STILL CONSIDERING HAVING A GO AT ELECTRIC FLIGHT BUT DON’T KNOW WHERE TO

START? NIGEL HAWES THINKS ITS TIME YOU JOINED IN THE FUN! HERE HE EXPLAINS IN
LAYMAN’S TERMS WHERE TO START AND WHAT’S INVOLVED.

When you do something all the time, it soon becomes second nature, and you tend to take
it for granted! When I was 20 and my friends were going swimming, they didn’t know
whether to be horrified or amused that I couldn’t swim; the reason being that I missed out
on swimming lessons whilst at school and after that I thought I’d left it too late to learn!
Electric Flight seems to hold a similar parallel, when you look around everyone seems to be
having great fun and success with it these days, but the feeling is there that you may have
missed the boat.
Well let me assure you, NOBODY has missed any boat, and in fact the boat has changed
course considerably and is now even easier to get on! The fact is that Electric Flight has
finally come of age, and is both accessible and affordable - it’s just a case of easing yourself
into it at the level you wish to participate, and hopefully this article might help to point you
in the right direction for achieving success first time, on a comfortably low budget.

WHERE TO START?
Looking through articles and adverts you may think Electric Flight is a minefield of motors,
Speed Controllers, Flight Batteries and chargers etc., but in fact all you have to do is look at
it a slightly different way and it all becomes clear and falls into place.
For the dubious, there are plenty of tried and tested packages that will literally work straight
out of the box; for the slightly more adventurous there is an almost foolproof formula you
can follow that will work on any Electric model or even i.c.-to-Electric conversions!
Deciding where you want to start in Electric Flight is the first thing you have to do, after that
it’s just a matter of making the correct and well - informed purchase decisions. But
whichever level you wish to enter, it will help to know just a little about what makes an
Electric model tick and the difference between some of the major components, so I’ll start
the journey here.

MOTORS.
In Electric Flight there are two basic types of motor; Brushed motors (i.e. those with a
commutator and brushes) and Brushless motors (sometimes described as 3-phase motors).
Some would tell you that Brushed motors are becoming obsolete due to the incredible
progress and cost-reduction of Brushless motors over the past few years; the fact is, you can
still buy 400-size Brushed motors for around £5, and 480-size for only a small amount more,
and yet they are perfectly capable of propelling decent size models with reasonable
efficiency and longevity! So in my opinion they are still a very cost-effective way of dabbling
in Electric Flight to see if you like it.
Legendary models such as the Multiplex TWINSTAR and TWINJET use pairs of 400 and 480
motors respectively, and I don’t ever remember anyone being disappointed with their
performance or duration! So don’t be told you have to start up in Electric Flight by going
straight into Brushless motors and their complex Speed Controllers, there is plenty of simple
fun to be had with the good old Brushed can motors for many moons yet.
Indeed, as you can see from the picture, I fitted FOUR of the cheapest 400-size motors
(costing £4 each) to an everyday Cambria Capstan glider, and the results were not only
beyond belief using a basic 8-cell Flight Battery and cheap Speed Controller, but everywhere
I fly it, heads are turned simply because it is so unusual! Once you find your feet you can
experiment with all sorts of different configurations with surprising results.

THE “BRUSHLESS REVOLUTION”.

Brushless motors have come down considerably in price in the last few years, particularly
OUTRUNNER types which are easier and cheaper to produce than the more conventional
looking Brushless can motors. On an Outrunner type motor, the entire can containing the
magnets rotates around the stator of coils (arranged a bit like a radial engine as you can see
in the photo) - this gives the motor a great deal of torque and this allows what look like
quite small motors to turn disproportionately large propellers.
From an i.c. flyer’s point of view, this would be a bit like taking the 7 x 4 prop off your
OS.10FP engine and replacing it with a 10 x 6 - of course this wouldn’t work; but with
Electric motors, particularly Brushless Outrunner motors, it can work as long as the correct
Flight Battery is used.
Naturally the Speed Controller for a Brushless motor is far more sophisticated, as it has to
effectively change the simple Direct Current supplied by a battery into extremely complex 3-
phase pulsed Alternating Current, taking into account feedback and commutation levels that
even I can’t even contemplate! What is probably the most amazing thing is that they are
now mass-produced in such numbers that they have become in some cases even CHEAPER
than the established, simple Brushed Speed Controllers of the past.
This has meant that while a few years ago a Brushless motor and controller would have cost
you anything up to three or four times as much as a Brushed equivalent, the price difference
is now far less significant and this may explain why even complete newcomers are drawn in
to Electric Flight using Brushless from the outset; and there is nothing wrong with this at all
providing you get a motor, Speed Controller, Prop and Flight Battery that are all compatible
with each other.
The advantage with Brushless motors is that as there are no “frictional” parts (for example
the piston and liner in an i.c. engine or the brushes and commutator in a Brushed motor),
there is literally NOTHING that can wear out except for the bearings which should last a
long, long time and in any case are often replaceable.
In all the time I have operated Brushless motors I have personally never worn out a bearing
or heard of anyone managing it, so as long as you don’t overheat or crash damage a
Brushless motor you can more or less say it will “last forever”.

FLIGHT BATTERIES.
Inevitably battery technology improves with time and we have seen several significant
changes of technology that have furthered the case for Electric Flight. Initially NiCad (Nickel
Cadmium) rechargeable cells were the mainstay of Electric Flight but as they contain some
very unfriendly “heavy metals” that are harmful to the environment, these were effectively
replaced by NiMh cells (Nickel Metal Hydride) which not only had the benefit of increased
capacity per cell weight, but are also much friendlier to the environment.
Initially, they were of pretty mediocre performance but as with any type of technology, this
improved with development and within a few years NiMh cells were actually not only higher
in capacity but also as powerful if not better than the best NiCads of the previous era.
Probably the best example of NiMh technology is the excellent 3800 ma/h INTELLECT cell,
which not only produces more than enough power for most Electric Flight applications, but
is the first SUB-C cell that I have tested that can give a GENUINE 4,000 ma/h capacity.
This is a significant landmark, but does raise the question of just how far this type of
technology can go, i.e. how big a capacity the SUB-C cell can give at the extent of its
development. That said, for those unwilling to use Li-Pos, they are ideal.

THE LI-PO REVOLUTION.

Lithium Polymer batteries appeared on the market relatively recently and once again
originated from the mobile communications industry; don’t ever kid yourself that we get
batteries developed specially for our models!
Lithium as a useful element first appeared in Lithium Ion (Li-Ion) cells and apart from the
extended length, looked pretty similar to NiMhs in that they were built into a metal canister.
However when the soft “sachet” type Li-Po cells appeared and subsequently enjoyed an
incredible pace of development, they soon changed the whole face of Electric Flight due to
their tremendous capacity per weight benefits over previous Flight Batteries, and not only
made established Electric models perform better but also allowed previously impractical i.c.
to Electric conversions possible.
To give you an example, a 3300 ma/h NiMh 10-cell pack weighs almost three times as much
as a similar capacity and power 3300 ma/h Li-Po; or if you want to increase duration rather
than save weight, you will pack around 8,000 ma/h of Li-Pos into a model for the same
weight as the 3300 ma/h NiMhs.
Put that way, it becomes extremely clear why Li-Pos have become the “must-have” Electric
Flight battery and naturally as they become more mass-produced, they are not only
becoming cheaper but better due to the intense development they are enjoying.
However, every rose has its thorn and Li-Po cells require far more attention than NiMhs. For
a start, whilst we could overcharge, over-discharge and in most cases crash our NiMh packs
in a model and usually get away with it, Li-Pos are much less tolerant to abuse!

LI-PO CARE.
Each Lithium Polymer cell has a nominal voltage of 3.7v, and a fully charged voltage of 4.2v,
compared with a NiMh’s nominal 1.2v and charged 1.4v. This actually works quite well for us
in that a 2S Li-Po (i.e. two cells in series) gives a similar voltage, especially under load, as a 7-
cell NiMh and a 3S Li-Po is similar to a 9 or 10 cell NiMh.
However, you must NOT over-discharge Li-Po cells because if any cell in a pack is allowed to
drop below 2.5v, it will not recover and becomes a “useless” cell. If this happens in a large
pack of many cells in parallel or series, then the entire pack may be rendered useless as the
cells require specialist soldering equipment and techniques to fit and remove, something
no-one without such means must ever attempt.
Worse still, Li-Pos must NEVER be over-charged. If any cell is charged to even 5.5 volts (not
that much higher that the 4.2v limit) it can go into a “thermal runaway” situation resulting in
a short duration but incredibly fierce flash fire. I don’t want to sensationalise the potential
dangers of Li-Pos, as ANY high discharge energy storage device has its potential dangers -
but if you look at the pictures, and especially the short video clip of a Li-Po going up at
http://www.bvrkits.com it might encourage you to be very careful with your packs!
Fortunately, the overcharging and over-discharging problems have been more or less taken
care of by ESCs that stop the motor before the cells become over-discharged and specific Li-
Po chargers that stop charging when the cells are fully charged.
In use, as long as you don’t try to draw more current from a Li-Po than it can supply
(denoted by the “C” rating) they can be perfectly manageable and reliable with a good
service life - but remember they will NOT take any abuse and should be arranged in the
model with plenty of foam packaging as without a strong metal canister around them they
are far more susceptible to crash damage! If a LiPo cell becomes distorted or crushed in a
sharp arrival, nine times out of ten it will be irrevocably damaged.

