Unit: 6

Human and Microbial Interaction

Lecture # 16
Pathogenic Microbes and Diseases

Mentor
Aleena Khan, Lecturer
College of Nursing, Islamabad 1
 Objective of Today’s Lecture
• Bacterial infections • Viral infections
✔ Tetanus ✔ Mumps
✔ Typhoid ✔ Measles
✔ Cholera ✔ Polio
✔ Diphtheria ✔ Influenza
✔ Tuberculosis
✔ Pertussis

• Other pathogens
✔ Ascariasis
✔ Taeniasis
✔ Dermatomycosis
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 Bacterial Infections
Most bacteria that live in our cells are good bacteria, that are beneficial for the body. Some,
however, can cause deadly diseases, if not cured in time. The infections that bacteria may
cause include urinary tract infections and strep throat.

Following are Bacterial infections that are common in Pakistan:

• Tetanus (Clostridium tetani )
• Typhoid (Salmonella typhi )
• Cholera (Vibrio cholerea )
• Diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheria)
• Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
• Pertussis (Bordetella pertussis )

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 1. Tetanus
• Tetanus, also called lockjaw, is a serious infection caused by Clostridium tetani.  

• Tetanus is caused by a toxin made by spores of bacteria, found in soil, dust and animal
feces. When the spores enter a deep flesh wound, they grow into bacteria that can produce
a powerful toxin, tetanospasmin

• This toxin then affects the brain and nervous system, leading to stiffness in the muscles
and painful muscle contractions, particularly of your jaw and neck muscles

• Tetanus can interfere with your ability to breathe and can threaten your life. It can also
cause several other complications like broken bones, blockage of a lung artery (pulmonary
embolism) and even death.

• There's no cure for tetanus. Treatment focuses on managing complications until the effects
of the tetanus toxin resolve.

• The disease remains a threat to those who aren't up to date on their vaccinations. It's
more common in developing countries.
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5
Signs and symptoms:
Common signs and symptoms of tetanus include:
• Spasms and stiffness in your jaw muscles (trismus)
• Stiffness of your neck muscles
• Difficulty swallowing
• Stiffness of your abdominal muscles
• Painful body spasms lasting for several minutes, typically triggered by minor occurrences,
such as a draft, loud noise, physical touch or light

Possible other signs and symptoms include:

• Fever
• Sweating
• Elevated blood pressure
• Rapid heart rate

Prevention:
You can easily prevent tetanus by being vaccinated.
• The primary vaccine series (series of five shots, i.e 2mo, 4mo, 6mo, 15-18mo, 4-6yrs)
• The booster (every 10 years thereafter)
6
 2. Typhoid
• Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella typhi bacteria. It
remains a serious health threat in the developing world,
especially for children.

• Typhoid fever spreads through contaminated food and

water or through close contact with someone who's
infected

• Most people with typhoid fever feel better within a few

days of starting antibiotic treatment, although a small
number of them may die of complications.

• Vaccines against typhoid fever are available, but they're

only partially effective. Vaccines usually are reserved for
those who may be exposed to the disease or are traveling
to areas where typhoid fever is common

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Signs and symptoms:
Signs and symptoms are likely to develop gradually — often appearing one to three weeks
after exposure to the disease.

Early illness
Once signs and symptoms do appear, you're likely to experience:

• Fever that starts low and increases daily • Loss of appetite and weight loss
• Headache • Abdominal pain
• Weakness and fatigue • Diarrhea or constipation
• Muscle aches • Rash
• Sweating • Extremely swollen abdomen
• Dry cough

Later illness
If you don't receive treatment, you may:
• Become delirious
• Lie motionless and exhausted with your eyes half-closed in what's known as the typhoid
state 8
Complications
• Intestinal bleeding or holes
• Other possible complications include:
✔ Inflammation of the heart muscle (myocarditis)
✔ Inflammation of the lining of the heart and valves (endocarditis)
✔ Pneumonia
✔ Inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis)
✔ Kidney or bladder infections
✔ Infection and inflammation of the membranes and fluid surrounding your brain and
spinal cord (meningitis)
✔ Psychiatric problems, such as delirium, hallucinations and paranoid psychosis

Prevention:
Two vaccines are available.
• One is injected in a single dose at least one week before travel.
• One is given orally in four capsules, with one capsule to be taken every other day.
Neither vaccine is 100 percent effective, and both require repeat immunizations, as
vaccine effectiveness diminishes over time.

