1/8 Car Single DOF Vibration Model Study with Inertance

Somesh Rath
IUPUI, Indianapolis, IN

ABSTRACT

In this paper, a single degree of freedom mass spring damper model also commonly referred as the 1/8 car model is studied
along with the inclusion of an inerter. The system is composed of mass, spring, damper and an inerter. The system
components are derived from four sets of vehicles, an F-production Miata, USF2000, Indylights car and Ford F-150 pickup
truck. The study involves the response of the system with respect to a step input which is considered the road excitation
source for the analysis. Different output parameters related to mass, damper and inerter are further studied and its effects
on the displacement of the system is analyzed. A dual configuration setup workbook is made to easily focus on the
differences between two different set ups. The system is further developed for non-linear damping forces and its effects are
studied during bump and rebound motion of the system. The major differences between a linear damper and a non-linear
damper are then studied.

INTRODUCTION

Ride is one of the most important parameters to be considered while designing a car be it a passenger car, a racecar or a
heavy duty vehicle. Different types of vehicles have different ride characteristics and ride requirements. The purpose of this
paper is to review the single degree of freedom vehicle ride equations of motion along with inertance so that the role of
damper and inerter can be better understood and appreciated.

Ride is generally defined as tactile or visual vibration which take place due to road excitation sources. Ride travels from the
source to the perceiver through the vehicle dynamic response and vibrations that take place along the way as shown in
figure 1. An eighth car model is the most basic model to study the vehicle vibrations. It consists of three main forces that
govern the dynamic behavior, the inertial forces, the spring forces and the damping forces. To extend the understanding of
inertance and its effects on the system an inerter is also added to the system which leads to an additional force called the
inerter force which resists changes in velocities in the system.

Figure 1. Ride perception path

Figure 2 shows the 1/8 car model with inerter. As can be seen from the figure, m s the mass of the vehicle, k is the spring
rate of the suspension spring, MR is the motion ratio of the spring, c is the damping rate of the damper, b is the inertance
rate of the inerter, Δ is the static deflection of the system and z and ẑ are the response and input of the system respectively.
 Figure 2. 1/8 Car Model with inerter

In this study, four different types of vehicles are studied and compared with respect to ride characteristics. The vehicles
include a F-production Mazda Miata, a USF2000, an Indylights car and a Ford F-150 pickup truck as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3. Vehicles in consideration : F- Production Miata, USF2000, Indylights, Ford F-150 (from top left clockwise)

The significance of damper in the model relates closely to the free vibrations and forced vibrations that occur because of
the road roughness and control inputs. If the mass m is displaced from its equilibrium position and then allowed to vibrate
free from further external forces, it is said to have free vibration. The vibration also may be forced; i.e., a continuing force
acts upon the mass or the foundation experiences a continuing motion.

Initially, inerter was introduced by McLaren in Formula 1 racing car suspension system, since it has the ability to generate
an apparent mass (inertance) which can be considerably larger than its real mass. Such feature can be materialized through
various mechanisms such as: racks associated to spur gears, ball-screw rods associated to flying-wheel ball-nuts, inertial
hydraulic devices associated to helical tubes, etc. Classical inerter is a passive element of constant inertance, which is used
to provide inertial coupling, and hence, to modify the dynamic performances of the mechanical system. Thus, the inerter is
able to change natural frequencies of the vibration systems to provide nonlinear and/or apparent negative stiffness effects,
etc.

MODEL FORMULATION

For modelling the study, several input parameters are taken into consideration including mass, spring rate, damping rate,
inertance rate, initial displacement condition, initial velocity condition, suspension motion ratio and frequency ratio. The input
parameters are in line with the vehicle taken into consideration. Table 1 shows the individual vehicles and their geometric
parameters along with that of the mass damper system. Table 2 extends the input parameters to inertance, input amplitude,
initial velocity condition, vehicle velocity condition, wavelength and amplitude of the input.