SPEED CONTROLLERS.
These are often known as the ESC or Electronic Speed Controller. This clever bit of micro
electronics basically gives your Electric motor, whether it be Brushed or Brushless, the same
proportional throttle control as the servo connected to an i.c. engine carburettor. The
difference is, you can completely stop an electric motor in flight, enjoy the glide for a while,
then start the motor again with the throttle stick; there are very few i.c. models you can do
that with!
Naturally, the ESC does FAR more than this. It has a function called B.E.C. (Battery Eliminator
Circuit) that “siphons” off about 5 volts to supply the RX and servos with power from the
Flight Battery, so you don’t have the added weight or inconvenience of having to charge a
separate RX battery.
It also has a Power Cut-Off or “P.C.O.” function (far too often wrongly referred to as the
B.E,C,) which stops the power to the motor when the battery nears exhaustion, prioritising
the power to the RX and servos so you still have control. This PCO function is essential with
Li-Pos as it makes sure you don’t over-discharge them below their critical voltage as
explained above.
Many ESCs are programmable, allowing you to optimise switching frequency, motor timing
for different types of motor, set the brake on or off, select hard or soft start etc., but if you
are just starting in Electric Flight most of them have a foolproof and sensible default setting
so despite the manufacturers’ efforts to make them extremely versatile, most of us just
“plug and play” and therefore won’t ever need or use these functions!
Thanks again to mass production and rapid development, ESCs are very reasonably priced
for what they do, and Brushless units are in some cases just as cheap or even cheaper than
Brushed units, which clearly shows which way the market is going.

CHARGERS.
Given the diversity of cells we have in R/C modelling from NiCads to NiMhs, Li-Ion to Li-Po
and even 2v and 12 lead-acid batteries used by i.c. flyers, chargers have to be pretty
versatile units in order to cope with our demands!
Fortunately the market is brimming with excellent, reliable chargers that won’t break the
bank, and I would urge anyone starting out in the hobby to shamelessly buy the best
charger they can afford from the outset.
£50 will buy you a very good charger indeed; the one pictured here does everything I need
in my everyday pursuit of Electric Flight and is available in various different guises.
Most are designed to work from a 12v car battery at the flying field but if doing a lot of
charging in one session it’s always a good idea to make sure your car battery is in good
condition!
For home charging, a simple regulated power supply such as the J. Perkins unit shown in the
picture is ideal as long as you’re not running several chargers at the same time! Remember
if you are giving a 5-Amp charge to a Flight Battery the charge itself will probably be drawing
7 or 8 Amps from its power source - something that is often overlooked!
A final note on Li-Po charging; ALWAYS where possible charge them using the separate plug
connected to an “individual cell charger” or “balancer”, especially if the pack is well into its
cycle life. These chargers ensure that each cell will never exceed 4.2 volts during charging. If
you charge a Li-Po in series, as we have always charged NiCads and NiMhs, if there is a cell
in even a 3S pack that has just “died”, the charger will still attempt to raise the pack voltage
to 12,6v and this may risk overcharging the two healthy cells.

CHOOSING A MODEL!
Ok, we have looked at the individual items that make up our Powertrain, now we need
something to put them in!
Model choice has never been wider when it comes to Electric Flight as we now have the
power-to-weight ratio to succeed with more or less ANY project, whether it is a specific
Electric design or an i.c. to Electric conversion. The limiting factor, rather than being “will it
fly” has become “how much am I prepared to spend to make it fly!” - it is as simple as that.
As well as an almost infinite range of available plans (there are some excellent designs in the
RCME plans service so have a look!) and kits on the shelves of every model shop, the market
is now being completely flooded with ARTF (Almost Ready To Fly) offerings which in the
main come from the far east and in some cases they come complete with the motor, battery
and even radio gear!
Whilst this has almost brought entry level Electric Flight down to “toy shop” shelves, there
are some particularly nasty ARTFs out there that have dubious equipment installed, all made
to a cost so they are an attractive impulse buy.
I would advise that before rushing out and buying something like this, read the popular
press and especially try to track down a review of the model; as well as frequent RCM&E
reviews there is a gold mine of info to be found on the R/C forums and discussion groups on
the Internet. A bit of research can save a LOT of disappointment!
Most specific Electric designs have been well tried and tested and the recommended motor,
Flight Battery, ESC and prop size is all there for you. But when taking a step into the
unknown, the numbers sometimes don’t add up!
The question I am most often asked by newcomers to Electric Flight is “what motor and
battery is equivalent to a .25 i.c. engine (for example). And the answer I give is that ELECTRIC
MOTORS AREN’T THAT LIMITED!
I have a motor and battery set-up that will give the equivalent power of a .10, a .15, a .20, a .
25, a .30, a .35 and even a .40 i.c. engine, simply depending on how many cells and what size
of propeller I use. In this respect Electric Flight is so much easier to master - it’s just a simple
case of maths.

FOOL-PROOF FORMULA!
Believe me, it took me several years to finally grasp this aspect of Electric Flight but since
then I have found it to work every time.
Power is expressed as WATTS, and this is the simplest calculation possible, i.e. the number
of volts your battery is showing under load, multiplied by the number of Amps the set-up is
drawing. Simply by plugging a measuring device such as a Wattsmeter into the circuit as
shown, will tell you not only how many watts are being consumed but is an INSTANT
indication as to whether you are over-Amping either the motor or Flight Battery; something
you NEED to know!
As a basic rule of thumb, most models will fly on 50 watts per pound of weight. Make this 75
watts per pound of weight and you will have pretty decent performance. Stretch it to 100+
watts per pound and you will have outstanding, and in some cases unlimited vertical
performance.
So for example, if you have a sport model that weighs somewhere between 4 and 5 pounds,
for decent performance you will need a 300 watt set-up and to make it really perform aim
for 500 watts; remember if you have more power than you need you don’t necessarily have
to use it all!
On smaller models it is much easier and a lot cheaper to make them sparkle, for example a 2
pound model with a 200-watt 400-size Brushless set-up that doesn’t cost very much at all
will eat up the sky like you have never seen!
In this case a 2000 ma/h 3S Li-Po (showing 10 volts under load) drawing 20 Amps (if it is a
10C pack) would be ideal; 10v x 20A = 200 watts.

BUYING A SET-UP.
Knowing this fool-proof formula will instantly relieve you of the confusion that goes with the
ridiculous bombardment of numbers that afflict Electric Flight components. Coming from an
i.c. background, whilst Irvine .46 might mean something to you, it is unlikely that 3630/1000
or 16/15/4 will be of any meaning at all!
However, contact a leading Electric Flight expert and ask for a “200 watt Electric Flight set-
up” and that’s exactly what you will get, with each component of the powertrain
(INCLUDING the correct prop size which is so critical in Electric Flight) being matched to each
other and working within their limits so nothing is going to catch fire or melt.
Once you realise that the actual numbers themselves are of less importance than the
wattage of set-up you require, Electric Flight becomes easy! All you need to do, for example
when choosing a 300-watt set-up for a 3-4 pound model, is to make sure the Motor, Flight
Battery and ESC are all up to the 300 watts you will demand, and that the prop size is
correct.
The only thing I would say in addition to this is that some models require a small fast-
spinning propeller (such as a fast pylon type) and some require a larger, slower-turning
propeller (such as a powered glider or scale model) and 300 watts can be used in either
circumstance simply by correct motor Kv and prop selection - but this is best left to the
expertise and experience of the specialist you buy from.

CONVERSION CONFUSION!
One of the main problems in taking up Electric Flight, especially if you are currently an i.c.
flyer, is the sheer baffling array of motors, batteries, speed controllers and propellers on the
market, each having a crucial effect on the other.
With an i.c. engine, the parameters are virtually set in stone; sure, you could use a different
fuel, different glowplug, different silencer and a small deviation in prop size, but the
performance or more specifically the power output will be lucky to show a 10% deviation.
In short, an i.c. motor specified as being capable of producing one brake horsepower will,
under ideal conditions, produce one brake horsepower - and that’s it. They are pretty
foolproof, and the data that goes with each different size or make of i.c. engine is pretty
much established. As far back as when I was eight years old (and that’s longer ago than I’d
care to remember!) I knew that a Merco .61 needed a 12 x 6 prop, straight 80/20 fuel, and a
Taylor glowplug. For a slightly more agile aircraft, an 11 x 7¾ prop, 5% Nitro fuel and a Hot-
Spot plug gave it the edge - and that was all we needed to know!
Little wonder then, that a dyed in the wood i.c. flyer could pick up three electric motors with
3630-4/780, 22/30/3E, Z3025/12 and on the labels and wonder what on earth it all means!
Well, an article in last year’s special attempted to explain what all the various numbers
mean but even when you have mastered the art of motor nomenclature, there are still
many other considerations regarding ESC and battery choice, as well as which prop to use!
Conversion from i.c. to Electric, or even just starting in radio controlled aircraft taking the
more sensible electric route, can still be extremely confusing so hopefully by the end of this
article it will all be a little clearer, and might hopefully save you either from a significant
wasted expense or at worst a serious injury: electricity can be dangerous.

THE KEY TO IT ALL?

Sadly, many of the manufacturers and distributors are largely to blame for much of the
confusion, each numbering or labelling their product in a different way in the futile hope of
avoiding direct comparison with a rival’s products. Some even put charging plugs on their
batteries which will only fit their own specified charger, and it has to stop.
Fortunately, the tide is slowly turning and the way many motors are marketed is beginning
to become much clearer. In the same way as i.c. engines are rated by their brake
horsepower output, electric motors (as they always have been but in most cases,
somewhere in the background) are rated by their MAXIMUM WATTAGE.
This being the case, it allows us to immediately visualise what the motor might be suitable
for, i.e. whereas 35 years ago we would have deemed a Merco .61 as being suitable for a
Gangster .63, we can pick up a 300-watt electric motor and deem it as suitable for a Ripmax
Spitfire.
As I touched on in the last RCM&E Special, wattage (or rather the power-to-weight ratio of
watts per pound) is the key to success in electric flight.
And the reason that the 300-watt motor is suitable for the Ripmax Spitfire is that this will be
a 3lb model, and 100 watts per pound is by today’s standards an almost foolproof power to
weight ratio. Naturally, a fast jet or extreme 3D type model will need over 200 watts per
pound, and a Piper Cub or powered glider will happily buzz around on 50 or 60 watts per
pound; but aim for in the region of 100 and you will never be far out.

MOTOR MANIA!
Armed with this equation, we can start to figure out our model’s basic power requirement
simply on the basis of its all-up weight. For example if we predict our model will come out in
the 5lb region, then we are looking at needing a 500-watt set-up for it. Of course we need to
know what proportion of that 5lbs will be made up of the batteries and motor itself, but this
information is readily available in the product specification.
Going back to i.c. engines for a moment, there are different designs of motor for different
types of model; a specific ducted fan motor such as an OS .91VRDF will be tuned to produce
its best power output at maximum revs, and has a short stroke to achieve this, whereas the
longer stroke OS .91FX is tuned for the more general type of club model it will be used for.
In the same way, electric motors are “wound” for specific applications and this is expressed
as a motor’s Kv, which means its “RPM per volt”. If you take a 1500 Kv motor and run it at
10 volts, the shaft will spin at 1500 RPM for every volt applied making 15,000 RPM. This is
however a “no load” shaft speed so when you fit a prop, you won’t expect to get the same
15,000 RPM!
Motors with high Kvs of between 3000 and 4000 are generally used either for fast pylon or
EDF models where the prop or impeller is of very small diameter. They can also be very
useful for use with a gearbox; if you gear a 4000 Kv motor through a 4:1 reduction gearbox,
the gearbox output shaft will have an equivalent of 1000 RPM per volt and so on.
Motors of much lower Kv, typically of around 1000, are wound for more general
applications such as everyday sport models and are capable of turning fairly large props on
the basis that it is far more efficient to move a large amount of air more slowly than it is to
move a small amount of air very quickly.
Unless a model is of a specialised type, when I’m looking for an everyday motor to put on
one of my prop-driven models I tend to look for a motor with a Kv of around 1000 as a
starting point. As your understanding of electric flight progresses, motor Kv figures do
become a lot easier to understand and work with.

FLIGHT BATTERIES.
Lithium Polymer flight batteries are currently enjoying their heyday, which is
understandable as the more recent generation of Li-Pos (as we refer to them) give excellent
power output, good voltage stability and are much lighter than their equivalent power
density NiCad (Nickel Cadmium) and NiMh (Nickel Metal Hydride) predecessors.
But they do have their disadvantages too! For a start, as with any new-ish technology, they
initially had a crippling price tag which has gradually decreased to a sensible level but only
fairly recently. Secondly, as they are wrapped in a plastic sac rather than a metal canister, in
a crash situation they are particularly susceptible to damage, and even in careful use their
cycle life (i.e. the number of times you can recharge and use them before the capacity
reduces significantly) can often be as few as 50 flights.
Finally, their Lithium Cobalt Dioxide chemistry is inherently unstable, and unless used within
very strict voltage parameters they can either be extremely dangerous or rendered
completely useless. Charge any cell above 5.5v and they will reach “thermal runaway” and
explode, discharge them much below 2.4v and they will effectively die.
At the same time as Li-Pos have improved in performance, not only have NiMhs done the
same but have become significantly cheaper too. The Li-Po versus NiMh argument will
smoulder on for a good while yet, and it is not the purpose of this article to pick a winner!
All I am saying is that BOTH are suitable for electric flight applications, and it is the pack
VOLTAGE that is one of the more significant figures that we need in electric flight
calculations.
Generally, I look for 10 volts as an “ideal” pack voltage under load (i.e. running in a model
with a prop fitted to the motor) as not only does it make the calculations easier, it is also
high enough to achieve decent wattage figures without requiring silly currents.
For example:

A motor drawing 30 Amps from a 10-cell NiMh or 3s Li-Po that is comfortably showing 10
volts under load will consume 300 watts (30A x 10v = 300w).

A motor drawing 30 Amps from a 7-cell NiMh or 2s Li-Po that is comfortably showing 7 volts
will only show 210 watts (30A x 7v = 210w).

To get this wattage figure up to 300 watts using a 7-cell NiMh or 2s Li-Po, you will have to
prop the motor to draw a whopping 43 AMPS! (43A x 7v = 301w).
As you can see from this, the higher the input voltage, the less current the powertrain will
need to run at in order to produce useful wattage. This is why in highly efficient set-ups
people used to use 30+ NiCads or NiMhs and more recently up to 10s Li-Pos; at 40 volts
input, you only need to draw 25 Amps to consume 1000 watts which is 1 Kilowatt!
As 3s Li-Pos and 10-cell NiMh flight batteries are extremely popular and available these
days, this makes an input voltage of 10v very easy to achieve and for the purposes of an
everyday electric model flyer is a good starting point.

CELL PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES.

Without putting too fine a point on it, with early generations of Li-Pos and certainly a few
years ago when NiMhs first hit the scene, their voltage stability under load was rubbish. Of
course their constant development for the portable powertool and mobile communications
market saw this improve dramatically but Li-Pos are still sadly oversold and overrated by
some distributors and the result can easily be a ruined battery.
In order to avoid this disappointment, we can observe a very simple set of rules: buy the
highest “C” rating battery we can afford, and run it at around HALF of its claimed
performance rating. This means that if you buy a 20C rated Li-Po and run it at 10C, it should
be working well within its capabilities and give a decent service life.
But what IS this “C” rating? It is simply the multiple of the pack’s capacity.
If you have a 3000 mA/h Li-Po that is rated at 20C, then its theoretical maximum current
handling capacity is 60 Amps. Although some vendors would love to tell you that it can
sustain this constantly, your flight will last exactly 3 minutes (i.e. 1/20th of an hour), the
pack will get extremely hot, and with regular such use its cycle life will suffer terribly.
The same applies to an older generation 3000 pack rated at 10C; run it constantly at its
theoretical maximum of 30 Amps and whilst the flight should last twice as long, i.e. SIX
minutes, your pack will be working at its limit the whole time.
It is far better to run the 3000 20C pack at 10C, as this will both allow occasional bursts of
more than 30 Amps (even 50+ Amps if you must!) and give prolonged life.

WATT CELLS?
Some of you reading this may have already noticed a relationship between motors and
batteries at this stage: a 300 watt motor that draws 30 Amps at 10 volts, and a 3000 mA/h
20C Li-Po that can supply 30 Amps at 10 volts until it is exhausted! Put this set-up in a model
which will weigh 3lbs or just over, and you also have your ideal power-to-weight ratio
It is at this point that the penny begins to drop, and you have taken the first step towards
conquering basic electric flight calculations. Not only is the wattage of the motor significant,
but also calculating the wattage a flight battery can sensibly deliver constantly without being
pushed too far, is also a vital step in the right direction.
Keeping the figures simple, a 5000 mA/h Li-Po working at 10C will give 50 Amps at 10 volts;
put this in a model that will weigh 5lbs and use a motor rated at 500 watts and once again
you have your ideal set-up. It really is this easy!
If only more newcomers to electric flight would buy a Li-Po from a shop or trade stand at a
show with this equation in mind, then perhaps there would be less frustration,
disappointment and potential hazard in the hobby.

THE SPEED CONTROLLER.