9
 3. Cholera
• Cholera is a bacterial disease usually spread through contaminated water.
Cholera causes severe diarrhea and dehydration.

• Left untreated, cholera can be fatal within hours, even in previously healthy
people.

• Modern sewage and water treatment have virtually eliminated cholera in

industrialized countries. But cholera still exists in Africa, Southeast Asia and
Haiti.

• The risk of a cholera epidemic is highest when poverty, war or natural disasters
force people to live in crowded conditions without adequate sanitation.

• Cholera is easily treated. Death from severe dehydration can be prevented with a
simple and inexpensive rehydration solution.

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Symptoms
Diarrhea. Cholera-related diarrhea comes on suddenly and can quickly cause dangerous
fluid loss — as much as a quart (about 1 liter) an hour. Diarrhea due to cholera often has a
pale, milky appearance
Nausea and vomiting. Vomiting occurs especially in the early stages of cholera and can last
for hours.
Dehydration. Dehydration can develop within hours after cholera symptoms start and
range from mild to severe. A loss of 10% or more of body weight indicates severe
dehydration.

Dehydration can lead to a rapid loss of minerals in your blood that maintain the balance of
fluids in your body. This is called an electrolyte imbalance.

Electrolyte imbalance
An electrolyte imbalance can lead to serious signs and symptoms such as:
• Muscle cramps. These result from the rapid loss of salts such as sodium, chloride and
potassium.
• Shock. This is one of the most serious complications of dehydration. It occurs when low
blood volume causes a drop in blood pressure and a drop in the amount of oxygen in
your body. If untreated, severe hypovolemic shock can cause death in minutes.
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Complications:
• Cholera can quickly become fatal. In the most severe cases, the rapid loss of large amounts of
fluids and electrolytes can lead to death within hours.
• Although shock and severe dehydration are the worst complications of cholera, other problems can
occur, such as:
✔ Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). Dangerously low levels of blood sugar (glucose) — the body's
main energy source — can occur when people become too ill to eat. Children are at greatest
risk of this complication, which can cause seizures, unconsciousness and even death.
✔ Low potassium levels. People with cholera lose large quantities of minerals, including potassium,
in their stools. Very low potassium levels interfere with heart and nerve function and are life-
threatening.
✔ Kidney failure. When the kidneys lose their filtering ability, excess amounts of fluids, some
electrolytes and wastes build up in the body — a potentially life-threatening condition. In
people with cholera, kidney failure often accompanies shock

Prevention
Cholera vaccine
For adults traveling from the United States to areas affected by cholera, a vaccine called
Vaxchora is available in the United States. It is a liquid dose taken by mouth at least 10 days
before travel. 12
 4. Diphtheria

• Diphtheria is a serious bacterial infection that usually

affects the mucous membranes of your nose and throat.

• Diphtheria is extremely rare in the United States and

other developed countries, thanks to widespread
vaccination against the disease.

• Diphtheria can be treated with medications. But in

advanced stages, diphtheria can damage your heart,
kidneys and nervous system. Even with treatment,
diphtheria can be deadly, especially in children.

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Symptoms
Diphtheria signs and symptoms usually begin two to five days after a person becomes
infected and may include:
• A thick, gray membrane covering your throat and tonsils
• A sore throat and hoarseness
• Swollen glands (enlarged lymph nodes) in your neck
• Difficulty breathing or rapid breathing
• Nasal discharge
• Fever and chills
• Malaise

Causes
Diphtheria is caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The bacterium usually multiplies
on or near the surface of the throat. C. diphtheriae spreads via:

• Airborne droplets. When an infected person's sneeze or cough releases a mist of contaminated
droplets, people nearby may inhale C. diphtheriae. Diphtheria spreads easily this way, especially in
crowded conditions.
• Contaminated personal or household items. People occasionally catch diphtheria from handling an
infected person's things, such as used tissues or hand towels, that may be contaminated with the
bacteria. You can also transfer diphtheria-causing bacteria by touching an infected wound.14
Prevention

The diphtheria vaccine is usually combined with vaccines for tetanus and whooping cough
(pertussis). The three-in-one vaccine is known as the diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis vaccine.
The latest version of this vaccine is known as the DTaP vaccine for children and
the Tdap vaccine for adolescents and adults.

The diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis vaccine is one of the childhood immunizations that
doctors in the United States recommend during infancy. Vaccination consists of a series of five
shots, typically administered in the arm or thigh, given to children at these ages:
• 2 months
• 4 months
• 6 months
• 15 to 18 months
• 4 to 6 years

After the initial series of immunizations in childhood, you need booster shots of the diphtheria
vaccine to help you maintain your immunity. That's because immunity to diphtheria fades with
time.

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 5. Tuberculosis
• Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially serious infectious disease that
mainly affects your lungs. The bacteria that cause tuberculosis
mycobacterium
( tuberculosis ) are spread from one person to
another through tiny droplets released into the air via coughs
and sneezes.

• Once rare in developed countries, tuberculosis infections began

increasing in 1985, partly because of the emergence of HIV, the
virus that causes AIDS. HIV weakens a person's immune system
so it can't fight the TB germs. In the United States, because of
stronger control programs, tuberculosis began to decrease
again in 1993, but remains a concern.

• Many strains of tuberculosis resist the drugs most used to treat

the disease. People with active tuberculosis must take several
types of medications for many months to eradicate the infection
and prevent development of antibiotic resistance.

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Symptoms
Although your body may harbor the bacteria that cause tuberculosis (TB), your immune
system usually can prevent you from becoming sick. For this reason, doctors make a
distinction between:

Latent TB. In this condition, you have a TB infection, but the bacteria remain in your body in
an inactive state and cause no symptoms. Latent TB, also called inactive TB or TB infection,
isn't contagious. It can turn into active TB, so treatment is important for the person with
latent TB and to help control the spread of TB. An estimated 2 billion people have latent TB.
Active TB. This condition makes you sick and in most cases can spread to others. It can occur
in the first few weeks after infection with the TB bacteria, or it might occur years later.

Signs and symptoms of active TB include:

• Coughing that lasts three or more weeks

• Coughing up blood
• Chest pain, or pain with breathing or coughing • Fever
• Unintentional weight loss • Night sweats
• Fatigue • Chills
• Loss of appetite
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 Complications
• Spinal pain. Back pain and stiffness are common complications of tuberculosis.
• Joint damage. Tuberculous arthritis usually affects the hips and knees.
• Swelling of the membranes that cover your brain (meningitis). This can cause a lasting or
intermittent headache that occurs for weeks. Mental changes also are possible.
• Liver or kidney problems. Your liver and kidneys help filter waste and impurities from your
bloodstream. These functions become impaired if the liver or kidneys are affected by
tuberculosis.
• Heart disorders. Rarely, tuberculosis can infect the tissues that surround your heart, causing
inflammation and fluid collections that may interfere with your heart's ability to pump
effectively. This condition, called cardiac tamponade, can be fatal.

Prevention
Vaccinations
In countries where tuberculosis is more common, infants often are vaccinated with Bacillus
Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine because it can prevent severe tuberculosis in children. The
BCG vaccine isn't recommended for general because it isn't very effective in adults. Dozens
of new TB vaccines are in various stages of development and testing.
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 6. Pertussis
• Pertussis, a respiratory illness commonly known as whooping cough, is
a very contagious disease caused by a type of bacteria
Bordetella pertussis .
called 

• These bacteria attach to the cilia (tiny, hair-like extensions) that line
part of the upper respiratory system. The bacteria release toxins
(poisons), which damage the cilia and cause airways to swell.

• In many people, it's marked by a severe hacking cough followed by a

high-pitched intake of breath that sounds like "whoop."

• Before the vaccine was developed, whooping cough was considered a

childhood disease. Now whooping cough primarily affects children too
young to have completed the full course of vaccinations and teenagers
and adults whose immunity has faded.

