Pathophysiology of Congenital Heart Disease in The Adult: Special Report

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Special Report

Pathophysiology of Congenital Heart Disease in the Adult


Part I: Shunt Lesions
Robert J. Sommer, MD; Ziyad M. Hijazi, MD, MPH; John F. Rhodes, Jr, MD

ongenital heart disease is common, occurring in ⬇8 of


C 1000 live births.1 With the successes in cardiothoracic
surgery over the past 3 decades and the ongoing improve-
lesions; the third looks at the fascinating physiologies of
some of the more complex congenital heart malformations.

ments in the diagnostic, interventional, and critical care skills Shunting Lesions
of pediatric cardiologists, ