Roman Amphitheatres and Spectacula: a 21st Century perspective:

papers from an international conference held at Chester,

16th-18th February, 2007
Contents

1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 1
Tony Wilmott

Amphitheatre planning

2 The setting out of amphitheatres: ellipse or oval? – Questions answered and not answered.................................... 5
Mark Wilson Jones

Regional studies

3. The amphitheatres in Hispania: recent investigations. ...................................................................................................15

Rosalía Durán Cabello, Carmen Fernández Ochoa and Ángel Morillo Cerdan

4. Amphitheatres in the Roman East........................................................................................................................................29

Hazel Dodge

5. Amphitheatres of Auxiliary Forts on the Frontiers..........................................................................................................47

C. Sebastian Sommer

Single site studies

6. Excavations on the legionary amphitheatres of Chester (Deva), Britain .....................................................................63

Tony Wilmott and Dan Garner

7. Excavations on the legionary amphitheatre of Burnum, Croatia...................................................................................75

Željko Miletić and Miroslav Glavičić

8. The Roman amphitheatre at Richborough (Rutupiae) Kent: non-invasive research................................................85

Tony Wilmott, Louise Martin and Neil Linford

9. The Trier amphitheatre, an ancient monument in the light of new research............................................................95

Hans-Peter Kuhnen

10. Theatres and Amphitheatres in Augst (Augusta Raurica), Switzerland.....................................................................105

Thomas Hufschmid

11. The amphitheatre of Serdica, Sofia, Bulgaria....................................................................................................................119

Zharin Velichkov

Colour plates 1-39...................................................................................................................................... between pages 126 and 127

 7. Excavations of the legionary amphitheatre at Burnum, Croatia
Miroslav Glavičić and Željko Miletić
Department of Archaeology, University of Zadar, Croatia
The archaeological landscape of Burnum
Written historical sources, epigraphic monuments and data
acquired in old and new archaeological excavations have
shown that the archaeological assemblage of Burnum in the
province of Dalmatia comprised several different
components: a Roman legionary camp with its territory, an
auxiliary castellum and a municipum which developed from
the canabae and settlement of Liburnian Burnistae (Gradina
near Puljani) (Plate 23).
The Oppidum on Gradina near Puljani on the left bank of the
Krka River was the centre of Liburnian Burnistae (Zaninović
1968, 119). Their territory was also on the west bank of the
river, bordering with the territory of Varvaria (Čače 1989,
78-79, 86). Original Liburnian territory spreads west of the
Krka River, and the reason for developing main settlement of
this community on the east bank is exceptionally favourable
position of Gradina. Surrounded by deep canyon of the Krka
River, it has the form of a peninsula, naturally protected from
three sides, except on the narrow terrestrial side, where a
defensive wall was built, remains of which are still preserved,
at places up to 6m high. All river crossings could be observed
from the oppidum. This favourable strategic position was the
crucial factor in the development of this civitas peregrinorum,
as opposed to neighbouring ones that did not become
recognized in early Roman times.
A summer legionary camp (castra aestiva) was set up by the
end of the Roman Republic because of its position bordering
with aggressive Delmatae, and at the beginning of the Roman
Imperial period a permanent military camp was built in
Burnum, on the right bank of the Krka River, opposite to the
main hill-fort settlement of the autochthonous Burnistae.
The Castrum was the centre of the legionary territorium
whose boundaries were demarcated by terminal inscriptions
(M. Zaninović 1985, 63-79) (Plate 24).
Legio XX (named Valeria Victrix some time later) resided in
the summer camp, arriving from Hispania around 20 BC
(Manning 2000, 69-70). Its presence in the province of
Illyricum was confirmed by inscriptions (CIL 3, 2911, 2836,
2030; Cambi, 2005, 53, fig. 68). At the turn of the
millennium the winter camp (castra hiberna) of the troops
operating in Illyricum was still Aquileia in northern Italy,
where several inscriptions mentioning the Legio XX were
found, contemporary with those from Burnum (CIL 5, 948,
75
939; Ritterling 1924-1925, col 1770). Only after Bato’s
rebellion (AD 6-9) was subdued, could a permanent stone
camp in Burnum be built. This happened between AD 14
(the beginning of mandate of the provincial governor Publius
Cornelius Dolabela) and the first visit of the prince Drusus
Julius Caesar in the year AD 17 (Tacitus, Annales, 2. 44;
Patsch 1897a, col 1069; Rendić-Miočević 1952, 41-50). Legio
XI was stationed in this early camp.
The camp has a rectangular form with approximate
dimensions 330m x 295m, the side proportions being 10:9. If
the large triangular area on the north-western side (that could
serve as granary as in similar area in Carnuntum) was also a
part of the camp, its area would be several hectares larger. The
camp at Burnum was divided into two large units. The
majority of military barracks were within larger, north-
western part, the so-called retentura. In somewhat smaller
south-eastern praetentura, towards the Krka canyon, besides
the headquarters, there was probably a hospital
(valetudinarium) and barracks of the protective departments.
Older and smaller principia (dimensions 46 x 53 m) were
built in this period (Reisch 1913, 123-124).
Inscriptions of the governor of Dalmatia, Publius Anteus
Rufus show that important building activities on the camp
buildings were completed in AD 51 or 52 (CIL 3, 14987;
Patsch 1897a; Reisch 1913, 124-128; Abramić 1924, 222). A
larger principia was built, which erased the earlier structure
(Reisch 1913, 129; Abramić, 1924, 221-225; Zabehlicky-
Scheffenegger & Kandler 1979, 10). Its approximate
dimensions are 104m x 73m, which makes the usual
architectural proportion √2 (=1,41):1. This edifice consisted
of two long side wings with several rooms, and of the narrow
back wing with rooms around central military sanctuary
(aedes), with a row of arcades separating it from the courtyard
(forum). It is reasonable to conclude that this so called
pretorium, as it was referred to in scientific literature, is
actually principia, and the headquarters of the camp.
Stratigraphically recovered finds from systematic excavations
