Chimneys And Natural Draft

This page is really a throw-back to a bygone age, where the factory

chimney dominated the surrounding neighborhood. And above all,
was instrumental in defining the operating parameters of the
factory's boiler installation.  

Chimney and natural draft considerations are not something that

usually come into mind in modern manufacturing plants, where packaged boilers,
forced air draft, and stack considerations are normally included in the supply
contract for the steam generation plant. In such installations, the chimney merely
carries away the by products of combustion, and releases them into the atmosphere
at a suitable height, and has minimal influence upon boiler operating efficiency.

It would be unusual for a consultancy house in Europe or the USA to encounter

natural draft boiler installations, however, here in the Philippines, and other parts of
South East Asia, many such installations are still providing satisfactory service,
particularly in older sugar mills.

Chimney and draft performance are critical efficiency factors when burning any
type of fuel in natural draft furnaces. 

The height and configuration of a properly designed natural draft chimney will
depend upon the amount of fuel to be burned, its nature and characteristics, the
design of the flue, its arrangement relative to the boiler(s), and the altitude of the
plant above sea level. There are in fact many factors involved, and generally
speaking, there is no "catch all" formula, or magic mathematical bullet which
satisfactorily takes them all into consideration. True, there may be some
esoteric mathematical concept running in a virtual reality simulation, on a
computer cloistered in an obscure university laboratory, however this will
be of little use in the field, or to a small manufacturing organization with
limited means.

In this section we will talk the reader through some of the vital concepts of chimney
design and natural draft, in plain English, and we will employ tabulated data, and
straight-forward mathematical concepts to support the text. 

Draft

Draft is the difference in pressure available for producing a flow of

gasses. If the gasses within the chimney be heated, each cubic foot of
gas will expand, and the weight of the expanded gas per cubic foot
will be less than that of a cubic foot of the cold air outside of the
chimney. Therefore the unit pressure at the chimney base due to the weight of
heated gasses will be less than due to a column of cold air. This difference in
pressure, like the difference in head of water, will cause a flow of gasses into the
base of the chimney. In its passage to the chimney base, the cold air must pass
through the furnace of the boiler, and in turn, will become heated. This newly
heated gas will also rise in the chimney, and the action will be continuous in nature.

The intensity of the draft, or difference in pressure, is usually measured in inches of

water. Assuming an atmospheric temperature of 62oF , and a gas temperature of
500oF, and, neglecting for the moment, the difference in density between the
chimney gasses and the air, the difference between the weights of the external air
and the internal flue gasses per cubic foot is 0.0347 pounds, this is obtained as
follows:-

Weight per ft3 of air at 62oF = 0.0761lbs

Weight per ft3 of air at 500oF = 0.0414lbs

Difference = 0.0347lbs

Therefore, a chimney 100ft high, assumed for this example, to be suspended in

atmospheric air, would have a pressure exerted on each square foot of its cross
sectional area at its base of 0.0347x100=3.47lbs. As a cubic foot of water at 62oF
weighs 62.32lbs then an inch of water would exert a pressure of 62.32/12=5.193lbs
per ft2. The 100ft chimney would therefore, under the above temperature conditions,
show a draft of 3.47/5.193=0.67 inches of water.

The method is best suited for determining the proper proportion of chimneys and
flues is dependent upon the principal that if the cross-sectional area of the chimney
is sufficiently large for the volume of gasses to be handled, the intensity of the draft
will be directly dependent upon the chimney height. Therefore, the method of
procedure is as follows:-

 Select a chimney of such a height as will produce the draft required by the
particular characteristics of the fuel being burned, and the amount of fuel
burned by square foot of grate area.
 Determine the chimneys cross-sectional area necessary to handle the gasses
without undue frictional losses.

Applying These Simple Concepts

The force or intensity of the draft, not allowing for the difference in density of the
atmospheric air, and flue gasses is given by the following formula:-

   

Where the variables are:-

D = The draft produced, measured in inches of water.

H= Height in feet above the grate, to the top of the chimney. 

P= Atmospheric pressure in lbs/ft2.

T= Absolute atmospheric temperature.

T1= Absolute temperature of the chimney (flue) gasses.