Sadly, the Electronic Speed Controller (or ESC as we all refer to it these days) is one of the
most misunderstood and maligned items in Electric Flight; this explains why so many of
them get burned out, overheated, melted and generally abused!
Unfortunately only the genius minds of people like Mike Merrick of Mtroniks in Yorkshire
(01943 461482) really know what’s going on inside that little box of tricks but over the years
Mike has babbled on in technical language at me until some of the basics have actually
penetrated my extremely dense grey matter.
The way the industry has gone is to produce these units ever smaller, to the point at which
they have almost become a fashion accessory. Sadly, as Scotty continuously ranted to
Captain Kirk in Star Trek, “ye cannae change the laws of physics!” - heat needs to be
dissipated and the larger the heatsink, the better the dissipation.
A modern sensorless brushless speed controller has a very complicated task in that it has to
start a 3-phase motor from a standstill, relying only on electronic feedback from the motor
windings following a “kick” pulse, then continue the motor turning in the correct direction
under extreme current loads and particularly in the case of high pole count motors,
unimaginable commutation speed (i.e. the higher the RPM, the faster the ESC has to analyse
the winding feedback and the FETs have to switch the phases).
Add to this the complications of programming various degrees of timing advance, switching
frequency, input voltage cut-off point, soft or hard start-up strategy and brake options, and
you have an extremely sophisticated piece of technology Velcroed to your model!
As a result of what we learned when testing for the record attempt we made last year, by
flying the first electric powered model aircraft across the English Channel, my attitude
towards ESCs has changed dramatically.
Although we were only drawing a constant 15 Amps, we managed to melt several 40 Amp
ESCs during testing and even got a 60 Amp unit to thermally shut down! The reason for this
is that at 15 Amps the FETs are actually doing more switching, and therefore working far
harder, than they would be at approaching the stated 40 Amp maximum.
This explains why I now buy the most substantial ESCs fitted with the most efficient FETs I
can afford, as some of the cheap and nasty units around really are a false economy. The ESC
pictured is the one Mike and the Mtroniks design & development team made especially for
the attempt, and you can see the size of the heatsink it uses! This thing never even got
warm during the crossing, and that means that no energy was wasted in creating heat -
something few people even consider when purchasing an ESC.
Mtroniks apply the same principle to their commercial range of model aircraft ESCs, and you
can probably imagine why I use them almost exclusively these days.

HORSES FOR COURSES.

When you buy an ESC, as well as considering the quality and efficiency issues, you must also
make sure that it is suitable for the intended application, and that doesn’t just mean its
current rating. If you are following our pet example of the 300-watt set-up, this will require
an ESC that can sensibly handle a constant current of 30 Amps. However, a 30 Amp ESC is
the last thing you should be looking for!
When you consider the price differential to a 40 Amp unit, which will usually be less than
£20, is it really worth risking your model on a piece of electronics that will be working at its
limit? I tend to think not, and insist on using an ESC with at least 25% in hand, as in this
example. For a 40 Amp application, I won’t use anything less than a 60 Amp ESC. This may
seem a little paranoid or untrusting of the label - but in the same way as a Li-Po, an ESC
working well within itself will pay dividends not only in service life but also in terms of
reliability during that service life.
When buying an ESC you must consider the input voltage you are using, and indeed may
choose to use in the future. A model flying on a 3s Li-Po will receive an amazing shot in the
arm if the input voltage is raised to 4s; but thanks to our good friend Ohm’s Law, this also
increases the current! So you need to be certain that the motor and Li-Pos can deal with this
extra demand, whilst the ESC needs to be capable of the extra current AND the higher cell
count.
Some ESCs are only suitable for 6-10 NiMh cells or 2s-3s Li-Pos, so if there is any chance that
the power bug might sting you somewhere down the line, it may be well worth investing in
a good quality ESC capable of high currents and higher voltages than you might intend to
use at first, as things might change when you taste the potential!
With the price and availability of a 60 Amp programmable ESC capable of 7-16 NiMhs or 2s-
5s Li-Pos these days, there is no excuse for losing a good model through the silly use of a
sub-standard speed controller. You have been warned!

LI-PO PROTECTION.
If you are using a Li-Po, you must ensure that the Power Cut-Off (PCO) function of the ESC is
capable of protecting the Li-Po from being over-discharged. ESCs can do this in two different
ways: some can be programmed to shut motor power off at different voltages (e.g. 9v for a
3s battery, 6v for a 2s etc.) and some simply shut down at around 70% of the voltage
detected when you connect the Li-Po up.
The latter are often described as having an “auto-detect” PCO and are popular with those
easily baffled by the complicated programming sequence employed by some ESCs - but they
must ONLY be used when the Li-Po you are connecting is fully charged. I would personally
always err towards a programmable unit (after learning how to programme it correctly)
because if your Li-Po isn’t fully charged, then 70% of its connection voltage will definitely fall
below the safe voltage-per-cell level when the PCO shuts the motor power off.
For example, a freshly charged 3s Li-Po showing 12.6 volts will be shut down at 70% of this,
which is a fraction under 9 volts, and 3 volts per cell is a nice safe level. However if you have
already had half a flight with your model and landed to make an adjustment, you may be
connecting the battery back up at 11 volts; in this case the PCO would shut down at just 7.7
volts which could render the weakest cell unusable, and thus destroy the pack.

PROPPING IT UP!
The final link in the chain (and its significance is often overlooked) is the humble propeller. It
still amazes people coming from an i.c. background that this simple piece of nylon or GRP
can make such a difference in electric flight but from the outset you must treat the propeller
with the utmost respect. Not only is it the one item that can rid you of a finger with one
swipe, it can also conspire to destroy your flight battery, motor or ESC in a puff of smoke - or
in the worst case scenario ALL THREE.
You may think this is a little dramatic, but it is completely true. Anyone who has
inadvertently put their fingers into the spinning prop of a .15 size i.c. glow engine will have
got a smart whack that may even have drawn blood; but nine times out of ten the motor
will stop instantly. Do this with a .40 and you can sustain a nasty gash that may require
hospital attention as the increased power of the motor can mean it has two or three swipes
at you before it stops.
Electric motors are DIFFERENT. No matter what size the motor is, as long as there is power
being applied, it WILL attempt to turn, and keep turning - even if it becomes so overloaded
it melts in the process. What this means is that an encounter with a spinning prop can result
in your fingers being slashed relentlessly again and again, until the power is cut.
If you are entering electric flight for the first time, PLEASE remember this and never become
complacent when it comes to safety around the prop of an electric model - they can be FAR
more damaging than you would ever imagine.

MEASURE FOR MEASURE.

Apart from the obvious safety aspects, incorrect prop choice probably causes more
problems in electric flight than any other mismatched component, and it is SO easy to get
right, as long as you have the correct equipment.
The equipment I’m referring to is some sort of measuring device such as a Wattsmeter or
Power Meter, and these are available from most model shops now at very low cost.
There was a time when even I used to poke about in the dark, trying to establish whether or
not I had chosen the correct prop by how hot the motor or NiCad pack got after a couple of
minutes! Looking back it was crazy!
When you consider the cost of a melted motor, blown ESC or overloaded Li-Po, paying
around £25 for a meter suddenly fades into insignificance and your enjoyment and success
in electric flight will suddenly take an upturn, as you will finally be able to see at a glance
exactly what is going on.
These meters simply plug in between the flight battery (whether it be a NiMh or a Li-Po) and
as you open the throttle of your (well secured) model to full, the various readings instantly
indicate the important information you need: current in Amps, power consumption in watts,
battery state under load in volts, and in most cases the number of milliamp-hours of battery
capacity given up (although this will only be of any use if you are measuring a complete
ground run from fully charged to fully exhausted).
As you analyse this information, you can see whether the wattage exceeds the motor’s
capability, whether the current exceeds the ESC or battery’s constant handling capacity, and
whether (in the case of a Li-Po) the battery voltage is being pulled down too low by the
current being drawn. It is therefore also very useful in establishing the quality of some of
these unknown brands of Li-Po from the Far East - if at 10C it is showing less than 10 volts,
then your Li-Po is a lemon.
You simply CAN NOT participate effectively in electric flight without one of these, so please
make it one of the first items you buy!

TESTING TIMES.
You may prefer to stick to an established or tried and tested set-up recommended by a
colleague or article, but before flying ANY new set-up you need to put the meter on it just to
make sure everything is as it should be. What you find is that the more you do this, the
more inquisitive you become and before long you’re testing every set-up in sight - it’s
addictive!
It’s a good idea to have a few different size and different makes of prop to hand, and
starting with one which is a good bit smaller than you imagine you will need, run it up to full
throttle and read off the results. If they are a long way below what you need, you simply
increase the diameter and pitch of the prop until you find the one nearest your
requirements.
What may surprise you is that on our 300-watt example, if you try five different makes of 9 x
6 prop, you will get five different readings and there may be anything up to 50 watts of
difference between the highest and lowest reading! This is why in all the charts I have done
for my FLY ELECTRIC column in RCM&E, I ALWAYS specify what make of prop was used as
well as the size, as they really can vary greatly.
Quite commonly, the specific electric-only props such as Master or APC “E” will give the
highest wattage, with cheap plastic i.c. props at the bottom of the pile. You may not be as
aware of it on an i.c. model, unless you have an expensive test-rig and dynamometer all you
can practically do is fit a few different ones and attempt to gauge which one “feels” the best
when you fly the model, when testing different props with a Wattsmeter in the circuit, you
can instantly see the difference in the way props perform and this does help immensely
when fine-tuning a set-up.