started in 2003, indicate that first solid amphitheatre was
built during Claudius’ reign (Cambi et al. 2006, 26).
Legio XI was replaced by IIII Flavia Felix, arriving in
Dalmatia around AD 70 from Mainz, after the Legio IIII
Macedonica had been reconstituted (Ritterling 1924-1925,
col 1540-1541; Betz 1938, 46-48). It had been stationed in
Burnum until AD 86, when it was transferred to Singidunum
ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA
in Moesia. From that moment there were no more Roman
legions in the province of Dalmatia, because legio VII Claudia
Pia Fidelis had already left the camp at Tilurium.
Thorough study of aerial photos, survey of the terrain and
analysis of inscriptions mentioning auxiliary units were
crucial for locating the remains of an auxiliary castellum, east
of the legion camp during recent archaeological excavations
in Burnum. It is not possible to determine its chronological
relation with the castra for the time being. If we apply an
analogy with Aquincum on the Pannonian limes, it is possible
that the members of auxiliary units built the first solid castra,
necessary for accommodation of Legio XI.
It is possible that there was another auxiliary castellum in
Burnum. An enclosure of rectangular form with approximate
dimensions 143m x 101m was detected during the
archaeological excavations in 2006. Its eastern wall had doors
with three passages, once vaulted, with the range of almost
11m.
Epigraphic records show that at least four auxiliary units were
stationed at Burnum during the 1st century. The Ala I
Hispanorum from immediately after the rebellion AD 6-9
until AD 42 when it was transferred to Aquincum in
Pannonia, Cohors II Cyrrhestarum sagittaria (since around
AD 42 until around AD 60 it was stationed in the province
of Dalmatia, in Tilurium and satellite fortresses, where it was
disbanded around AD 80), Cohors III Alpinorum (since
around AD 60 until around AD 70, it remains in the
province in castellum in Humac near Ljubuški, where it
remained until AD 93) and Cohors I Montanorum civium
Romanorum (since around AD 70 until around AD 86 when
it was transferred to Albertfalva/Budapest in Pannonia)
(Patsch 1897, 198; Betz 1954-1957, 84-85; Alföldy 1962,
263-270, 293-294; Raknić 1965, 71-84; Wilkes 1969,
Appendices VIII – IX; Suić 1970, 93-130; Cambi 1994, 158-
162; Spaul 1994, 145; Spaul 2000, 266-268, 294-295, 431).
The existence of one or two auxiliary camps solves the
problem of accommodation of auxiliary units in Burnum
during the 1st century. In rather small castra there is not
enough place for them and the legion. The castellum also
shows where auxiliary units were stationed in the 2nd and 3rd
century at the time when Burnum became a municipal town,
and the castra lost its military character, as shown by the
civilian structures introduced into the enclosure (Medini
1989, 255). Detachments of Legio VIII Augusta were
stationed there during the reign of Antoninus Pius. (E.
Ritterling 1924-1925, col 1659; A. Betz 1938: 50-52; 72).
Next to the military camp there are canabae – vicus militaris
(Zaninović 1985: 66-67). This urbanized area is still visible in
the landscape as karst meadows criss-crossed with large piles
of stone, whereas areas without traces of Roman architecture
76
consists of eroded karst terraces, cliffs and cavities in
limestone. The area of the canabae was crossed by roads
towards Scardona, Asseria/Sidrona (Zaninović 1974, 310-
311; Miletić 2006, 129-130) and ad imum montem Ditionum
Ulcirum, (CIL 3, 3201 + 3198b = 10159 + 10156b;
Bojanovski, 1974, 203-219), bordered with documented
necropolises. Finds of altars dedicated to Jupiter point to
conclusion that central sanctuary was positioned in the area
of the canabae (Patsch 1897, 190; Suić 1970, 112; 1979,
137). An aqueduct with its source in Plavnopolje passed
through the legionary territory, including the area of canabae
in its final part (Ilakovac 1982, 35-105, 1984). Workshops
for producing bricks lay on the border with Varvaria (Patsch
1900, 95-87).
Pliny writes about Burnistae as one of the most important
civitates peregrinorum, not mentioning any privileges
whatsoever (Naturalis Historia III, 139). It was only at the
beginning of the 2nd century that they were rewarded for
loyalty and cooperation with the Roman army. Burnum
became a municipal town in AD 118 at the latest, which is
confirmed by honorary inscription of the Emperor Hadrian
and inscriptions mentioning town magistrates (Zaninović
1968, 124). The municipality was probably also referred to as
canabae and civitas peregrinorum.
The amphitheatre
Roman military amphitheatre was built in the south-western
periphery of the complex of Roman military camp about