Equation 1 takes no account of the density of the flue gasses, assuming that it is the
same as that of air. Any error arising from this assumption is negligible in practice,
as a factor of correction is applied in using the formula to account for the difference
between the theoretical figures, and those corresponding to actual operating
conditions. 

 Consider our previous example where: H=100ft; P=14.7lbs/ft2; atmospheric

temperature = 60oF, and flue gas temperature = 500oF. We note that equation 1
requires absolute temperatures. Absolute zero temperature where all random
molecular motion has ceased is -461oF. Zero degrees Fahrenheit is 461oF absolute.
Then 60oF will be (461+60)= 521oF, and 500oF will be (461+500)= 961oF. Inserting
these above variables into equation 1 yields:

Suppose we wish to design an installation using the same parameters, but this time
at an altitude of 10,000ft, where the atmospheric pressure is only 10lbs/ft2. Then:-

The reader should note that assuming the flue gas and atmospheric temperatures
remain constant, the only way to increase the draft will be to increase the chimney
height to:-

For use in applying this formula, it is convenient to tabulate values of the product:-

The constant K, is for various values of T1, normalized per foot of chimney height.
With these values calculated for assumed temperature and pressure (P), equation 1
reduces to:-
For average conditions the atmospheric pressure may be considered as 14.7lbsft 2,
and the temperature as 60oF. using these average conditions we can construct the
following table. (The reader should note that is approach can be applied to any
location, with differing altitudes and temperatures.)

Chimney Gas Temperature Degrees F. Constant K

750 0.0084
700 0.0081
650 0.0078
600 0.0075
550 0.0071
500 0.0067
450 0.0063
400 0.0058
350 0.0053

Draft Losses

The intensity of the draft as determined by using the above methodology is

theoretical, and cannot be observed in a practical installation with any draft gauge
or recording device. However, if the ashpit doors of the boiler are closed, and there
is no perceptible leakage of air through the boiler setting or flue, the draft measured
at the chimney base will be approximately the same as the theoretical draft. The
difference existing at other times represents the pressure necessary to force the
gasses through the chimney against their own inertia, and the friction against the
chimney sides. This friction will increase as the gas velocity increases. With the
ashpit doors closed, the volume of gasses passing to the stack is minimum, and the
maximum force of draft will be shown by the gauge.

As draft measurements are taken along the path of the gasses, the readings will
diminish as the points at which they are taken are further from the chimney, until
there is little or no perceptible rise on the draft gauge pressure. The breeching, the
boiler damper, the baffles, tubes, the fuel on the grates, all retard the passage of the
gases. Draft  induced by the chimney is required in order to overcome the resistance
offered by these various elements and factors. The draft at the rear of the boiler
setting where connection is made to the chimney or flue may be 0.5 inches, while in
the furnace directly over the fire it may not exceed, say, 0.15 inch, the difference
being the draft required to overcome the resistance offered in forcing the gases
through the boiler tubes, and around the baffling.

One of the most important and critical considerations when designing a chimney is
the pressure required  to force the air for combustion through the bed of fuel on the
grates. The pressure required will vary with the nature of the fuel being burned, and
in many instances will be a large percentage of the total draft. In the case of natural
draft, its measure is found directly by noting the draft in the furnace, for with
properly designed ashpit doors, it is evident that the pressure under the grates will
not differ sensibly from atmospheric pressure.

Chimney Losses

The difference between the theoretical draft as determined by equation (1) and the
amount lost by friction in the chimney proper is referred to as the available draft, or
that which the draft gauge indicates when connected to the base of the chimney. The
sum of the losses of draft in the flue, boiler, and furnace must be equivalent to the
total available draft, and these quantities can be determined from records. Chimney
design issues become one of proportioning it to produce a certain available draft.

The loss in the chimney due to friction of the gases can be calculated using the
equation below:-

The variables are:

C= perimeter of the stack in feet.

Equation 3 can also be used for calculating the frictional losses for flues, in which
case C will equal the perimeter of the flue in feet., the other variables being the same
as for chimneys.

The available draft is equal to the difference between the theoretical draft (equation
2) and from the chimney frictional losses  (equation 3).
The table presented below gives the available draft in inches of water that a chimney
100 feet high will produce when serving boilers of different horse powers, with a
method of calculation for other heights. While the weight of gas per developed horse
power used in the computation is higher than ordinarily found under good
combustion conditions, the use of such a weight provides a margin of safety, and in
determining chimney sizes it is strongly recommended that the chimney size be
amply safe.

