College of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

Brgy. Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

ENS 244 B – Principles of Geology

MWF 10:00AM – 11:00AM

UNIT VII:
LANDSLIDE AND HILLSLOPE STABILITY
a. Improvement of foundation rocks
b. Precaution and treatment against faults
c. Flood control and mitigation/drainage system
d. Joints and ground water
e. Retaining wall and other precautions
f. Geology and environment of earth

MARIAH STACY VANELEN BASALAN

MARK DAVE MAGALLANES
FRENZYL EARN PEÑALOSA
BEL JOHN BALGAMENTO
AISHA KIM CALAMBA
CHERYL DINGLAS
SHANESS PIS-AN
Student Reporters

ENGR. CHRISTOPHER B. PATRIMONIO

Instructor

May 2021
 REPORTERS:
BSCE II

BEL JOHN BARGAMENTO

MARIAH STACY VANELENE AISHA KIM CALAMBA

BASALAN

CHERYL DINGLAS

MARK DAVE MAGALLANES FRENZYL EARN PEÑALOSA

SHANESS G. PIS-AN
 INTRODUCTION
This unit is intended to be a resource for all people to acquire further knowledge, especially
about the conditions that are unique to their neighborhoods and communities. Considerable
literature and research are available concerning landslides and other geological events, but
unfortunately little of it is synthesized and integrated to address the geographically unique
geologic and climatic conditions around the globe. Landslides occur throughout the world, under
all climatic conditions and terrains, cost billions in monetary losses, and are responsible for
thousands of deaths and injuries each year. Often, they cause long-term economic disruption,
population displacement, and negative effects on the natural environment.

The reasons behind poor land management that minimize the perceived or actual danger and
damage potential from geological hazards are many and encompass the political, cultural, and
financial complexities and intricacies of communities. Landslides are often characterized as local
problems, but their effects and costs frequently cross local jurisdictions and may become
state/provincial/national problems.

Growing populations may be limited in their geographic expansion, except to occupy unstable,
steep, or remote areas. Often, stabilizing landslide prone areas is too costly, and some inhabitants
have no other places to relocate. Fortunately, precautions and actions can be adopted to at least
ensure an individual’s immediate safety, and this unit gives a brief overview of many of these
options. This unit helps the community to take the positive step of encouraging awareness on
available options and recourse in regard to landslide hazard.

s
 MAGALLANES

A. IMPROVEMENT OF FOUNDATION ROCKS

Improvement of foundation rocks is a part of construction where the rocks or the ground
are being reinforced to support the building that will be constructed in an area. To simply
describe in simple words, it is the process where an engineer examine the location of the site and
then run some test to evaluate the composition of the ground so that he can decide to wither the
location is strong enough or there are problems in the ground that will create a problem in the
future of the construction and the safety of the people. Before we discuss the methods on how to
improve the foundation of the rock or the ground, let us study first why it is needed to improve
the ground of the structure and what are the problems we can encounter in the future if the
structure is left without examining and improving the composition of the ground.

It is important to examine the ground of the site to ensure the safety of the people.
Leaving the ground unexamined can cause big problems in the construction of a structure. There
are common problems that can greatly affect the ground strength such as the composition of the
soil, the presence of underground water and some may contain harmful gasses underground. It is
best to highly enforce the ground to maintain the strength of a structure.

The presence of groundwater affects the

strength and the compressibility of the soil thus
making it hard to resist the structural load of a
building. Most groundwater is located
underground; these are commonly found inside
fractures of rock and in the pores created under the
soil. When soil is saturated with groundwater its
physical strength to resist loads is lessened and the
compressive ability becomes weak. The presence
of groundwater causes big problems such as
breaking of walls and floors, uneven walls and
floors, unstable walls, and the bigger problem is
that it can cause movements and may also break
the foundation of the structure. The potential effect
of groundwater affects the design and construction
of a structure.
 MAGALLANES

Soil composition is one of the many things to

consider in construction. It is the foundation on
which we build our structures like houses and
commercial buildings. Measuring soil’s strength
is a very must in the construction site for us to
know if the soil has enough strength to withstand
the weight of our structure. We must know the
soil’s texture and the type of clay it possesses. A
structure that was built within the wrong soil or
even in an unstable clay or sand can cause so
much damage. This may cause the foundation to
crack, damage in the flooring and even in the
walls can be recognized. It is said that good soil
should be able to capture precipitation so that
runoff and erosion will not affect the structure.
There are so many types of soil in the ground in
which each one has each own characteristics and physical properties.

First of all, is clay, clay is known for

its characteristics to hold water quite well.
Unfortunately, in construction of buildings
is not a very applicable base to build. It
holds so much water during rainy days and
dries up pretty well during the sunny day.
For this reason, we cannot rely upon that
the base will be strong because it
continually expands when it absorbs water
and compress when it dries making it not
worth for a stable structure.

Next is silt, silt is composed of small

particles, like clay it also holds water quite
good but it doesn’t drain the water very fast.
This can cause the soil to expand and damage
the foundations of the structure. Even if it
doesn’t damage the structure in a short time
but in the long run the damage it can
accumulate can be a big problem.
 MAGALLANES

Sand has the largest particles of

the various soil types. Although it doesn’t
hold so much water the draining time is
short for this type of soil. This type of soil
holds pretty well when it has moisture and
can hold and support a structure but the
problem with this type of soil is that it can
easily wash out its particles when water
runs through it leaving gaps in the
foundation.

Loam is the most balanced of them

all. It is composed of sand, silt, and clay in
balance. It is dark and dry, mostly crumbly,
and is soft in the touch. It can hold water at
a more balanced rate because it is evenly
composed of balanced clay, silt, and sand.
This is the most applicable soil to build a
structure as long as it has no organic
materials that are present that may cause
problem to the structure.

Peat is commonly brown or dark in color, much like clay it can also hold water pretty well
making it easily compressible but during summer days it becomes extremely dry making it not a
very good type of soil to build a structure. Just like the properties of clay this type of soil holds
similar damage it can cause to the structure making it not applicable for construction because the
foundation requires soil that can support the
structure and it does need stable ground or soil.

MAGALLANES

Rocks are the best base of a structure. Shale, hard chalk, limestone, and bedrock are all heavy-
duty materials. As long as the rock is flat, their strength and resilience make them suitable for
supporting pillars. With high compressive strength and durability, it is the ideal ground to
support a structure.

The best way to avoid problems in construction is to be knowledgeable about what you
are dealing with. If you were able to identify what will the future problems in the construction is
one of the best ways to avoid problems in the construction site. Examine everything that can
cause advantages and for the best is to examine the things that can affect the construction of your
building. It is critical to identify the physical and mechanical properties of the ground in the
design of engineering structures.
 PEÑALOSA

METHODS ON IMPROVING FOUNDATION ROCK

An infrastructure’s foundation is forever, so it makes sense to pay attention to the details

that ensure it will remain dry and crack-free for as long as it holds up. A proper foundation does
more than just hold a building above ground. And unweather, sound rocks are always considered
as an ideal base for building foundations. But in the case of unfavorable rock conditions at any
location, if the loads transferred by the columns fail to reach the underlying strata, heavy
structural instabilities are liable to occur.

Some basic preventive and combative measures may be employed to prevent any such
problem. When building a strong foundation, stability is everything. Here are commonly
methods that improve foundation rocks.

Grouting involves injecting under pressure a

good quantity of cement slurry with admixtures into the
rocks of the site. The cement and admixtures are carried
deep and all through the minute cracks where these fill,
set, harden and virtually seal all the types of openings in
the rocks. The grouted rock becomes impermeable,
strong and free from defects of weakness or open spaces.
Hundreds of thousands of tons of cement has been used
as grout in each such major project and all of it becomes
a part of the ground, invisible but strong part. The
grouted zone may form a thin sheet (grout screen) to stop
leakage, or, it may be the entire zone separating a whole
mass from the rest of ground (grout curtain), or, it may Compaction Grouting
be the entire mass below or along the sides which has
been treated and transformed into a grouted zone.

Backfilling and Site Reinforcement.