SPOT THE DIFFERENCE!

People constantly ask me why it is so difficult to compare electric motors to an equivalent
size of i.c. motor, and I have to explain why it is virtually impossible.
The major difference between i.c. and electric is that whereas with an i.c. engine you have
to stick to the recommended prop or thereabouts, whereas with electric motors you can
diversify further than you would ever imagine. For example, a 300 watt motor of 1000 Kv
could quite happily swing a 12 x 6 prop on a suitable 3s Li-Po at around 7,500 RPM on a
powered glider, but the same motor fitted to a fast pylon model could be equally effective
with an 8 x 7 prop on a 4s Li-Po spinning at over 12,000 RPM. An i.c. engine can simply
NEVER be this flexible as its port timing is tuned to a very narrow RPM band; above or below
this “powerband” the engine simply isn’t efficient.
So due to this flexibility, one single electric motor can in fact be comparable with SIX
different i.c. engines, depending upon what prop is fitted and how many cells are being
used.
There are some motor manufacturers such as MVVS who are now daring to market their
motors as direct i.c. counterparts, but this in my opinion can only be done in terms of
MAXIMUM output, i.e. that a certain electric motor “running at or near its maximum
wattage rating” will power a model “normally powered by a .40 i.c. engine”.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER.

So hopefully using the information above, the whole process of matching up the
components of your electric model will now be a lot more straightforward.
To summarise, power to weight ratio is the key, so for every pound of model weight (ready
to fly with the chosen motor and flight batteries installed) aim for 100 watts. Once you know
the wattage you need, buy a motor that will easily handle this wattage, and choose a Kv that
will swing an appropriate prop size on the number of cells you will be using. Most motors
these days come with some data or a chart which give you a rough guide anyway; for
example EVERY motor bought from BRC HOBBIES (0191 430 1834) is rated by its wattage
and contains suitable prop information on various input voltages.
Choose an ESC that is at least 25% higher rated than the current you will be drawing,
establish that it will take the input voltage you plan to use, and if using Li-Po flight batteries
make sure it can be programmed to protect them from being over-discharged.
You will need a battery that is not only capable of running constantly at the current you will
be drawing, but also has sufficient capacity to give a worthwhile flight duration, and if it is a
Li-Po, use an individual cell charger/balancer to ensure longevity of the pack.
Finally, and in my opinion most importantly, get your hands on a measuring device such as a
Wattsmeter so when you have all the components of your powertrain installed, you can
confirm the volts, Amps and watts at full power to make sure that these fall within the
parameters you know to be observed; you can always increase or decrease the prop size if
the figures are above or below expectations.

FLY ELECTRIC!
If you follow these simple rules, and get little bits of help and advice from those who have a
proven successful track record in electric flight (avoiding “theory” experts like the plague!),
you will be very unlucky if your first venture into the previously “unknown” isn’t completely
successful. As some may tell you, the 100 watts per pound rule is perhaps a little
extravagant; some models will fly really well on 80, others will manage on 60! But for take-
off from the ground, power to get out of trouble, and maintaining authority in adverse
weather conditions, it is far better to have plenty in hand than find yourself struggling with
marginal power. And of course if you don’t need all the power available, remember that the
throttle stick on the transmitter is PROPORTIONAL and not an on-off switch! Electric models
seem to be remarkably efficient at cruise settings; this was one of the keys to our cross-
channel flight success - so good throttle management with your electric model will result in
flight duration extended further than you might think.

Batteries

To start off we’ll use the old analogy. Think of electricity like water. Amps = flow
Volts = pressure. Amps are like water flow, like liters per hour. There can be flow at low
pressure and you can have flow at high pressure. Volts is like pounds per square inch, psi.
This says nothing about quantity or how much is flowing, just how hard it is being pushed.
You can have 100 psi with zero water flow. Amp hours is how much flow can be sustained
for how long. It is used as a way of measuring how much electricity is in the battery. Like
how many gallons of petrol in your tank. It is a capacity number. It means nothing about
flow or pressure, it is about capacity.

1 amp = 1000 miliamps (mili means 1/1000 amps)

Examples

So a 3 cell lipo provides 11.1V (pressure). The motor will draw electricity from the pack at a
certain flow rate, or amps. If you have a have a 1000 mili amp hour pack (mAh), it can
deliver a flow of 1 amp (1000 miliamps) for one hour. If you draw it out faster, it
doesn't last as long. So your motor might pull 10 amps for 1/10 of an hour, or about 6
minutes. (10C= 6 minutes) A 2000 mah pack has twice the capacity of the 1000 mah pack, so
it should last twice as long.
What is C rating?

C ratings are simply a way of talking about charge and discharge rates for
batteries.
1C, = 1 times the rated mah capacity of the battery. So if you charge or discharge your
650 mah pack at 1C, you charge it a 650 miliamps, or 0.65 amps.
1C on a 1300 pack is 1.3 amps. Duration = 1 Hour (60/1)
2C on a 1300 pack is 2.6 amps. Duration = 30 minutes (60/2)
If you have a 500 mah pack rated at 15C it knocks out 7.5 amps. Duration = 4 minutes
(60/150)
If you have a 1000 mah rated at 12C it knocks out 12 amps. Duration = 5 minutes (60/12)
If you have a 1000 mah pack rated at 7C that means it can deliver 7 amps. Duration = 8.5
minutes
If you have a 1500 mah rated at 8C it knocks out can deliver 12 amps. Duration = 7.5
minutes
If you have a 2000 mah pack rated at 20 C that means it can deliver 40 amps. Lasting only 3
minutes.
If you have a 2000 mah pack rated at 30 C that means it can deliver 60 amps! Lasts 2
minutes!

So, if you need 60 amps you can use a pack with a higher C rating (2000mAh 30C) or a pack
with a higher mAh (4000mAh 15C) rating to get to needed amp delivery level.

Burst Rating

Back to the 2000mah 11.1v 3S battery. Lets say the rating of this battery is 20C constant and
30C max. This would be a high performance battery. So as we know the maximum constant
discharge rate would be 20 x battery capacity (2000mah or 2amps),so 20 x 2amps = 40 amps
constant. Using a 2000mah battery at 40amps will make it flat pretty quick – about 3 mins
flight time only. You will see batteries marked as 20C constant 30C burst. The battery cannot
discharge at this rate for very long – maybe just a few seconds, but during this time its
knocking out max power. So in this instance

2000mah (2amps) x 30 = 60amps!

This means a 30C 2000mah Battery is actually capable of delivering a whopping 60amps @
11.1volts. This translates to 11.1 x 60 = 666watts power. (Watts = Volts x Amps).

However - It is best to size your battery packs so they run below their max C rating. You will
stress them less and they will last longer. Eg if your motor needs a battery that can deliver
10 amps, getting a 1000 mah pack that is rated for 10C ( 10 amps ) will meet the spec, but it
is running at its limit. A 15 C rated 1000 mah pack would be better, or perhaps a 1300 mah
10 C pack. In either of these cases, the pack will be less stressed and should handle the load
much better over the long term giving you a long lasting, better performing lipo. I’m often
asked what effect does voltage have on the duration of a lipo.
Duration = number of minutes / C rating. There’s nothing about volts in there.
Voltage doesn’t enter into it. However, if you have a 1200rpm/v (kv) motor running on
11.1V (3 cells). 11.1v x 1200 = 13320 rpm. Imagine you put a 4 cell on there. That’s 14.8v.
Look what happens to the rpm and the power (VxI). Things should be falling into place
now...

Why Are The "C" Ratings Important?

If you over-discharge the Lipo, it will get VERY hot and probably catch fire. If you want to
give your plane a good sending off, put a battery rated for 20 amps burst into a plane that
will demand 40 amps - November 5th would be good choice for this sort of stunt. Check
your motor’s manufacturers specs out for how many amps it needs. Every motor has them
so it shouldn’t be too challenging. As a safety net if a motor needs 20 amps get a lipo that
can give it 40amps. The battery can’t force feed it amps unless you over prop it. If that
happens and you’ve factored in the extra amps you’ll lose your motor, but you won’t lose
your lipo, esc and probably your plane and motor.

In Series and Parallel

When you put cells in series, their voltage is added together. For example:
-----> [- 3.7V +] [- 3.7V +] [- 3.7V +] ----->

This battery has 3 cells in series, so this is called a "3S" battery or “3S1P”. The total voltage
of this battery is 3*3.7V = 11.1V.

When you put cells in parallel, their capacity is added together. For example:
.--> [- 1.2Ah +] --.
---|--> [- 1.2Ah +] --|--->
'--> [- 1.2Ah +] --'

This battery has 3 cells in parallel, so this is called a "3P" battery or “1S3P”. The total
capacitance of this battery is 3*1.2Ah = 3.6Ah.