AVAILABLE DRAFT TABLE

For a 100ft Chimney of different diameters. Assuming a gas temperature of 500oF and 100lbs of gas
per boiler hp.

For Other Chimney Heights Multiply Draft by Height And Divide By 100

(NOTE* BHP = "Boiler Horse Power")

Diameter Of Chimney
Diameter Of Chimney (Inches)
(Inches)
BHP 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 BHP 90 96 102 108 114 120 144

100 0.64                             2600 0.47 0.53 0.56 0.61 0.62 0.64 0.65

200 0.55 0.62                           2700 0.45 0.52 0.55 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.65

300 0.41 0.55 0.61                         2800 0.44 0.50 0.55 0.58 0.60 0.61 0.65

400 0.21 0.46 0.56 0.61                       2900 0.42 0.49 0.54 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.65

500   0.34 0.50 0.57 0.61                     3000 0.40 0.48 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.61 0.64

600   0.19 0.42 0.53 0.59                     3100 0.38 0.47 0.52 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.64

700     0.34 0.48 0.56 0.60 0.63                 3200   0.45 0.51 0.55 0.58 0.60 0.64

800     0.23 0.43 0.52 0.58 0.61 0.63               3300   0.44 0.50 0.54 0.57 0.59 0.64

900       0.36 0.49 0.56 0.60 0.62 0.65             3400   0.42 0.49 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.64

1000       0.29 0.45 0.53 0.58 0.61 0.63 0.64           3500   0.40 0.48 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.64

1100         0.40 0.50 0.56 0.60 0.62 0.63 0.64         3600     0.47 0.52 0.55 0.58 0.63

1200         0.35 0.47 0.54 0.58 0.61 0.63 0.64 0.65       3700     0.45 0.51 0.55 0.57 0.63

1300         0.29 0.44 0.52 0.57 0.60 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65     3800     0.44 0.50 0.54 0.57 0.63

1400           0.40 0.49 0.55 0.59 0.61 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.65   3900     0.43 0.49 0.53 0.56 0.63

1500           0.36 0.47 0.53 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.65 4000     0.42 0.48 0.52 0.56 0.62

1600           0.31 0.43 0.52 0.56 0.59 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.65 4100     0.40 0.47 0.52 0.55 0.62

1700             0.41 0.50 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.62 0.64 0.64 0.65 4200     0.39 0.46 0.51 0.55 0.62

1800             0.37 0.47 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 4300       0.45 0.50 0.54 0.62

1900             0.34 0.45 0.52 0.56 0.59 0.61 0.63 0.64 0.65 4400       0.44 0.49 0.53 0.62

2000               0.43 0.50 0.55 0.59 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 4500       0.43 0.49 0.53 0.61

2100               0.40 0.49 0.54 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.63 0.64 4600       0.42 0.48 0.52 0.61
2200               0.38 0.47 0.53 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.62 0.64 4700       0.41 0.47 0.51 0.61

2300               0.35 0.45 0.52 0.56 0.59 0.61 0.62 0.63 4800       0.40 0.46 0.51 0.60

2400               0.32 0.43 0.50 0.55 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.63 5000         0.44 0.49 0.60

FOR OTHER CHIMNEY TEMPERATURES ADD OR DEDUCT BEFORE

MULTIPLYING BY HEIGHT AND DIVIDING BY 100 (AS BELOW) 
For 750oF Add 0.17 inch. For 650oF Add 0.11 inch. For 550oF Add 0.04 inch. For 400oF Deduct 0.09 inch.
For 700oF Add 0.14 inch. For 600oF Add 0.08 inch. For 450oF Deduct 0.04 inch. For 350oF Deduct 0.14 inch.

Height And Diameter Of Chimneys

From equation (3) it becomes evident that a chimney of a certain diameter, if it be

increased in height, will produce the same available draft as one of a larger
diameter, the addition height being required in order to overcome the added
frictional losses. It then follows that from the various chimneys that would meet the
requirements of a particular case, there must be one that can be constructed more
cheaply than the others. In selecting a chimney for any given set of conditions, this
fact should be kept in mind, and the builder or manufacturer of the chimney should
be consulted as to cost with reference to height and diameter.