F-Production Miata

Parameter Term Value Units

Mass m 16.77 slugs

Motion Ratio MR 1.4

Spring Rate k 750 Lb/in

Damping Rate C 0 ≤ 𝐶 ≤ 75 Lb/in/s

USF2000

Parameter Term Value Units

Mass m 7.76 slugs

Motion Ratio MR 1.2

Spring Rate k 1100 Lb/in

Damping Rate C 0 ≤ 𝐶 ≤ 75 Lb/in/s

Indylights

Parameter Term Value Units

Mass m 2.58 slugs

Motion Ratio MR 1.15

Spring Rate k 1200 Lb/in

Damping Rate C 0 ≤ 𝐶 ≤ 75 Lb/in/s

Ford F-150

Parameter Term Value Units

Mass m 42.92 slugs

Motion Ratio MR 15

Spring Rate k 1350 Lb/in

 Damping Rate C 0 ≤ 𝐶 ≤ 75 Lb/in/s

Table 1. Input parameters of vehicles

The vehicle selection ranges from a highly aerodynamic race car to a pickup truck covering all aspects of an eighth car
model with inertance. The wide range of vehicle selection allows different mass, spring rates and damper rates to do a
simultaneous configuration study.

Input Values or Ranges

Parameter Term Value Units

Inertance j or b 0 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 0.5 Slugs

Step Input Zo or xo 4 In

Input frequency ω 0 ≤ 𝜔 ≤ 60 Hz

Velocity Initial
Żo or ẋ0 0 In/s
Condition

Vehicle Velocity V 0 ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 100 Mph

Wavelength λ 0 ≤ 𝜆 ≤ 36 In

Amplitude A 0≤𝐴≤2 In

Table 2. Input values and ranges

As shown in table 2, the excitation source is a step input which is coming from the road with an amplitude of 4 inches. The
system has an inertance range from 0, meaning no inerter in the system, to an inertance of 0.5 slugs. The range for the
input frequency is restricted at 60 Hz and the initial velocity of the step input is 0, meaning the step input excitation starts
from rest at t=0. Considering the vehicle to move at a certain velocity V, the range is set from 0 to 100 mph. the vehicle
velocity leads to a change in input frequency given by the equation below:

2𝜋𝑉
𝛺=
𝜆

Where, Ω is the input frequency, V is the velocity of the vehicle and λ is the wavelength.

Now that the input parameters are delineated, the output parameters are found using the equations of motion for the step
input using Excel workbook to formulate the parameters and compute the graphical approach towards the solution. The
output parameters include static deflection, natural frequency, damped natural frequency, critical damping rate and damping
ratio.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The basic output parameters are found using the following equations:

𝑊
∆=
𝑘
Where, 𝛥 is the static deflection of the mass which is defined as the amount by which the spring has elongated/compressed
due to the weight of the body, W is the weight of the body and k is the spring rate of the suspension spring. The natural
frequency is the frequency of the body without any external factors in play like damper or inerter and is found using:

𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = √
𝑚

The damped natural frequency of the system is defined as the frequency due to damping effects in the system. It is given
by:

𝜔𝑑𝑚 = 𝜔𝑛 √𝐴 − 𝜁 2

Where ζ is the damping ratio which is a measure describing how rapidly the oscillations decay from one bounce/extension
to the next. The damping ratio is a system parameter, denoted by ζ (zeta), that can vary from undamped (ζ =
0), underdamped (ζ < 1) through critically damped (ζ = 1) to overdamped (ζ > 1) and is given by :

𝑐
𝜁=
𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡.

Where, ccrit is the critical damping rate or the damping rate that just prevents vibration or is just sufficient to allow the object
to return to its rest position in the shortest period of time without overshoot is given by :

𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡. = 2√𝑘𝑚

Characteristic equation for the step input motion is given by:

(𝐴)𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0

Where, A is the inertance term defined by:

𝑏
𝐴 = (1 + )
𝑚

Where, b is the inertance and m is the mass. s is the root of the characteristic equation, ω n is the natural frequency and ζ is
the damping ratio. The roots of the characteristic equation is given by:

𝜔𝑛
𝑠1,2 = ((−𝜁) ± 𝑖√𝐴 − 𝜁 2 )
𝐴

The roots of the equation help in finding out the root locus of the system. The displacement vs. time equation or the solution
to the step input is given by:

𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑑𝑚
𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑍𝑒 −𝜁( 𝐴 )𝑡 sin (( ) 𝑡 + ∅)
𝐴

Where, z(t) is the displacement of the mass with resect to time, Z is the amplitude of the response given by:

(𝑣0 𝐴 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑧02 ) + (𝑧0 𝜔𝑑𝑚 )2

𝑍=( 2 )1/2
𝜔𝑑𝑚

Ø is the phase angle given by:

𝜔𝑑 𝑧0
tan ∅ = ( )
𝑣0 𝐴 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑧0

All the variables are input in the mass displacement equation to find the behavior of the mass with time which is further
studied in the paper subsequently.
The output amplitude to input amplitude ratio is called the amplitude ratio or the magnification factor of the system is given
by the following equation:

𝑏
𝑧 (1 − ( )(𝑟)2 )2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑟 2
| |=[ 𝑚 ]1/2
ẑ 𝑏 2 2 2 2
(1 − (1 + )(𝑟 ) + 4𝜁 𝑟
𝑚

Where r is the frequency ratio and is given by the ratio of input frequency to the natural frequency of the system.