• Deaths associated with whooping cough are rare but most commonly
occur in infants.
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Symptoms
Once you become infected with whooping cough, it takes about seven to 10 days for
signs and symptoms to appear, though it can sometimes take longer. They're usually mild
at first and resemble those of a common cold:

• Runny nose
• Nasal congestion
• Red, watery eyes
• Fever
• Cough

After a week or two, signs and symptoms worsen. Thick mucus accumulates inside your
airways, causing uncontrollable coughing. Severe and prolonged coughing attacks may:

• Provoke vomiting
• Result in a red or blue face
• Cause extreme fatigue
• End with a high-pitched "whoop" sound during the next breath of air

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Complications:
Teens and adults often recover from whooping cough with no problems. When complications
occur, they tend to be side effects of the strenuous coughing, such as:
• Bruised or cracked ribs
• Abdominal hernias
• Broken blood vessels in the skin or the whites of your eyes

Prevention
Vaccination
The vaccine consists of a series of five injections, typically given to children at 2mo, 4mo,
6mo, 15-18mo, 4-6yrs
Booster shots
• Adolescents. Because immunity from the pertussis vaccine tends to wane by age 11,
doctors recommend a booster shot against pertussis, diphtheria and tetanus.
• Adults. Some varieties of the every-10-year tetanus and diphtheria vaccine also
include protection against whooping cough (pertussis).
• Pregnant women. Health experts now recommend that pregnant women receive the
pertussis vaccine between 27 and 36 weeks of gestation.
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 Viral Infections
Viruses are almost always harmful and harder to treat due to their tiny size. Viral
diseases include viral hepatitis, mumps, rabies, measles, chicken pox, and many more.
Furthermore, viruses can turn fully functional cells into cancerous cells. They target
cells in the blood, liver and respiratory system, as well as bacteria.

Following are some viral infections which are common in Pakistan:

• Mumps (Paramyxovirus)
• Measles (Rubeola virus)
• Polio (Polio virus)
• Influenza ( Influenza virus, Parainfluenza virus, Respiratory syncytial virus)

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 1. Mumps

• Mumps is a viral infection that primarily affects saliva-producing

(salivary) glands that are located near your ears. Mumps can cause
swelling in one or both of these glands.

• Mumps was common in the United States until mumps vaccination

became routine. Since then, the number of cases has dropped
dramatically.

• However, mumps outbreaks still occur in the United States, and the
number of cases has crept up in recent years. These outbreaks
generally affect people who aren't vaccinated, and occur in close-
contact settings such as schools or college campuses.

• Complications of mumps, such as hearing loss, are potentially serious

but rare. There's no specific treatment for mumps.

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Symptoms

Some people infected with the mumps virus have either no signs or symptoms or very
mild ones. When signs and symptoms do develop, they usually appear about two to
three weeks after exposure to the virus.
The primary sign of mumps is swollen salivary glands that cause the cheeks to puff out.
Other signs and symptoms may include:
• Pain in the swollen salivary glands on one or both sides of your face
• Pain while chewing or swallowing
• Fever
• Headache
• Muscle aches
• Weakness and fatigue
• Loss of appetite
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Complications:
Most mumps complications involve inflammation and swelling in some part of the body, such as:
• Testicles. This condition, known as orchitis, causes one or both testicles to swell in males who've
reached puberty. Orchitis is painful, but it rarely leads to the inability to father a child (sterility).
• Brain. Viral infections such as mumps can lead to inflammation of the brain (encephalitis).
Encephalitis can cause neurological problems and become life-threatening.
• Membranes and fluid around the brain and spinal cord. This condition, known as meningitis, can
occur if the mumps virus spreads through your bloodstream to infect your central nervous
system.
• Pancreas. The signs and symptoms of this condition, known as pancreatitis, include pain in the
upper abdomen, nausea and vomiting.

• Hearing loss. Hearing loss can occur in one or both ears. Although rare, the hearing loss is
sometimes permanent.
• Heart problems. Rarely, mumps has been associated with abnormal heartbeat and diseases of
the heart muscle.
• Miscarriage. Contracting mumps while you're pregnant, especially early in your pregnancy, may
lead to miscarriage. 25
Prevention
• The best way to prevent mumps is to be vaccinated against the disease. Most people have
immunity to mumps once they're fully vaccinated.