A method for determining chimney diameters for stoker fired coal burning boilers
that has been found to give very satisfactory results is to use a diameter which will
give a cross-sectional chimney area of 35ft2 per rated 1000 boiler horse power. Such
an area will allow all but exceptional overloads to be carried.

With fuels such a #6 residual fuel oil, where the weight of the products of
combustion per horse power developed is less than when coal is burned, the
chimney cross-sectional area may be reduced to approximately 30ft2 per rated 1000
boiler horse power. In locations where oil is not a natural fuel, or the supply chain
may be somewhat unreliable, a dual fuel installation may need to be considered,
namely oil, and coal. Under such circumstances the chimney should be sized to
accommodate the combustion of coal and the additional products of combustion.

Losses In Flues

As previously mentioned the loss of draft in straight flues due to friction and inertia
can be approximately calculated using equation (3), which was given for chimney
losses. It should be kept in mind that C in this equation is the actual perimeter of the
flue and is least relative to the cross-sectional area, when the section is circular, is
greater for a square section, and greatest for a rectangular section. The retarding
effect of a square flue is 12% greater than that of a circular flue of the same area, and
that of a rectangular flue with sides as 1 and 1.5, the loss is 15% greater. The greater
resistance to gas flow (f) of the more or less uneven brick or concrete flue is given for
equation (3). 
Both steel and brick flues should be short and should have as near circular, or
square section as possible. Abrupt turns should be avoided, however, since long
large radius turns require valuable space, it is often desirable to increase the height
of the chimney rather than take up more space in the boiler room. Short right-angled
turns in the flue reduce the draft by an amount which  can be approximated as equal
to 0.05 inch for each turn. The turns which the gases make in leaving the damper box
of a boiler, in entering a horizontal flue, and turning up into the chimney should
always be considered. The cross-sectional areas of the passages leading from the
boilers to the chimney should be of ample size to provide against undue frictional
losses.

It is poor economy to restrict the size of the flue and thus make additional chimney
height necessary to overcome the added friction. Generally it is best to make flue
areas the same or slightly larger than that of the chimney; these should be ,
preferably, at least 20% greater, and a safe rule to follow is allow 42ft2 per 1000 boiler
horse power. It is unnecessary to maintain the same size of flue the entire distance
behind a row of boilers, and the areas at any point may be made proportional to the
volume of gases that will pass that point.

With circular steel flues approximately the same size as the chimney, or reduced
proportionally to the volume of gases they will handle, a good rule is allow 0.1 inch
draft loss per 100ft of flue length and 0.05 inch for each right-angled turn. These
figures are also applicable to square or rectangular steel flues with areas sufficiently
large enough to provide against excessive friction losses. For losses in brick or
concrete flues, these losses should be doubled. Underground flues are less desirable,
or practical than overhead or rear flues for the reason that in most instances the
gases will have to make more turns where underground flues are used, and because
the cross-sectional area will often be decreased on account of an accumulation of dirt
or water which it may be impossible to remove.

In tall buildings such as office blocks, it is frequently necessary in order to carry

spent gases above the roofs, and to install a chimney the height of which is out of all
proportion to the requirements of the boilers. In such cases it is permissible to
decrease the diameter of the chimney, but care must be taken that this decrease is
not sufficient to  cause a frictional loss in the chimney as great as the added draft
intensity due to the increase in height which local conditions make necessary.

In such cases, also, the fact that the chimney diameter has been decreased, there is
no reason why flue sizes connecting to the chimney should be decreased. These
should still be figured in proportion to the area of the chimney that would be
installed under ordinary conditions, or with an allowance of 42ft2 per 1000 boiler
horse power, even though the cross-section area seems out of proportion to the
chimney area.

Losses In Boilers

The draft loss in the furnace, or through the fuel bed varies between wide limits. The
air necessary for combustion must pass through the interstices of the
fuel on the grate. Where these are large as is the case with broken coal, little pressure
is required to force air through the bed; however, if they are small as with
bituminous slack, bagasse, or small sizes of anthracite, a much greater pressure is
required. If the draft is insufficient the fuel (coal or bagasse) will accumulate on the
grates and a dead smoky fire will result, with the accompanying thermal losses
associated with poor combustion. On the other hand, if the draft is too great, the fuel
may be rapidly consumed on certain portions of the grate, leaving the fire thin in
spots and a portion of the grate area uncovered, with the resulting losses due to an
excessive amount of air.

Draft Requirements For Different Fuels

For every fuel type and rate of combustion there is a certain draft with
which best results will be obtained. A comparatively light draft is best
with free burning bituminous coals, and the amount to use increases as
the percentage of volatile matter diminishes, and the fixed carbon
increases, being the highest for small sizes of anthracite. Numerous other factors,
such as the thickness of fires, the percentage of ash, and the air spaces in the grates,
bear directly on this question of the draft best suited to a given combustion rate. The
effect of these related factors is normally determined by experience in boiler plant
operations, and by experimentation. 

It almost impossible, therefore, to show by a single set of curves the furnace draft
requirements at various rates of combustion for all of the different conditions of fuel,
etc. that may be encountered.

Draft And The Rate Of Combustion

The amount of  bagasse, or coal,  which can be burned per hour per square foot of
grate area is determined by the characteristics of the coal or bagasse, and the
available draft. The area of grate, and the ratio of this area to the boiler heating
surface will depend upon the nature of the fuel being burned, and the chimney
should be so designed to provide a draft sufficient to burn the maximum amount of
fuel per square foot of grate area, corresponding to the maximum evaporative
requirements of the boiler.

GETTING IT ALL TOGETHER (Lets Design A Chimney)

Let's attempt to tie the above concepts together, and design a natural
draft chimney for a  furnace/boiler combination with the following
specifications.

Configure a brick lined steel chimney suitable for a  rated 2000 boiler
horse power plant operating at 120 psi, under the following conditions:-

1. Boiler is equipped with an automatic stoker and is operated at a maximum of

2000 boiler horse power.
 2. The fuel is coal at 13,500 btu/lb burned in such a manner as to produce 15lbs
of gas per pound of coal.
3. The efficiency at 100% of rating is 74.5%.
4. The exit gas temperature is 600oF.
5. The draft losses trough the boiler at this rating is 0.5 inch.
6. Maximum flue length from stack to the boiler is 100ft.
7. Flue incorporates three right angled turns.

Step 1. Determine the Total Draft Requirement.

Draft In The Furnace 0.15 inch

Draft Loss In The Boiler 0.5 inch
Draft Loss In The Flue (100ft) 0.10 inch
Draft Loss In The Flue Bends (3) 0.15 inch
Total Draft Required 0.9 inch

Step2. Determine The Amount Of Coal Burned Per Hour.

First we multiply the boiler horse power by 34.5 to determine the boilers hourly
evaporation rate from and at 212oF

Evaporation Rate = 2000 x 34.5 = 69,000 lbs/hr.

We then multiply the evaporation rate by 1189.6 (from the steam tables) to determine the
amount of heat in Btu's required to evaporate this amount of water in one hour,
from 212oF, and raise steam to a pressure of 120psi. (In practice you would have to take into
account the boiler feed water temperature, which may be less than 212oF.)

69,000 x 1189.6 = 82,082,400 Btu/hr........(approx 82 MBtu/hr)

The efficiency rating is given at 74.5%, we multiply the calorific value of the coal by
0.745.

Corrected Calorific Value Of Fuel  = 13,500 x 0.745 = 10,057.5 Btu/lb (c)

Then the coal consumed per hour is given below:-

Step 3. Calculate the Total Gas Weight Per Hour

From the data supplied the total gas weight handled by the chimney per hour will
be:-
 8,161 x 15 = 122,415 lbs/hr.

Step 4. Collecting The Variables And Calculating Our Chimney Diameter & Height.

In accordance with the previous recommendations as to natural draft chimney areas,

approximately A= 35ft2 of cross-sectional area should be provided per rated 1000
boiler horse power. 

Inserting values, this yields:

From the above, we fix the chimney diameter at 9 feet 6 inches.

Equation 4 allowed us to calculate the amount of available draft, and it is

reproduced below for reference:-

However, in our case, we already know the available draft required, and we can
collect the other variables (see below) in order to determine the chimney height. All we
have to do is transpose the above equation for H. The transposed equation is given
below:-

       eq.5.