𝛺
𝑟=
𝜔𝑛

PARAMETRIC STUDY

After modelling the design constraints of the system using Excel workbook, the parametric study for output parameters is
done by changing the vehicle type which automatically changes the mass, spring rate and the motion ratio of the system.
The effect of these changes are studied on the output parameters and the mass displacement of the system. Further, the
damping rate, inertance, step input displacement amplitude and input velocity are changed and the reaction on the output
parameters are analyzed. Finally, an in depth study on the mass displacement response to a step input is done to check
the behavior of the system with all the changes and the amplitude ratio vs. frequency ratio is plotted to check the effect of
damping ratio on magnification factor. A root locus of the characteristic equation is finally plotted to check the characteristics
of the natural frequency, damped natural frequency and the damping ratio as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4. Root Locus

RESULTS

VEHICLE FREE RESPONSE ANALYSIS

After setting up the system completely using the equations of motion a vehicle analysis is done and the results are
discussed. Table 3 shows the results obtained for different types of vehicles.
 VEHICLE

Input Parameters F-Prod Miata USF2000 Indylights F-150

Mass (slugs) 16.77 7.76 12.58 42.92

Spring Rate (lb/in) 750 1100 1200 1350

Damping Rate (lb/in/s) 0 0 0 0

Inertance (slugs) 0 0 0 0

Step input (in) 4 4 4 4

Initial velocity (in/s) 0 0 0 0

Suspension MR 1.4 1.2 1.15 1.5

Output Parameters

Static Deflection (in) 0.719 0.227 0.337 1.023

Natural Frequency
6.688 11.906 9.767 5.608
(rad/s)

Critical Damping rate

224.30 184.73 245.73 481.42
(lb/in/s)

Damping Ratio 0 0 0 0

Damping natural
6.688 11.906 9.767 5.608
frequency (rad/s)

Table 3. Free response Vehicle analysis

Table 3 shows the free response vibration characteristics of the vehicles as the damping rate is 0 for all. The static deflection
is least for the USF2000 and it is highest for the pickup truck, this makes sense as the USF2000 has the lowest weight and
the pick up truck has the highest weight and the static deflection is dependent directly on the weight of the body. The results
are inverse in case of the natural frequency where the pickup truck has lower natural frequency in comparison to the
USF2000 which has the highest natural frequency since the frequency is dependent directly on spring rate and indirectly on
mass. In case of Miata and Indylights, Miata has lower natural frequency in comparison to Indylights. This means a good
damper with higher damping rate is better for the USF2000 since it has high frequency. Conversely, the pickup truck can
sustain using a lower damping rate damper as it has a lower frequency. Since this is the condition of free response, the
damping ratio is 0 (case of undamped frequency) for all the vehicles and the damping natural frequency is same as the
natural frequency of the system.

MASS DISPLACEMENT RESPONSE

It is the plot between the displacement of the mass with respect to the time. The Y axis is the displacement response and
the X axis is the time. The mass displacement response plot is the most important plot as it gives an idea about the motion
of the mass due to change in input parameters. The damping rate, inertance rate, step input amplitude and initial velocity
are changed, and the output is seen and discussed further as a part of the results.

1) Damping Rate

Figure 5. shows the mass displacement response characteristics of the pick up truck with no damper model and a 75 lb/in/s
damping rate model. The other parameters such as mass, spring rate, inertance, step input, initial velocity and motion ratio
remain constant for both the cases. As can be seen from the plot, the blue curve shows the case when the damping rate is
0 or this is the free response case for the truck as compared to the orange curve which has a damping rate of 75 lb/in/s and
shows a damping behavior as the amplitude decreases with time and becomes 0 after a certain time, in a way damping
occurs. The damping ratio for the case where the damping rate is 75 lb/in/s is 0.156. Damping rate is directly related to the
damping ratio of the system wherein all 1 DOF systems with the same damping ratio have the same characteristic damped
response, regardless of the magnitude of the mass and spring rate.

Figure 5. Mass displacement response of Ford F150 at different damping rates

Figure 6 shows the mass displacement of USF2000 vs. that of F-Production Miata, where the damping rate is set at 40
lbs/in/sec for both the vehicles and rest of the input parameters are kept as is and not altered. As can be seen from the plot,
the F production Miata which is the orange plot takes more time to damp the vibrations as compared to the blue plot of
USF2000. The damping ratios are compared, and it is found that the damping ratio of USF 2000 is 0.216 to the 0.178 of F-
production Miata. This means, lower damping ratio takes more time to damp in comparison to higher damping ratio. In the
under-damped case system, response from an initial disturbance returns to equilibrium after oscillating. The closer to 1 the
under-damped case is, the less it will oscillate before returning to equilibrium and the closer to 0 it is, the longer it will
oscillate.
 Figure 6. Mass displacement response of USF2000 vs. F-production Miata at same damping rate

2) Inertance Rate

Figure 7 shows the plot between the mass displacement response of USF2000 at no inertance undamped case and 0.5
slugs inertance undamped case. The figure shows the no inertance undamped case in blue and 0.5 slugs inertance
undamped case in orange. As can be seen from the plot, the increase of inertance decreases the natural frequency of the
system and increases the inerted damped natural frequency. The phase angle of the system increases with increase in
inertance and the phase shift is visible in the plot as well.

Figure 7. Mass displacement response of USF2000 at different inertance rates at free response

Figure 8 shows the plot between the mass displacement response of USF2000 at no inertance 10 lb/in/s damper and a 0.5
slugs inertance 10 lb/in/s damper. As shown in figure, the orange plot shows the plot with an inertance of 0.5 and the blue
plot shows that for no inertance. There is phase shift, which is visible from the plot, in it the inertance again increases the
phase angle and increases the inerted damped natural frequency. So, the inerter basically acts as a spring softener and
shows somewhat same characteristics with or without the damper.

Figure 8. Mass displacement response of USF2000 at different inertance rates

3) Initial Step Input

Figure 9 shows the displacement response for Indylights car at 2 inches step input and 4 inches step input both for
undamped case. The orange plot shows 4 inches step input and the blue plot shows 2 inches. As shown in the plot, the
only change with change in the initial step input is that of the amplitude which is higher for 4 inches initial input as compared
to 2 inches.

.
Figure 9. Mass displacement response of Indylights car at different step inputs at free response
For a damped case, similar characteristics are observed as shown in figure 10 with a damping rate of 20 lbs/in/sec at
different step inputs.

Figure 10. Mass displacement response of Indylights car at different step inputs at damped response

4) Initial velocity condition

Figure 11. shows the plot between the mass displacement response of an Indylights car at two different initial velocities.
The blue plot indicates that the initial velocity of the car is 100 mph and the orange plot indicates that the car starts at rest.
As can be seen from the plot, there is a higher amplitude of response for the car when it starts at 100 mph than at rest.
Moreover, a phase difference occurs between the plots. Also, since the wavelength is constant here, so with increase in
velocity the input frequency will also increase.

Figure 11. Mass displacement response for undamped system at different initial velocities
Same thing happens for the damped case as shown in figure 12. for a damping rate of 15 lbs/in/s.

Figure 12. Mass displacement response for damped system at different initial velocities

AMPLITUDE RATIO VS. FREQUENCY RATIO

1) Damping Rate

The amplitude ratio and the frequency ratio are plotted to check how the system behaves with changes in inertance and
damping rates. The amplitude ratio is found by the equation as discussed in the model formulation section and it is related
to the frequency ratio where frequency ratio is the ratio of the input frequency to the natural frequency of the system. For
the experimental purposes, the frequency ratio is restricted from 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 3 where r is the frequency ratio and the study is
done for underdamped case only (0 < ζ < 1).