• The mumps vaccine is usually given as a combined measles-mumps-rubella (MMR)

inoculation, which contains the safest and most effective form of each vaccine.

• Two doses of the MMR vaccine are recommended before a child enters school. Those
vaccines should be given when the child is:
✔ Between the ages of 12 and 15 months
✔ Between the ages of 4 and 6 years

• College students, international travelers and health care workers in particular are encouraged
to make sure they've had two doses of the MMR vaccine.

• A single dose is not completely effective at preventing mumps.

• A third dose of vaccine isn't routinely recommended. But your doctor might recommend a
third dose if you are in an area that is experiencing an outbreak
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 2. Measles
• Measles is a highly contagious infectious disease caused by Rubeola virus. 

• Measles is a childhood infection. Once quite common, measles can now almost
always be prevented with a vaccine.

• Also called rubeola, measles can be serious and even fatal for small children. While
death rates have been falling worldwide as more children receive the measles
vaccine, the disease still kills more than 100,000 people a year, most under the age
of 5.

Symptoms
Measles signs and symptoms appear around 10 to 14 days after exposure to the virus. Signs and
symptoms of measles typically include:
• Fever
• Dry cough
• Runny nose
• Sore throat
• Inflamed eyes (conjunctivitis)
• Tiny white spots with bluish-white centers on a red background found inside the mouth on the
inner lining of the cheek — also called Koplik's spots 27

• A skin rash made up of large, flat blotches that often flow into one another
Complications
Complications of measles may include:

• Ear infection. One of the most common complications of measles is a bacterial ear
infection.

• Bronchitis, laryngitis or croup. Measles may lead to inflammation of your voice box
(larynx) or inflammation of the inner walls that line the main air passageways of your
lungs (bronchial tubes).

• Pneumonia. Pneumonia is a common complication of measles. People with compromised

immune systems can develop an especially dangerous variety of pneumonia that is
sometimes fatal.

• Encephalitis. About 1 in 1,000 people with measles develops a complication called

encephalitis. Encephalitis may occur right after measles, or it might not occur until
months later.

• Pregnancy problems. If you're pregnant, you need to take special care to avoid measles
because the disease can cause preterm labor, low birth weight and maternal death.
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Prevention
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that children and adults receive
the measles vaccine to prevent measles.

Measles vaccine in children

To prevent measles in children, doctors usually give infants the first dose of the vaccine between
12 and 15 months, with the second dose typically given between ages 4 and 6 years.

Measles vaccine in adults

You may need the measles vaccine if you're an adult who:

• Has an increased risk of measles — such as attending college, traveling internationally or

working in a hospital environment — and you don't have proof of immunity. Proof of
immunity includes written documentation of your vaccinations or lab confirmation of
immunity or previous illness.

• Was born in 1957 or later and you don't have proof of immunity. Proof of immunity includes
written documentation of your vaccinations or lab confirmation of immunity or previous
illness
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 3. Polio
• Polio, or poliomyelitis, is a disabling and life-threatening disease caused by the poliovirus.

• Polio is a contagious viral illness that in its most severe form causes nerve injury leading to
paralysis, difficulty breathing and sometimes death.

• The virus spreads from person to person and can infect a person's spinal cord, causing
paralysis (can't move parts of the body)

Symptoms
Illustration of a nerve cell (neuron), showing axon and dendrites
Nerve cell (neuron)
• Although polio can cause paralysis and death, the majority of people who are
infected with the virus don't get sick and aren't aware they've been infected.
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Symptoms

Non-paralytic polio
Some people who develop symptoms from the poliovirus contract a type of polio that doesn't lead
to paralysis (abortive polio). This usually causes the same mild, flu-like signs and symptoms
typical of other viral illnesses.
Signs and symptoms, which can last up to 10 days, include:
• Fever • Back pain or stiffness
• Sore throat • Neck pain or stiffness
• Headache • Pain or stiffness in the arms or
• Vomiting legs
• Fatigue • Muscle weakness or tenderness

Paralytic polio
This most serious form of the disease is rare. Initial signs and
symptoms of paralytic polio, such as fever and headache, often mimic
those of non-paralytic polio. Within a week, however, other signs and
symptoms appear, including:
• Loss of reflexes
• Severe muscle aches or weakness
• Loose and floppy limbs (flaccid paralysis) 31
Prevention
The most effective way to prevent polio is vaccination.