Drilling investigations reveal the existence of

faults, shear zones, clay seams and such other
shattered or weak zones that the entire zone of
rock is made virtually useless with respect to
the requirements of the foundation. The weak
rock zone might not be prone to improvement
by grouting etc. at economical costs.

Backfilling and Site Reinforcement PEÑALOSA

In such cases, the treatment of this zone would require: Excavation of the entire volume of the
weak, objectionable material. Cleaning (by washing) of the excavated zone and Backfilling the
excavated place with concrete of proper mix design.

Rock bolting is perhaps the most

popular and prevalent method for keeping
the fractured rocks together in and around
tunnel openings. It is a specially designed
steel bolt with main function of holding
broken pieces of rocks together by
providing reinforcement and support. It is
inserted without disturbing the natural
environment of the rock. Once within the
rock body, a bolt provides, besides the
usual grip, additional strength (due to its
material) and thereby contributes to
improve stability of the rock.

The slotted rock bolt consists of a steel bolt,

length varying between 80 cm to 100 cm,
and diameter 2-2.5 cm. On one end, it is
slotted to accommodate a wedge. It is also
threaded and provided with a bearing plate,
washer and nut.

For providing anchorage with rock bolts,

process starts with drilling holes, slightly Rock Bolting
bigger in size than that of the bolts
according to a predetermined scheme.
Then wedges are placed in the holes and bolts are driven over them. After proper placement,
each bolt is clamped, tightened and tensioned at a proper stress.

Shotcrete can be used as an alternative to

rock bolts. In weak rock, the joints are
highly fissured, and therefore the cracks
propagate along the major discontinuity
line. By applying shotcrete, all the joints
in fissured rock can be filled to improve
the overall quality of rock.

PEÑALOSA
Shotcrete is made up of wet mix mortar and fine to medium-sized aggregates. Shotcrete is
projected on the face of rock by the use of air jets. It uses the force of air jets and compacts the
rock surfaces, acting as a reinforcing material.

Building a good foundation requires a lot more than digging a hole and pouring some
concrete into forms. It must be tailored to its site like a custom suit, taking into account soil
conditions, water tables, even the quality of the backfill. The methods mentioned above has been
executed properly in connection with these:

Soil Inspection.

Checking the condition of the

ground is the first step before beginning any
work on it. When it comes to building a
strong foundation, the soil type and its
condition become crucial. If the ground
inspection is ignored, it can lead to
instability in the future. The likeliest
problem you will have is cracks in the
masonry. It occurs when clay-like soil Soil Inspection
expands and contracts regularly as it is
getting wet. Each time it does so cracks will appear, and over time, the building will seem to
settle. This problem is especially prevalent in areas with excessive rainfall or simply during
periods of heavy rain.

Excavating and Grading Process

Remove all the small stones, rocks, pebbles, twigs, roots, etc.
from the ground as such waste materials may hamper the
process of building the foundation. Removal of waste material
is necessary because it may also interfere in maintaining a
particular level of the slope while grading the soil. Make sure
to dig the ground up to the required depth only. For accurate
results, an excavation contractor may come to your rescue.
Excavating and Grading Process

PEÑALOSA
Build the Foundation

To begin building the foundation, install the footings.

Keep in mind that you would either be pouring
concrete into wood forms or directly into the trenches
to create foundations. It depends on the type of
foundation you want and the kind of soil. Concrete
needs reinforcement for added strength and cracks
resistance. It is worth the small additional cost to
install rebars (steel reinforcing bars). Once the
concrete is poured, make sure to check that there is no
air gap as it will lead to developing further cracks in Build the Foundation
the foundation. Seal the footings with a high-quality
sealer. Remember that the concrete base should be
cured of any loopholes before proceeding further. Pay attention to minute details such as the
right mixture of concrete, amount of water in it, depth of the layer to be poured, etc. Take the
help of a quality-minded concrete contractor for building the foundation successfully.

Finish Your Foundation

Make use of concrete finishing tools such as hand float,

trowel, edger and hand groover to smoothen the top layer
of the foundation. Apply another coat of sealer to get rid of
the remaining moisture. You can opt for acrylic-based
sealers because they work well as a curing compound as
well as a sealer.
Finish Your Foundation

PEÑALOSA
Through time and progress, equipped with knowledge and
superiority that results a terrific project. Super-tall buildings in
excess of 300 m in height are presenting new challenges to
engineers, particularly in relation to structural and geotechnical
design. Many of the traditional design methods cannot be applied
with any confidence since they require extrapolation well beyond
the realms of prior experience, and accordingly, structural and
geotechnical designers are being forced to utilize more
sophisticated methods of analysis and design. In particular,

geotechnical engineers involved in the design of foundations for

super-tall buildings are leaving behind empirical methods and are
employing state-of-the art methods increasingly.
The Burj Khalifa in Dubai

Thus, it is essential to inspect and

follow the methods associate with
its base. Ensure its ground for
safety, and may money/ time
wouldn’t waste. The proper way to
maintain and continue having
these creative and advanced
design is by sticking to the ways it
should be done.

The Incheon 151 Tower in

A high-rise tower in
Incheon, South Korea
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
 DINGLAS

B. PRECAUTION AND TREATMENT AGAINST FAULTS

In many regions around the world, engineering structures such as earth dams, buildings,
pipelines, landfills, bridges, roads and railroads are often built in areas very close to strike-slip
fault segments. For the safe design of these structures, earthquake and geotechnical engineers
need a reliable estimate of the ground deformations that fault movements will induce at the sites
of the proposed structures.

WHAT IS A FAULT?

Fault, in geology, a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of Earth’s crust, where

compressional or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides
of the fracture.

Faults range in length from a few

centimetres to many hundreds of
kilometres, and displacement likewise
may range from less than a centimetre to
several hundred kilometres along the
fracture surface (the fault plane). In some
instances, the movement is distributed
over a fault zone composed of many
individual faults that occupy a belt
hundreds of metres wide. The geographic
distribution of faults varies; some large
areas have almost none, others are cut by
innumerable faults.
View looking down on a fault (white dashed line) in intrusive rocks
on Quadra Island, British Columbia.  The pink dyke has been offset
DINGLAS
approximately 10 cm by the fault (length of the white arrow).
 DINGLAS

TYPES OF FAULT

Different kinds of faults develop under different stress conditions. We describe faults in terms of
how the rocks on one side of the fault move relative to the other.

Dip-Slip Faults

Dip-slip faults are so named because

the dominant motion involves
moving up or down the dipping
(tilting) fault plane. In dip-slip faults
we identify rock above the fault as
the hanging wall, (or headwall) and
the rock beneath as the footwall.
These terms were originally used by
miners to describe the rocks above
and below an ore body.

Tension produces normal
faults, in which the crust undergoes extension. This permits the hanging wall to slide down the
footwall in response to gravity (Figure 13.25, left). Compression produces reverse faults,
pushing the hanging wall up relative to the footwall. Reverse faults shorten and thicken the crust
(Figure 13.25, right).

Figure 13.25
 DINGLAS

Strike-Slip Faults

Faults where the motion is mostly horizontal and along the “strike” or the length of the fault are
called strike-slip faults. These happen where shear stress causes bodies of rock to slide
sideways with respect to each other, as is the case along a transform boundary. If the far side
moves to the right, as in Figures 13.23 and 13.26 (right), it is a right-handed, right-
lateral,or dextral strike-slip fault. If the far side moves to the left it is a left-handed, left-
lateral, or sinistral strike-slip fault.

Figure 13.26 Strike-slip
faults. Rocks on either side of
the fault move parallel to the
fault. In dextral strike-slip
faults the far side moves to the
right of the observer. In
sinistral strike-slip faults the
far side moves to the left of the
observer.  Source: Karla
Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0

Different Tectonic Settings Have Distinct Types of Faults

Horst and Graben Structure

In areas that are characterized by extensional tectonics, and with many normal faults arranged
side-by-side, some blocks may subside (settle downward) relative to neighbouring parts.  In such
situations, blocks that move down relative to the other blocks are graben, and elevated blocks
with graben on either side are called horsts. 