Figure 13. shows the plot between two Ford F-150s, one with a damping rate of 75 lbs/in/s (orange) and the other is an
undamped system (blue) which has no damping rate and is a free response system. As can be shown in the figure, the
amplitude ratio increases for the undamped case till it reaches a frequency ratio of 1 which means till the natural frequency
becomes equal to the input frequency of the system. Further, it decreases from there with time and becomes almost 0
around a frequency ratio of 3. At a frequency ratio of 1 for an undamped system is a special case where the amplitude ratio
𝛺
reaches infinity, and this occurs when the frequency of external excitation equals natural frequency of the system i.e =
𝜔𝑛
𝛺
1. For the damped case, the maximum amplitude of excitation has a definite value and it occurs at a frequency < 1. For
𝜔𝑛
this case the maximum amplitude occurs at a frequency ratio of 1.
 Figure 13. Amplitude Ratio vs. Frequency ratio for damped vs. undamped case

The amplitude ratio or also commonly referred to as the magnification factor, increases with decrease in the damping rate
as shown in figure 14, where a comparison for the trucks is done at a damping rate of 70 lbs/in/s (blue) and 20 lbs/in/s
(orange). This proves that a lower damping rate leads to a higher amplitude in the system as the opposing forces reduce.

Figure 14. Amplitude Ratio vs. Frequency ratio for different damped cases

2) Inertance Rate

Figure 15 shows the plot for the amplitude ratio and frequency ratio with a 0.5 slugs inerter (orange) and without an inerter
(blue) for undamped USF2000 car. As shown in the figure, the inerter brings the amplitude ratio from infinity to around 15
with increase in inertance from 0 to 0.5 for undamped case.
 Figure 15. Amplitude Ratio vs. Frequency ratio for different inerter undamped cases

Figure 16 shows the plot for the difference that the inerters make. Two different inerters are setup in this case, one with an
inertance of 0.2 slugs (blue) and the other with an inertance of 0.5 slugs (orange) for the USF2000 car. As can be seen
from the plot, the amplitude ratio increases with lower inertance as augmentation of amplitude is produced by the higher
kinetic energy, which is initially supplied into the system.

Figure 16. Amplitude Ratio vs. Frequency ratio for different inerters

Further, changing the step input and initial velocity has no impact on the amplitude ratio vs. frequency ratio curves.

3) Wavelength and Initial velocity

Two studies are done, one keeping the wavelength constant and varying the velocity of the vehicle to check its effect on
the plot and the other keeping the velocity constant and changing the wavelength to check its effect on the plot. Figure 17.
shows the amplitude ratio vs. frequency ratio comparison for a F-production Miata at no damping and inertance rate for a
wavelength of 10 inches and 30 inches. As can be seen from the figure, the plot characteristics are same in a way, increasing
the wavelength, only increases the frequency ratio and keeps the amplitude ratio the same. The amplitude increases with
frequency ratio with changing velocity for both the cases.
 Figure 17. Amplitude ratio vs. frequency ratio plots for two different wavelengths and varying velocities

Figure 18. shows the amplitude ratio vs. frequency ratio comparison for a F-production Miata at no damping and inertance
rate for a velocity of 30mph and 90 mph. As can be seen from the figure, the plot characteristics are same in a way,
increasing the velocity increases the frequency ratio limit. The amplitude decreases with increase in speed which is evident
from the two plots. The amplitude ratio decreases with increase in frequency ratio and becomes zero subsequently.

Figure 18. Amplitude ratio vs. frequency ratio plots for two different velocities and varying wavelengths

ROOT LOCUS PLOT

Root locus analysis is a graphical method for examining how the roots of a system change with variation of a certain system
parameter, commonly a gain within a feedback system. In addition to determining the stability of the system, the root locus
can be used to design the damping ratio (ζ) and natural frequency (ωn) of a feedback system. Lines of constant natural
frequency can be drawn radially from the origin and lines of constant damping ratio can be drawn as arccosine whose center
points coincide with the origin. Figure 17 shows the root locus for all the vehicles in the paper for a free response system
without inertance.
 Figure 17. Root Locus plot for all the vehicles

ADVANCED DAMPER STUDY

Dampers are not linear in real life and a complex form of non-linear dampers exist which change the ride characteristics of
the vehicle. modern dampers used in vehicles are designed as asymmetric non-linear in compression and rebound.
Asymmetric dampers can range from single stage to multi-stage depending on application. The asymmetricity and the non-
linear characteristic of these dampers work in a passive manner and must be designed for optimal performance under some
operating conditions. Many different theories of damper types and damping characteristics have been researched, one such
type is the Coulomb damping.

COULOMB DAMPING

Coulomb damping is damping with Coulomb friction. As shown in figure 18. The damping force in Coulomb damping system
is the maximum frictional force acting on the body. This force is dependent only on the normal force of the body and is
independent of the speed of the body.

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑀𝑔

Where, Fmax is the maximum force on the body, μ is the coefficient of limiting friction. Coulomb damping is extended to all
cases where there is some level of friction force in the system. The variation of the system ranges from static friction to
sliding friction. The static ride height of the vehicle is indeterminate as the coulomb force can overcome the spring force.
Thus , the displacement of the body due to coulomb force can be calculated by:

𝐹
𝑥𝐶𝐹 = ±
𝑘
 Figure 18. Coulomb friction damping model

Let us consider the mass to move towards the right, in that case the energy balance equation can be used to find out the
amplitude difference between different points on the mass displacement curve as shown in figure 19. The energy balance
equation follows:

1 2 1 2
𝑘𝑥 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥𝐴 + 𝑥𝐶 )
2 𝐴 2 𝐶

Where F is the coulomb force as defined above and the energy balance gives the difference in amplitude as follows:

2μ𝑀𝑔
= 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐶
𝑘

And,
4μ𝑀𝑔
= 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐸
𝑘

Figure 19. Single DOF Coulomb damping mass displacement vs. time
As can be seen from the figure above, the first half wave of motion has velocity in the negative direction, so the friction force
is constant and equal to μMg. In the second half, again the μMg is constant but it is actually – μMg. Hence, the frequency
is not modified by Coulomb damping, it equals the undamped natural frequency. The shape of the curve depends on 𝜔𝑛
with a non-dimensional displacement expressed by:

𝑥 𝑋0
= 𝑓( , 𝜔 𝑡)
𝑋0 𝑥𝐶𝐹 𝑁

Where, x is the mass displacement, X0 is the initial mass displacement. The nearest equivalent of the linear damping ratio
used in standard analysis is the coulomb damping ratio given by:

𝐹
𝜁𝐶 =
𝐾𝑋0

And,

𝑥
( ) = 𝑓(𝜁𝐶 , 𝜔𝑁 𝑡)
𝑋0

VISCOUS DAMPING

When the viscous damped, single degree-of-freedom system shown in Figure 20 undergoes vibration defined by x = x0 sin
ωt, the net force exerted on the mass by the spring and damper is F = kx 0 sin ωt + cωx0 cos ωt. The equations above define
the relation between F and x; this relation is the ellipse shown in Figure 21. The energy dissipated in one cycle of oscillation
is

𝑇+2π/ω 𝑑𝑥
W = ∫𝑇 F dt = πcω𝑥02
𝑑𝑡

The excitation for the elastic system shown in Figure 20 may be a motion u(t) of the foundation. The differential equation of
motion for the system is:

mẍ + c(ẋ − u˙) + k(x − u) = 0.

Figure 20. Single degree-of-freedom system with viscous damping, excited in forced vibration by force acting on mass
 Figure 21. Hysteresis curve for a spring and viscous damper.

Consider the motion of the foundation to be a displacement that varies sinusoidally with time, u = u0 sin ωt. A steady-state
condition exists after the oscillations at the natural frequency ω n are damped out, defined by the displacement x of mass m:

x = Tu0 sin (ωt − ψ)

where T and ψ are defined in connection with the equation above and are shown graphically in Figures 22 and 23,
respectively. Thus, the motion transmissibility T is identical numerically to the force transmissibility. The motion of the
foundation and of the mass m may be expressed in any consistent units, such as displacement, velocity, or acceleration,
and the same expression for T applies in each case.

Figure 21. Transmissibility of a viscous-damped system

 Figure 22. Phase angle of force transmission (or motion transmission) of a viscous-damped system

CONCLUSION

So, it can be concluded that the ride characteristics of a 1/8 car model is dependent mainly on the geometry and the setup
of the system. The system includes a spring, a damper and an inerter. An experimental study was done n four different
types of vehicles to find out the response due to different input parameters like damping rate, initial speed, inertance rate
and step input. It was found that the system is heavily dependent on the damping rate and the inerter decides the softening
capacity of the springs in the system. Transmissibility factor was also studied for the different vehicles to check the effects
of damping ratio on transmissibility. A root locus plot under free response condition without inerter was plotted. Finally,
advanced dampers were looked upon including coulomb damper and viscous dampers as to their working in free and forced
vibrations and how to derive the equations of motion for both the complexities.

REFERENCES

[1] The Shock Absorber Handbook by John C. Dixon

[2] Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics by Thomas D. Gillespie

[3] Classroom discussion and reference material by Professor Christopher Finch.

[4] Theory of ground vehicles by J. Y Wong

[5] Evaluation of a Shock Model for Vehicle Simulation by Ko Youngwook, Gary Heydinger, Dennis Guenther