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Thevenin: AND Equivalent Circuits
Thevenin: AND Equivalent Circuits
Often, to simplify the analysis of more complex circuits, we wish replace voltage sources and
resistor networks with an equivalent voltage source and series resistor. This is called a
Thevenin equivalent of the circuit. Thevenin’s theorem states that, given a pair of terminal in
a linear network, the network may be replace by an ideal voltage sources VOC in series with a
Thevenin resistance, RTH. VOC is equal to the open circuit voltage across the terminals, and RTH
is the equivalent resistance across the terminal when independent voltage sources are shorted
and independent current sources are replaced with open circuits.
We will illustrate Thevenin’s theorem with the circuit shown in Figure 1.20. The part
of the circuit in the dashed box will be replaced by its Thevenin equivalent. The open circuit
voltage VOC is found by disconnecting the rest of circuit and determining the voltage across
the terminals of the remaining open circuit.
terminal
the dashed box
R1
remaining
circuit
VS R2 Voc network
portion of circuit
to be replaced with
Thevenin equivalent
Note:
VS R1
R2 terminal
Voc
21
Ri
Vi VS in general, for N resistors connected in series (previous equation 24)
R eq
To find RTH the supply VS is shorted (i.e., VS = 0), grounding the left end of R1. If there were
current sources in the circuit, they would be replaced with open circuits. Since R1 and R2 are
in parallel relative to the open terminals, the equivalent resistance is
R 1R 2
Thevenin resistance R TH (38)
R1 R 2
terminal
RTH
remaining
circuit
VOC network
terminal
remaining
circuit
ISC RTH network
22
The Thevenin and Norton equivalents are independent of the remaining circuit network
representing a load. This is useful because it is possible to make changes in the load without
reanalyzing the Thevenin or Norton equivalent.
V Vm sin ω t
Time shift: ∆t
period: T
Note:
23
V
Vm sin ω t amplitude: Vm
ω t
period: T
EXAMPLE
As an example of how the AC signal parameters are discerned (dibedakan) in signal equation,
consider the following AC voltage:
V(t) = 5.00 sin (t + 1) Volt
V t Vm sin ω t φ
Alternating current power is used in many applications where direct current (DC)
power is impractical or infeasible. Principal reasons for using AC power include
AC power is more efficient to transmit over long distance because it is easily
transformed to high-voltage, low-current form, minimizing power losses during
transmission. In residential areas it is easily transformed back to required levels. Note
that the voltage drop in the transmission line is small compared to the voltage level at the
source.
AC power is easy to generate with rotating machinery (e.g., an electric generator).
AC power is easy to use to drive rotating machinery (e.g., AC electric motor).
AC power provides a fixed frequency signal (60 Hz in the United State, 50 Hz in
Europe) that can be used for timing purposes and synchronization.
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The steady state analysis of AC circuits is simplified by the use of phasor analysis,
which uses complex numbers to represent sinusoidal signals. Euler’s formula forms the basis
for his analysis:
where j 1 . This implies that sinusoidal signals can be expressed as real and imaginary
components of complex exponentials. Because of the relative ease of manipulating
exponential expressions vs trigonometric expressions, this form of analysis is convenient for
making and interpreting calculations.
Once all transients have dissipated in an AC circuit, the voltage across and current
through each element will oscillate with the same frequency ω as the input. The amplitude of
the voltage and current for each element will be constant but may differ in phase from the
input. This fact lets us treat circuit variables V and I as complex exponentials with magnitudes
Vm and Im and phase φ. A phasor (e.g., voltage V) is a vector representation of the complex
exponential:
V Vm e j ω t φ Vm φ Vm cos ω t φ j sin ω t φ
A graphical interpretation of these quantities is shown on the complex plane in Figure 1.24.
Note that the phase angle φ is measured from manipulating complex phasors include
r x 2 y2 (41)
Imaginary (j) axis
Vm (φ)
y = Vm sin φ
r
φ
real axis 25
(ωt reference)
x = Vm cos φ
r x 2 y2
y
φ tan 1 (42)
x
r1 φ1 . r2 φ 2 r1 . r2 φ1 φ 2 (43)
r1 φ1 r
1 φ1 φ 2 (44)
r2 φ1 r2
where r is the phasor magnitude, φ is the phasor angle, x is the real component, and y is the
imaginary component. Note that the quadrant determined by the arguments (x,y) of the
arctangent function must be carefully considered when converting from rectangular to polar
form.
Ohm’s law can be extended to the AC circuit analysis of resistor, capacitor, and
inductor elements as
V ZI (45)
where Z is called the impedance of the element. This is a complex number, and you can
imagine Z as a complex resistance. Its magnitude may change as a function of frequency.
Impedances can be derived from the fundamental constitutive equations for the element using
complex exponentials. The unit of impedance is the ohm (Ω).
For the resistor, since V = IR
ZR R (46)
dI
For the inductor, since V L , if I I m e j ω t φ , then
dt
VL
d I m e j ωt φ
dt
V L j ω I m e j ω t φ L j ω I (47)
Therefore, the impedance of an inductor is given by
Z L j ω L ω L 90 o (48)
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which implies that the voltage will lead the current by 90o. Note that since a DC signal can be
consider an AC signal with zero frequency (ω = 0), the impedance of an inductor in a DC
circuit is 0. Therefore, it acts as a short in a DC circuit. At very high AC frequencies (ω = 0),
the inductor has infinite independence so it behaves as an open circuit.
dV
For the capacitor, since I C , if V Vm e j ω t φ , then
dt
IC
d Vm e j ωt φ
dt
I C j ω Vm e j ω t φ C j ω V (49)
giving
1
V I (50)
Cjω
Therefore, the impedance of a capacitor is given by
V ZI
1 j 1 V V
ZC 90 o Z
j ω C ωC ωC I C j ω V
which implies the voltage will lag (tertinggal) the current by 90o. The impedance of a
capacitor in a DC circuit (ω=0) is infinite (∞), so it acts as an open circuit. At very high AC
frequencies (ω=0), the capacitor has zero impedance, so it acts as a short circuit.
EXAMPLE
The following is an illustrative example of AC circuit analysis. The goal is to find the steady
state current I through the capacitor in the following circuit:
R1 = 1 kΩ I
I1 R2 = 3 kΩ
C = 0.2 µF
L = 0.5 H
~ Vin = 5 cos (3000 t + π/2) V
V t Vm cos ω t φ
each element in the circuit will respond at the radian frequency:
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ω = 3000 rad/sec
the phasor and complex form of the voltage source is V
V Vm e j ω t φ Vm φ Vm cos ω t φ j sin ω t φ
5
V Vm Vm cos 3000t j sin 3000 t
2 2 2 φ = 90o
V 5 90 o
5 cos 90 o j sin 90 o I
Vin 5 90 o
Volt 0 5 j Volt
R1 = 1 kΩ
I1 R2 = 3 kΩ
C = 0.2 µF ZR2LC
L = 0.5 H
~ Vin = 5 cos (3000 t + π/2) V
Z eq R 1 Z R 2 LC
y 166.67
φ tan 1 tan 1 tan 0.0555 3.18
1 o
x 3000
5590177.847 63.43 o r1 φ1 r
Z eq 1000 1 φ1 φ 2
3004.63 3.18 o r2 φ 2 r2
Z eq 1000 1860.52 63.43 o 3.18 o 1000 1860.52 60.25 o
Note:
y Vm φ r φ
y = r sin φ
r
x = r cos φ
r(φ) = 1860.52(-60.25o)
29
y 1615.30
φ tan 1 tan 1 tan 0.84 40.03
1 o
x
1923 .22
Z eq 2511 .57 40.03o
I1 R2 = 3 kΩ I
I1 I2
C = 0.2 µF
VS R1 R2 L = 0.5 H
R1
Analogy I2 I
R1 R 2
R 2 ZL
I I
R 2 Z L ZC 1
I
R2 ZL
I
3354.1 26.57 o
1.991 130.03 o mA
R 2 Z L Z C 1 3004.63 3.18 o r1 φ1 r
1 φ1 φ 2
r2 φ 2 r2
I 1.116 26.57 o ( 3.18 o .1.991 130.03 o mA
r1 φ1 . r2 φ 2 r1 . r2 φ1 φ 2
I 1.116 29.75 o .1.991 130.03o mA
Which gives
I 2.22 159.8 o mA
y = Vm sin φ
Vm (φ) 159.8o
φ = 159.8 o φ 159.8o x 2π rad 2.789 rad
r =2.22 360o
x = Vm cos φ
So the capacitor current leads the input voltage by 159.8o or 2.789 rad, and the resulting
current is
I t Vm cos t mA
I t 2.22 cos 3000 t 2.789 mA
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Note that if the input voltage were Vin = 5 sin (3000 t + π/2) V instead, the resulting
current would be I(t) = 2.22 sin (3000 t + 2.789) mA.
brown gold a
black b
red c
brown
green
gold red d
circuit B
circuit A
V1 = 5 V
R2 = 40 kΩ Vout
V2 = 15 V
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