We now refer to the preceding text in order to collect some vital design data for our
natural draft chimney project:-

1. From the data provided d' (available draft required is 0.9 inch.
2. K = 0.0075 (K is a function of chimney gas temperature at 600oF. see text)
3. f = 0.002 (Constant for brick lined steel stacks at 600oF. see text)
4. W= 34  (Gas weight passing in chimney lbs/sec. = 122,415/3,600. see text.)
5. W2= 1,156
6. C= 29.8 (Perimeter of the chimney in feet)
7. A= 70 (Area of chimney in ft2.)
8. A3 = 343,000
Inserting the variables into equation 5 as follows:-

Rounding up to the nearest 5ft. Our Chimney height would be 125ft.

Let's Call Time Out

Before any of our readers abandon all hopes of designing, or estimating their natural
draft chimney requirements, in the face of a tedious mathematical process!! The
table that appears in the "available draft" takes into account all of the variables we
encountered in the mathematical routine above. The weight of gas and temperature
issues are addressed by the following statement Assuming a gas temperature of 500oF and
100lbs of gas per boiler hp.  

The chimney height in the table is normalized at 100ft for different diameters, and
corrections for gas temperatures are provided.

As an example of using the table, we will repeat the same chimney design we
calculated, but this time we will use the design table to check the calculated chimney
height required to produce a 0.9 inch draft.

1. Locate on the table in the yellow column the row for a 2000hp boiler.
2. There are 8 draft figures for different chimney diameters, start with the
largest first, note that the draft figure is 0.64 inch, with a diameter of 120
inches, normalized for a 100ft high chimney.
3. Correct for the gas temperature of 600oF, in the blue portion of the table at the
bottom. The correction figure is +0.08 inch
4. Correct the figure obtained in step 2. Corrected draft is 0.64+0.08= 0.72 inch
5. Multiply the draft by 125, and divide by 100 for the new available draft:-

This result satisfies our requirement for a 0.9 inch draft, and confirms our calculated
stack height of 125 ft. However, our calculation suggested a 9ft 6 inch ft diameter 
chimney would do the job, and the table suggests a 10ft diameter chimney.

So we now repeat step 2 above, and we observe that a 0.63 inch draft is available
with a 100ft stack, with a 114 inch (9ft 6inch) diameter. The correction factors remain
the same, but the draft available for the 9ft 6inch diameter chimney now modifies to
0.63+0.8=0.71 inch, repeating the calculation reveals:-
It's interest to note that, a simple "tune-up" by eliminating, or reducing the bends in
the flue would guarantee a draft performance in excess of the design figure of 0.9
inches with a 9.5 ft diameter chimney (114 inches).

If financial constraints are an issue, then the 125ft high, 9.5ft diameter chimney
would be the obvious choice.

In any case, the use of the table will always provide conservative results, and can be
used with confidence for project estimation, or confirming actual draft requirements,
against the measured draft in bagasse boiler installations typically found on older
sugar plantations. This technique will indicate potential problems in flues and
chimneys such as, collapsed brickwork, refuse, soot, and other obstructions. Or in
some cases uniformed "tinkering" with flues and chimneys.

Most sugar plantations, and mills, are, to all intents and purposes at sea level here in
the Philippines. However, in the interests of completeness, we now move onto our
next topic, which is...............

CORRECTING CHIMNEY SIZES FOR ALTITUDES

In the design of a chimney for high altitudes it is necessary to increase not only the
height, but also the diameter, as there is added resistance within the chimney due to
the added friction from the additional height. This frictional loss can be
compensated by a suitable increase in chimney diameter.

Altitude Above Sea Level % Height Correction % Diameter Correction

Barometer (inches)
(ft) Factor Factor
0 30.00 As Calculated As Calculated
1000 28.88 +3.9% +1.5%
2000 27.80 +7.9% +3.0%
3000 26.76 +12.6% +4.7%
4000 25.76 +16.5% +6.3%
5000 24.79 +21.0% +7.9%
6000 23.87 +25.7% +9.6%
7000 22.97 +30.6% +11.1%
8000 22.11 +35.7% +13.0
9000 21.28 +41.0% +14.7%
10000 20.49 +46.4% +16.5%
 

Assuming that chimney height for altitude will increased inversely as the ratio of
barometric pressure at the altitude of the installation, to that at sea level, and that the
chimney diameter will increase inversely as the 0.4 power of this ratio. The
assumption is based upon a constant draft measured in inches of water at the base of
the chimney for a given rate of operation of the boiler, regardless of altitude.

If the assumption be made that boilers, flues, and furnace remain the same, that the
increased velocity of a given weight of air passing through the furnace at a higher
altitude would have, to all intents and purposes, little practical effect upon the
combustion process.

Under the above assumptions, whenever a chimney is working at its maximum

capacity at any altitude, the entire draft is utilized in overcoming the various
resistances, each of which is proportional to the square of the gas velocity. Since
boiler areas are fixed, all velocities must be related to a common velocity, say, that
existing within the chimney, and all resistances may therefore, be expressed as
proportional to the square of the chimney gas velocity. The total resistance to flow,
in terms of velocity head, may be expressed in terms of the weight of a column of
external air, the numerical value of which being independent of the barometric
pressure. Likewise, the draft of a chimney, expressed as the height of a column of
external air, will be numerically independent of the barometric pressure. It is
evident therefore, that if a given boiler installation, with its chimney operating with
a fixed fuel type, be transplanted from sea level to an altitude, assuming the
temperature remains constant, the total draft head measure in the height of a
column of external air will be numerically constant.

The velocity of chimney gases will, therefore remain the same at altitude as at sea
level, and the weight of chimney gases flowing per second with a fixed velocity will
be proportional to the atmospheric density, or inversely proportional to the normal
barometric pressure.

To develop a given horse power requires a constant weight of chimney gas and air
for combustion. Hence, as the altitude is increased, the density is decreased and, for
the assumptions given above , the velocity trough the furnace, the boiler passes,
breeching, and flues must be correspondingly greater at altitude than at sea level.
The mean velocity, therefore, for a given boiler horse power and constant weight of
gases will be inversely proportional to the barometric pressure, and the velocity
head measure in column of external air will be inversely proportional to the square
of the barometric pressure.
Boiler capacity tests with coal fuel indicates no difference in the rate of combustion
for a given draft suction measured by a water column at high and low altitudes, and
this would make it appear that the correct chimney height to use is inversely
proportional to the barometric pressure between sea level and at altitude.

The figures presented in the table above show that altitude affects chimney height to
a much greater extent than the diameter, and practically no increase in diameter is
necessary for altitudes up to 3000 feet. For high altitudes the increase in stack height
necessary is, in some cases, such as to make the proportion of height to diameter
impracticable. The method recommended in overcoming, at least partially, the great
increase in height required at high altitude is an increase in the grate area of the
boilers which the chimney serves. In this way reducing the combustion rate
necessary to to develop a given boiler horse power, and hence the draft
requirements for such a combustion rate.

Measuring Draft

Our company, like most others, uses a modern microprocessor based, hand held flue
gas analyzer, which among other things can accurately measure chimney and
furnace draft.  However, the issue here in the Philippines is that many financially
challenged sugar mills do not have the available cash to invest in such an
instrument. So the challenge for the energy auditor/consultant is to recommend a
simple draft gauge that can be locally produced on site, is reliable, provides
acceptable performance, is cheap, and can be used with confidence once the auditor
has departed.

For this exercise we will reach back almost 110 years, to describe a simple gauge,
and provide instructions on how to make it.

Our gauge consists of a simple U-tube containing water, with a little colorant added
to render the readings more visible. The gauge can be made from a length of clear
plastic tubing 0.5 inches in diameter, a 6inch engineers steel rule, and two clamps.
The general arrangement of the gauge is shown here. The gauge is best mounted as
close to the chimney base as possible, and can be protected by a simple box like
enclosure. The sample tube that runs into the chimney base or flue can be length of
304 stainless steel tubing.
You should ensure the sample tube setting into the chimney or flue is airtight, and
that the tubing is straight, without any bends. The clear plastic tubing of the gauge
should be a push fit onto the stainless sample tube, and be secured with a hose
clamp. Before installation you need to calibrate the gauge. After you have completed
the construction of the gauge, support the gauge in an upright position, and adjust
rule so that the "0" inch mark on the engineers rule lies immediately adjacent to the
surface of the water contained in the tube.

Its a simple and reliable solution, that will enable boiler plant operatives to monitor
chimney draft, and take timely corrective actions to ensure that the correct draft
levels are maintained.

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