You can use combinations of cells in series and in parallel to achieve different levels of
Voltage and Capacitance. For example:
.--> [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +]--.
---|--> [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +]--|--->
'--> [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +] [- 1.2Ah, 3.7V +]--'

This battery has 3 parallel groups of 4 cells in series, so this would be called a "4S3P"
battery. The total voltage of this battery is 4*3.7V = 14.8V, and the capacitance of the
battery is 3*1.2Ah = 3.6Ah

Motor batteries vs. receiver batteries

Some batteries can sustain high discharge rates. Others can not. Those used as
transmitter/receiver packs are made for low amp rates while those made for motor packs
can discharge higher rates. Having a 500 milli amp hour pack does not tell you if it is a motor
pack that can put out 6 amps, or if it is a transmitter/receiver pack that would be damaged if
you tried to pull power at 6 amps. It is enough to say that they are different.

Clearly a motor pack could be used for a transmitter/receiver job, but a transmitter/receiver
pack should not generally be used as a motor pack. Each Lipo cell is 3.7 volts. The capacity
(storage) of a battery pack is determined by the mAh (milli amp hours) rating of the cell
itself, regardless of the voltage.

A Beginner's Servo Guide

RC servos are the arms that control every moving part of our RC airplanes. The movement of
each servo is proportional to movement of the stick on the transmitter. Servos actuate the
control surfaces, throttle, landing gear, smoke, and anything else aboard the airplane that
needs our input while in the air.
A servo consists of a small DC motor, small set of gears, a potentiometer, and electronics for
controlling feedback. Each servo has three wires. A series of relatively low voltage control
pulses are sent to the servo from the receiver through the white wire. The black and red
wires provide the electrical power needed to operate the DC motor.
A servo receives the command or pulse from the receiver every 20ms. The servo must hold
that position for the next 20ms until it gets the next pulse. The servo must hold this position
even if the forces from the control surface are trying to make it move. If you try to move the
elevator of your airplane with the radio on and with the sticks in neutral, the servo will fight
you to keep the elevator in neutral position.
How does it do this? It does it exactly the same way cruise control maintains the same speed
going up hill or down hill. Both servos and cruise control use feedback. With cruise control
the speedometer provides the feedback. The electronic circuitry looks at the speedometer
and compares it to the set speed. If the value of the speedometer is greater than the set
speed, the circuitry sends a signal to let off the gas. If the value of the speedometer is less
than the set speed, the circuitry sends a signal to give more gas. It does this several times a
second where in most cases it is so smooth you don’t even notice it.
Instead of a speedometer, a servo uses a potentiometer (pot) for feedback. The
potentiometer is a resistor that changes resistance and it rotates. It is mechanically coupled
to the motor and gears so it rotates with the servo motor. The circuitry in the servo knows
the exact position of the servo from looking at the voltage coming from the pot (resistance
goes up, voltage goes down). The circuitry compares the position dictated by the receiver
with the position indicated by the pot. The circuitry then tells the servo motor to move in
the appropriate direction to minimize the difference.

Inside a Servo

Servo Gears
The motors inside of our servos turn much faster than we would ever need the servo to
move. For that reason, every servo has a set of gears that reduces the speed of the output
shaft from the speed of the motor. As with any gear reducer, this also causes the torque of
the output shaft to be much higher than the torque of the motor.
Most servo gears are made from a type of plastic called nylon. Sometimes under excess
torque these plastic gears will strip out. If you're lucky, you will get some warning signs
before having a catastrophic failure that destroys your airplane. But there have been a many
of crashes due to stripped servo gears.
Many large scale or 3D pilots will buy RC servos with metal gears. These are bit more
expensive and they weigh a little more. But they will withstand a lot more torque than
standard plastic gears. The only downside, besides the added weightis that metal gears can,
occasionally cause glitching with certain receivers or ESCs and they will wear over time and
this leads to slop in the servo. This wear happens slowly and gives you plenty of warning, as
opposed to set of nylon gears that has the potential of stripping any time it is overloaded.
Replacement gears sets are readily available for both medal and plastic. So when you
destroy the gears in your servo, it is cheaper to replace the gears rather than buy a new
servo.
 Metal and Nylon Servo Gears
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Servo Motors
If you've been shopping around for a servo you have probably noticed the different types of
servo motors available. You will see 3P, 5p, coreless and brushless. So which one should you
choose?
3P and 5P Most RC servos on the market are either 3 pole(3p) or 5 pole(5p) motors. All DC
motors have a set of permanent magnets that the electromagnets(windings) are attracted
to. These permanent magnets are called poles. The torque of the motor can be reduced if
the electromagnets happen to be precisely in between two poles when the servo is trying to
hold position. In other words, 5P motors will have more holding torque with smoother
operation than 3P motors. If you're a beginner, there probably isn't enough difference that
you would even be able to tell.

Coreless Motors
In a conventional motor, windings are wrapped around a metal core to form the
electromagnets. A coreless motor does not have a core. The windings consist of a wire mesh
that rotates around the outside of the permanent magnets. This eliminates the problem
(notchy feel and imprecise movements) with reduced torque at certain positions as
discussed above with standard cored motors. A coreless motor will also respond much
quicker to stick inputs because it doesn't have to overcome the momentum of a metal core
when changing directions. It's both lighter in weight and section-free, which means quicker
response and a smoother, notch-free feel. Naturally, coreless motors are more expensive to
produce but offer higher levels of control, torque, and speed when compared with cored
motor servos.

Brushless Servo Motors

Futaba has recently developed a brushless servo motor. So you get all the benefits of a
brushless motor incorporated into your servo. This translates into longer servo life, faster
response time, smoother operation and resistance to vibrations.
 Coreless and Cored Motors
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Digital Servo vs. Analogue and Deadband explained

The physical working portion of a digital servo is exactly the same as a standard RC servo.
Both have the same plug and both can be used by a standard receiver. The only difference is
the digital servo has a microprocessor that modifies the frequency of the control pulses to
the motor. Lets say you only want to move the servo a tiny bit, so you barely move the
transmitter stick off center. A standard servo will receive a series of extremely short full
voltage pulses 50 times a second. These very short length instantaneous voltage pulses
occur so infrequently that the motor doesn't even react. The amount of transmitter stick
movement from center position that is required to make a servo start moving is called the
servo's deadband.
If you're flying a trainer or sports RC airplane, the deadband isn't a huge deal. But if you're a
helicopter or 3D pilot you need every bit of the stick movement to count. Too much
deadband could lead to a dead plane. A digital servo's microprocessor will convert the signal
to shorter length pulses at a frequency of 300 times per second as opposed to 50 times per
second of the original PPM signal. The motor is able to respond to smaller stick movements
because it is receiving those very short pulses 6 times more often. This also gives a digital
servo much stronger holding power because it reacts much more quickly when pushed out
of position. Digital servos react to your stick movements much more accurately than
standard RC servos. You can think of this like the frame rate of a video. A video will appear
much smoother if the frames are shorter and appear more often, as opposed to longer
frames that occur less often. This same logic can be applied for understanding why digital
servos give you much more precise control over your RC airplane. Unfortunately, some
digital servos will not last as long as analog servos on throttle duties because the digital
amplifier will continue to pump current into the servo motor at full throttle or idle. This
dead short can cause digital servos to burn out more quickly.

Digital Vs Analogue Servos

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Ball raced?
All servos have an output shaft that must pass through the servo case, either through a
plastic bushing or a metal ball bearing. Servos operate most accurately and smoothly when
equipped with ball bearings on the output shaft. Ball-bearing servos also wear less and
remain more accurate than bushing servos because the plastic bushings eventually wear out
and cause slop between the output shaft and the case. It might cost slightly more, but it's
best to purchase ball-bearing servos over bushing servos whenever possible, regardless of
the application. Most standard size servos these days will have either 1 or 2 bearings on the
output shaft where it exists the servo case. Many micro servos do not have bearings
because the loads are too small to justify the added weight of bearings. In contrast, most
large scale servos need two bearings to support the large loads of the control surfaces.