500m from the principia and close to the road leading to
Varvaria and Asseria (Cambi et al. 2006). Archaeological
excavations revealed two main building phases (the first one
during Claudius’ reign, and the second one in Vespasian’s
time).1 Architectural solutions utilizing the terrain
configuration were discovered and documented, namely the
large karst valley which was adapted to meet needs of the
amphitheatre builders.
Archaeological excavations started at the site of the
‘supposed’ amphitheatre. Older researchers explicitly stated
that on the site of Karlovac there had been an amphitheatre
(Bulić 1879, 84; Marun 1998, 137, 155, 165), but their
statements were put in doubt some time later (Suić 1976,
170; 1981, 281). As there are several more karst valleys
enclosed by walls and used for agricultural purposes close to
amphitheatre remains, such scepticism is not surprising.
Visual perception of the entire area is prevented by wood and
bush, and the stone piles did not show any architectural
1
The supervisor of the entire research project is N. Cambi, and
archaeological excavations were managed by Joško Zaninović, Željko Miletić
and Miroslav Glavičić. Dražen Maršić, Mato Ilkić, Ivana Jadrić, Igor Borzić
and Mate Radović also took part in excavation campaigns as well as students
of archaeology from the University of Zadar. Martina Baranić made the
architectural documentation, and Frederik Levarda is entrusted with
conservation of archaeological material.
 MIROSLAV GLAVIČIĆ AND ŽELJKO MILETIĆ: EXCAVATIONS OF THE LEGIONARY AMPHITHEATRE AT BURNUM, CROATIA
Fig. 7.1 Aerial view of the amphitheatre of Burnum before excavations (photo by: S. Ferić).
forms so they could be interpreted as a consequence of land
clearance. Analysis of the aerial photos, however, revealed the
very regular elliptical form of the stone embankments, with
four recesses that could be entrances and passages to arena
(Fig. 7.1). This was confirmed by a field survey. (Plates 25 and
26 show the terrain and a close up of the excavated
amphitheatre including the features described below)
The excavation started on the southern side that was easily
approachable, where the side walls of the entrance were
discovered, stretching funnel-like outside the outer ring of
the amphitheatre ellipse. Next to the left side wall a square
structure was added, preserved on the level of the first row of
stones above ground. As a brick with the stamp of the fourth
legion (legio IIII Flavia Felix) was found in its foundations, it
is reasonable to conclude that this structure, whose function
is unknown for the time being, was added after the arrival of
this legion in AD 69. The funnel walls were built by
arranging horizontally smaller rectangular roughly dressed
stones that were joined by abundant but poor quality mortar.
The front of the southern entrance was built using larger
finely dressed stones that were arranged in a more regular and
precise manner, and the side walls of the passages sloping
towards arena were also built more solidly.
The passage, which was 4.40 m wide and 12.38 m deep, was
filled with stones and parts of calcareous tufa blocks from the
77
collapsed vault, which had covered the passage, and the
neighbouring part of the auditorium. The side walls of the
passage were formed by two massive walls serving as a basis of
the vault construction. Parts of the vault remained in situ on
these walls. The vault rested on both sides on cornices, made
of unadorned slabs of limestone, and it consisted of arches of
cuneiform calcareous dressed stones interchanging with
calcareous tufa blocks in a regular rhythm (one calcareous and
three tufa arches). The floor of the passage sloped towards the
arena, and it was cut into the bedrock which also served as a
basis for side walls. At the end of the passage, from the place
where the vault ended all the way to the arena entrance, there
were recesses in the side walls with stairs for directing the
spectators to the tiered seating.
A monumental inscription of the Emperor Vespasian that
originally stood over the main entrance was found in the
debris of the collapsed vault during the excavations. The slab
was broken in two pieces. The left part of the inscription was
found in the debris at the beginning of the entrance, and the
right part laid on the floor in front of the entrance. The
inscription was inscribed in a large block of quality limestone,
294cm long, 100cm high and 32cm thick. The inscription
was inscribed using monumental Roman capitals in a
moulded field in the shape of a tabula ansata (Fig. 7.2) and it
reads (in resoration):
ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA

Fig. 7.2 Emperor Vespasian’s inscription, erected over the south entrance of the Burnum amphitheatre (photo by: M. Glavičić).

IMP(erator) CAESAR VE[S]PASIANUS

AUG(ustus) PONT(ifex) MAX(imus) /
TRIB(unicia) POT(estate) VII IMP(erator) XVIII
P(ater) P(atriae).

The explicit mention of the tribunician power held by

Vespasian for the eighth time, is of exceptional importance
because it reveals the precise date of the inscription to be AD
76/77, and confirms the end of the works on the
amphitheatre, which were financed by the Emperor, as his
name is in nominative case. Works were performed by
members of the fourth legion (legio IIII Flavia felix) which
was stationed in Burnum at the time.

The inscription which stood at the front of the southern

entrance explicitly states that Vespasian was the donor of the
finances and it precisely dates the inscription to the AD
76/77. However, there are indications that building was
started earlier. During the archaeological excavations, a thin
but rich cultural layer was documented at the southern
entrance, containing a mass of finds. These included
numerous pottery shreds (amphora parts, plain pottery
shreds, terra sigillata fragments, lamp fragments) and glass
(luxury glasses and bowls), bronze, copper and silver late
Republican and early Imperial coins, parts of military
equipment (usually bronze aucissa fibulae, bronze and silver-
plated belt buckles and rings of military belts, bronze and
silver-plated pendants (Fig. 7.3)). Also in this deposit were a
bronze strigil, bronze vessel simpulum, bronze bell from a
tintinabulum, a legionary ivory stamp, horse equipment, iron
nails, and some iron tools and weapons.
As a natural karst valley was used for building of the
amphitheatre, it was necessary to prepare the terrain before
the work began. The terrain was levelled by cutting and
hewing bedrock, especially next to the walls, which provided
better foundations and material for building. Larger cavities
were filled, and areas were levelled with soil, which became a
Fig. 7.3 Silver pendant in the form of a phallus, part of the military
equipment (photo by: M. Glavičić).
rich source of archaeological finds, explaining the compact
cultural layer in front of the entrance and underneath the
stands and outer embankment of the auditorium. All finds
can be easily dated to the early Imperial period, but the most
important finds with reference to date are the coins. Almost
all of the coins found (about 80) date to the beginning of the
Empire. ainly sestertia, dupondia and asses were found, minted
from the reign of Augustus to that of Claudius. Few coins
from Republican era were found, which were in use for a long
time owing to their quality and constant value. Judging from
the archaeological finds (especially coins), we can assume that
building of the amphitheatre started as early as Claudius’
time, which is also the period when the first building phase
was finished. Confirmation of this hypothesis can also be
found in the section of layers of the south-western segment of

78
 MIROSLAV GLAVIČIĆ AND ŽELJKO MILETIĆ: EXCAVATIONS OF THE LEGIONARY AMPHITHEATRE AT BURNUM, CROATIA
the auditorium. Two phases of levelling of the cavea can be
seen in this section. In the first, lower levelling was achieved
by filling the cavities in the karst fissure with stone blocks and
irregular stones of different dimensions covered with soil.
The second was higher and steeper, made of smaller stones
mixed with soil. As archaeological material from the soil of
the first levelling corresponds to the material from cultural
layer next to side walls of the entrance, we can conclude that
levelling of the shallow slope of the embankment of the first
phase was simultaneous with the levelling of the southern
entrance area. The dating evidence confirms that this
occurred during the reign of Claudius. In the debris of the
second levelling, when the auditorium slope became steeper,
there was no datable material. However, as the auditorium
level corresponds to the original height of the side walls of the
southern passage, dated by Vespasian’s inscription, we can
conclude that they were contemporary, and therefore that the
second levelling is dated to the second building phase when
southern entrance was reconstructed and the auditorium
embankment enlarged.
Excavation of the eastern entrance started from the outer
side, where side walls of the funnel were discovered. Unlike
those at the southern entrance, these were cut into the outer
embankment and did not stretch outside auditorium line. It
was discovered that the left outer wall connected with the
wall of the outer ring of a structure in the line of the outer
embankment of the auditorium. The original height of this
structure is not known (only the first row of horizontally
arranged stones was preserved). Walls were built using the
same technique as in the southern entrance, and the front of
the entrance was also built of finely dressed larger stone
blocks. The entrance was somewhat narrower, being 2.85 m
wide. The eastern passage was 15.20m long and vaulted in the
same manner as the southern one, by a combination of stone
and tufa arches which interchanged rhythmically (one
limestone and three calcareous tufa arches) thus making the
vault of the passage. Cuneiform stones of the arches and parts
of tufa blocks were found in the passage debris, and moulded
limestone blocks of the vault cornice were also discovered in
situ. The passage was not vaulted in its entire length, and it
ended with a wall preventing spectators from entering the
arena, that is it directed them left or right to the stands.
However, the stands could be reached from the arena. In the
arena ring there were doors leading to a small chamber from
which left and right stairways led to the first row of seats and
further to the stands. Bedrock was cut into here as well,
which is obvious from the way in which the passage floors
slope shallowly towards the arena. Dressed sheer rock at the
entrance served for the foundation of the front walls and at
the same time formed the level of the floor, after existing
cavities had been filled with stones and soil and covered with
the packed gravel which formed the solid surface of the floor.
The excavation of the eastern entrance revealed numerous
pottery sherds, smaller fragments of glass vessels, pieces of
79
military equipment, adornments and especially coins which
are the best material to date the layer. These dated to the early
Empire (from Augustus to Claudius). The finds material
corresponds to that found in the southern entrance funnel
both chronologically and typologically, indicating that there
was just one levelling of the entire area on which
amphitheatre was built.
The northern entrance was in a better state of preservation
than the southern. It was of approximately same width (4.33
m), but somewhat higher and longer (18.75 m). The entrance
was funnel-like, but unlike the southern entrance, the side
walls did not stretch outside the seating area. The left side
wall was also considerably shorter, and it can be supposed that
different terrain characteristics led to deviation from the
usual form. It seems that the surrounding terrain was higher
and steeper, so that spectators or other groups entering the
amphitheatre were not channelled frontally but sideways,
along the line of the outer perimeter wall. The passage was
vaulted in the same way as the other entrances, with
alternating limestone and tufa arches (one stone and three
tufa), but as this passage was higher, the walls and vault
cornices slope very steeply down towards the arena. Owing to
the better quality of building the northern entrance walls and
side walls of the passage were better preserved, with vault
arches which can be traced through its entire length, and
there are places with the lower parts of the arches with
cuneiform stone slabs and tufa blocks preserved in situ. The
arches rested on simple white limestone mouldings, identical
to the ones from the southern and eastern passages. A part of
the northern passage towards the arena was not vaulted. This
is where recesses with stairways (8 or 9 stairs) were
documented on both sides of the passage (Fig. 7.4) used for
reaching the platform (podium) at the level of the first seating
row, and thence to the cavea. The floor of the passage is
actually bedrock that was hewn, with traces of solid mortar
used for smoothing the surface. The stone floor is present in
the funnel as well. As this part of the amphitheatre was cut
into bedrock, not built up as elsewhere, there was no cultural
layer here as at the southern and eastern entrances.
Although there has as yet been no excavation of the western
entrance, it is reasonable to expect the same building
techniques and the same constructive elements of the passage
vaulting as at other passages, with the possibility that it might
be the best preserved because of the huge amount of soil and
stones covering it. The western passage is not in the middle of
the ellipse, but it is slightly pitched to the north-west, which
is also the case with the eastern passage whose deviation is
towards the south-east.
Excavations of the area within the arena ellipse revealed that
the bedrock was first hewn to level the arena, and then the
wall surrounding the arena was built, using large, regular
white limestone blocks arranged in regular horizontal courses.
Seven such courses survived in the place with the best
ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA
Fig.7.4 Vaulted entrance on the northern side of the Burnum amphitheatre, with side staircase (photo by: M. Glavičić).
preservation. Originally there were at least nine courses, as
that height matches the level of the floor of the first row of
the stands (podium). The cavea was reached by stairways from
the main entrances as described above. Another opening,
several metres wide, was discovered in the north-eastern part
of the arena’s perimeter wall. Rather small, roughly dressed
blocks were used for blocking this entrance, and the reason
for this action remains unknown for the time being. During
clearing of the north-western part of the arena, a small
rectangular chamber was discovered which functioned as a
sanctuary with an altar that was dedicated probably to
Nemesis. The imprint of the altar’s lower part was visible in
the mortar. The sanctuary was built in the western passage
axis and it seems like a subsequent alteration of a stairway
entrance, similar to the one documented at the opposite
eastern part of the arena, which needs to be verified by the
excavation of the western entrance.
After the entire arena surface was cleared in segments, its
dimensions were defined measuring 44 x 33 m, giving the
regular ellipse proportion 4:3. The arena floor was formed by
hard packed gravel covering the levelled bedrock surface.
When clearing the north-eastern segment of the arena, next
to the perimeter wall, a channel was revealed stretching
80
beneath the seating. Excavations showed that the natural
terrain configuration was used in this case as well, i.e. the
upper surface of the bedrock was hewn and covered with a
sand floor. Rough vertical hewing of the bedrock in order to
widen the channel used for draining water from the arena can
also be noticed. The entire course of the channel in the arena
has not been excavated, and as water never remains in the
arena, even during the longest rainy periods, it is reasonable
to conclude that there was a system of drainage channels
hewn in the bedrock. Archaeological material identical to
that found at the southern and northern entrance was
discovered in the channel debris (Fig. 7.5), proving uniform
levelling and terrain preparation for the amphitheatre
building during Claudius. –
Several fragments of limestone semi-columns were found
during the clearing of the arena. Originally they stood in the
auditorium, but as they were found at different places, it
cannot be determined in which part of the auditorium such
colonnade was positioned. On one of these columns a literate
soldier had engraved the inscription:
> POMPEI (the century of Pompeius)
 MIROSLAV GLAVIČIĆ AND ŽELJKO MILETIĆ: EXCAVATIONS OF THE LEGIONARY AMPHITHEATRE AT BURNUM, CROATIA