Figure 13.27   Graben and horst structures form where extension is happening. All of the faults
are normal faults.
 DINGLAS

Thrust Faults

Thrust faults are a type of reverse fault with a very low-angle fault plane. The fault planes of
thrust faults typically slope at less than 30°. Thrust faults are relatively common in mountain
belts that were created by continent-continent collisions. Some represent tens of kilometres of
thrusting, where thick sheets of sedimentary rock have been pushed up and over other layers of
rock.

Figure 13.28 A thrust fault. Top: prior to faulting. Bottom: after significant fault

offset. 

PRECAUTION AGAINST FAULTS

 Avoiding the fault zone and prohibiting building within mapped zones
It is really not advisable to build a structure near the fault zone due to its weak
foundation which could result to collapse of the srtucture. Phivolcs now recommends
avoiding construction within 5 meters on each side of a fault trace, or a total width of 10
meters. We may call this the ideal "10-meter wide no-build zone" in the vicinity of a
fault.
 The tectonic history of the area under consideration must be known (or studied if not
known) thoroughly.
Such a study would virtually mean obtaining information about frequency of the
earthquakes as also their magnitude and effects that they have left from time to time on
the rocks of the region. Even if the evidence collected from the study of the tectonic
history of the area leads to the conclusion that no movement may be expected in the rocks
of the area during the projected life span of the structure raised on them, some factor of
safety must be introduced into the design of the structure, especially in the big projects in
faulted areas, so that if the unexpected happens, there is minimum loss to the project.
  The exact position of the area of construction with respect to the seismic zoning of the
country must be thoroughly established.
 Some factor of safety must be introduced into the design of the structure
 DINGLAS
 It will be extremely difficult for the foundation of a structure to withstand ground fissures
or deformations. In case a bridge, pipeline or any structure cannot avoid crossing a fault
trace, a special design will be needed to accommodate dislocations.
 Ascertain the presence of faults, their type, nature, extent and effects
 Examine the surface and sub-surface geology.
One of the most valuable reasons for learning about
the subsurface is understanding the materials below man-made structures. These studies
are commonly called geotechnical reports and are critical for building structures safely in
areas with geologic hazards.

TREATMENT AGAINST FAULTS

 Site strengthening through compaction, soil replacement, grouting.

Grouting in civil engineering refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a soil
or rock formation to change its physical characteristics.

Compaction is the
application of mechanical
energy to a soil to rearrange the
particles and reduce the void
ratio. The principal reason
for compacting soil is to reduce
subsequent settlement under
working
loads. Compaction increases the
shear strength of the soil.

Soil replacement involves
excavating the soil that needs to
be improved and replacing it.
The excavated soil can
sometimes be recompacted to a
satisfactory state or it may be
treated with admixtures and
then be replaced in a controlled
manner.
 DINGLAS

 Ductile compacted fill or reinforced fill

Compacted fills are used beneath foundations where it

is necessary to raise the grade of the structure above
existing ground or to replace unsatisfactory surface
soils.

 Shallow foundation (smaller projects) and Deep foundation

A shallow foundation is a type of

building foundation that transfers
building loads to the earth very
near to the surface, rather than to a
subsurface layer or a range of
depths as does a deep foundation.

 Extensive excavations of the

sheared material and back filling with cement grouting.

Excavation is the process of moving things

like earth, rock, or other materials with
tools, equipment, or explosives. It includes
earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling, and underground.
In construction, excavation is used to create building foundations, reservoirs, and roads.

DINGLAS

Cement Grouting is the injection under

pressure of cement or grout to fill voids or
fractures in the soil, rock unit or concrete
structure. Cement Grouting is a process by
which cement is injected under pressure to fill
fractures and voids in concrete structures.
DINGLAS
 PIS-AN

C. FLOOD CONTROL AND MITIGATION/DRAINAGE SYSTEM

FLOOD

It is an excess of water (or mud) on

land that is normally dry and is a
situation wherein the inundation is
caused by high flow, or overflow of
water in an established watercourse
such as a river, stream, or drainage
ditch; or on ponding of water at/near
the point where the rain fell. This is
unpredictable – duration type – natural
and inevitable event.

Flood occurs when lakes, riverbeds,

soil and vegetation cannot absorb all
water. Water then escapes from land
in quantities that cannot be transported into the channels of streams or retained in natural ponds,
lakes, and man-made reservoirs.

TYPES OF FLOODING:

1. According to Duration
 Slow – Onset Flooding –
usually last for a relatively
longer period, it may last for one
or more weeks, or even months.
As this kind of flood last for a
long period, it can lead to lose of
stock, damage to agricultural
products, roads and rail links.
 Rapid – Onset Flooding – lasts
for a relatively shorter period,
they usually last of one or two
days only. Although this kind of
flood lasts for a shorter period, it can cause more damages and pose a greater risk
to life and property as people usually have less time to plan out there execution
plan and get to safety in a quicker time.
 PIS-AN

 Flash Flooding – can be caused by a number of things, but is most often due to
extremely heavy rainfall from thunders. Flooding begins within 6 hours, and often
within 3 hours of the heavy rainfall (or other cause.).
2. According to Location
 Coastal Flooding – is the
inundation of land areas along the
coast by seawater. Common
causes are intense windstorm
events occurring at the same time
as high tide (storm surge),
tsunamis, strong waves, and heavy
precipitation. Impacts from these
events can range from mere
inconvenience all the way to
damaged property, bodily injury,
or death.
 Arroyos/Mud Flooding - is produced by an accumulation of run-off over
agricultural land. Sediments are picked up by the run-off and carried as suspended
matter or bed-load. Mud flooding is typically a hill-slope process.
 River Flooding – fluvial flood, occurs when the water level in a river, lake or
stream rises and overflows onto the
surrounding banks, shores and
neighbouring land. The water level
rise could be due to excessive rain or
snowmelt.

 Urban Flooding – is the accumulation

of flood waters that result when the
inflow of storm water exceeds the
capacity of a drainage system to
infiltrate water into the soil or to carry
it away.
 PIS-AN

CAUSES OF FLOOD:

Floods are caused by many factors:

o Heavy precipitation o Deforestation and population

pressure
o Severe winds over water
o Lack of flood control measures
o Even when rainfall is relatively light,
the shorelines of lakes and bays can o Lack of attention to the nature of
be flooded by severe winds – such as hydrological system
during hurricanes – that blow water
o Slope failures
into the shore areas.

o Unusual high tides o Type of river

o Failure of dams, levels, retention o Intensity of rainfall

ponds, or other structures that o Topography
contained the water
o Sedimentations of river/reservoir
o Uncontrolled unplanned urbanization
– unauthorized, poor water and o Obstructions in river flow
sewerage management
o Contraction in river

o Seismic effects
 PIS-AN

EFFECTS OF FLOODING:

Flooding has many impacts:

o Damages property and

endangers the lives of humans
and other species.
o Rapid water runoff causes soil
erosion and concomitant
sediment deposition elsewhere
(such as further downstream or
down a coast.)
o The spawning grounds for fish
and other wildlife habitats can
become polluted or completely
destroyed.
o Some prolonged high floods can
delay traffic in areas which lack elevated roadways.
o Floods can interfere with drainage and economic use of lands, such as interfering with
farming.
o Structural damages can occur in bridge abutments, bank lines, sewer lines, and other
structures within flood ways.
o Waterway navigation and hydroelectric power are often impaired.
o Financial losses due to flood are typically millions of dollars each year.

FLOOD CONTROL

Flood control refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood
waters.

Some of the common techniques used for flood

controls:

 Installation of rock beams

 Rock rip-raps
 Sandbags
 PIS-AN

 Maintaining normal slopes with vegetation or application of soil cements on steeper

slopes
 Construction or expansion of drainage
channels
 Planting vegetation to retain extra water
 Terracing hillslides to slow flow downhill
 Construction of floodways (man-made
channels to divert floodwater)
 Construction of levees, dikes, dams,
reservoirs or retention ponds to hold extra
water during times of flooding.

Dams – Dams are an important part of

flood protection for any city. They protect
against the loss of life and property that can
be caused by flooding. Dams protect against
flooding by collecting and holding waters
when they reach a certain level. Once
collected, a dam might be designed to release
the water back into the river at a controlled
speed or divert the water elsewhere for other
uses.

Diversion Canals - Diversion channels are man-made channels built to offer a

different route for excess water to flow further mitigating the effects of flooding and
restoring rivers to their natural water level. Typically, diversion canals are built around
communities or economic centers to prevent extensive flood damage.
 PIS-AN

Dikes – A dike is a barrier used to

regulate or hold back water from a river, lake,
or even the ocean. It is a large slab of rock that
cuts through another type of rock.

Levees – A levee is a man-made structure built to contain, control or divert the

flow of water in order to provide protection to
towns and/or agricultural land from flooding. It
is designed to hold back a certain amount of
floodwater.

Coastal Defenses – Example: Sea walls.

Tide gates close during incoming tides to
prevent tidal waters moving upland, and open
during outgoing tides to allow waters to drain
out via the culvert and into the estuary side of
the dike.

The engineering works that can prevent and mitigate the effects of flood:

 On highways, the implantation of steel pipes should take water by gravity away from the
road from catchment basin.
  The severe flooding problems in a city that paved much of its soil would be alleviated in
part by the construction of great swimming pools that are large underground water tanks
to store the waters.
 Mandatory placement of permeable drainage floors in huge courtyards of parking lots in
malls, supermarket and cinemas, to allow the water infiltration in part of the ground,
being the same for monument and spaces around buildings.
 Using drains and gutters around all houses to divert rainwater to a reservoir or disposal
area.

PIS-AN

 Maintenance, or whenever possible, of some green areas so that the water is reabsorbed
by the soil.
 Rectification of rivers and streams, construction of dams and canals in large rivers that
extend their containment basins.
 Implementation of a civil defence system that should be able to at least warn people and
have a scheme to remove them from homes in time with some belongings and
accommodate them.

Caring to avoid flooding in urban areas:

 Keeping streets and sidewalks always clean.

 Cleaning and unclogging manhole and storm drain.
 Keeping in the houses the channels and other channels of rainfall free of branches and
leaves of trees to avoid clogging and, consequently, return of water.
 Putting garbage bags on the sidewalks only near the time the garbage collection truck will
come, preventing them from being drawn into the manhole when it rains.
 Having a drain pump on hand if flooding cannot be avoided.
 Using Dutch and British flood proof technology as a floating amphibian house that
allows buildings to float in the same way as a boat.

Hydrological experts recommend that, in order to avoid flooding in urban areas, the following
measures should be adopted:

 Combating erosion by minimizing sedimentation of natural drainage and built up through

rigorous and extensive soil erosion control and irregular disposition of urban garbage and
construction rubble, as well as the expansion of the river gutters.
 Combating waterproofing with the creation of domestic and business reservoirs, as well
as the expansion of green areas.
 Forbidding traffic on high traffic avenues when nearby rivers overflow.
  Implantation of avenues covered by vegetation that, in cases of overflowing rivers or
streams, water should be absorbed by the pavement of free soil.
 Constructing great swimming pools to receive rainwater and mini swimming pools in
houses and buildings.
 Investing in small and large streams of the urban center to support the increase of water
and act as containment barriers.
 Review of occupied areas – continuous planning and land-use planning
 Action and planning – preparation of a plan to deal with the occurrence of floods as well
as extreme climatic variations, and construction of reservoirs capable of storing billions
of cubic meters of water and their use for non-potable purposes.

CALAMBA

D. JOINTS AND GROUND-WATER

What is Joint?

Joint are defined as division planes or fractures along which there has been no relative
displacement.

Nature of Joints

Open Joint (JT-1) Close Joint(JT-2)

Smooth Joint(JT-3) Small Joint(JT-5) Rough Joint(JT-4) Closed Joint(JT-2)

Classification of Joints

 Spatial Relationships
 Geometry
 Origin
A.)Spatial Relationship

- Based on the presence or otherwise of some regularity in their occurrence.

Systematic Joints(regular joints)

These shows a distinct regularity in their

occurrence. They occur in parallel or sub parallel joint
sets that are repeated in the rocks at regular intervals.

CALAMBA

Non-systematic Joint(irregular)

Joints that are so irregular in form, spacing and orientation that they cannot be readily
grouped into distinctive, through-going joint sets, in many cases they are related to systematic
joints in that these occur between them.

B.)Geometry

- Based on the relationship of their

attitude with that of the rocks in which they
occur.

Strike Joints

In which the joint sets strike of the rocks.

Dip Joints

In which the joint sets strike parallel to the dip direction of the rocks.

CALAMBA

Oblique Joints

Those are joints where the strike of

the joints is at any angle between the dip
and the strike layer. These are also called
diagonal joints when they occur midway
between the dip and strike of the layer.

C.)Origin

- Where joints are classified into one of the following genetic type.

Tension Joints

Developed due to the tensile forces acting on the

rock. The most common location of such joints in folded
sequence is on the rocks.
Shear Joints

These are formed mainly due to shearing stress.

They’re originating in folding and faulting of rock bodies.

CALAMBA

Compression Joints

Rocks may be compressed to crushing and

numerous joints may result due to the compressive forces
in this case in the core regions of regions of folds where
compressive forces are dominant.

IMPORTANCE of JOINTS

 Mineralization
 Good permeable layer for aquifer
 Control weathering and erosion
 Understanding the geology and geomorphology of local area
 In hilly regions, joints get easily lubricated due to the moisture and starts sliding causes
landslide.

What is Ground-water?
 Ground-water is water found in the pores of soil and sediment, plus narrow fractures in
bedrock. Groundwater is the largest reservoir of fresh water that is readily available to humans.

Geological of Groundwater:

As an erosional agent Groundwater serves as an equalizer of stream flow.

CALAMBA

Ground-water Flow:

Water in the zone of saturated ground moves toward rivers, lake, and the sea.

o Precipitation
Water that is falling out of the sky, this could be rain, drizzle, snow, sleet, hail or
something.
o Infiltration
Is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.

o Percolation
Is the process of a liquid slowly passing through a filter.

o Evaporation
Is the process which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor.

ZONE OF UNDERGROUND WATER

 Zone of Saturation – Where water exist

within the spaces
 Zone of Aeration – Space above the
water and below the surface.
Two characteristics of all rocks that affect the presence and movement of ground water:

1.) Porosity
Size and amount of void spaces.

2.) Permeability
The relative ease with which water can move through spaces in the rock.

CALAMBA

Types of Geological Formation

 Aquifers
- Aquifer is a ground-water reservoir composed of geologic units that are saturated with
water and sufficiently permeable to yield water in a usable quantity to wells and spring.

Aquifers provide two important functions:

a.) To transmit ground water from areas of recharge to areas of discharge.

b.) To provide a storage medium for useable quantities of ground water. The amount of
the water a material can hold depends upon its porosity.

Types of Aquifers:

 Unconfined Aquifers
One in which a water table varies in undulating form and slope, depending on areas of
recharge and discharge, and permeability.

 Confined Aquifers
- Also known as artesian or pressure aquifers, occur where groundwater is confined under
pressure greater than atmospheric by overlying relatively impermeable strata.

 Aquitard
- Is a partly permeable geologic formation. It transmit water at such a slow rate that the
yield is insufficient. Pumping by wells is not possible.
 Aquiclude
- Impermeable layer of soil that may absorb water slowly but does not transmit it.

 Aquifuge
- Is a geologic formation which doesn’t have interconnected pore. It is neither porous nor
permeable. Thus, it can neither store water nor transmit it.

Discharge of Groundwater

CALAMBA

What pollutes groundwater?

 Improper Disposal of Hazardous waste

 Landfill
 Mining
 Releases and Spill from stored tanks
 Chemicals and Petroleum Products
 Pesticide and Fertilizer
 Improperly Abandoned Wells
 Leaky underground storage tanks

How can we protect groundwater?

 Monitor aquifers & landfills: required for old fuel

  Leak detection system: stricter regulations on toxic waste disposal
 Above-ground storage of toxic waste

BARGAMENTO
E. RETAINING WALL AND OTHER PRECAUTIONS
A retaining wall is a structural wall designed to resist the lateral pressure of soil. A
retaining wall is a structure that retains any materials and prevents it from sliding away.

They are used to bound soils between two different elevations often in areas of terrain
possessing undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped severely and
engineered for more specific purposes like hillside farming or roadway overpasses.

DESIGN GUIDANCE

LOCATION

When choosing a location for your wall, make sure you have a detailed understanding of
property lines and both above ground and underground utilities including stormwater
management systems and irrigation.

Additional factors to consider about the location might include:

 o If your wall is on a slope, where will you store additional infill that must be brought to
the site?
o Excess soil. If you are cutting into a hillside, where will the excess soil be stored?
o Natural drainage patterns. Depending on the wall size, a retaining wall can impede on
natural drainage patterns and have environmental consequences downstream.
o If your wall is along the property boundary, will the reinforcement system encroach the
property line?
o Surcharge Loads. Will there be additional weight or vertical forces above the wall such as

SOIL

The soil that creates the foundation, or base, needs to be examined to ensure it meets the
strength required to support the wall. You should determine the type, bearing capacity, stress
parameters, and friction angle of the soil used for the foundation and reinforced zone along
with the retained soil zone.

BARGAMENTO

DESIGN

You must calculate the corresponding wall heights, footprint sizes, slopes, and the setback
angle which are dependent on the site elevation and grade. You must also consider that
gravity will cause the retained material to naturally move downslope.

Wall reinforcement - there are reinforcement methods available that depend on the wall type,
height, design, friction, angle, soil material, and more. Mechanically stabilized earth
(MSE) is soil with some means of artificial reinforcement such as steel or geosynthetics
(such as geogrids).

Geogrid is often made of a high-tensile fabric woven in to a grid pattern. It is placed in

between the layers of retaining wall blocks and rolled back into the earth.

Other types of reinforcement

SOIL NAILING AND ROCK BOLTS - Soil nailing or rock bolts is an

economical technique used to stabilize existing slopes and to construct retaining
walls from the top down. This soil reinforcement process uses steel tendons which
are drilled and grouted into the soil to create a composite mass similar to a gravity
wall. A shotcrete facing is typically applied, through many architectural options
such as precast panels or “green” vegetated cells are available for permanent wall
facings.
 EARTH ANCHORS - A ground anchor generally consists of a steel tendon (bar
or strands) that is grouted into a pre-drilled hole in rock or soil. After the grout
cures, the tendon is pulled into tension against a plate or block and is locked in
place to resist movement of a retaining structure.

DRAINAGE

Water is the most common reason that retaining walls fail, it’s essential to make sure
your wall has good drainage and that there will be no buildup of water behind the wall.

Identify potential surface water sources and make sure to drainage adjacent to the wall
site has been accounted for.

Backfilling a retaining wall - Backfilling the wall serves several purposes. First, it
creates a drainage barrier for water to flow away from the wall. If water stays
trapped near the wall it can build up pressure that may compromise the wall's
integrity.

BARGAMENTO

TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

 GRAVITY WALLS

Gravity walls use their own weight to hold the soil behind them and are typically
made with heavy materials such as stone, large concrete blocks, or cast-in-place
concrete. They lean back toward the soil with interlocking edges and use their mass to
resist pressure from behind.

 Segmental gravity wall  Gabion wall

  Timber Crib wall  Geocell Cellular Confinement Earth Retention

Taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite gravity walls such as:
1. geosynthetics such as geocell cellular confinement earth retention or with
precast facing;

2. we have also gabions, example is a stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks);

3. crib walls it is a cells built up log cabin style from precast concrete or timber
and filled with granular material).

BARGAMENTO
 SEGMENTAL RETAINING WALLS

Segmental retaining walls (SRWs) are designed to be used as a gravity wall either
with or without reinforcement and can have heights in excess of 40’. SRWs are modular
blocks made from concrete that are often dry stacked without mortar. The individual units
interlock with each other to avoid overturning and sliding.

When it is reinforced, They typically have no height limitations.

In various commercial and residential applications, it is used for both straight or curved
designs. They can be designed to conform to any shape while maximizing the site’s usable space,
particularly on high-sloped terrains. When reinforced, they typically have no height limitations.
 CANTILEVERED WALL

Cantilever retaining walls work on the

principles of leverage and are often
constructed in the shape of an inverted T with
reinforced concrete or mortared masonry. Less
building material is required for a cantilevered
wall than a gravity wall, and they can be
poured on site or manufactured at a precast
concrete facility. They consist of a relatively
thin stem and a base slab, which is divided
into two parts: the heel and toe. The heel is the
part of the base under the backfill while the toe is the other part. Rigid concrete footing is
required for these walls that are usually under 25’ high.

BARGAMENTO

Rigid concrete footing is required for

these walls that are usually under 25’ high.

 COUNTERFORT WALL

Counterfort walls require support along the backside of the wall. They use
concrete webs, also known as counterforts, build at an angle to strengthen the stability of
the wall. These webs are located at regular intervals along the length of the wall and
reduce the natural pressures put on the wall from the soil while also increasing the weight
of the wall. These are preferred over cantilever walls when the wall is taller than 25’.
\

 SHEET OR BORED PILE WALL

Sheet pile retaining walls are made out of precast concrete, steel, vinyl, or wood
planks and are used in soft soil and tight spaces. The planks are driven into the ground by
vibrating and hammering to ensure their stability and can be connected using a groove
and tongue.

BARGAMENTO

Taller walls require an anchor of some sort that is tied to the wall and then built
into the soil. They are good to use along waterfronts and can help with beach erosion,
shoring, excavations, or cofferdams.

Bored piles are often used when the vibrations from pile drivers are too strong for
sheet piles to withstand. Anchors are sometimes needed to support the walls, but not
always.

It is used for temporary deep excavations in tight spaces such as around marine
locations, cofferdams, and seawalls, along with structural columns, pier shafts, and more.

 PANEL WALL
 You’ll see panel walls utilized in tall applications such as highway ramps, or near
areas where there are heavy loads. They can also use posts to connect the panels that are
made of precast concrete reinforced with steel. Can be placed in tight spaces with limited
right-of-way

In conclusion, Whichever wall system you decide is best for your project, make sure you
have thoroughly evaluated the location, soil, and drainage requirements of your project. The
main uses of retaining walls are to help prevent soil erosion, create usable beds out of steep
terrain and to provide decorative or functional landscaping features. They may be independent
structures, or may be part of a wider construction work, such as a building, and roads. The most
important is, it can protect people in disaster especially erosion or landslide.
 BASALAN
F. GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT OF EARTH

Geology
Comes from the Greek word “geo” meaning Earth and “logos” meaning treaty or
knowledge. The study of the earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of those
materials, and the processes acting upon them. It also includes the study of organisms that have
inhabited our planet.

Importance of Geology
Geology looks some of the most important issues in society today including energy
sources and sustainability, climate change, the impacts of development on environment, water
management, mineral resources and natural hazard. By studying these issues, geologist, along
with other scientist can anticipate earth’s future and examine any changes that may need to be
made.

Environmental geology
A branch of geology that involves the application of geologic principles and knowledge
to problems created by man’s occupancy and exploitation of the physical environment. It
involves problems concerned with construction of buildings and transportation facilities, safe
disposal of solid and liquid waste, management of water resources, evaluation and mapping of
rocks and mineral resources, and long-range physical planning and development of the most
efficient and beneficial use of land.

4 areas that Environmental geology focuses:

1. Identifying and mitigating geological hazards
2. Managing the use of geologic resources
3. Managing energy sources, mitigating its hazards, and enhancing sustainability
4. Managing disposal of waste

1. Identifying and mitigating geological hazards

Geologic hazards can be defined as large-scale, complex natural events that happens on land
and is capable of causing damage or loss of property and life.
Examples of these are the hazards that are caused by:
• Earthquakes
• Floods
• Landslides
• Tsunamis
• Volcanic eruption
 BASALAN
Environmental geology study earth processes. They work understand these processes in order
to identify and mitigate the hazards that are brought about by natural phenomenon (e.g.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc.)

Earthquakes
Earthquakes can cause upheaval or subsidence of land area. Subsidence landslides,
liquefaction, and tsunamis. Earthquakes definitely cause harm to human beings especially those
living in urban areas because earthquakes produce destructive vibrations that can result to
collapse of buildings and home and damage to water, gas and communication lines.

Environmental geology and mitigating hazards caused by Earthquakes:

• Engineering
Collapsed buildings causes the most harm during an earthquake. To prevent this,
buildings and homes should be constructed in ways that make them unlikely to
collapse during earthquakes (e.g. Seismic isolation system and motion dampers)

• Seismic Isolation System is a technique for mitigating the effects of

earthquakes on structures through the introduction of flexibility and energy
absorption capability. It is one of Japan’s quake resistant technology, which
refers to the installation rubber bearings, composed of thin rubber and thin
steel plates, under a structure, the building can move flexibly in a horizontal
direction and has a strong resistance to quakes.

• Dampers are any material or device that absorbs vibrations. Seismic dampers
dissipate the energy of seismic waves moving through a building structure.
Motion Dampers reduces the motion and vibration of a quake to a smaller
amount preventing damage to a superstructure.

• Earthquake prediction and seismic activity monitoring

To evaluate earthquake hazards geological tools are needed this includes
Paleoseismicity studies, fault-slip rate investigations, seismotectonic studies in
regions lacking identifiable active faults and use of probabilistic techniques as applied
to geology.

• Paleoseismicity refers to the study of old earthquakes. Paleoseismologists

believe that what happened in the past will most likely happen again in the
future. Therefore, the more information that can be gathered about the past,
the better idea we’ll have about what is likely to happen in the future.
 BASALAN
• Fault-slip rate investigations are done to reveal the activity and seismic
potential of a fault.

• Seismotectonics is the study of the relationship between the earthquakes,

active tectonics and individual faults of a region. It seeks to understand which
faults are responsible for seismic activity in an area.

Volcanic Eruption
One of earth’s most dramatic and violent agents of change. It creates hazardous
conditions, which can severely affect people and human infrastructure. Not only can powerful
explosive eruptions drastically alter land and water for tens of kilometers around a volcano, but
tiny liquid droplets of sulfuric acid erupted into the stratosphere can change our planet's climate
temporarily. Eruptions often force people living near volcanoes to abandon their land and homes.
Farther away, cities, crops, industrial plants, transportation systems, airplanes, and electrical
grids can be damaged by tephra, ash, lahars, and flooding

Environmental geology and mitigating hazards caused by Volcanic Eruption:

• Volcanic Mapping
Volcanic hazard maps are visual & geospatial depictions of the areas that could be
impacted by various volcanic phenomena. They are especially important for planning,
communication and evacuation.

• Volcanic Monitoring
The main purpose of monitoring is to learn when magma is rising within a
volcano that could lead to an eruption. Scientists use a wide variety of techniques to
monitor volcanoes, including:

• Seismographic detection of the earthquakes and tremor. This will allow

geologists to determine the exact location and depth of the seismic activity so
that they can see where the magma is moving.

• Precise measurements of ground deformation that often accompanies the rise of

magma. This can be measured through the use of a tiltmeter or GPS.

• Changes in volcanic gas emissions

 BASALAN
2. Managing the use of geologic resources

Geological resources are any solid, liquid or gas element that is in or on the earth’s crust and
that is presented in optimum concentrations for its exploitation. These resources include: metals,
stone, fossil fuels, water, soil, and etc.

All human beings and animals alike depend on our natural resources to live. From the
food we eat, to the water we drink, all of this comes from our environment. However, in the
recent years, there has been much of concern all over the world, particularly among the scientific
community about the impact of human activities on the environment.

Continuous clearing forest areas to make room for urbanization and agricultural lands
may not only cause a change in climatic conditions but also accentuate the process of soil
erosion. In the long run, this may contribute towards a reduction in soil fertility or, in the extreme
case, even desertification.

As we attempt to exploit natural resources such as coal, petroleum, the ores of different
metals and other economically useful rocks and minerals, men have undertaken mining
operations since very early days. Such operations on the surface lead to the development of large
hollows which, under suitable climatic conditions, may contain water and give rise to ponds of
various sizes. Mining operations along the slopes of hills and mountains often enhance the
possibility of landslides. Underground mining operations leading to the extraction of coal has
often led to subsidence of land and consequent change in topography.

Excessive use of underground water for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes
leaves a significant impact on the environment. Such indiscriminate utilization of ground water
causes subsidence and fissuring of the land surface.

River valley projects, involving construction of one or more dams for storing water for
the purpose of irrigation, flood control, power generation etc. Is of utmost importance but despite
its importance may still cause submergence of human settlement, arable land and mineral
resources. Furthermore, rapid deforestation of the catchment areas, which is a common
phenomenon, leads to soil erosion, landslides and more intensive water flow to the reservoirs.
Excessive soil erosion can enhance the process of siltation reservoir thus reducing its capacity
and defeating the very purpose for which the dam has been constructed. The huge quantity of
water stored in large reservoirs in seismic regions may also be responsible for earthquakes.
 BASALAN
Environmental geology and managing the use of Natural resources:
• Land-use Planning and Development
Refers to a systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for
land use, and the economic and social conditions required to select and adopt the best
land-use options. Land use planning ensure that our resources are used efficiently so that
the needs of the people are met while safeguarding future resources.
• Includes soil management and Agricultural management
• Involves natural resource management, environmental impact assessment,
transport and infrastructure planning, town planning and urban design.
• Includes laws and regulations governing land use and the environment.

• Water resource management

Is the process of planning, developing and managing water resource, in terms of
both water quantity and quality, across all water uses. Water resource management works
to secure equal allocation of water, conserving water in a sustainable way and protecting
water resources from pollution. It also develops efficient methods for mapping and
managing the available water resource on earth.
This includes:
• Water quality improvement plans
• Water allocation plans
• Catchment models
• Water source protection plans

3. Managing energy sources, mitigating its hazards, and enhancing sustainability

Burning fossil fuels

Fossil fuels – coal, oil, and natural gas – are currently the world's primary energy
source. They possess a high-carbon content because fossil fuels are made up fossilized, buried
remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. For more than a century, we have
been using this non-renewable source of energy to generate electricity, heat and transportation.
However, when fossil fuels are burned, they release large amounts of carbon dioxide and other
harmful greenhouse gasses that causes air pollution, land degradation, global warming, and
human damage. Furthermore, the extraction of these resources can cause water contamination
and pollution.

Environmental geology and mitigating hazards of burning fossil fuels

• Carbon Capture and Storage

BASALAN
 Carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS), also referred to as carbon capture,
utilization and sequestration, is a process that captures carbon dioxide emissions from
sources like coal-fired power plants and either reuses or stores it underground so it will
not enter the atmosphere.
Since it is still a developing technology. Geology helps in the selection and technical
developments of suitable storage sites. It plays a major role in the implementation,
monitoring of co2, leakage and geomechanically deformation
• Renewable energy
• Solar energy • Biomass
• Wind energy • Hydroelectric energy
• Nuclear energy • Hydrokinetic energy.
• Geothermal energy

4. Managing disposal of waste

Waste management plays an important role in mitigating environmental challenges such
as pollution, contamination and degradation. It also reduced the effects of toxic waste to human
health.
Proper waste disposal
Waste can be safely disposed in engineered through the following:

• Engineered landfills
• Incineration
• Underground Injection Wells
• Geological waste disposal
• landfills, by incineration, underground injection wells, and geological waste
disposal.
One efficient way to dispose waste is through Incineration. Incineration is the process of
combustion converting waste materials into ash, flue gas, and heat. Incineration plants can
generate energy from this process. This energy can then be used to generate electricity and heat.
Geological waste disposal is used to manage radioactive waste. It refers to the isolation
of waste in an underground respiratory constructed in a suitable rock formation, typically 200 –
1000m in depth to ensure that no harmful quantities of radioactivity will reach the surface of the
environment.

Environmental geology and managing waste disposal

Geology play a vital role in characterizing potential sites for landfills, incineration plants
and in the implementation of a respiratory to be used for geological waste disposal. It also plays
an important role in monitoring safe waste management ensuring landfills are free from leakage
and incineration plants do not cause harm to both humans and the environment.
ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

A. IMPROVEMENT OF FOUNDATION ROCKS

1. It is commonly found below the ground inside the fractures of the rocks and the
pores that was created under the soil.
2. A type of soil that has balanced mechanical properties.
3. A type of soil that is the most prone to erosion.
4. High compressive strength and durability and is ideal ground to support the
structure.
5. This type of soil that doesn’t drain water very fast.
6. What are the methods that help on improving foundation rock?
7. When the entire zone of rock is made virtually useless with respect to the
requirements of the foundation, and the Grouting process isn’t improving the
weak zone rock. What is the alternative method to execute? And enumerate the
treatment could be done?
8. What method that can be an alternative for Rock Bolting?
9. What are the four ways that helps improvement of rocks executed properly?
10. What is the most popular and prevalent method for keeping the fractured rocks
together in and around tunnel openings?

B. PRECAUTION AND TREATMENT AGAINST FAULTS

1. It is a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of Earth’s crust, where

compressional or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the
opposite sides of the fracture.

2. What are the precautions against faults?

3. Why do we have to avoid the fault zone, specifically in building structures?
4. Give all the possible treatments against faults.
5. What is the difference between shallow foundation and deep foundation?
6. Compressive force prroduces what type of faults?

C. FLOOD CONTROL AND MITIGATION/DRAINAGE SYSTEM

1. Give the 4 types of flooding according to location.
2. It is an excess of water (or mud) on land that is normally dry and is a situation
wherein the inundation is caused by high flow, or overflow of water in an
established watercourse.
3. It refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood
waters.
 4. Discuss the 3 types of flooding according to duration.
5. On highways, how can you prevent the effects of flooding?

D. JOINTS AND GROUND WATER

1. What are the classifications of joints?
2. What are the difference between the systematic joints and non-systematic joints?
3. Give some importance of joints.
4. What are the two zone of underground water?
5. What are the types of geological formations?
6. Give at least 2 examples that can pollute to the groundwater?
7. How can you protect the groundwater?

E. RETAINING WALLS AND OTHER PRECATIONS

1. Give one Purpose of backfilling a retaining wall? Why we need to consider it
especially for Retaining walls made up of concrete blocks or poured concrete?
2. What type of retaining walls that can be used without reinforcement?
3. Differentiate soil naling and earth anchors.
4. It is used to bound soils between two different elevations often in areas of terrain
possessing undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped
severely and engineered for more specific purposes like hillside farming or
roadway overpasses.
5. What are the main uses of retaining walls?

F. GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT OF EARTH

1. ______________ is a study that is concerned with the interactions between human

and the environment.
2. _____________ has an assumption that says “what happened in the past will most
likely happen again in the future”
3. _____________ process that captures carbon dioxide emissions from sources like
coal-fired power plants and either reuses or stores it underground so it will not enter
the atmosphere.
4. _____________ are any solid, liquid or gas element that is in or on the earth’s crust
and that is presented in optimum concentrations for its exploitation.
5. _____________ its essential goal is to dispose of waste without contaminating water,
soil, and air.
6. Based on your own understanding, what is the significance of environmental
geology?
7. Among the given sources of renewable energy, which do you think is most efficient
based on your perspective and discuss why?
ANSWERS TO ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

A. IMPROVEMENT OF FOUNDATION ROCKS

1. Groundwater
2. Loam
3. Sand
4. Rock/Rocky Soil
5. Silt
6. Methods on improving foundation rocks:
 Grouting
 Backfilling and Site Reinforcement
 Rock Bolting
 Shotcrete
7. Backfilling and Site Reinforcement.
 Excavation of the entire volume of the weak, objectionable material.
 Cleaning (by washing) of the excavated zone
 Backfilling the excavated place with concrete of proper mix design.
8. Shotcrete
9. Ways that helps improve rock:
 Soil Inspection
 Excavating and Grading Process
 Build the Foundation
 Finished your Foundation
10. Rock Bolting

B. PRECAUTION AND TREATMENT AGAINST FAULTS

1. Fault
2. Precaution against faults:
 Avoiding the fault zone and prohibiting building within mapped zones
 The tectonic history of the area under consideration must be known (or
studied if not known) thoroughly.
 The exact position of the area of construction with respect to the seismic
zoning of the country must be thoroughly established.
 Some factor of safety must be introduced into the design of the structure
 Ascertain the presence of faults, their type, nature, extent and effects
 Examine the surface and sub-surface geology.
 3. It is really not advisable to build a structure near the fault zone due to its weak
foundation which could result to collapse of the srtucture. Phivolcs now
recommends avoiding construction within 5 meters on each side of a fault trace,
or a total width of 10 meters. We may call this the ideal "10-meter wide no-build
zone" in the vicinity of a fault.
4. Possible treatments against faults:
 Site strengthening through compaction, soil replacement, grouting.
 Ductile compacted fill or reinforced fill
 Shallow foundation (smaller projects) and Deep foundation
 Extensive excavations of the sheared material and back filling with cement
grouting.
5. A shallow foundation is a type of building foundation that transfers building
loads to the earth very near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a
range of depths as does a deep foundation.
6. Reverse Faults

C. FLOOD CONTROL AND MITIGATION/DRAINAGE SYSTEM

1. According to Location:
 Coastal Flooding
 Arroyos/Mud Flooding
 River Flooding
 Urban Flooding
2. Flooding

3. Flood Control
4. According to Duration
 Slow – Onset Flooding – usually last for a relatively longer period, it may
last for one or more weeks, or even months. As this kind of flood last for a
long period, it can lead to lose of stock, damage to agricultural products,
roads and rail links.
 Rapid – Onset Flooding – lasts for a relatively shorter period, they usually
last of one or two days only. Although this kind of flood lasts for a shorter
period, it can cause more damages and pose a greater risk to life and
property as people usually have less time to plan out there execution plan
and get to safety in a quicker time.
 Flash Flooding – can be caused by a number of things, but is most often
due to extremely heavy rainfall from thunders. Flooding begins within 6
hours, and often within 3 hours of the heavy rainfall (or other cause.).
5. Implantation of steel pipes that takes water by gravity away from the road to a
catchment basin.
D. JOINTS AND GROUND WATER
1. Spatial Relationship, Geometry and Origin
2. The difference of the two is that the systematic joints shows a distinct regularity
in their occurrence. They occur in parallel or sub parallel joint sets that are
repeated in the rocks at regular intervals.While non-systematic joint are so
irregular in form, spacing and orientation that they cannot be readily grouped into
distinctive, through-going joint sets, in many cases they are related to systematic
joints in that these occur between them.
3. Mineralization, Control weathering and erosion and Understanding the geology
and geomorphology of local area
4. Zone of saturation and zone of aeration
5. Aquifers, aquitard, aquiclude and aquifuge
6. Improper Disposal of Hazardous waste and releases and spillfrom stored tanks
7. Monitor aquifers & landfills, above-ground of toxic waste

E. RETAINING WALLS AND OTHER PRECATIONS

1. Answer/Keypoint: Purpose of backfilling is to create a drainage barrier for water
to flow away from the wall. If water stays trapped near the wall it can build up
pressure that may compromise the wall's integrity and will result to crack and
eventually will explode due to pressure.
2. There two types of walls that can be used without reinforcement:
 Segmental Retaining Walls
 Gravity walls
3. Soil nailing or rock bolts is an economical technique used to stabilize existing
slopes and to construct retaining walls from the top down while ground anchor
generally consists of a steel tendon (bar or strands) that is grouted into a pre-
drilled hole in rock or soil.
4. RETAINING WALLS
5. Main uses of retaining wall are:
 to help prevent soil erosion
 create usable beds out of steep terrain
 and to provide decorative or functional landscaping features.

F. GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT OF EARTH

1. Environmental Geology 4. Geologic Resources

2. Paleoseismicity 5. Waste Management
3. Carbon Capture and Storage 6. Answers may vary
7. Answers may vary
REFERENCES:

A. IMPROVEMENT OF FOUNDATION ROCKS

https://forces.si.edu/soils/02_06_01.html
https://www.2-10.com/blog/the-best-types-of-for-home-building/
https://www.nap.edu/read/919/chapter/5#27
https://forces.si.edu/soils/02_06_00.html
https://forces.si.edu/soils/02_08_00.html
https://forces.si.edu/soils/02_06_02.html
https://www.holganix.com/blog/4-key-soil-types-advantages-and-disadvantages
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ace/2018/3854727/
https://www.foundationstructures.com/6-ways-improve-foundation-building/
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41062-016-0010-2
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/improve-rock-stability-and-quality/45718/
https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?
content=32418.wba
https://www.geographynotes.com/rocks/how-to-improve-the-strength-of-rocks-3-
methods-geology/5840
https://www.thisoldhouse.com/foundations/21015176/from-the-ground-up-house-
foundations

B. PRECAUTION AND TREATMENT AGAINST FAULTS

https://www.scribd.com/doc/99879381/Engineering-Considerations-for-Geologic-
Structures
https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1911&context=thesess
https://www.geographynotes.com/rocks/faults/faults-meaning-causes-and-effects-
rocks-geology/5859
https://www.slideshare.net/gauravhtandon1/structural-geology-ii-26485320
https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/13-3-fractures-faults-and-
joints-2/

C. FLOOD CONTROL AND MITIGATION/DRAINAGE SYSTEM

https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/flood-control-and-disaster-management
https://albertawater.com/flood-mitigation/diversion-channel
https://www.heraldopenaccess.us/openaccess/flood-control-and-its-management
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/dike/
https://www.slideshare.net/Dharmeshadher1/methods-of-flood-control-53809376
D. JOINTS AND GROUND WATER
Parbin Singh, “Engineering and General Geology”
http://www.sasurieengg.com/e-course-material/CIVIL/II-Year%20Sem
%203/CE6301%20Engineering%20Geology.pdf
“Geology for Engineers”, ELBS, 1995
http://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/5587989/mod_resource/content/2/A_Geol
ogy_for_Engineers_Seventh_Edition.pdf

E. RETAINING WALLS AND OTHER PRECAUTIONS

https://www.constrofacilitator.com/retaining-wall-design-and-its-types-used-on-
construction/
https://www.buildingsolutions.com/industry-insights/retaining-walls-101-an-
introduction-to-choosing-the-right-wall#:~:text=The%20purpose%20of%20all
%20retaining,retaining%20projects%20along%20a%20highway.&text=The
%20purpose%20of%20all%20retaining,retaining%20projects%20along%20a
%20highway.
https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1325/pdf/Sections/AppendixC.pdf
https://www.atlasgcc.com/ground-anchors-soil-nails-rock-bolts/#:~:text=Soil
%20nails%20or%20rock%20bolts,and%20into%20the%20failure
%20zone.&text=Soil%20nails%20are%20cost%20effective,where%20space
%20is%20a%20constraint.
https://www.rembco.com/portfolio/soil-nailing/#:~:text=Soil%20nailing%20is
%20an%20economical,similar%20to%20a%20gravity%20wall.
https://www.rembco.com/portfolio/anchors/

F. GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT OF EARTH

https://geology.com/articles/what-is-geology.shtml
https://www.bbc.com/future/gallery/20190114-how-japans-skycrapers-are-built-to-
survive-earthquakes
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/06/03/us/earthquake-preparedness-usa-
japan.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-earthquake-ha-
zards-and-prediction/
https://www.geologypage.com/2019/04/engineering-geology.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-environmental-geology-definition--
importance.html
https://www.slideshare.net/GhassanHadi/fundamental-and-conceptt
https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/environmental/courses/-
64171.html#:~:text=Environmental%20geology%20is%20the%20study,have%20an
%20impact%20on%20Earth.
https://www.ou.edu/admissions/academics/earth-energy/environmental-geology
https://prs3.com/why-land-use-planning-is-critical-for-development/
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2005_9
https://www.researchgate.net/post/What-is-the-importance-of-Water-Resource--
Management-and-its-implication-on-future-generations-of-man-kind#:~:text=Water%2-
0resource%20management%20is%20a,exploitation%20and%20to%20prevent
%20disputes.&text=Extensive%20hydrological%20information%20is%20necessary%2-
0to%20develop%20water%20resources%20and%20protect%20them.
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199363445/obo-
9780199363445-0072.xml#:~:text=Environmental%20geology%20involves
%20application%20of,focuses%20on%20four%20primary%20components.
https://www.academia.edu/11591164/Lecture_1_Introduction_to_Environmental_G-
eology
https://volcano.si.edu/faq/index.cfm?question=eruptionforecast#:~:text=Scientists%20use
%20a%20wide%20variety,and%20changes%20in%20gravity%20and
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/4-5-monitoring-volcanoes-and-predicting-e-
ruptions/
https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/volcano-hazards/monitoring
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/4-5-monitoring-volcanoes-and-predicting-e-
ruptions/
https://blogs.biomedcentral.com/on-health/2018/10/19/lets-talk-more-about-volcanic-
hazard-maps/#:~:text=Volcanic%20hazard%20maps%20are%20visual,for%20managing
%20those%20at%20risk.
https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/volcano-hazards/learn-about-volcano-hazard-
zones-where-you-live-or-visit
https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/Eruption-What-to-do/-
Hazard-maps
https://www.internetgeography.net/topics/can-the-risks-of-volcanic-eruptions-be-re-
duced/#:~:text=town%20was%20lost.-,PLANNING,is%20having%20an%20evacuation
%20plan.&text=Based%20on%20monitoring%20data%2C%20exclusion,be%20affected
%20before%20an%20eruption.
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/La-Mi/Land-Use-Planning.html#:~:text=Land-use
%20planning%20is%20important,minimal%20impact%20on%20future%20-
generations.&text=The%20main%20objective%20of%20this,people%20while
%20safeguarding%20future%20resources.
https://www.nomajordrama.co.nz/Major/Land_Use_Planning_and_Management
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-extraction-me-
thods/
https://www.usgs.gov/core-science-systems/national-cooperative-geologic-mapping-pro-
gram/science/introduction-geologic?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_-
center_objects
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/water/3-methods-to-manage-water-resources/42224
https://stateofgreen.com/en/ensuring-water-security-for-growing-world/managing-water-
resources/
https://stateofgreen.com/en/sectors/water/water-efficiency-conservation/
https://www.mdeq.ms.gov/water/water-availability-and-use/water-resource-management/
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/waterresourcesmanagement#2
https://geology.com/articles/renewable-energy-trends/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-geologic-mate-
rials-as-energy-sources/
https://www.metropolitantransferstation.com.au/blog/negative-effects-of-improper-
waste-management/
https://ergenvironmental.com/the-effects-of-improper-waste-disposal/
https://sciencing.com/the-effects-of-improper-garbage-disposal-4877867.html
https://www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues/faq/what-underground-injection-
wells-used
https://www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues/faq/what-underground-injection-
wells-used
https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-waste/storage-
and-disposal-of-radioactive-waste.aspx#:~:text=Disposal%20of%20low-level%-
20waste,the%20most%20radioactive%20waste%20produced.
https://strategic-plan.sas.upenn.edu/emerging-academic-opportunities/advancing-
integrated-knowledge/energy-sustainability-and-environment
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/distribution-fossil-fuels/#:~:text=Over
%20millions%20of%20years%2C%20heat,of%20dead%20animals%20and%20plants.
https://www.eesi.org/topics/fossil-fuels/d