Bush vs Bearing
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Servo Plugs and Wires

All RC servos will have three wires. One wire is positive lead (+) from the battery. One wire
the ground (-) from the battery. The third wire is the control input from the receiver.
It is important to note that you can't just swap the pos.(+) and neg.(-) to reverse the servo.
Doing so may damage your servo and receiver. You can buy connectors that act as a servo
reverser by reversing the control signal. A Y connector is commonly used with two ailerons
servos that share the same receiver output. The Y connector reverses the signal to one
servo so that the two aileron servos act opposite of one other.
Futaba's "J" connector is a plug with a little plastic tab, or key, that prevents you from
plugging it in backwards. Futaba's J plugs, Airtronic's Z plugs, Hitec's S plugs, Hobbico's U
plugs, and JR's connectors are all compatible as long as you make sure the wires are in the
correct order within the plug. If you want to plug a male Futaba plug into another brand you
will have to shave the safety tab off. If your servo is a different brand than your receiver, it is
critical that you have the appropriate wires lined up before plugging the connectors
together. The wires can easily be popped out of the connector for rearrangement. The
images below show you the wiring schematic for the plugs of the four major servo
manufacturers.
 Servo Connectors

Servo's characteristics
A servo's characteristics are defined by the following specifications.
• Torque
• Speed
• Dimensions
• Weight

Torque
Torque is a measurement of the strength of a servo. Torque is determined by multiplying
the force acting on the servo arm by the distance from the centre of the servo. The air
passing by the airplane is always trying to make the control surfaces move. The servos must
"fight" this air resistance in order to move or hold the control surface neutral.
As the size of an airplane increases, the wind resistance acting on the control surfaces
increase. This is why larger airplanes need RC servos with more torque than smaller
airplanes require. However, the size of the airplane isn't the only factor that determines
how much torque you need. The type of airplane you have as well as your flying style will
ultimately determine how much torque is required of the servos. 3-D airplanes have very
large control surfaces which require much more torque than a non 3D sports planes of the
same size. Also, if your flights tend to be gentle and laid back, you can get by with less
torque than someone who likes to jerk the sticks around to perform crazy violent
manoeuvres.

Speed
The speed of an RC servo is defined as the minimum amount of time it takes the servo arm
to rotate 60 degrees at maximum rated torque. Obviously if the servo is being used on a
control surface, you want the speed to be as fast as possible. If the RC servo is used on the
landing gear, you'll probably want the speed to be a bit slower. The speed is a very
important specification, but there are other factors that we will discuss below that will
ultimately determine how quickly and precisely the servo responds to your input.

Distance and Force

Dimensions and Weight

The dimensions and weight of a servo is directly proportion to the torque requirements.
Micro RC Airplanes use a small servo where as Giant Scale Airplanes require very large
servos.
There are RC servos specifically designed for just about any size RC aircraft out there. The
first step is to find a servo that meets your torque requirements, then make sure the weight
and dimensions are suitable for your airplane.

Preventative maintenance
Before heading out to the field, it's a good idea to seal your servos against the elements and
fuel to prevent damage. Most high-end servos come sealed from the factory with O-rings,
but the following prep will add even more protection and will not harm a thing.
1. Clean the servo if it's not brand new. Wipe away any grit or mud, and then spray the
servo with motor cleaner or denatured alcohol to remove all oils and greases on the case.
2. Use a dab of silicone sealant around the wire harness where it enters the servo case.
Apply it completely around the case area where the harness enters, as well as around any
creases and screw holes on the case. Allow the silicone sealant to cure completely before
reinstalling the servo.
3. Apply a dab of thick grease around the output shaft, and reinstall the servo horn. The
grease will protect the output bearings or bushings, and it will seal the case's internals from
moisture or fuel
Beginners Guide to ESCs

when we look at electric planes that have electric motors as opposed to petrol, the things
we notice first are the electric motor and the battery. However there is a component that
sits between them called the electronic speed control that is really the master control point
for all power in the plane.
On the surface we can see that the electronic speed control, the ESC, takes over the
function of the throttle servo that would operate the carburettor in a glow or gas powered
plane. Just as the throttle servo controls the speed of these fuel motors, the ESC controls
the speed of the electric motor. But there is more to it than that.
The first thing that we want to recognize is that there are two different kinds of ESCs that
are specific to the type of motor they control. There are brushed motors, and then there are
the brushless motors. Each type of motor needs a different speed controller.

Understanding the Wires

When you look at an electronic speed controller or esc, you notice that you have three sets
of wires. Typically two sets of thick wires and one set that looks like a servo wire.
Two of the thick wires, typically black and red, connect to the battery. The ESC will usually
be marked to tell you which are the battery wires. They would connect to the battery as red
to red and black to black.
A second set of wires, typically thinner than the battery connection wires, has a plug on the
end that looks like a servo plug. This will be connected to the receiver and will serve two
purposes as it sends power to the receiver and gets signals from the receiver.
If we look at the wires on this plug they usually run from a dark or black wire on one side to
a light or white wire on the other side.
The black and red wires feed power to the receiver which in turn distributes power out to
the servos and other accessories that are plugged into the receiver. Note that the red wire is
in the centre. This is the power wire. Since it is in the centre you can insert the plug into the
receiver both way and nothing bad will happen. You won’t get any response from the servos
if you put it in wrong, but you won’t damage anything. On some older systems, the red wire
was on the end. If you plugged it in the wrong way it could damage the receiver and possibly
the servos. However the centre red design has been fairly universal for many years.
The third wire, the white wire is the signal wire that sends commands from the receiver to
the ESC to tell it how to control the motor. As you move the throttle control on your
transmitter, the receiver gets the command and passes it up the white wire to the ESC so it
knows how much speed you want from the motor.
There is a third set of wires that go to the motor. The ESC is usually marked to show which
wires are the motor wires. If this is a brushed motor ESC then there will be two wires,
typically red and black.

On a brushless ESC, you match color to color as well. However if the colors don’t match then
you need to observe the direction of the motor. If it is spinning in the wrong direction,
reversing any two wires will correct this.
Some ESCs have an integrated switch. In most cases this will allow or prevent the motor
from running and pass or block power to the receiver. However it typically does not stop the
flow of current from the battery to the ESC. In fact, even if there is no switch there is always
current flowing to the ESC which will drain the battery so remember to disconnect when not
using or you’ll drain your lipo past its critical voltage and it will be ruined.

Connectors

The connector/plug that goes to the receiver is standardized. It is the same wire scheme and
plug type as is used for the servos. Today all makers, except Futaba, use the universal plug.
On the Futaba J plug you have the same wiring scheme but there is an extra tab on the plug
that insures the connector is inserted properly into the receiver. If you have a receiver that
accepts this slotted plug it will also accept universal plugs. However if you have a receiver
that expects the universal plug, then you will need to trim off this tab with a hobby knife or
you can sand it off. Once trimmed, the plug will work fine.
Battery and motor connectors are not as simple.
The standard for the motor / esc connection is usually GBCs or gold bullet connectors (pic)
Whatever batter or motor connector you use, make sure that is has a current, amp, rating
that is larger than what the motor is likely to pull. The reason the wires for these links are
thicker is that the battery has to deliver high current to the motor as opposed to the
relatively small current that goes to the receiver. If the connector can’t handle the flow, it
will heat up and potentially be damaged. Likewise, if the connector can’t handle the current
the motor will never develop full power. Too light a connector can also cause a serious
voltage drop.
For high current applications Deans Ultra connectors can be used. They can handle up very
high currents, are easy to solder and can be easily removed and reused. However there are
many other high current connector that are equally as good. As long as it can handle the
current flow, it will be fine.
Sizing an ESC

ESCs are sized according to how many amps they can control and the voltage that they can
handle. So you may see an ESC marked as 20 amps and 7-10 NiXXcells or 2-3 cell Lipo. That
says it can handle a 20 amp flow using a battery pack that ranges between 7.4V and 12
volts. If you use it with a motor/battery system that is outside this range it will likely burn
and fail. When it fails it may simply not run the motor or it may also cut power to the
receiver, which will lead to a crash.
You size your ESC according to the motor and the battery you are using. It is enough to say
that, if your motor is going to draw 20 amps you will need an ESC that is rated for at least 20
amps minimum but you should always be conservative and add 50%. So a motor that is
rated for 20amps should have a 30amp ESC. There is no problem having an ESC that is rated
for more amps than you need, but and ESC that is rated below the expected current load
will likely lead to a failed ESC. Remember – there’s no guarantees for burnt escs.
The same goes for the voltage. Use your ESC outside the voltage it is designed for and you
can expect it to fail.
Your ESC will likely have an integrated battery elimination circuit, a BEC. This is the part that
delivers the power to the receiver. Always check the specs for the BEC. While the ESC might
be able to handle 14.4 volts, the instructions may say that for uses above 11.1V you may
have to disable the BEC.

How the ESC controls the Motor

Motors are rated by Kv, which means the number of revelations the motor will turn when
you apply 1 volt of electricity. So a 1200 Kv motor will spin at 12,000 rpm if you apply 10
volts.
From this you might imply that the ESC changes the voltage to the motor in order to change
the speed of the motor, but that is not the case. If you look at the specifications for your ESC
you will see a frequency number. This might range from 2 KHz to 12 KHz or higher. This is
related to how fast the ESC can pulse power to the motor. You see your ESC is not a variable
resistor that adjusts the voltage to the motor, it is a fast switch that pulses power to the
motor.
You can think of this as a duty cycle control. How long will the ESC leave the power on till it
turns it off? Then, how long will it be off before it turns it back on? There is no need for you
to know this cycle time, only that on every on cycle your motor is getting the full voltage of
your battery.
Many people mistakenly believe that if they run their motor at partial throttle they are
sending reduced voltage to the motor (see motor/esc/ battery considerations. If the motor
is not supposed to get more than 7.4 volts and you put in an 11.1V battery, running the
motor at ½ throttle does not reduce the voltage to the motor. It is getting 11.1V hits every
time the ESC switches on.
If you have had a motor “burn up” even thought you usually ran it at a partial throttle
setting, this may be the reason. Understanding how the ESC controls your motor will help
you diagnose problems.
Note also that, since the ESC is switching power on and off it is also producing
electromagnetic pulses, or radio waves. The electronics in the ESC will typically be designed
to reduce or shield some of this radio wave noise, but it can’t block it all. This is why we
recommend keeping the ESC and the receiver as far apart as possible as this ESC noise can
interfere with the receiver. If you are getting “glitching” or odd pulses to your servos, these
may be coming from ESC noise bothering the receiver. Try moving things around.