indicating that the century commanded by a certain

Pompeius took part in building the amphitheatre.

As the auditorium has not yet been excavated, we still do not

know where the dignitary’s box for commanders and other
distinguished persons was, though it may have been in the
western side of the amphitheatre, as this was the most
convenient place given the position of the sun for spectacles
taking place in the early afternoon. The number of rows of
seats in the stands, which were divided by entrances into four
segments is also unknown. The approximate number of
spectators that could be accommodated in the Burnum
amphitheatre is six thousand or some thousand more.

As conservation of the side walls of the southern entrance was

a necessity, the seating banks next to these walls had to be
penetrated. The embankment was formed by a large quantity
of irregular broken stone, and it is worth mentioning that
under the embankment the bedrock was flattened such that
its outcrops were hewn and levelled, and cavities were filled
with stones and material containing great amount of
archaeological finds. A massive dry-stone wall serving as a
horizontal dividing line between the stands junction and the
outer embankment was visible within the structure of the
embankment, in the crown of the auditorium ellipse.
Transverse dry-stone wall constructions were connected with
this wall from the outer amphitheatre ring to the edge of the
arena ellipse. Irregular rectangular dry-stone wall cells were
formed in this way, filled with crushed stones of different
sizes. As the cells were filled, the dry-stone walls were built
gradually, taking some of the embankment’s weight and
preventing it from collapsing. The same gradual and
controlled method of embankment building with dry-stone
wall structures, with cells dividing the auditorium
embankment into segments, was probably used in other parts
of the amphitheatre auditorium, though this has to be
confirmed by excavation.
During the archaeological excavations of the amphitheatre at
Burnum the southern, eastern and northern entrances with
vaulted passage were discovered, the arena ellipse was
unearthed, two phases of building were recognized, and
architectural solutions utilizing the terrain configuration
were documented. During the excavation thorough
archaeological documentation was made, numerous small
archaeological finds were classified, some of the metal finds
have already been conserved, and professional catalogue
classification is underway. Precise architectural
documentation has also been made, making possible the exact
reconstruction of the excavated parts and creation of three-
dimensional models. It is also a sound basis for conservation
which has already started in the first phase funnel walls of the
southern entrance. The front and the side walls of the passage
were consolidated and reconstructed. In the next phase they
will be vaulted, and a replica of the Vespasianic inscription
will be put on the front.
Fig. 7.5 Fragment of a lamp in the form of a tragic mask, found in
the channel under the arena (photo by: Ž. Miletić).
Conclusions
On the basis of the archaeological excavations which took
place at the amphitheatre at Burnum in yearly excavation
campaigns from November 2003 to October 2006 it is
possible to make the following conclusions.
At the site of Karlovac in Burnum a Roman military
amphitheatre was discovered, which typologically belongs to
the amphitheatres with four entrances (two main entrances
in the crown of the ellipse and two side ones). Natural terrain
configuration was utilized, and wherever possible bedrock of
the karst valley was adapted by hewing, which made building
much easier. Members of Legio XI started building the
amphitheatre at Burnum, making all necessary preparations
and terrain levelling and some time later they also built the
amphitheatre. Rich archaeological material which can be
dated to Claudius’ time (especially coins) confirms this.
The amphitheatre at Burnum achieved its final form in AD
76/77 when Vespasian’s inscription marking the end of the
works was placed at the front of the southern entrance.
Members of Legio IV performed the works financed by
Vespasian, and they can be referred to as a reconstruction or a
construction of an annex to the amphitheatre. In that time
the passages were vaulted and funnel walls were added at the
entrances, the auditorium was enlarged, and the perimeter
arena wall was covered with regular soft limestone blocks.
Other reconstructions were made some time later, the most
prominent being the construction of a sanctuary in the arena
at the place of the former stairway in the western passage axis,

81
ROMAN AMPHITHEATRES AND SPECTACULA
and probably this was not the only sanctuary. It is not known
how long the amphitheatre at Burnum functioned, but it is
obvious it collapsed due to decay. Building material was of
rather bad quality so it was decaying slowly even without
negative outer influences such as weathering factors and
extreme cold and heat, which only accelerated its decay. Stone
decay destroyed the stability of the building, which eventually
led to the collapse of vaults and side walls, that is visible in the
excavated passages of the southern and northern entrances.
Some natural disaster might have contributed to
amphitheatre’s decay. The exact time of amphitheatre’s
complete destruction cannot be determined, but it is clear
that in the course of centuries there were no larger
adaptations or reutilizations of amphitheatre stones as
building material. Future archaeological excavations,
especially the forthcoming excavation of the western entrance
and the auditorium, as well as the surrounding area covered
with architectural remains, should solve some of the open
questions about the construction and function of this
building, which played an important role in the everyday life
of the soldiers stationed at Burnum and of the inhabitants of
settlements which developed close to the legionary military
camp.
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