and fusee slag
• Fireworks remains
• Variety of arson devices
• Exhaust carbon
3.8
• If item is relatively durable, it may be picked up carefully

by hand.
• Place in a bed of cotton in a hard sided container.
• Seal, tag, and hand-carry to lab.
3. Basal Area Lift technique
• If the item is extremely fragile, this technique can keep it

from being damaged.
• Take a clean small shovel or trowel and score a line

through ash and duff, down to soil, leaving several inches
surrounding the object.
• Be sure to clean tools with non-petroleum based soap and

water between each collection.
• Work the shovel or trowel into the dirt, under the object,
until the clod of dirt and ash with object has been freed.
Water may be used in the trench if the soil is too hard.
• Take a thin piece of sheet metal, slide it under and lift the
clod intact. Place the metal and clod into a cotton
padded container of appropriate size. Seal, mark, and
hand carry to lab.
3.9
C. Liquid Accelerant Residue
Obvious signs such as:
• Trailering and pour patterns
• Puddling
• Deep seated burning
• Scorching and sooting on non-vegetative surfaces (dirt or rock

areas)
Gasoline and diesel have a strong odor. Others such as deodorized

kerosene, lighter fluid, and alcohol may not be detectable by smell.
Search perimeter areas (hydrocarbon detectors or specially trained K-9

units).
1. Sampling locations
• Because liquid accelerants vaporize more completely at

higher temperatures, sampling locations should focus on
areas that had a lower intensity fire due to lighter
vegetation and in areas where the liquid may have been
shielded from the heat.
• Porous items such as deep compacted duff, punky logs,

and stumps that have not been consumed are good
locations. Areas of very sparse vegetation or bare soil are
also good.
• Tests determined detectable residues in soil would remain

up to 162 hours after the fire.
• Microbial action will degrade the sample quickly.
3.10
• Pick up suspected charred wood or vegetation and place

in a clean metal can or Kapak wrap.
• Fill can approximately 2/3 full with material.
• Avoid cross-contamination.
• Clean tools between each sample.
• Try to use unlined cans.
• Submit new, unused can for control sample at lab.
• Any containers found near or at fire scene should be

collected.
• If there is still liquid present, pour a small sample into a

clean glass container with an airtight seal.
• Seal and mark the container and hand carry to lab. If it

will be several hours, store in a cool environment.
Most government crime labs will be able to isolate flammable

liquids by means of gas chromatographic analysis and other
tests.
3.11
D. Firearms
1. Projectile evidence
• If located or lodged in wood, it is advisable to leave it

there.
• If bullet is otherwise recoverable, do not attempt to clean

it.
• Wrap it separately in a paper bindle, place separately on

cotton padding in a hard sided container, seal and mark.
2. Cartridge cases
• Wrap each case in a separate paper bindle and seal in

separate hard sided container.
• Seal and mark accordingly.
• If comparison to a firearm is necessary, submit both to

lab.
• Never submit a loaded firearm to a lab unless it is

delivered in person and then with advance approval of the
lab.
3.12
E. Collection Procedures for Shoe and Tire Impressions
Prior to collecting impression evidence, photograph using a tripod to

position the camera directly over the impression.
Place a ruler alongside and in the same plane as the impression, with
low angle and oblique lighting.
Place a golf tee with a one-inch mark alongside the impression to

provide shadow correlation.
Take several photographs with the flash at different angles, between 15

and 45 degrees.
Cast with plaster of paris or preferably, dental stone.
In most cases, a shoe impression is worth the effort to cast it.
Casting of a tire impression is problematic, since it is difficult to match

impressions to an individual tire and the effort involved is significant.
Many crime labs prefer photographic documentation of tire

impressions.
Once cast is made, do not clean it off. Wrap it in tissue, dirt and all,
and place in a cotton padded box. Pack securely, seal and mark
accordingly.
3.13
F. Collection Procedures for Fingerprints
It is commonly believed that fire will destroy all fingerprint evidence.

This is not necessarily the case.
Prints that have linked suspects to fires have been recovered off
beverage containers, food wrappers, cigarette packages, and arson
devices.
Handle object in such a manner not to add extra prints to it. Latex
gloves should be used, as with all evidence.
Package objects in a box in a manner that they will not break or roll
around. Do not package in plastic, since moisture may develop inside.
G. Collection Procedures for DNA Evidence
Never overlook the possibility of DNA evidence.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test and mitochondrial DNA test

has increased the likelihood of recovering usable DNA.
Hair, blood, semen, and saliva are all potential repositories of DNA
evidence found at a fire scene.
H. Miscellaneous Evidence
• Paint transfers
• Blood stains
• Hair and fibers
• Glass fragments
• Soil
• Tool marks
3.14
V. PHOTOGRAPHY
A. Purpose of Photography
Photographs provide the court with a visual representation of the

place, scene, and physical evidence.
Photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of the scene.
B. Photographic Guidelines
A camera kit should include:
• 35mm camera
• Close-up lens
• Wide angle lens
• Zoom lens
• Tripod with flash
Unless taking close-up photographs of small evidence or of indicators,

generally a 50mm lens, which is closest to the human eye, should be
used.
Begin photographing as soon as possible. Create a photo log that

lists, at a minimum, the type of equipment and film used, and a number
and description of each photograph. Taking more pictures is better
than not enough.
Do not write on the picture itself. If using Polaroid film, use a photo
backer. The investigator taking the photographs will need to be able to
testify that they are an accurate and fair representation of the scene as
they saw it.
The positional relationship between the investigator taking the photo

and item(s) being photographed should be documented on the fire
scene diagram using photo points.
3.15
C. General Photographic Protocols
1. Orientation photographs
a. Show overall view of the origin area or other subject

matter.
b. Photos taken from a distance.
Show integrity and relationship of scene to overall

environment. These pictures should also provide the
court with the overall relationship between physical
evidence or burn pattern indicators and the scene.
c. Consider adding identifying numbers to show location of

evidence or indicators.
2. Relationship photographs
a. Taken at medium range and shows more specific views of

subject matter.
b. Shows the relationship between various items.
c. Begins to focus on specific portions of the area or scene.
d. After taking one group of pictures, consider adding

identifying numbers to show location of evidence or
indicators.
3.16
3. Identification photos
a. Taken at a close-up distance.
b. Show detail of subject matter.
c. Show detail of a specific item of evidence or an indicator.
d. Document such things as tire or shoe impressions,

sources of ignition, or other evidence.
e. After taking one group of pictures, identifying numbers

may be added to show location of evidence or indicators.
4. Examination photographs
a. Photographs taken close-up with a scale.
b. Use ruler or scale that is designed specifically for

evidence photography.
c. Taken with scale to clearly establish the size of evidence.
d. Scaling may help with examination if a positive

examination is made later.
e. A scale is not always necessary but is recommended.
f. Consider using special lenses and/or lighting techniques.
3.17
D. Videography
• Provide overall crime scene footage.
• Surveillance
• Can be used to supplement photographs or during interviews of

witnesses or suspects.
• The exclusive use of video is not recommended.
E. Digital Photography
Becoming more prevalent and admissibility is not much of an issue.

However, due to concerns regarding admissibility, consult with
prosecutors.
Activities to be photographed:
• The fire in progress if possible.
• People in a crowd.
• Fire suppression activities when relevant to the investigation.
• Aerial photographs showing direction of fire spread from

general origin area.
• Witness viewpoint photographs.
3.18
F. Sketching and Diagramming
1. Sketching
A general method of note taking. Sketches are not to scale and

represent general overview of the details being examined.
Sketches should be connected to other documentation products

such as:
• Final narrative
• Notes
• Photos
• Witness statements
• Diagrams
• Lab results
2. Diagram
A technical survey of the scene showing relevant distinguishing

features of the area and location of evidence.
• Utilizes azimuth and/or distance measurements.
• Done to scale.
Agency engineers or surveyors are excellent resources for

conducting this work.
3.19
3. Subjects to be diagrammed
• Point of origin.
• Fire direction and burn pattern indicators.
• Access routes and intersections.
• Location of any evidence.
• Location of ignition source.
• Location of witnesses or equipment.
• Any other relevant evidentiary items.
• Photo points (location where photo was taken from).
3.20
Unit 4 – Fire Investigation Methodology
1. Describe methodology.
2. Identify the steps in origin and cause methodology.
3. Explain the steps for proper documentation.
4.1
4.2
I. METHODOLOGY
A set of standardized methods, procedures, and practices that have been

peer-reviewed and have received general acceptance by the profession.
To ensure that a competent investigation is being conducted, fire

investigators must follow these standardized procedures in the area of
investigative process, documentation, and scientific testing.
This is an absolute standard imposed on agencies by the courts, NFPA 921,

and professional ethics.
The scientific method is a systematic methodology used in the science and

engineering disciplines.
Recommended by NFPA 921 for:
• Gathering data and facts
• Analyzing data and facts
• Drawing conclusions based on analysis
Applying a systematic approach to every investigation we conduct will help

assure that our results are consistent, competent, and professional.
The methodology that we will now discuss meets or exceeds the standards
of NFPA 921 and is the current recommended practice for wildland fire
investigation.
4.3
II. NFPA 921 INVESTIGATION METHODOLOGY
Requires the application of the scientific method through five major steps,
from inception through final analysis:
• Receiving the assignment
• Preparing for the investigation
• Conducting the investigation
• Collecting and preserving evidence
• Analysis of the incident
A. Receiving the Assignment
1. Know role and responsibility.
2. Understand what you are expected to accomplish.
3. Criminal or civil actions.
4. Type of final report produced.
B. Preparing for the Investigation
1. Obtain additional personnel.
2. Prepare investigation plan.
3. Determine need for tools and other specialized equipment.
4. Need for subject matter experts.
4.4
C. Conducting the Investigation
1. Scene examination.
2. Collect data.
3. Document investigation:
• Photographs
• Diagrams
• Evidence collection
• Witness interviews
• Data from other sources
D. Collecting and Preserving Evidence
Physical evidence should be recognized, properly collected and

preserved for testing, evaluation and courtroom presentation.
E. Analysis of the Incident
1. All data should be analyzed using the principles of the scientific

method.
2. Analysis should explain the origin, cause, fire spread and

responsibility for the incident.
3. Appropriate conclusions drawn.
4.5
III. FIRE INVESTIGATION METHODOLOGY
The origin and cause determination process is arguably the most important
aspect of the total investigation.
By using standard investigative methods at every fire scene, the investigator

can ensure that no vital evidence is overlooked or a critical step missed.
The origin and cause investigation’s goal is to identify the ignition source,
first materials ignited, ignition factors and the responsible party.
The origin and cause methodology includes:
• Actions taken prior to the fire
• Actions taken en route to the fire
• Actions taken upon arrival
• Determining the origin and cause (ignition source plus ignition factors)
• Documenting the investigation
A. Actions Taken Prior to the Fire
1. Knowledge of the local area.
2. Knowledge of local burn pattern indicators.
3. Sources of additional expertise.
4. Training for suppression crews.
5. Receiving the dispatch.
4.6
B. Actions En Route to the Fire
1. Field notes.
2. Observations
3. Description of vehicles/persons in the area.
4. Evidence en route to the fire.
5. Smoke column appearance.
6. Planning the investigation.
If you do not have the identification of the reporting party at this time,
attempt to obtain as soon as possible.
The reporting party often has information regarding the cause and may
be responsible for starting the fire.
C. Arrival at the Fire Scene
1. Protection of the general origin area.
2. Record weather observations.
3. Locating witnesses.
4. Suppression witnesses.
5. Locate and secure evidence.
6. Environmental conditions.
7. Assess the need for additional resources.
4.7
D. Determining the Origin and Cause
• Establishing general origin area and evidence protection

perimeters.
• Reassess already marked areas.
• Adjust as needed.
1. General origin area
The area of the burn the investigator can narrow down based on
macroscale indicators, witness statements, and fire behavior.
• May be limited area on a small fire.
• May be several acres on a large fire.
2. Specific origin area
The area of the burn that includes the part of the fire where the
fire direction becomes influenced by wind, fuel, or slope.
• This area has been previously called the “area of

confusion.”
• Should be no smaller than about 5' x 5', but may be

substantially larger depending on indicators and other
factors.
3. Point of origin
The precise location where the ignition source came into contact
with the material first ignited and sustained combustion
occurred. This is where any physical evidence of the actual
ignition source is likely to be located.
4.8
4. Origin search
• Walk the exterior perimeter at least twice from opposing

directions.
• Look at the unburned area as well as the burned area.
• Examine and photograph patterns.
• Look for relevant physical evidence.
• Entering the burn
• Type of search pattern
• Document indicators
• Macro/microscale indicators
5. Working the specific origin area
• Walk perimeter twice
• Grid
• Visual search (magnification)
• Magnet search
• Remove fire debris
• Screen (if necessary)
4.9
6. Secondary origin and cause determination
• Second opinion
• Major case
• No physical evidence of cause
• Origin must be kept secured and as undisturbed as

possible
• Scene integrity
• Contamination issues
• May be several hours/days
7. Excluding other potential causes
• Standard methodology
• “Negative Corpus”
– When cause is established by circumstantial

evidence rather than physical evidence of ignition
source.
• Arson hot-sets
• Non-acceptable terminology
– “Affirmative exclusion of other reasonable potential

causes.”
4.10
8. Exclusion of other potential causes
• Other reasonable potential causes near origin
• Considered
• Analyzed
• Addressed
• Excluded or included
• Partially excluded/partially included
– Even when conclusive evidence of actual cause is

established.
E. Documenting the Fire Investigation
1. Report format
• Fire investigations are generally considered law

enforcement actions.
• Follow agency requirements.
The report must be in sufficient detail to memorialize and

reconstruct the investigative methodology you used.
4.11
2. Minimum documentation required
• Comprehensive narrative report
• Photographs of burn pattern indicators
• Maps and diagrams
• Witness statements
• Contemporaneous weather records
• Forensic reports (if applicable)
3. Report content
Narrative report should explain in detail:
• Investigative steps taken
• What burn pattern indicators were relied upon
• What evidence of the cause was located and collected
• Facts from witnesses and other sources
• How other possible causes were ruled out
4.12
F. Documentation Methodology
1. Documentation consists of the following key elements:
• Photographs
• Diagrams
• Photo log
• Narrative
• Measurements
All of these elements must tie together to provide the reader with
a clear understanding of the investigation.
The recommended practice is to link the photos and photo log

to the scene diagram through sequential numbers and
measurements, which is then referenced in the narrative report.
2. Documentation methodology concerning diagrams includes the

following:
a. Diagram should show all relevant points.
b. Measurements made by right angle transect method.
c. Plot fire progression using color code that correlates to

flags.
d. Final diagram must be to scale.
e. Mark evidence and photo points according to NFPA 921

standard (consistency):
• Photos
• Evidence
4.13
3. Right angle transect method
a. Mark reference points (RP) on ground using permanent

marking (nail/paint-mark).
b. Orient all measurements to compass directions.
c. Best to use N/S and E/W bearings.
d. Measure in feet/inches.
e. Use a steel tape.
f. Works under any conditions.
g. Can use multiple reference points.
4. Azimuth method
a. This method is useful for short distance measurements at

a scene that does not have many obstacles.
b. Mark reference point(s) on ground with permanent marker

(nail/paint-mark, compass bearing/GPS).
c. Ensure compass is set for proper declination.
d. Measure in feet/inches.
e. May be difficult on steep ground and in heavy brush or

timber.
4.14
5. Intersecting arcs method
a. Mark reference points on ground with permanent marker

(nail/paint-mark, compass bearing/GPS).
b. Measure in feet/inches.
c. May be difficult on steep ground and in heavy brush or

timber.
G. Common Investigation Mistakes
• Not applying a systematic methodology
• Failure to establish fire behavior context
• Not operating as a team
• Misinterpreting burn patterns
• Not making two or more circuits around the perimeter of the

origin
• Failure to examine the unburned fuels outside the origin
• Not interviewing/identifying witnesses
• Leaving the origin unsecured
• Failure to recognize and collect evidence
• Not properly documenting the scene
• Not conducting interviews in a timely manner
4.15
• Looking for the cause and not following indicators to the origin
• Identifying spot fires as the origin
• Not using a magnet/metal detector
• Not obtaining probable on-scene weather data
• Failing to adequately exclude/address other causes
• Not properly analyzing the ignition source and ignition factors
• Lack of adequate photographs
• Not entering the burn from the advancing area of the fire
• Lack of patience
IV. SUMMARY
The role of the wildland fire investigator has become extremely serious and
complex.
Investigators must follow a systematic investigation methodology.
4.16
Unit 5 – Witness Interviewing
1. List the various methods of obtaining witness

information and statements.
2. Describe the interview and interrogation process.
3. Know the guidelines for a constructive interview.
5.1
5.2
I. WITNESS INTERVIEWING
Only so much can be learned from the collection, inspection, and analysis of
physical evidence. At some point, it will be necessary to interview witnesses,
victims, or suspects.
These interviews give meaning to physical evidence and observations of the

investigator. Interviews must be conducted in a competent and legal manner.
Poor interview techniques may compromise the investigation.
II. INTERVIEW VS. INTERROGATION
A. Interview
Interviews are generally viewed as a detailed questioning of a subject,

most often a witness.
They do not trigger the need for a Miranda warning and waiver.
B. Interrogation
Referred to as the process of inquiry that lends itself to obtaining

damaging statements to support a person’s arrest or establish guilt.
Interrogation may require the need for advisement of rights per the
Miranda decision.
The main responsibility of an INVF is to establish where the fire

started and how it started. The need to conduct an interrogation may
arise during this process.
Because there are legal and strategic complexities involved that may fall
beyond the scope of your training and experience, consider requesting
a person who has been trained to do this type of questioning.
You will, however, frequently find that you need to conduct interviews
of witnesses who have relevant information.
5.3
C. Legal Requirements for Miranda
Questioning by law enforcement personnel regarding a crime the

subject may have committed, and the subject is in custody.
• Witnesses do not normally need to be given a Miranda

advisement.
Investigators should follow their agency guidelines regarding the

questioning and interrogation of subjects.
III. CONSTRUCTIVE INTERVIEWING
An origin and cause investigator is frequently in the position of taking

statements from persons who may have information regarding the cause of a
fire.
This process is referred to as a constructive interview. How this interview is

conducted is important in order to obtain relevant information.
A. Basics of a Constructive Interview
1. Question subjects that may have relevant statements to offer.
2. Encourage subjects to discuss relevant facts in a timeline

fashion.
3. Allow the subject to do the talking and avoid interruptions.
4. Do not lead the witness.
5. Obtain statements that give specific details and when statements

support relevant findings in the case, obtain a written statement.
• Some agencies may use investigative depositions or

sworn affidavits.
5.4
6. Understand the demeanor of the witness when conducting an
interview.
• Subjects inhibited by alcohol or drugs should be

interviewed later.
7. Angry or hostile subjects may escalate the interview into a more

aggressive encounter.
• Always have an additional investigator or law enforcement

officer accompany you during such contacts.
8. Interviews with mentally challenged individuals may require

special interview techniques and assistance.
B. Guidelines for a Constructive Interview
1. Avoid delays in contacting potential witnesses.
2. Interviews should be conducted on the terms and locations that

allow the investigator to be in control of the pace and
discussion.
3. Avoid being authoritative or overbearing.
4. Interview subjects separately and away from each other.
• Non-English speaking subjects will require an interpreter.
• Consider the use of a tape recorder or videotape.
• Record all relevant personal identification information

before beginning the interview.
5.5
5. Explain to the subject who you are and the purpose of the
interview.
• Ask the subject what they observed or can offer for

information and avoid interrupting the subject.
• Take notes and only ask the subject to pause or repeat if

you need to catch up in note taking or you did not
understand a comment.
6. A common technique is to let the subject recite their story

completely, without any interruption, prior to worrying about
taking notes, asking questions, or clarifying what they said.
• Do not attempt to lead the witness in any direction or

force them to stay on one subject. Let them tell their
story.
7. If the witness gets bogged down or redundant, a question may

be interjected to get them back on track.
• Record all visual and audible expressions that may be

used later to evaluate the interview.
• Make a note of all questions the subject asks you during

the interview.
8. If the subject is witness to or involved in an action that is

relevant to the ignition or subsequent spread of the fire, then
specific responses are desired and need to be documented.
• Allow the subject to reveal this in their story without

leading the discussion.
• Interject an occasional question that may prompt them.
5.6
9. Summarize relevant comments the witness made and review this
with the subject at the end of the interview.
• Ask specific questions on key points or issues the

witness did not voluntarily provide in their story.
• Summarize and reaffirm key responses.
10. Have the subject contribute a voluntary written and signed

statement that summarizes key points.
• Where applicable, have them draw a sketch showing

where they were in relation to what they observed. If they
strongly object, do not press the issue.
• Some agencies use investigative depositions, if needed.
11. The investigator may assist the subject in drafting the written
statement for the witness to consider signing.
• Have the witness review the statement and make any

necessary corrections and initial these corrections.
• Have the witness sign and date the statement.
12. If the witness is capable of providing a detailed written

response, the investigator may decide to have them draft it in
their own words.
5.7
C. Witness Lists
The investigator is responsible for developing and maintaining a list of

witnesses. Follow agency guidelines and format.
D. Juveniles as Witnesses
Contact with juveniles is usually conducted with the knowledge and

consent of the parent or legal guardian. Follow agency policy in
handling juveniles as witnesses or suspects.
5.8
Unit 6 – Fire Cause Categories, Ignition Factors, and Indicators
Unit 6 is divided into four lessons (6A, 6B, 6C, and 6D). The objectives are the
same for each lesson and will be discussed in Lesson 6A.
6.1
6.2
Lesson 6A – Fire Cause Categories, Ignition Factors, and Indicators
1. Define various terms associated with fire causes.
2. List the national standard cause categories.
3. Describe the ignition factors and sequences that are

normally associated with each cause.
4. Identify the various indicators and physical evidence

associated with each cause.
5. Outline specific investigation methodologies unique to

each cause.
6A.1
6A.2
I. INTRODUCTION
Meeting the fire investigator’s challenge can be very difficult for the following
reasons:
• Origin incorrectly identified.
• Remains of ignition source destroyed by suppression.
• Remains small and not readily visible.
• Remains buried under ash and debris.
• Unfamiliar ignition source and therefore overlooked.
• Arson “hot set” and ignition source removed.
• Remains consumed by the fire.
Under normal conditions, forest fuels will ignite and burn when exposed to a
heat source that is capable of raising them to a temperature of between 450°
and 750° F.
Research places the average ignition temperature at about 500-600° F. This

relatively low ignition temperature creates an extensive list of potential
competent ignition sources.
6A.3
A. Evidence of the ignition source will usually remain intact at the point of
origin.
• Fires generally start with low intensity.
• Burn outward from the point of origin.
• Potentially leaving the area and objects in it less damaged.
• Once you have identified the specific origin area, locating the
ignition source can be a challenge.
B. Applying the following techniques can improve odds of recovering the

ignition source.
• Search methodically and systematically.
• Use the straightedge ruler technique to guide your eyes and

magnification to see small detail.
• Continue to read the burn indicators.
• Take frequent breaks.
• Look for things that do not belong.
• Learn to filter out the background.
• Look for differences in size, shape, color or other factors that

distinguish it from the charred material it is resting on.
• Do not focus on an idealized image of what you suspect caused

the fire.
• Do not hypothesize prematurely.
• Keep an open mind.
6A.4
II. FIRE CAUSE TERMINOLOGY
The following terms are ones that you should be familiar with. Terminology
can be found in the NWCG glossary. Where applicable, these terms are
consistent with NFPA 921 terminology.
A. Competent Ignition Source
The source of heat that kindles a wildfire. It may be in the form of:
• Mechanical or electrical spark

• Glowing ember
• Open flame
• Chemical reaction
• Friction
B. Material First Ignited
The host fuelbed with which the ignition source first comes into
contact and which sustains combustion.
In a wildland fire, these materials will usually be fine ground or surface

fuels in either the one or ten hour fuel category, with a high surface-to-
volume ratio (duff, grass chaff, etc.).
C. Ignition Factor
The existing conditions and subsequent actions and sequence of

events that bring a competent ignition source into contact with the
materials first ignited. This is the “cause” of the fire.
6A.5
1. Conditions
• Burn barrels without screens or clearance

• Flammable vegetation
• Fire weather
• Slope
2. Sequence of events/actions
• Ignition of barrels
• Failure to attend
• Airborne ember
D. Lightweight Ignition Source
An object that will tend to rest on the surface of the materials first
ignited:
• Match
• Cigarette butt
• Light
• Flat metal fragments
E. Heavy Ignition Source
An object that will tend to settle or burrow under the surface of the
materials first ignited (weight or temperature), such as:
• Welding slag
• Exhaust particles
• Large metal fragments
F. Fire Cause Categories
A standardized list of fire causes used for reporting and fire prevention
purposes.
6A.6
III. WILDFIRE CAUSE
The standard fire cause categories contain the following detailed information:
A. Ignition Factors
The conditions, actions, and sequence of events related to each cause.
B. Indicators
Evidence typically associated with the cause, including the physical

appearance of the ignition source remains.
C. Investigation Techniques
Specific investigation methodologies related to each cause that may

assist in establishing proof of the cause.
IV. LIGHTNING
A. Ignition Factors
1. Discharged static electricity.
2. Associated with thunderstorm activity.
3. Series of short bursts approximately two inches in diameter,

lasting for ½ second.
4. Lightning can possess either a positive or negative charge.
• Positive charged strokes: 10% of the ground strikes.
• Negative charged strokes: 90% of the ground strikes.
6A.7
5. Positive charged strokes have greater fire starting potential.
• Single stroke with continuing current.
• Lasts five times longer than a negative stroke.
• The damage to the object struck is the result of electrical

resistance.
• The likelihood of ignition is directly related to the duration

of the stroke.
B. Indicators
• Recent electrical storm in area (hours/days)
• “Sleepers” and “holdovers”
• Scarring on trees and/or snags
• Precipitated sap
• “Needle shower”
• Ballistic penetration of adjoining vegetation by needles and small

twigs or splinters
• “Blow-holes” at base of tree
• Fulgurites
• Splintered wood/vegetation
6A.8
1. Damage to trees and snags
• Spike top snags with no visible scar.
• Top is blown off and scattered.
• Remains consumed in fire.
• Charring in top of tree or visible damage that appears

recent.
2. Lightning does not always strike trees or snags. May strike low
vegetation or directly into ground. Signs of damage include:
• Splintered limbs
• Needle shower
• Blowholes
• Disturbed soil
• Shattered rocks
3. Lightning may also strike a fence, sending electrical current

down the fence wires for some distance.
• Ignites wooden posts.
• Ignites flammable vegetation in contact with wire.
6A.9
4. Fulgurites
• Fused soil at location strike discharges to ground.
• 1 to 2 feet below surface.
• Range in size from ¼" to 2" in diameter.
• Color, size, and shape may vary.
• Appearance may depend upon soil material, moisture

content and duration of strike.
• Generally resemble fused glass, but may have a sandy or

rough exterior.
• Usually hollow and fragile and look like small tree branch.
1. Lightning as a cause is usually easy to determine.
• Historic activity patterns
• Remote area/no human activity
• Physical evidence
• Recent storm activity/ weather conditions
• Absence of other reasonable causes
6A.10
2. Lightning detection systems.
• Occurrence map can assist with confirmation/ elimination.
• Obtain through dispatcher.
• Should not be completely relied upon.
• Accuracy is approximately 500 meters with an 80-90%

detection rate.
Lightning as a potential cause must usually be ruled out, even

when you have strong evidence of the actual cause. It may be
employed by opposing counsel as an affirmative defense
strategy.
V. CAMPFIRES
A. Ignition Factors
Any fire that is kindled for heat, light, warmth, cooking, religious or
ceremonial purposes.
Many jurisdictions have regulations that address attendance, clearance,

periods of use, suppression tools, and proper extinguishment.
Violations are often the cause of escaped fire.
1. Campfire ignition factors may consist of the following:
• Failure to properly extinguish
• Lack of attendance
• Improper clearance/ construction
• Careless placement
6A.11
• Fire play
• Improper discarding of coals/ash
• Improper use of accelerants
• Careless discarding of matches
• Camp stove malfunction
2. Primary ignition mechanisms
a. Sparks or rolling material
• Origin downwind if windblown material.
• Typically fairly close, within 5 to 10 feet, but may

be much farther.
• Paper or cardboard is prime aerial firebrand

material.
• Origin in punky material or fine fuels.
• Origins from sparks that emanate from rapid vapor

expansion in wood will be close to fire.
• Rolling material will usually be close to the fire.
6A.12
b. Creeping escapes
• Uncleared duff to edge of ring.
• Smoldering type escape.
• May appear as a “finger” burn pattern.
• Underground root system.
• Often associated with unattended, abandoned or

improperly extinguished fires.
c. Discarded coals/ash
• Origin near original fire.
• Remains of coal/ash present at origin.
• May be exposed or buried under soil.
• 500° F. heat may be retained for hours.
d. Direct flame impingement
• Campfire built too close to overhanging or adjacent

vegetation.
• Flames contact vegetation and ignite it.
• Origin within a few feet of campfire.
• Often associated with bonfire or “party-fires.”
6A.13
e. Exploding rocks
• Rocks with moisture content used to construct fire

ring.
• Expanding vapor causes rocks to shatter.
• Force of exploding rock may cause embers to

scatter.
B. Indicators
• Recently used fire at or near origin.
• Signs of camping.
• Residual heat in campfire remains.
• Not all campfires will be within rock rings.
• Must establish origin and ignition factors.
• Document any regulation violations.
• Standard defense will be that the fire was “out.”
• Prove improper or lack of extinguishment.
6A.14
1. Improper extinguishment
a. Inadequate amount of water used
• Fire continues to smolder under crust.
• Hot coals smolder for hours/days and can often

still be detected by investigator.
• Fire escapes through creeping/embers.
• Ash crust on surface formed from water/ ash

mixture and residual heat.
• Lack of white ash on surface.
b. Fire smothered with soil/rocks
• Fire may smolder for hours/days.
• Presence of hot coals.
• Vent fumaroles may be present in surface.
• Organic matter in soil may contribute to continued

smoldering.
• High moisture and/or mineral content in the soil

may extend smoldering combustion period.
6A.15
2. No extinguishment - fire believed to be out and then abandoned.
• Continues to smolder
• Escapes through embers or creeping
• Fine, white ash may be present on surface
• Ash has fluffy, fragile appearance
• Odor of fresh burning
High temperature thermometer or other method to establish

residual heat levels.
In most cases, wildfires burning over old campfire rings will not
re-ignite coals.
Witnesses, trail registers, permits, and contracts may provide

leads and physical evidence.
V. SMOKING
A. Ignition Factors
Fire investigators have routinely (and erroneously) determined

cigarettes to be the cause of many fires.
As Redsicker and O’Connor observed in Practical Fire and Arson

Investigation, “cigarettes have long been the scapegoat in cases where
no other cause could be determined.”
Extensive USFS research conducted in the 1980s supports this

statement (Countryman).
6A.16
Redsicker and O’Connor describe three conditions for a cigarette to
function as a competent ignition source:
• Contact between the glowing tip and the material first ignited.
• Inherent susceptibility of the fuel to ignite.
• Propensity of the cigarette to ignite the fuel.
Within that context, we must examine the following conditions to

effectively assess the probability of a cigarette as a competent ignition
source.
1. Physical characteristics
• Chemically treated tobacco wrapped in paper
• Cellulon, plastic, or charcoal filter
• Weight of 2/3 gram
• Length of 45-90 mm
• Interior core temperature of 1361-1541 degrees F.
• Exterior tip temperature of 572-1200 degrees F.
• Ash content varies and will affect temperature
• Cigarette will shrink up to 20%
• Lifts up and away from fuelbed
6A.17
• Heat transfer is primarily conduction and radiation unless
suspended in fuel.
• Linear progression of burn limits exposure to between 1-2

minutes.
• Total burn times vary based on brand and conditions (up

to 15 minutes).
2. Environmental factors
• Finely particulated fuelbed

• Loose fuel arrangement
• FDFM of <14%
• 80+ degrees F.
• RH of 22% or less
3. Physical placement factors
• 30%+ of the glowing tip in contact with typical fuelbed
• Tip oriented into wind
• Tip burrowed or downslope
• Roadside starts will generally be on or within few feet of

road edge
• Vortex effect
• Trajectory testing
6A.18
• Substantial research (formal and informal) supports
hypothesis that cigarettes are limited as a competent
ignition source as they have a narrow window of ignition
factors.
• Cigars will rarely cause fires due to the fact that cigar
tobacco self-extinguishes.
• Pipe dottle is also limited.
• Matches carelessly discarded after lighting smoking

material are classified as smoking fires.
Cigarettes can be a competent ignition source; however, a

complex set of ignition factors must be present before this can
occur.
B. Indicators
1. Ignition factors present
• Weather, fuelbed, physical placement
2. Human activity in the area
3. Physical evidence of the ignition source at the point of origin
• Remains are fragile
• May not survive
• May only be the charred filter
• Look for progressive burning
6A.19
• Exploded appearance may indicate old remains
• Rounded or pointed tip
• Flat tip may indicate prior extinguishment
• Old remains may have a bent, weathered or mangled

appearance
• Establishing weather conditions is important
• Affirmative defense
• Old remains must be addressed if fire originated from other

source
• Remains are fragile and must be carefully collected (do not use
fixative or hairspray)
• DNA may be viable in major cases
• Use basal-area lift technique
• Hand-carry to lab
• Consider FBA and Fire Weather Specialist to validate on-scene

weather
6A.20
V. DEBRIS BURNING
A. Ignition Factors
Factors are similar to those involved in escaped campfires. Majority

of escapes will be by windblown embers or creeping into uncleared
vegetation. Cause will usually be obvious.
B. Indicators
• Discernable spread pattern
• Origins from windblown embers generally within 40' or less
• Cardboard and paper competent aerial firebrand
• Debris pile or burn barrel at or upwind of origin
• Barrel with no screen or defective screen
• Inadequate clearance
• Lack of attendance/suppression tools
• Holdovers may occur for periods of days/weeks/months
6A.21
• Documentation of burn pattern
• Weather conditions
• Aerial firebrand sources usually upwind of origin
• Examine source for residual heat
• Evidence of attempted extinguishment
• Interviews
D. Incendiary
• Fires that are willfully set without authorization.
• Fires that are deliberately set to cause damage or to defraud

(arson).
6A.22
Lesson 6B – Fire Cause Categories, Ignition Factors, and Indicators
6B.1
6B.2
I. EQUIPMENT USE
Equipment use covers fires that occur from the operation of mechanical
equipment, except railroads. It is impossible to cover all potential sources.
A. Ignition Factors
There are five main ignition mechanisms that cause most equipment
related fires:
• Exhaust system particles
• Friction
• Fuel, lubricant, fluids
• Mechanical breakdown or other malfunction
• Radiant or conductive heat transfer
1. Exhaust system particles
• Particles that originate from any internal combustion

engine.
• Includes carbon, catalytic converter and metal fragments.
• A common ignition source.
2. Exhaust carbon particles
• Engine carbon, trace metals, contaminants from the

incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.
• Lubricants serve as binder.
6B.3
• Heat content equivalent to a similar sized piece of
hardwood.
• Volatile hydrocarbons may extend the time particle is

thermally active.
• Larger particles may auto-ignite upon ejection.
• Diesel engines more prone to ejecting competent ignition

sources.
3. Gasoline carbon
• Generally smaller particles than diesel.
• Granular or flakes
• May be either shiny or dull, but will usually be sooty.
• May be recoverable with a magnet.
4. Diesel carbon
• Generally larger than gasoline carbon
• Granular particles or spongy, pumice-like chunks
• Shiny or dull
• Usually black and sooty
• Rarely recoverable with magnet
6B.4
5. Exhaust carbon particles
• Particles originating in combustion chamber may reach

3000 degrees F.
• Particles from ports and manifolds will generally not

exceed 1600 degrees F.
• Maximum horizontal in-flight distance approximately 45

feet.
• Most fires will be much closer to source.
• Fairbanks and Bainer established minimum particle size of

.023 inch for competent ignition source.
• Riverside Fire Lab found most fires started by larger

particles (.06 to .08 or larger).
• Particles up to .5 inch or larger not uncommon.
6. Carbon is usually ejected under the following conditions:
• Idling followed by peak level operation (cleaning out).
• Engine is pulling load (thermal or mechanical stress).
• Piston ring or valve seal failure leading to excessive

lubricant chamber deposits.
• Engine overheating (thermal stress).
• Jake brake operation, compression braking or at a shift

point.
6B.5
• Generally low RH and high temperatures.
• Variations in particle size make establishing minimums

difficult.
• Riverside Fire Lab: large particles started fires up to 80%

RH.
• Host fuelbed finely particulated.
• FDFM generally low, but no known upper threshold.
• Origins on cutbanks, slopes, tunnel portals.
• Origins on downgrades and at shift points on upgrades.
• Road conditions that contribute to thermal or mechanical

stress.
7. Spark arrestors and turbochargers
• Designed to limit carbon ejection.
• One or other may be required by law.
• Presence alone does not preclude fire due to malfunction,

modification, or wrong model.
• Two categories:
– Attrition (screen type; no cleanout)
– Retention (band or plug cleanout)
Must meet the standards of the Spark Arrestor Field

Guide (available online through NWCG or hard copies
may be ordered from them).
6B.6
• Loose housing bolts.
• Separated exhaust port screen.
• Some mufflers look like spark arrestors.
B. Indicators
To list all the indicators associated with exhaust carbon fires would be
impossible. Following are some of the more frequently implicated
types of equipment.
1. Chain saws
• Recent cutting activity
• Origin at or near cutting area
• Saw that discharges exhaust on cutting area or ground
• No spark arrestor
• Malfunctioning spark arrestor
• Personal use/industrial
2. Heavy equipment
a. Can include dozers, dump-trucks, logging trucks,

tractors, graders, skidders, etc.
b. Many turbocharged, but may still pose threat:
• Starter engine
• Damaged system
6B.7
c. Indicators are usually very obvious.
• Disturbed soil
• Tracks
• Plowed fields
• Mowed brush
• Graded roads
• Skidded timber
Look for any other indicators that equipment has been

operating near origin.
Evidence should be close to origin area.
3. Lawnmowers, weed-eaters, roto-tillers, etc.
• Many unequipped with spark arrestors
• Hazard reduction
• Freshly cut weeds/grass near origin
• Origin close to activity
4. Motorcycles, ATVs, OHVs
• Frequently unequipped with spark arrestor.
• Transient activity/operators leave area before aware of

fire.
• Trails/tire impressions
6B.8
5. Pumps, generators, and other stationary MPSEs
• Lack of spark arrestor.
• Unless portable and removed, usually easy to determine

cause and responsible party.
1. Evidence/witnesses suggest carbon.
2. Difficult to recover actual particle.
3. Aided visual exam, magnet, debris removal, sifting.
4. Elimination of other reasonable causes.
5. Forensic evaluation of equipment/evidence.
II. CATALYTIC CONVERTER PARTICLES
A. Ignition Factors
1. Major cause of roadside fires.
2. Standard equipment for cars since 1975 and trucks since 1984.
3. Exterior temperatures reach up to 1,200 degrees F.
4. Hot converters do start fires, but particles probably start more.
5. Converter scrubs pollutants from exhaust through catalytic

reaction.
6B.9
6. Converter is composed of ceramic matrix substrate coated with
platinum or rhodium.
7. Honeycomb monolith or small ceramic balls/beads.
8. Converter malfunctions usually a result of electronic ignition

failure.
• Open loop running: fuel/air mix too rich
• Malfunctioning oxygen sensors
9. Converter overheats, matrix degrades and breaks apart.
10. 2,400 to 2,800 degrees F.
11. Hot ceramic matrix particles then discharged from exhaust

system.
B. Indicators
1. Origins in vegetation close to road shoulder.
2. Tailpipe height limits trajectory.
3. Fires from taller vehicles may be further.
4. Horizontal trajectory approximately 35 feet maximum.
5. No correlation to cutbanks or grades.
6. Multiple points of origin or multiple fires along same road

system.
6B.10
7. Particles on road or shoulder that did not start fire.
8. Particle at point of origin.
9. Particles may vary in size, up to diameter of tailpipe.
10. Lightweight ignition source.
11. Can not be picked up with a magnet.
12. Ricochet effect may cause fires on both sides of road.
13. Particle may resemble melted plastic.
14. Grey color
15. Dull or metallic sheen
16. May be scorched
17. Honeycomb matrix may be visible
18. Small beads
1. Multiple origins
2. Walk roadside for hundred yards in both directions looking for

additional particles.
3. CDF study shows approximately 33% of vehicles stopped

running within a few miles of fire(s).
4. Determine manufacturer from construction of matrix.
6B.11
III. FRICTION
A. Ignition Factors
Heat generated by moving object(s). May often be associated with a

mechanical malfunction.
When metal parts are involved, high temperature particles or sparks are
generated.
1. Larger particles sheared off run between 700 to 900 degrees F.

or higher.
2. Friction can also occur when a combustible object is contacted

by rapidly moving object.
3. The list of potential ignition sources is large. Some examples

are:
a. Logging cable
• Wire cable dragging across combustible object

such as rotten log or stump, or dragging fuels into
groove worn in rock.
• Soil particles contaminating wire create friction.
• Pulley bind
b. Rolling rocks
• Dislodged by equipment
• Relatively rare
• Fine fuels trapped between rock surfaces
6B.12
c. Tracked equipment
• Tracks slip/spin on rocks, shearing off metal

fragments and sparks.
• Abrasions on rocks.
• Roller pins bind and shave metal fragments.
• Metal particles close to track impressions.
d. Blade strikes/scrapes
• Blade scrapes pavement or rocks and shears off

metal particles or sparks.
• Road graders
• Bulldozers
e. Rotary saws and hydro-axes
• Saw head contacts rocks
• Misaligned shaft
• Over-aggressive operation causes binding and

direct friction contact.
• Buildup of vegetation in saw head.
6B.13
B. Investigation Techniques
1. Evidence of equipment use at origin.
2. Locate metal fragments with magnet.
3. On surface or buried under ash/debris.
4. Fire may start after operators left area.
5. Look for signs of over-aggressive operation such as:
• Knocking down of non-merchantable material
• Dragging of saw head
6. Examine cutting teeth for damage.
7. Friction charring on stumps.
8. Submit metal particles/ control samples for forensic evaluation.
IV. FUEL/LUBRICANT/FLUIDS
A. Ignition Factors
1. Fuel, lubricant or fluid ignites from heat source and spreads to

wildland.
2. Refueling
3. Fuel line or hydraulic line leaks.
4. Lubricant or hydraulic fluid leaks on combustible debris

accumulations in engine compartment or near exhaust system.
6B.14
1. Hydrocarbon/fluid residue
2. Debris accumulations on equipment
3. Trails of burned vegetation
4. Burned equipment at origin
5. Witness statements
V. MECHANICAL BREAKDOWN
A. Ignition Factors
1. May fit in friction mechanism
2. Tire/wheel failure
• Sparking or burning rubber
3. Brake failure
• Hot brakeshoe or brake drum particles
4. Transmission failure
• Transmission overheats, shatters and casts off hot metal

fragments
5. Electrical system failure
6B.15
6. Dragging tow chains/ binders/exhaust systems/ driveline, etc.
• Sparking or metal fragments
7. Failed turbocharger
• Metal fragments
8. Seized axle bearing
• Metal fragments
9. Misaligned axle
• Tire ignites
B. Indicators
1. Evidence of equipment use near origin
2. Metal particles
3. Burned tire fragments
4. Gouge or drag marks on road surface
1. Attempt to locate vehicle
2. Use magnet or metal detector to locate particles
3. Match fragments of metal or tire to source
4. Witnesses
6B.16
VI. DIRECT HEAT TRANSFER
A. Ignition Factors
1. Radiant or conductive heat transfer.
2. Vegetation accumulation
• Burning vegetation particles
3. Vegetation contact with hot engine or exhaust surfaces.
B. Indicators
1. Equipment activity in area.
2. Possible trail of charred vegetation along tracks.
3. Burned equipment
4. Charred vegetation between exhaust and skid plate or in engine

compartment.
1. Look for evidence of equipment activity.
2. Charred vegetation at origin that may not match.
3. Burned vehicle: look for fuel accumulation near heat source

areas.
6B.17
VII. RAILROAD
A. Ignition Factors
Railroad fires include fires from any railroad operations, personnel or

rolling stock.
Historically, railroad operations at one time started innumerable fires.

Aggressive prevention significantly reduced occurrence.
1. Railroad starts appear to be on the increase in certain parts of

the country due to:
• Reduced maintenance
• Less emphasis on fire prevention
2. Railroad fire ignition mechanisms include the following:
• Exhaust carbon
• Brakeshoe particles
• Track maintenance
• Right-of-way burning
• Dynamic grid failure
• Torpedoes
• Flares
• Wheel slip
• Journal box failure (hotbox)
• Caked sump oil ejected into exhaust stream
6B.18
3. Exhaust particles
• Highly competent ignition source.
• Diesel carbon bound together with polymeric lubricant

resins.
• Pumice-like appearance but may be granular or flake.
• Often sooty/oily
• May auto-ignite upon ejection.
• Rarely retrievable with magnet.
• Range in size, with larger particles being more likely to

start fires.
• Auto-ignition creates flaming projectiles.
• Thermally active for 30 seconds or longer.
• Swirling air of train’s passage aids in ignition of

vegetation.
• Riverside Fire Lab research puts maximum in-flight

distance at approximately 45 feet.
• Average is 28 feet from track centerline.
6B.19
4. Non-turbocharged locomotives
• Carbon accumulates in the substack.
• Substack must be periodically cleaned to remove carbon

deposits.
• Thermal or mechanical shock causes carbon to be

ejected.
5. Turbocharged locomotives
• Most locomotives are turbocharged.
• Eductor tubes provide positive crankcase ventilation.
• Transported oil vapors build up and form carbon

deposits.
• Eductor tubes must be cleaned regularly depending upon

type and use (13 to 30 day intervals).
• If eductors are not cleaned, thermal or mechanical stress

will cause carbon to be ejected.
• Engine malfunctions can also cause rapid and massive

carbon buildup even if tubes have been recently cleaned.
6B.20
B. Indicators
1. Exhaust particles
• Origins generally less than 45 feet from track
• Multiple origins common
• Downwind side of tracks
• Tunnel portals and cutbanks
• Speed transition zones or other locations where full

power is applied
• Upgrades
• Deadhead locomotives started up
2. Coal-fired locomotives
• “Excursion” trains
• Becoming a lucrative and popular tourist attraction
• Coal clinkers are highly competent ignition source
• Similar to diesel carbon
6B.21
VIII. BRAKESHOE PARTICLES
A. Ignition Factors
Majority of trains are diesel-electric and use combination of air brakes

and dynamic braking (electrical).
1. Most stock uses non-metallic composition brakeshoe pads:
• Fire prevention measure
• Must be regularly maintained to be effective
• Composition pads wear down to metal base
2. Some stock still equipped with metal shoes.
3. Some trains now use disc brakes.
4. Brakeshoe particle fires occur when brakes are applied for long
periods and heat up.
5. Downgrades
6. Sharp turns
7. Hot particles shear off and land on ties or vegetation.
8. Malfunctioning brakes can start fires at any location.
9. Stuck brakes
10. Set brakes
6B.22
B. Indicators
1. Origins on ties or close to tracks.
2. Brakeshoe particle at origin
• Various sizes
• May exhibit heat tinting
3. Origin at location associated with brake use.
4. May be multiple starts in short distance.
1. Origin near track or on ties.
2. Use magnet to assist in recovering particle.
3. Stop train immediately if not stopped by hotbox detector.
4. Obtain necessary maintenance, dispatch and locomotive “black

box” records.
5. Forensic evaluation
6B.23
IX. DYNAMIC GRID FAILURE
A. Ignition Factors
1. Trains use combination of dynamic (electrical) brakes and air

brakes.
2. Traction motors converted to generators when dynamic brakes

applied.
3. Energy turned into electrical current, routed to resistor grid on

locomotive.
4. Resembles large toaster elements.
5. Location on engines vary.
6. Excess heat vented through fans.
7. May overheat/fail with spectacular arcing and violent ejection of

hot metal fragments.
B. Indicators
1. Most likely on downgrade or other locations where dynamic or

blended braking is applied.
2. Metal fragments of resistor grid at origin.
3. Train may be stopped or on nearest siding.
6B.24
1. Attempt to locate metal particles with magnet or metal detector.
2. Obtain necessary records.
3. Interview engineer/ witnesses.
X. TRACK MAINTENANCE
A. Ignition Factors
1. Track wear requires regular maintenance which includes:
• Standard welding and cutting
• Thermal chemical catalyst welding
• Grinding
2. Catalyst welding
• Open flame/sparks
• Hot ceramic molds carelessly discarded (note supply

boxes being burned in background)
6B.25
3. Catalytic welding operation
• Track grinding
• Smooth out rough spots and welds
• Manual grinding
• Machine grinding
• Sparks and hot grinder residue
• Metal particles may be recoverable with magnet or metal

detector
B. Indicators
1. Evidence of recent maintenance operation
• Fresh welds/grinds
• Recent tire impressions on right-of-way
2. Welding/cutting/grinding slag and debris
3. Discarded molds
4. Supply boxes
5. Campfires/debris burns
6B.26
1. Recover metal particles with magnet/metal detector.
2. Interview maintenance crew.
3. Obtain necessary records.
XI. SIGNAL FLARES
A. Ignition Factors
1. Used for signaling to other personnel.
2. Train stopped on unregulated crossing.
3. Hot slag
4. Carelessly discarded flare.
B. Indicators
1. Origin usually on right-of-way, rock fill, or ties.
2. Flare slag at origin.
1. Obtain records to determine identity of train and crew.
2. Interview crew
3. Forensic evaluation
6B.27
XII. TORPEDOES
A. Ignition Factors
1. Also called bangers or caps.
2. Used to signal oncoming train to slow or stop when hazard

exists.
3. Soft cylinder with explosive chemicals.
4. Clips to rail with metal tabs and explodes when train wheel runs
over it.
B. Indicators
1. Low potential for ignition.
2. Remains of device and residue on track.
3. Stopped train near fire origin.
1. Look for evidence of torpedo remains/residue.
2. Identify train and crew through dispatch records.
3. Interview witnesses
6B.28
XIII. RIGHT-OF-WAY BURNING
A. Ignition Factors
1. Prescribed fire for hazard reduction.
2. Not as common as it used to be.
3. Seasonal activity
4. Fire escapes immediately or is a holdover in old ties, stumps,

etc.
B. Indicators
1. Evidence of prescribed fire application:
• Multiple points of origin
• Ignition devices
• Fresh signs of suppression/control lines
2. Permit on file
1. Physical evidence
2. Thorough documentation of actual escape point
3. Obtain records:
• Permits
• Work records
4. Interview work crews
6B.29
XIV. WHEEL SLIP OR SLIDE
A. Ignition Factors
1. Occurs when train brakes or accelerates.
2. Sidings/grades/curves
3. Hot metal shavings ignite ties or vegetation.
4. Not a common ignition source.
B. Indicators
1. Thin, elongated metal shavings at origin.
2. Occurrence most likely at point where train accelerates or

decelerates.
3. May be a “welded” appearance on track adjacent to origin.
1. Recover metal fragments with magnet or metal detector.
2. Identify train through dispatch records.
3. Interview crew/engineer
6B.30
XV. JOURNAL BOX FAILURE (HOTBOX)
A. Ignition Factors
1. Overheated wheel journal bearing.
2. Bearing is located in box which protrudes from wheel assembly.
3. Filled with lubricant and packing material.
4. If it overheats, it can catch fire and eject burning material,

sparks, bearing fragments.
B. Indicators
1. Origin usually on tie or close to track.
2. May find remains of burned packing material or metal fragments.
3. Train may be stopped due to detector warning.
1. Identify train.
2. Train should stop after tripping detector.
3. Obtain hotbox detector records:
• MP #
• Axle count
4. Some trains equipped with new on-board detectors.
5. Interview train crew.
6B.31
D. General Investigation Techniques: Summary
1. As a rule, generally easy to establish ignition source and factors.
2. Rolling stock needs to be stopped immediately:
• Examination
• Prevent additional fires
3. Forensic evaluation by railroad expert(s).
4. Obtain maintenance and dispatch records as soon as possible.
6B.32
Lesson 6C – Fire Cause Categories, Ignition Factors, and Indicators
6C.1
6C.2
I. CHILDREN
A. Ignition Factors
• Fire started by person 12 years or younger.
• Fire is motivated by normal curiosity.
• Non-pathological fire-setting.
• Normal development stage
– Boys between 4-7

– Girls becoming more common
• Use of fire in experimental or play fashion.
• Matches or lighters most frequent ignition source.
• Occasional use of fireworks and accelerants.
• May involve multiple children.
• Fire prevention programs appear to have reduced this statistical

cause.
6C.3
B. Indicators
• Appearance of fire play
– Numerous matches or matchbooks, burned toys,

cigarettes, paper, boxes
• Origins away from adult supervision
– Hidden or “secret” areas

– Forts
• Locations frequented by children
• Children responsible for the fire will often flee the scene
• Origin in residential area/campground
• Fire detected and suppressed quickly
• Origin often destroyed by civilians
• Tendency to conduct poor or no investigation
• Abundance of evidence
• May be corresponding pattern of fires associated with structures
• Children may attempt to suppress fire when it is small
• Evidence of unsophisticated suppression at origin
6C.4
• Neighborhood canvass for witnesses
• Children who frequent area
• Other incidents of fire play
• Involve/not involve parents
– Jurisdictional issue
– Parents often defensive
• Skillful interview techniques
• Understand difference between normal curiosity and

pathological fire setting
• Children can lie effectively
• Most can be persuaded to be truthful
• Consider referral to juvenile authorities
– Early juvenile fire setter intervention programs
6C.5
II. MISCELLANEOUS IGNITION FACTORS
Miscellaneous is the catch-all category because it covers those ignition

sources that cannot be otherwise categorized.
• List is potentially endless.
• More commonly encountered causes.
• Those that might be raised as affirmative defense.
A. Powerlines
1. Ignition factors
• Complicated category
• Often start major fires
• Conditions that cause powerline failure also cause

extreme fire behavior.
• Remote locations also may cause delayed detection and

response.
• Powerlines form complex web.
• Regulations may govern powerline fire prevention.
• Cause is usually obvious, but may pose immense legal

challenge to prove.
6C.6
• Investigator must be familiar with power transmission
systems.
• Power is generated at main plant.
• 13 to 25 kilovolts (KV).
• Voltage is boosted at nearby step-up transformers after

leaving generation plant.
• Routed through transmission lines at 55 to 500 KV.
• Steel towers or large pole structures.
• Routed into substations where the power is stepped

down to 2.4 to 35 KV.
• Power then routed through distribution lines to consumer.
• Approximately 5 to 10 times as many distribution lines as

transmission lines.
• Carry more non-exempt hardware.
• Statistically cause more fires.
• Various hardware used on system.
• Failure of conductors and hardware often associated with

fire occurrence.
6C.7
• Hardware includes a variety of switches, fuses,
connectors, splices, insulators, reclosers, etc.
• Investigator should be generally familiar with these.
• CDF Powerline Equipment Identification Pocket Guide
• Exempt/non-exempt:
– California Public Resource Code classification.
– Non-exempt hardware has been determined to be

fire hazard and is “non-exempt” from vegetation
clearance requirements.
This term will be used when describing the following

hardware examples that have fire ignition potential.
2. Commonly encountered ignition factors:
• Conductor failure/faulting
• Insulator failure
• Miscellaneous hardware failure
• Birds/small mammals
• Mylar balloons
6C.8
B. Conductor Failure or Faulting
1. Ignition factors
• Conductor (powerline) breaks and falls to the ground,

arcs, and starts fire.
• Splice or connector fails.
• Conductor contacts or comes close to adjacent phase or

vegetation and arcs.
• Line sag, high winds, bird flocks.
• Initial fault may not start fire, but occurs with auto or
manual reclosing of the circuit.
2. Indicators
• Cause is usually obvious.
• Line may be down, or still intact.
• Charred vegetation adjacent to conductor or on ground

below conductor.
• Vegetation still contacting conductor.
• Pitting and staining on conductor.
• Blowholes at base of tree.
• Resistance scarring on tree.
• Fulgurites at point of discharge.
6C.9
a. Fulgurites
• As in lightning strikes, powerline discharges to

ground which may leave fulgurites.
• Shape and size may be different than lightning

fulgurites.
b. Conductor failure and faulting
• Line sag
• High temperature and peak load
• Contacts adjacent vegetation and starts fire
• Line may have retracted prior to arrival
C. Insulator Failure
1. Ignition factors
• Variety of insulators.
• Function to keep conductor from making grounding

contact.
• Failure can result in arcing to the pole or other hardware,

starting a fire.
• Fire often on crossarm and/or pole, which then drops

burning wood material to vegetation below.
6C.10
2. Insulators fail for a number of reasons
• Dirt or bird manure
• High humidity
• Salt deposits (sea air)
• Lightning strikes
• Over-current
• Deliberate damage
• Shooting
• Current flashes across insulator and ignites pole or

crossarm.
• Insulators or crossarm may fail and drop conductor.
3. Indicators
• Conductor may drop
• Insulator may be blown
• Insulator may show evidence of current flashover and

arcing
• Pitting
• Voltage tracking
• Discoloration
• Staining
6C.11
D. Other Hardware Ignition Factors
Non-exempt, which includes:
• Fuses
• Disconnects
• Lightning arrestors
• Clamps
• Connectors
1. Fuses
• May drop hot material to the ground, igniting a fire, such

as:
– Open link fuses

– Universal fuses
2. Disconnects
• Isolate section of line
• When thrown, may arc
• Hot metal fragments fall to vegetation below
• In-line
• Solid blade
6C.12
3. Lightning arrestors
• Designed to protect equipment from lightning strikes.
• When they fail, hot metal fragments fall to vegetation

below.
• Various types
• Generally similar in configuration.
4. Connectors and clamps
• Connect sections of conductors and jumpers.
• If they become loose, may arc.
• Hot metal fragments fall to vegetation below.
• Hot tap clamps
• Split bolt connectors
• LM connectors
• Fargo connectors
6C.13
E. Birds and Small Mammals
1. Ignition Factors
• Birds/mammals make contact with two phases or

transformer and jumper.
• Arc and catch fire igniting vegetation.
• Installation of perch guards designed to prevent.
Is the utility company responsible for fires started by animals or

birds?
2. Indicators
• Powerline fault, but often only momentary
• Burned remains at origin
3. Investigation techniques
a. General investigation considerations
• Powerline cases will usually be litigated
• Thorough documentation and validation of origin

critical:
– Photographs
6C.14
• Repair crews might leave with evidence prior to
arrival of investigator:
– Consent or warrant if necessary
• Most line crews will cooperate:
– Interview
• Collect all hardware and other evidence:
– Forensic evaluation
• Secure all relevant records from utility company:
– Maintenance
– Current flow/faults
– Hazard reduction (poles are numbered and

coded for reference)
• Obtain services of electrical engineer who

specializes in powerline related analysis.
• Document any violations of vegetation clearance

requirements.
• Establish right-of-way boundaries to determine

responsibility for vegetation clearance.
6C.15
b. Powerline safety
• Always use extreme caution when working under

lines.
• Always assume conductor is charged.
• Never approach a downed conductor.
• Smoke and/or water spray can cause arcing.
• Never climb a pole to inspect a conductor or

hardware.
• Always wait for the arrival of utility crews to make

the area safe if you are first on-scene.
• Look up, look out, and stay away.
6C.16
Lesson 6D – Fire Cause Categories, Ignition Factors, and Indicators
6D.1
6D.2
I. FIREWORKS
A. Ignition Factors
Firework-related fires cause huge amounts of property damage

(wildland and structure) annually.
• Fireworks are used in an unsafe manner.
• Discharge burning material into flammable vegetation.
Fireworks may be classified in several different ways, depending upon

jurisdiction.
We will look at them from the standpoint of how they function and
how they ignite fires.
1. Ground based and handheld
• Designed to be placed on ground, affixed to vertical

object or handheld.
• Emit flame and sparks
• If placed in or adjacent to flammable vegetation can easily

ignite fire.
• Four basic types
• Base fountains
• Cone fountains
• Sparklers
6D.3
• Roman candles
• Wheels and spinners
• Smoke bombs
2. Aerial
• Launch into the air
• Some explode or give off aerial flash
• May catch fire and land in flammable vegetation
• May ignite vegetation at launch site
• May be fired directly into vegetation
• May start a fire some distance from launch site
– Bottle rockets
– Parachutes
– Wings
– Mortars
6D.4
3. Explosives
• Contain flash powder charge designed to explode upon

ignition.
• Can start fires, but the force of the blast usually prevents
fire from starting.
• If ignited directly in flammable vegetation may start fire.
• Flaming paper particles may start fire immediately

adjacent to blast area.
• Strings or bricks of firecrackers or larger devices more

likely to ignite a fire than single small one.
• Firecrackers
• M-80 types
• Cherry bombs
B. Indicators
• Fires often occur around holiday periods.
• Evidence of spent device or residue at or near origin.
• Packaging material
• Fragments of explosive device may be buried in soil.
6D.5
• Origin and perimeter search for remains and evidence.
• Identifying responsible party may be difficult.
• Witnesses
• Forensic examination
• Possibility of deliberate arson ignition.
II. FIREARMS
A. Ignition Factors
• Not a frequent occurrence
• Smokeless powders generally safe
• Blackpowder
– Direct discharge into flammable vegetation

– Flaming patch material
• Projectiles
– Steel core AP
– Incendiary
– Tracer
6D.6
1. Steel core (AP)
• 7.62x39 mm
• Chinese or Russian military surplus
• Interior steel shank
• Strike metal or rocks and spark, igniting fire
• Magnet will usually not detect due to copper plated steel

jackets
• True AP black or silver tip
2. Incendiary
• Bullet designed to start a fire upon impact
• Chemical material (phosphorous) ignites upon exposure

to air
• Competent ignition source
• Military incendiary
• Purple or blue tip
• Available commercially
• Various calibers
• Dragon’s Breath
6D.7
3. Tracer
• Chemical mixture that burns briefly.
• Magnesium, strontium nitrate and oxidizer (calcium

peroxide).
• Can start fires if fired into flammable material.
• Available commercially
• Military tracer
• Red or orange tip
B. Indicators
1. Exploding targets
• Several brands
• May pose fire hazard if placed in area of flammable

vegetation.
• Explode upon impact of projectile.
2. Origin near shooting area
• Evidence of shooting activity.
• Metal appliances, car bodies or rocks near origin.
• Ammo boxes, cartridge cases, spent rounds, bullet

strikes, targets.
6D.8
• Attempt to locate where rounds were fired.
• Physical evidence at scene.
• Recover spent round if possible:
– Metal detector
– Forensic evaluation
• Witnesses
III. CUTTING/WELDING/GRINDING
A. Ignition Factors
• Often industrial operation but may be residential.
• Superheated metal fragments or sparks fall into flammable

vegetation.
• Finely particulated fuelbed
• Particles will often burrow
• Smoldering fire
• Welder may be unaware of fire due to smoldering ignition.
• Trajectory of welding particles 10 feet or less normally.
• Grinding particles may exceed 30 feet.
• Larger particles more competent ignition source.
6D.9
B. Indicators
Origin near industrial operation or location where welding occurred.

Physical evidence at origin includes:
• Slag
• Flux rods
• Metal fragments
• Grinder discs
• Welding cart wheel impressions
• Fire extinguisher discharge residue
• Evidence of welding/cutting at or near origin.
• Interview witnesses and employees.
• Document weather conditions.
• Permit compliance (if required).
• Magnet or metal detector to locate fragments.
6D.10
IV. SPONTANEOUS HEATING
A. Ignition Factors
1. Spontaneous combustion or spontaneous ignition
• Ignition of fuels without application of external heat

source.
• Little understood process.
• May be raised as an affirmative defense.
2. Four categories:
• Material that when combined with catalyst, will ignite

(unslaked lime and water; glycerin and pool chlorine).
• Material with low ignition temperature that will ignite when

exposed to air (phosphorous, silicone).
• Material that undergoes rapid oxidation at normal

temperatures and generates heat (boiled linseed oil, tung
oil).
• Organic materials that generate heat through biological

and chemical reaction:
– Green hay
– Slash piles
– Bituminous coal
– Sawdust
– Chip piles
This is the category that will most likely be encountered in

a wildfire situation.
6D.11
3. Other spontaneous heating ignition factors:
• Wood residue pile
• Bacterial inoculation through soil mixing
• Compacting
• Biological process raises core temperature to

approximately 160° F.
• Warm ambient temperature
• High relative humidity
• Fuel moisture 12-21%
• Bacterial die-off raises core temperature to 160° F.
• Chemical reaction with acids and enzymes continues to

raise temperature.
• Thermal feedback causes pile collapse, oxygen intake.
6D.12
B. Indicators
• Pile of green material at origin
• Constructed within last ten weeks
• Direct exposure to sun
• Witnesses reporting bad odors and/or steam
• Slime/mold/toadstools
• Clinkers in center of pile
• Creosote-like substance oozing out of bottom of pile
• Pile burned from interior outwards
• Interview witnesses/workers
• Examine other unburned piles in area
• Forensic evaluation
6D.13
V. ELECTRIC FENCES
A. Ignition Factors
• “Weed-clipper” type most likely to ignite fire.
• Due to rapid pulse cycle, vegetation does not have chance to

cool off.
• Late-spring/early summer occurrence, but can occur at any time.
• Cured grass contacts wire.
• Wire is wrapped around or contacts tree limb or wooden fence

post and chars material over time, dropping smoldering material
onto ground.
• Fires can occur with braided wire as well as solid wire.
B. Indicators
• Burned-off stubble at lowest level.
• Vegetation contact at any point of line.
• Underwriter Lab approved control heads not known to start

fires.
• Origin near or along fence line.
• Wire contact with vegetation.
• Non U-L approved control head.
6D.14
C. Electric Fences Investigation Techniques
• Origin traced to fence.
• Forensic evaluation at scene by qualified electrical engineers

before dismantling.
• Additional lab testing.
VI. REFLECTIVE OR MAGNIFYING OBJECTS
A. Ignition Factors
• Relatively rare occurrence.
• Sunlight concentrated by either reflection or magnification.
• Cause category that may have to be affirmatively excluded due

to presence of object at origin.
• Flat glass fragments lacking magnification properties will not

start fires.
• Clear glass bottles filled with clear liquid.
• Curved headlight lenses.
• Cut crystal
• Mirrors
• Old window glass
• Aerosol can bottoms
• Polished metal
6D.15
B. Indicators
• Presence of objects with reflective or magnification potential.
• Exclusion of other sources.
• Exposure to direct sunlight.
• Appropriate weather conditions.
• Determine probable ignition time.
• Document precise location and orientation of the object to the

sun.
• Test object for its ability to focus sun’s rays.
• Recreate placement and fuelbed to determine ignition

probability.
6D.16
VII. BLASTING
A. Ignition Factors
• Fire started by flaming debris associated with blasting activity.
• Near or in blast perimeter.
• Fire start may be delayed due to smoldering combustion.
B. Indicators
• Blasting activity prior to fire.
• May be substantial delay between time of blast and occurrence

of fire.
• May be remains of smoldering debris at origin area.
• Establish presence of blasting activity prior to fire.
• Permits/fire suppression requirements.
• Attempt to recover foreign debris/material at origin.
6D.17
VIII. FLARES
A. Ignition Factors
• Flares start fires when mishandled or improperly placed.
• Flare itself ignites fire or hot material that is cast off.
• Flare is chemical compound contained in cardboard tube.
• Highly competent ignition source
• The compound is usually a mixture of sawdust, wax, sulfur,

strontium nitrate, and potassium perchlorate.
• They burn at approximately 3600° F.
• Roadside origins associated with accident scenes.
• Sometimes employed as ignition source by arsonist.
• Aerial signal flare
• Routinely sold in sporting goods stores as emergency signaling

device.
• Some can be fired from standard caliber firearms.
• Flare guns
• Military surplus
• Used for prescribed fire by some agencies.
6D.18
• Multiple flares along road edge.
• Grayish-white slag at point of origin.
• Additional residue along access route to origin.
• Origin adjacent to road edge.
• Slag will test positive for strontium nitrates.
IX. OIL AND GAS
A. Ignition Factors
• Petroleum product flaring fires
• Natural gas/oil
• Wells and processing facilities
• Burning excess product
• Well-test flaring during drilling
• Disposal of undesirable product.
• Maintenance
• Stack can “burp” and start fire.
6D.19
B. Crude Oil Storage Tank Fires
• Crude oil storage tanks.
• Stored oil must be heated prior to shipment.
• Hot carbon particles expelled from exhaust stack on tank during

heating process.
• Carbon particles ignite adjacent fuels.
C. Oil and Gas Investigation Techniques
• Evidence of burning on stack.
• Origin in adjacent vegetation.
• Lack of clearance
• Soot particles
• Records
6D.20
Unit 7 – Arson Recognition
1. Define arson.
2. Explain the difference between arson and incendiary.
3. List the reasons why it may be difficult to solve

wildland arson.
4. Identify arson investigation objectives.
5. Describe the elements that identify an arson incident.
6. Recognize and describe a variety of arson ignition

sources.
7. Identify the six arson motive categories and their

subsets.
8. Explain the psychology of arson.
9. Describe the classification of arsonists.
10. Interpret the general profiles and behavioral

characteristics of the serial arsonist.
11. Identify standard arson investigation strategies.
12. Determine how to identify and preserve evidence at the

scene.
13. Relate notification and referral procedures to law

enforcement.
7.1
7.2
I. ARSON DEFINED
A. Arson vs. Incendiary: is there a difference?
1. Arson: The intentional and wrongful burning of property

(Black’s Law Dictionary).
2. Incendiary: One who deliberately and unlawfully sets fire to

property; also a term for arsonist (Black’s Law Dictionary).
Similar elements often lead to these terms being used interchangeably,

but it may depend on jurisdictional interpretation.
B. Quote from Nova’s “Hunt For The Serial Arsonist” –
“It takes a special breed of detective to uncover arson. He’s part

fireman and part cop, with a special understanding of fire science and
the criminal mind.”
It is difficult, but not impossible, for the fire investigator to solve

arson.
ARSON IS A CRIMINAL ACT. It is a felony, and persons convicted

can go to jail.
II. INTRODUCTION
Arson may account for over 20% of all human-caused wildland fires within
many jurisdictions, and may reach as high as 70% in some.
It is probable that many arson fires are going unrecognized and are being
misidentified by investigators as non-arson fires.
7.3
“Undetermined cause” should not be categorized as arson.
• We have created a mythology surrounding serial wildland fire-setting.
• Based on anecdotal information not supported by research.
• Institutionalized through “war stories” and even in formal training.
A. Myths vs. Reality
1. Myths
• Numerous big fires that occur in rapid succession.
• Elaborate and sophisticated devices.
• No physical evidence at the scene.
• Random and unpredictable incidents.
• Highly skilled and sophisticated offenders.
2. Reality
• Small nuisance fires that occur days, weeks, or months

apart.
• No ignition source or a single match.
• Physical evidence at the scene.
• Recognizable and predictable patterns.
• Unskilled and unsophisticated offenders.
The average serial arsonist is charged with 2.7 counts and

convicted on 2.5 counts, but is suspected of setting an average
of 35 fires before being apprehended.
7.4
B. Early identification of the arson series is critical.
1. Every fire set has potential for tragic consequences.
2. Additional charges can increase sentence.
III. FACTORS WHY ARSON CASES MAY BE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE
A. Arson Investigation
May be a difficult crime to solve and prosecute due to a number of

factors.
1. Serial arsonists will usually work alone.
2. They will usually attempt to cover up and conceal their activities

to avoid detection and apprehension.
3. They light the fire, then quickly flee the scene, usually in a
vehicle, and leave little obvious physical evidence.
4. They will rarely discuss their crimes with other people.
5. They often appear to function in a random and unpredictable

manner.
6. The commission of the crime is usually of short duration.
7. Fire suppression activity often destroys or obscures evidence.
8. Eyewitnesses to the crime are uncommon.
9. Most prosecutors have little or no experience with wildland

arson cases.
10. Most arson motives are unfathomable to normal persons.
7.5
“The real problem occurs when…investigators accept this bleak
outlook as though it were fact…It has been our experience that most
arson fires are not only possible to solve, in many cases, average arson
fires are very easy to solve.” (Corry and Vottero, 1997)
B. Arson Investigation Objectives
The role of the origin and cause determination investigator is generally

not the same as the arson investigator. Understand your agency
policy.
1. Case Developer’s role (INF2)
a. Link apparently unconnected fires together by physical

evidence and pattern analysis.
b. Develop investigation plan to identify the person

responsible. Build this case through:
• Forensic evidence
• Behavioral evidence
• Observation of the person setting the fire
c. Arrest and charge the person responsible and bring them

to trial.
2. Origin and Cause Investigator’s role (INVF)
a. Protect the area of origin and keep security on scene until

additional investigators arrive.
b. Follow your agency’s procedures on notification and

referral of a suspected arson case.
7.6
c. Assist but do not assume or presume any law
enforcement powers beyond those you are authorized to
apply.
d. Maintain strictest level of confidentiality and only share

information with those who “need to know.”
e. Do not release any case file information without agency

approval.
IV. INDICATORS OF AN ARSON INCIDENT
Many arson fires go unrecognized. This may be due to several factors:
• Lack of overt evidence.
• Linkage factors (inability to see linking factors that tie the fires
together).
• Investigator not aware of indicators and fire occurrence patterns.
A. Arson Sets
1. Two or more sets may occur in the same day
• Spree or mass arson
2. May occur over weeks/months/years
• Serial arson (fires set by same person, with emotional

cooling off period)
3. Majority accessed by motor vehicle
• Roads, ATV trails, powerlines
7.7
4. Often set along the road edge.
5. Past history of unexplained fires in area.
6. Fires with no apparent ignition source.
7. Delayed starting devices found.
8. Many arson starts are hot-sets.
9. Lack of an identified ignition source may be an indicator of

arson.
10. Investigator must address and exclude any potential reasonable

causes in the area of the origin.
B. Patterns and Linkages
If fires are occurring during similar time periods (time of day, day of
week, day of month), in a specific geographical area, are they
connected?
V. ARSON IGNITION SOURCES
Determination or recovery of the ignition source is a critical aspect of the

investigation.
Investigators should be aware of the various methods used by offenders to

ignite wildfires.
Where do arsonists come up with some of these ideas for construction and
deployment of these arson ignition sources?
Use origin and cause determination techniques to locate the point of origin
and/or ignition source.
7.8
A. Ignition sources may be characterized by how they are ignited:
• Electrical reaction
• Chemical reaction
• Mechanical reaction
Electrical and chemical arson devices are relatively uncommon in

wildland arson cases.
Mechanical devices far exceed the other two categories of arson

devices combined.
B. Ignition sources may be further characterized by how they are intended

to function and delivery method:
• Function
– Hot set
– Timed
• Delivery method
– Direct
– Remote
1. Function
a. Hot set
• Any open flame applied directly to available fuels.
• Believed to be most common.
• Ignition source may be left at origin or removed

after ignition.
7.9
• Accounts for approximately 80 percent of the
arson ignitions according to a recent USFS
research project.
• Offender may add to, rearrange or modify fuels to

aid in ignition.
• Open flame source is applied to easily ignitable

fuels.
• Offender will frequently watch fire for brief time

period to ensure ignition, then flee.
b. Timed
• Incorporate a timer or delay mechanism to provide

opportunity for the offender to flee (time-delay).
• Cigarette and match or matchbook.
• Slow match
• Most common time-delay device.
• Area near device may include object used to

provide weight for remotely delivered device.
• Weight may be hidden under ash.
• Examine area carefully.
• Objects used as weights can include:
– Coins
– Rocks
– Nails
– Nuts, bolts, washers
– Any other small, heavy object
7.10
2. Delivery method
a. Direct
• Hand-carried and placed or open flame directly

applied to material first ignited.
• Can be either a hot set ignition source that is

designed to start a fire immediately or a time delay
device.
b. Remote
• These are ignition sources that are launched

remotely.
• Includes any flaming object or timed device that

may be thrown or mechanically launched from a
distance.
C. Additional Less Common Ignition Sources
May include a wide variety of materials. These are less common, but
may still be encountered by the investigator from time to time.
Examples:
1. Concave shaving mirror
• Placed to focus sun’s rays.
• Multiple mirrors may be placed to set fires throughout the

summer.
7.11
2. Commercial slash burning or backfiring devices
• Usually not available to civilians.
• Uses blasting cap to ignite jellied gasoline mixture.
3. Magnifying glass
• Used to focus sun’s rays similar to shaving mirror.
4. Candles
• May use regular candles or re-lighting “trick” birthday

cake candles.
– Candles will sometimes be enclosed in container

such as a milk carton to prevent extinguishment.
Unburned container residue may be present at
origin.
• Candle may extinguish after fire is ignited and not melt

entirely.
– Wax residue below ash surface may also remain.

Metal wick tab may also be present.
5. Railroad or highway flares
• Often launched remotely from moving vehicle.
– Look for telltale white slag. Striker cap may be

found nearby or in suspect’s possession.
– May be used as timed device by balancing on rock

or setting one end in soil.
7.12
6. Tracer/incendiary bullets
• May be available through military or commercial civilian

sources.
• Other incendiary rounds are commercially available, such

as this example called “Dragon’s Breath” that fires in a
standard 12 gauge shotgun.
7. Fireworks
• May be difficult to determine intent.
• Pattern analysis and MO analysis will be crucial to

determining arson.
8. Flaming animals
• Some offenders may attach accelerant soaked rags to cats

or dog’s tails and then let loose into vegetation.
9. Smoke grenades
• Usually from military or law enforcement sources.
10. Molotov cocktail
• Gasoline with open flame wick.
• May have oil or soap flakes added to allow burning

mixture to stick to target.
• Mixture of gasoline and other chemicals without open

flame wick.
• Usually remote delivery.
• More common in structural arson than wildland arson.
7.13
11. Hypergolic chemicals
• Exothermic reaction when two chemicals are mixed; not

common as a device.
12. Flaming tires
• Stuffed with accelerant soaked rags and then rolled

downhill.
13. Additional less common ignition sources/device materials
• Charcoal briquettes
• Cotton rope
• Incense sticks
• Firework punks
• Mosquito coils
• Paper wrapped around a rock
• Punky logs or stumps
• Brylcream and pool chlorine
• Exploding targets
• Ping pong ball/gunpowder
14. Accelerant
• Usually an ignitable liquid, such as gasoline, that is used in

conjunction with an ignition source to accelerate the
spread and increase the intensity of the fire.
• Not common in wildland arson cases, but occurs with

enough frequency that scenes of suspected arson fires
should be routinely checked for its presence.
7.14
VI. ARSON MOTIVES
Motive: the reason why someone commits a crime. Motive does not need to
be proven; however, knowing motive is often relevant to the investigation and
prosecution.
Motive is an emotional, psychological, or material need that impels and is

satisfied by a specific behavior such as setting fires.
Most wildland fire setting is motivated by an emotional or psychological

need. FBI classifies arson into six major motive categories with seven
subsets:
• Revenge/Retaliation
• Excitement
• Profit
• Vandalism
• Crime Concealment
• Extremism/Terrorism
A. Retaliation/Revenge
Retaliation for a perceived injustice or wrong against the offender.

Target may include:
• Individual
• Society-in-general
• Institution
• Group
7.15
B. Excitement
• Firefighters who want to be heroes
• Security guards on boring shift
• Excitement of seeing fire engines, police cars, air tankers
• Fires set to create and satisfy emotional needs for excitement

such as:
– Thrills
– Attention
– Recognition (recognition is a primary motive for

firefighter arson)
C. Profit
• Planned to maximize property damage and not hurt people.
• Insurance fraud
• Improve hunting conditions.
• Fire setting firefighter or contractor motive.
• Plan to get hired onto same fire he/she lit to earn overtime/
hazard pay.
7.16
D. Vandalism
• Nuisance type fires
• Set for destructive purposes
• Often young male offenders
• May have an accompanying pattern of nuisance or school

related fires in nearby town.
• Heavy equipment/vehicles often targeted.
E. Crime Concealment
• Fire set to conceal another crime by destroying the evidence of

the primary crime.
• Homicide and vehicle theft commonly associated with wildland

fire crime concealment cases.
• Scene security and evidence protection is particularly vital.
F. Extremism/Terrorism
• Fires motivated by political agendas.
• In U.S., radical environmentalists have been associated with this

activity.
• Potential for non-domestic terrorism.
7.17
G. Mixed Motives
• Many serial arsonists have a mixture of motives.
• Revenge and excitement or revenge and vandalism are typical

mixes.
• Researchers have identified power as an overlying motivation

for arsonists. It may be to acquire power, maintain power,
demonstrate power, or to regain lost power.
VII. MISCELLANEOUS UNCLASSIFIED TYPES OF FIRE SETTERS
The following groups often act with consistent motives. Indicators

associated with these groups may also appear consistently.
A. Firefighter Arsonist
Being the “hero” by acquiring power and profiting from the fire.
B. Juvenile Fire Setters
Curiosity, “cry for help,” or delinquent fire setting in older youths.
C. Mentally Diseased Fire Setter
A symptom of a mental disorder.
D. Female Fire Setters
Has increased in last few years.
E. Cultural Fire Setters
Based on traditional land management practices.
7.18
VIII. PSYCHOLOGY OF ARSON
Many mental health experts disagree on the mental state of arsonists.
“Pyromania” as a stand-alone mental disorder is considered by many experts

to be a myth.
Arsonists are motivated by criminal intent or the fire setting behavior is a

manifestation of an underlying mental disease. Investigator should focus on
identifiable motives. Investigator should not attempt to diagnose the disease.
Compulsive nature of fire setting activity has been noted by numerous

researchers. Some offenders state they would have continued lighting fires
even if they had known they were going to be apprehended.
It is a learned activity that provides an outlet for anger and frustration

experienced by offender. Some arsonists are impulsive by nature.
Power as an underlying motive is commonly reported. Fire setting restores a

feeling of power and control to offender who has little of either in his or her
life.
A. Excerpts from psych evaluations:
“He is a loner who has maintained few friends and has never married.”
“He describes himself as a wuss, stupid, and feeling bad.” He says, “I

need some help. I have held so much inside for so long. Last spring,
I started thinking about dying.”
7.19
B. The theme that seems to consistently appear in psychological research
and evaluations for arsonists is:
• Poor social adjustment skills
• Anger expressed as retaliation
• Feeling of helplessness/lack of power
• Low self-esteem in general
• Victimized by society
• The fire-setting behavior is a response learned at an early age

that restores a feeling of power and self-esteem
• Compelling behavior
IX. CLASSIFICATION OF ARSONISTS
An offender may only set one or two fires, then cease fire setting due to:
• Fear of apprehension
• Completion of specific goal
These cases may be very difficult to solve. Cases that provide best
opportunity for resolution are spree and serial arson.
A. Spree Arsonist
An offender who sets fires at three or more separate locations with no

emotional cooling off period in between the fires.
7.20
B. Serial Arsonist
A person who sets three or more fires, at either the same or different
locations, with an emotional cooling off period between the incidents.
The defining aspect of the serial arsonist is the cooling off period
between fire setting episodes.
It is thought to be the result of the temporary psychological relief that

results from the act of setting the fires.
1. Serial arsonist characteristics and traits
• Based on limited data for wildland arsonists.
• Information largely self-reported.
• Based on convicted offenders.
• Focused on statistical inference taken from average (many

will fall outside sample mean).
• Should not be viewed as generally predictive of entire

arsonist population.
2. Specific characteristics and traits
• Caucasian male between 14 and 30.
• Average to above-average intelligence.
• Poor academic performance.
• May come from unstable home environment.
7.21
• Great majority are single or divorced.
• Many live at home with parent(s).
• Often unemployed or employed as unskilled laborer.
• Criminal history
• Majority will have been in jail, juvenile detention or mental

health facility.
• Many have physical disfigurement or tattoos.
• May have a history of sexual maladjustment and

performance problems.
• Alcohol and drug abuse.
3. Behavioral characteristics of the serial arsonist
• Will normally set fires primarily to vegetation, but may set

fire to vehicles and structures.
• 90+% operate within their comfort zone.
• There will likely be a precipitating stressor in their life

prior, triggering the fire-setting.
• Approximately 40% set fires in daylight.
• Most drive to scene (pickup truck).
• May remain on scene to watch fire.
• May remain nearby and watch from vantage point.
• May return to crime scene within 1/2 to 24 hours.
7.22
• May escalate in frequency and/or severity of fire-setting
behavior.
• Most arsonists did not resist arrest and cooperated with

authorities; however, there are exceptions!
X. YOUR ROLE AS AN INVF
A. Arrival at the Fire Scene
If the fire is suspected to be an arson incident, your role will be

primarily scene security and protection until an experienced
investigator arrives.
You will perform all the normal activities associated with the location
and protection of evidence, scene security, and potential witness
identification.
Unless authorized, do not attempt to collect evidence or conduct an

origin search.
You will need to locate and protect the general origin area as soon as
possible. If the first responders have already done this, you will need
to validate that they have secured the correct area.
• Locate and protect any evidence at the scene.
• Locate witnesses, and advise the investigator of these witnesses.
• Observe vehicles en route to and at scene (obtain license

numbers and description).
• Assess the need for additional resources.
• Take photographs.
7.23
B. Evidence to look for:
• Tire impressions
• Shoe impressions
• Cigarette butts or cigarette packaging
• Beverage containers
• Clothing articles
• Ignition devices
• Any items that do not belong
• Other miscellaneous items have included dog prints, paint

transfers, pornography, failed ignition devices, papers, fibers,
blood, etc.
If the fire is not suspected to be arson and you later discover evidence
that it is, you must proceed within the limitations or your role and
authorities.
Make the necessary referrals and requests according to your agency

policy.
When the investigator arrives, assist in any way.
Remember to maintain strictest confidentiality (“need to know”).
Do not release any case file information to the public, media, or non-
assisting agency.
7.24
Unit 8 – Court Preparation and Testimony
1. Define “expert witness” and “fact witness.”
2. Describe the role of an expert witness in a fire

investigation.
3. Identify the relationship of various court decisions

specific to expert witness testimony.
4. List fundamental principles an investigator should

follow when testifying.
5. List the steps involved in pre-trial preparation.
6. Describe the voir dire process and the potential role of

professional standards and resource materials.
7. Prepare a professional curriculum vitae.
8. Explain the relationship between pre-trial and trial

testimony.
9. Explain the relationship between the investigation

report and actual testimony.
8.1
8.2
I. WITNESSES AND THEIR ROLES
A. Fact Witness
A witness whose testimony is based on factual matters (things they

saw, heard, did, or smelled), that do not require the formulation of an
opinion or conclusion.
Most, if not all, fire cases will require fact witnesses.
B. Expert Witness
A witness who has sufficient knowledge, skill, or experience in a

particular profession or area of study that allows them to draw
inferences and form conclusions that an average layperson could not.
Many, if not most, fire cases will require expert testimony as to the
origin and cause of the fire.
The trial court judge will decide if a witness possesses the appropriate
qualifications to be considered an expert witness (“Gatekeeper”).
The conclusions themselves and the methodology, evidence, and facts

used to reach the conclusion will be scrutinized closely.
8.3
II. FEDERAL RULES OF EVIDENCE
A. Michigan-Miller’s Mutual v. Benfield (Eleventh Circuit Court of

Appeals, 1998).
• Fire investigation case.
• Trial court judge struck expert’s testimony because of failure to

meet Daubert standard.
• On appeal, Eleventh Circuit upheld trial judge’s ruling.
• This ruling gives trial judge the final say regarding admissibility
of expert testimony.
B. Implications for Wildland Fire Investigators
• Findings must be documented and presented in court in a

logical, systematic, and scientifically valid manner.
• A blending of both scientific and technical methods is

recommended.
The majority of fires may be investigated by a qualified investigator,

using a systematic approach, based on training and experience.
Findings must be thoroughly documented.
Where possible, the conclusions as to the cause of the fire should be

corroborated and supported scientifically. This should include
addressing other reasonable possible causes.
8.4
C. Principles of Effective Testimony
• Always be on time.
• Wear proper attire.
• Visit courtroom prior to trial to familiarize yourself with it.
• When entering courtroom, be physically and mentally ready.
• When taking the stand, sit comfortably but erect without

slouching.
• Be conscious of unintentional, non-verbal communications.
• Demonstrate your knowledge of the case.
• Convey confidence and trustworthiness to the jurors or judge.
• Look at both the attorney and the jurors when talking.
• Speak clearly and loud enough that you can be heard.
• Listen carefully to questions and think about your response

before answering.
• Provide a curriculum vitae or professional resume to your

attorney.
8.5
• Facts and evidence may become an issue, particularly within the
framework of the methodology used and actual conclusions
reached.
• Opposing counsel is given an opportunity for cross examination

of the expert to further explore their background.
• Do not volunteer extraneous information.
• When testifying on direct examination, make sure your answers

are responsive.
• When testifying on cross examination, if the question cannot be

answered with a yes or no, you may explain your answer.
• If the answer is incorrectly stated, correct it immediately or

clarify it.
• Avoid police jargon or legalese.
• When testifying as a fact witness, only testify to the things you

have personal knowledge of (what you observed or did
personally).
• If you don’t know the answer to a question, say “I don’t know”

in the same manner you have answered other questions.
• Do not exaggerate or make overly broad statements.
• When called into the courtroom, be serious and avoid smiling or

laughing.
8.6
• When an attorney objects to a question, do not speak until the
judge says “objection overruled.”
• When questioned by the defense, do not look to the prosecuting

attorney for help. If the question is improper, the prosecutor
should object.
• Do not leave the stand until excused.
• Anything you look at while testifying can and will be examined

by opposing counsel. If you need information to refresh your
memory, refer to reports that have been submitted rather than
notes, if possible.
• The most important principle is to always tell the TRUTH.
III. TRIAL PREPARATION
A. Voir Dire Process
Voir dire is a preliminary examination concerning the competence of a

prospective witness or juror. It is the first step in allowing expert
witness testimony.
Both prosecutor and defense are allowed a significant amount of

freedom to explore the level of knowledge and skill of the expert.
A foundation of the expert’s knowledge and skill is typically

established prior to giving opinions or conclusions.
8.7
Normally the judge will allow the witness to testify if they have met
minimum qualifications and let the jury decide how much weight to
assign to their testimony.
The expert’s opinion or conclusion carries no more weight in

determining truth than the soundness and underlying factual evidence
and methodology used.
If the expert has passed the initial voir dire process, opposing counsel
will get another attempt to minimize the impact of the expert’s
testimony.
B. Curriculum Vitae
An important aspect of preparing to testify as an expert is having a

properly prepared and professional curriculum vitae.
This should include:
• Employment history
• Prior testimony given
• Training received
• Training conducted
• Professional affiliations
• Papers or publications written
• Professional resources used
• Additional qualifications
8.8
IV. PRE-TRIAL AND TRIAL TESTIMONY
A. Pre-Trial
Often given by the investigator during grand jury, preliminary hearings,

detention hearings, or during deposition in civil cases. Given under
oath.
B. Trial
Given by investigators and witnesses during trial. Given under oath.
C. Impeachment by Prior Statements
Opposing counsel may attempt to impeach investigators by

establishing their current testimony is somehow different from previous
testimony or statements.
This can include other, unrelated trials, hearings, and depositions as

well as presentations made, papers written, statements to the media,
etc.
Listen carefully to all prior statements attributed to you by opposing

counsel.
Often, two seemingly different answers can be reconciled. If there is a

discrepancy in the question that prompted the response, attempt to
clarify without becoming defensive.
If you cannot explain the differences, simply state which response is

correct.
8.9
D. Investigation Report and Testimony
Before testifying, thoroughly review the case file, notes, documents,

and evidence to minimize the need to refer back to them while on the
stand.
Investigators should obtain transcripts of their prior testimony to

ensure their testimony at trial is consistent.
The report is the foundation of your testimony; therefore, it must be

complete and accurate.
You may use the investigative report to refresh your memory.
Be Prepared!
8.10

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Wildland Fire Origin

and Cause Determination

Comments regarding the content of this publication should be directed to:

Gary Hilton and James Nanamkin

David LeMay and Chris Parker

Howard Herman and Terry Van Nest

Noble Dunn, Project Leader

DETAILED LESSON OUTLINE

Unit 0: Introduction and Certification.......................................................... 0.1

Unit 1: Professional Standards for Wildland Fire Investigators................... 1.1

Unit 2: Fire Behavior and Burn Pattern Indicators ...................................... 2.1

Lesson 2A ........................................................................................... 2A.1

Lesson 2B ........................................................................................... 2B.1

Lesson 2C ........................................................................................... 2C.1

Unit 3: Fire Scene Evidence ........................................................................ 3.1

Unit 4: Fire Investigation Methodology ....................................................... 4.1

Unit 5: Witness Interviewing ........................................................................ 5.1

Unit 6: Ignition Factors and Sources .......................................................... 6.1

Lesson 6A ........................................................................................... 6A.1

Lesson 6B ........................................................................................... 6B.1

Lesson 6C ........................................................................................... 6C.1

Lesson 6D ........................................................................................... 6D.1

Unit 7: Arson Recognition .......................................................................... 7.1

Unit 8: Court Preparation and Testimony.................................................... 8.1

Unit 0 – Introduction and Certification

OBJECTIVES: During this unit, the instructor will:

1. Introduce instructors, course coordinator, and

2. Discuss administrative concerns.

3. Present the course objectives.

4. Discuss completed pre-course work assignments.

5. Explain the course evaluation system.

6. Describe the Wildland Fire Investigation certification

7. Identify the three proposed levels of Wildland Fire

8. Explain the membership of the Wildland Fire

II. ADMINISTRATIVE CONCERNS

III. COURSE OBJECTIVES

• Identify the elements of the NWCG Fire Investigation Certification

• Perform the common roles and responsibilities of a Wildland Fire

• Practice wildland fire investigation methods, evidence collection, and

• Identify the laws, regulations, and related court procedures associated

IV. PRE-COURSE WORK

Unit objectives define what is expected upon completion of that unit.

1. Unit objectives will be presented at the beginning of each unit.

2. These objectives will be measured by field exercises.

There will be three practical exercises and one practical examination:

1. Instructors will demonstrate how the exercises work.

2. The three practice exercises are ungraded so students can learn

3. The practical examination will be a group exercise graded by the

To satisfy the above objectives, the student will be required to

1. Final written exam: 80%

2. Practical examination: 20%

Students will be given the opportunity to evaluate the instructors and

A. Evolution of Wildland Fire Investigation Certification

1. Supreme Court decisions over the last 25 years have forced

2. The National Fire Protection Association reacted by publishing

3. NFPA 921 and 1033 used increasingly by investigators and

4. Certified Fire Investigator programs began to emerge such as