Polio vaccine
Most children in the United States receive four doses of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) at
the following ages:
• Two months
• Four months
• Between 6 and 18 months
• Between ages 4 and 6 when children are just entering school

IPV is safe for people with weakened immune systems, although it's not certain just how
protective the vaccine is in cases of severe immune deficiency. Common side effects are pain and
redness at the injection site.

Adult vaccination

Adults aren't routinely vaccinated against polio because most are already immune, and the
chances of contracting polio are minimal. However, certain adults at high risk of polio who have
had a primary vaccination series with either IPV or the oral polio vaccine (OPV) should receive a
single booster shot of IPV.
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 4. Influenza
• Influenza is commonly called the flu, but it's not the same as stomach "flu" viruses that
cause diarrhea and vomiting.

• The flu is caused by influenza viruses that infect the nose, throat, and lungs. These viruses
spread when people with flu cough, sneeze or talk, sending droplets with the virus into the
air and potentially into the mouths or noses of people who are nearby.

Symptoms
Initially, the flu may seem like a common cold with a runny nose, sneezing and sore throat.
But colds usually develop slowly, whereas the flu tends to come on suddenly. And although a
cold can be a nuisance, you usually feel much worse with the flu.

Common signs and symptoms of the flu include:

• Fever over 100.4˚F (38˚C) • Dry, persistent cough
• Aching muscles • Fatigue and weakness
• Chills and sweats • Nasal congestion
• Headache • Sore throat 33
Complications
If you're young and healthy, seasonal influenza usually isn't serious. Although you may feel
miserable while you have it, the flu usually goes away in a week or two with no lasting effects. But
children and adults at high risk may develop complications such as:
• Bronchitis
• Asthma flare-ups
• Heart problems
• Ear infections
• Pneumonia is the most serious complication. For older adults and people with a chronic illness,
pneumonia can be deadly.

Prevention
Each year's seasonal flu vaccine contains protection from the three or four influenza viruses
that are expected to be the most common during that year's flu season. This year, the vaccine
will be available as an injection and as a nasal spray.
In recent years, there was concern that the nasal spray vaccine wasn't effective enough
against certain types of flu. However, the nasal spray vaccine is expected to be effective in the
2019-2020 season.
The nasal spray still isn't recommended for some groups, such as pregnant women, children
between 2 and 4 years old with asthma or wheezing, and people who have compromised
immune systems. 34
 Other disease causing agents

Several other common infections in Pakistan are caused by parasites and

fungus. Some of them are:

• Ascariasis (Ascaris lumbricoides)

• Taeniasis (Taenia saginata)
• Dermatomycosis

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 Ascariasis
• Ascariasis is an infection of the small intestine caused by Ascaris
lumbricoides, which is a species of roundworm. Roundworms are a type
of parasitic worm. Ascariasis is the most common roundworm infection.

• These worms are parasites that use your body as a host to mature from
larvae or eggs to adult worms. Adult worms, which reproduce, can be
more than a foot (30 centimeters) long.

• One of the most common worm infections in people worldwide,

ascariasis is uncommon in the United States. Most infected people have
mild cases with no symptoms. But heavy infestation can lead to serious
symptoms and complications.

• Ascariasis occurs most often in children in tropical and subtropical

regions of the world — especially in areas with poor sanitation and
hygiene.