The role of the BEC

The BEC, (battery elimination circuit) supplies power to the receiver and the
servos. In most radio systems, the receiver is designed to operate between 4 and 6 volts. To
match this, the typical BEC supplies power to the receiver at around 5 volts by getting the
motor battery voltage down. However the higher the voltage of the motor battery, the
harder the BEC has to work to step the voltage down to 5 volts. In doing this work the BEC
generates heat. The greater the voltage reduction, the more heat the BEC generates. As a
result most BECs have to be disabled if the motor battery pack is over a certain voltage. ESCs
that are designed specifically for high voltage use often do not have an integrated
BEC. Note that the voltage rating for the ESC may be different than the voltage
rating for the BEC. Your ESC may be rated for 14.8 volts but the BEC may have
to be disabled over 12 volts and you will have to power the receiver separately.
If you don't take note of this and run a four-cell lipo, your ESC may be fine
but your BEC may overheat, resulting in a crash.
BECs are also rated by how many amps they can deliver to the receiver. The
greater the number of servos installed the greater the number of amps the BEC must
deliver and the more heat it generates. However, with most
integrated BECs, the higher the voltage of the motor battery pack the lower the
amperage the BEC can deliver. This is often where problems occur. It is this
overheating issue that leads to the need for a compromise as to how many servos an
integrated BEC can support. For example, if the motor pack is 8.4V, then a given BEC might
be able to support 4 servos. If the motor battery voltage is higher, say 11 volts, then
the same BEC may need to be derated to handle only 3 servos. Since more heat
will be generated by the larger step down from 11 volts to 5 volts, the amp load
has to be reduced or the BEC will overheat. If you are flying an RTF model, there may not be
ESC/BEC documentation included. As an example, the manufacturer of the plane may
designate that the plane takes an 8.4V pack. At that voltage the included BEC may be fine.
However, if you decide to pop in a three cell lipo, a problem may only be a launch away. The
BEC may do fine for a couple of flights, or maybe 5 minutes or may fail 100 feet out, and
down you go. We also have the variable of which servos are being used. Different servos
draw different amounts of current. If the current draw gets too high, the BEC will get too hot
causing a thermal shutdown of the BEC. This protects the BEC and prevents a fire, but cuts
the voltage to the receiver. The net effect is that you lose all power to the radio system and
you lose control of the plane. In the case of an overheated BEC, if there is enough cooling air
going through the plane, the BEC may come back quickly as it cools. This could look like a
radio glitch, but it could be the BEC operating on the edge of total failure. If your ESC is very
hot when you land, the cause could be the BEC operating at the edge of its capacity. When
we see these glitches, we often think the problem is the radio system, but in fact the cause
could be the BEC.

Heat is the enemy

With good airflow a BEC overload may be avoided. Regardless of what radio system you are
using, make sure you have enough cooling air going through your electric plane. This is
especially true of foam planes as the foam acts as an insulator. You may have a cooling air
vent in the front somewhere, but the heat can't get out unless there is an exit air hole large
enough to allow good airflow. If you are pushing the limit on any part of your power or radio
system, not enough cooling air can cause damage or failure to your motor, ESC, BEC or
battery packs. The receiver could overheat or you could cook your servos. How you fly your
plane can also cause heat build-up. For example, an Easy Glider that is flown for 1 minute to
get to altitude might have enough airflow to eliminate the built up heat. But if you fly it
constantly for 10 minutes, the heat build up could be enough to cook your BEC, your battery
pack, or some other part of the plane. If your battery is very hot, or if your ESC is very hot,
you may need more cooling.

Other BEC problems

Your set could be configured properly. Your BEC may be rated to handle your servo count
and you could have plenty of cooling air but still have problems. If you have a servo push rod
that is dragging or is otherwise placing a high load on the servo, this can increase the amp
draw of that servo. If that servo gets stuck, the amp draw will go up. Servo loads are
expected to be variable. A servo will move, put a load on the BEC then come back to neutral
and the current draw will drop. In between loads, the BEC has a chance to cool. However a
jammed servo will draw a lot of power and that draw will be constant. You can see why it is
very important that your servos move freely, without binding. Check those control rods for
kinks, obstructions or things that could get in the way. In the past it was common to have 2
ailerons run off of one servo, so three servos were typical of a 4-channel electric plane. With
more and more people using computer radios, there is a tendency to put 2 servos on the
ailerons meaning more load on the BEC. Also, with a computer radio it is easy to add a little
aileron to rudder mixing, moving 3 servos at once. Now add a little up elevator in the turns
and all four servos are pulling power. Go to a full house electric sailplane, with flaps
following ailerons, rudder mixed in and a little up elevator in the turn and you now have 6
servos, all moving at once. We begin to see how the BEC can become challenged to keep up.

More Power?

If you need more power than the integrated BEC in your ESC can supply, or if your motor
battery voltage is higher than the BEC can handle, you will need to disable the integrated
BEC and put in a separate receiver pack or a separate BEC. Many companies make after
market BECs that can handle these higher voltages or higher servo loads. Note that there
are different kinds of circuits that are used to create the BEC function linear and switching.
BEC/ Battery Eliminator Circuit often uses a standard voltage regulator device. An everyday
electronic component with 3 legs, one in, one out and one to ground/negative. These are
termed LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATORS and are available in numerous "flavours" eg: 5 volt,
6volt, 8 volt, 9 volt etc. The ones we find in ESC's are sometimes LDO types which stands for
means "low drop out" or they stop regulating at a voltage very close to their specified
voltage. The advantage of these regulators is that there’s minimal to virtually no
interference generated to confuse the receiver and radio . Many of the Chinese ESC's simply
use several linear regulators wired in parallel in order to supply enough output current. So
these may only be rated at 1 amp, so they wire 3 or 4 in to cope with the current required to
drive several servos.

Now for SM, or switching mode regulators as used in BEC circuits. These are generally less
affected by higher voltages, more efficient, and as a result generate less heat . They also
exhibit higher power output characteristic over that of a linear regulator. A special drive
switching chip is used to turn a heavy duty FET transistor on and off at very high speed. The
energy needed is derived from this switching action in a small black torroidal choke ("round
shallow lumpy thingy") which is a high current inductor to induce the current into a rectifier
and smoothing capacitor/ storage circuit. By turning the FET on and off at an accurately
controlled frequency, we can control the output voltage. The disadvantage is that the
switching frequency is very high and this tends to generate and radiate lots of interference
from the inductor at almost all known frequencies. Most of the after market BECs are
switching BECS. Regardless of what type you have, follow the instructions carefully or risk
losing your plane. And be sure to provide plenty of cooling air.

Low Voltage Cutoff

Many electronic speed controls include a feature called the low voltage cut-off circuit, the
LVC. The LVC watches the voltage that is being delivered by the battery. When it gets below
a certain level, it will cut power to the motor to preserve power for the radio system. This
will allow you to keep control of the plane and land it in a glide. Power draw by your
receiver and servos is a tiny fraction of what the typical electric motor draws. As the battery
drains it will exhibit a voltage drop. You may feel this in the way the plane flies. The plane
may become sluggish or it may not be able to climb under full power. This is a clear
indication that the pack is getting low. A battery that can't sustain voltage when the motor is
on, can still provide plenty of power for the flight electronics and may be able to do so for
quite a while, but don't test it.

Lipos and LVC

If you drain NiCd or NiMh packs too low, usually there is little damage. Just bring them back
to charge a little slower than normal. If you drain a lithium cell below 2.5V resting voltage,
typically the cell will be damaged. So, in this case the LVC is protecting your plane and your
battery packs. Most lithium friendly ESC will cut the motor off if the pack voltage drops
below 2.7 to 3.0V per cell under load. At this level there is very little useful charge left in the
pack and the voltage will continue to drop fast. Note that when you cut the load of the
motor the voltage will likely pop back to 3.1, 3.2 or even 3.3 V per cell. If you check your
batteries after you land, you may think that LVC has malfunctioned, but it has not. The
battery may be 3.3 V/cell resting but it can't sustain it with the motor running. The LVC was
put there to protect the radio, but if you are using Lithium batteries the LVC can protect
them too. It is best to be sure your ESC/LVC is lithium friendly. That means either that it can
be set manually, or that it senses how many lithium cells you have and sets automatically.
Even if it is not designed for Lithium cells, if you can set the cut-off at something above
2.75V per lithium cell, then you should be OK.