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Symptoms
In the lungs
After you swallow the tiny (microscopic) ascariasis eggs, they hatch in the small intestine and
the larvae migrate through the bloodstream or lymphatic system into the lungs. At this stage,
you may experience signs and symptoms similar to asthma or pneumonia i.e
• Persistent cough
• Shortness of breath
• Wheezing

In the intestines
The larvae mature into adult worms in the small intestine, and the adult worms typically live in the
intestines until they die. In mild or moderate ascariasis, the intestinal infestation can cause:
• Vague abdominal pain
• Nausea and vomiting
• Diarrhea or bloody stools
If you have a large number of worms in the intestine, you might have:
• Severe abdominal pain
• Fatigue
• Vomiting
• Weight loss or malnutrition
• A worm in your vomit or stool 37
Complications
Mild cases of ascariasis usually don't cause complications. If you have a heavy infestation,
potentially dangerous complications may include:

• Slowed growth. Loss of appetite and poor absorption of digested foods put children with
ascariasis at risk of not getting enough nutrition, which can slow growth.
• Intestinal blockage and perforation. In heavy ascariasis infestation, a mass of worms can
block a portion of your intestine. This can cause severe abdominal cramping and vomiting.
The blockage can even make a hole in the intestinal wall or appendix, causing internal
bleeding (hemorrhage) or appendicitis.
• Duct blockages. In some cases, worms may block the narrow ducts of your liver or pancreas,
causing severe pain.

Prevention
The best defense against ascariasis is good hygiene and common sense. Follow these tips to avoid
infection:

• Practice good hygiene. Before handling food, always wash your hands with soap and water. Wash
fresh fruits and vegetables thoroughly.
• Use care when traveling. Use only bottled water, and avoid raw vegetables unless you can peel and
wash them. 38
 Taeniasis
• Taeniasis is an infection within the intestines by adult tapeworms
belonging to the genus Taenia.

• There are generally no or only mild symptoms. Symptoms may

occasionally include weight loss or abdominal pain. Segments of
tapeworm may be seen in the stool

• Types of Taenia that cause infections in humans include Taenia solium

(pork tapeworm), Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), and Taenia asiatica
(Asian tapeworm)

Symptoms
Beef tapeworm
Taenia saginata infection is asymptomatic, but heavy infection causes weight loss, dizziness,
abdominal pain, diarrhea, headaches, nausea, constipation, chronic indigestion, and loss of
appetite. It can cause antigen reaction that induce allergic reaction. It is also a rare cause of
ileus, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, and cholangitis
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Prevention

• Prevention efforts include properly cooking meat, treating active cases in humans,
vaccinating and treating pigs against the disease, strict meat-inspection standards,
health education, improved sanitation, and improved pig raising practices.

• Preventing human feces from contaminating pig feeds. Infection can be prevented with
proper disposal of human feces around pigs, cooking meat thoroughly and/or freezing
the meat at −10 °C for 5 days.

• For human cysticercosis, contaminated hands are the primary cause, and especially
concerning among food handlers.

• Proper cooking of meat is an effective prevention. For example, cooking (56 °C for 5
minutes) of beef viscera destroys cysticerci.

• Refrigeration, freezing (−10 °C for 9 days) or long periods of salting is also lethal to
cysticerci.

40
 Dermatomycosis

• Dermatomycosis is the medical term for fungal infections of the skin and skin appendages
(derma: skin; mykes: fungus), which encompass nails and hair.

• Fungal infection can happen any time there are injured or pathologically changed skin areas.
However, there are also factors which may promote fungal infections of healthy skin areas.

• Warm, humid areas such as feet, spaces between toes, and armpits are often colonised by fungi.
Due to the warm and humid environment, the conditions are optimal for the reproduction of
the pathogens

• In approximately 70% of dermatomycoses, the infection is passed on from person to person or

via contaminated objects. Dermatomycoses are mainly caused by filamentous fungi. These are
fungi that feed on keratin occurring in skin, hair and nails.

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 Dermatomycosis
• Filamentous fungi can be transmitted to humans by close contact with infected animals
(pets, cows, horses).

• Some pathogens are mainly found in the soil, so that they can be transmitted during
gardening.

• Besides filamentous fungi, in rare cases, also yeasts or moulds may cause dermatomycoses.

• Generally, infections with the mentioned pathogens can occur on all body parts.

• The severity of infection depends on the causative agent or agents. Mixed infections with
different pathogens occur frequently.

Treatment: 
Dermatomycosis is typically confined to the superficial keratinized tissue and, thus, can
often be treated with topical antifungal medications
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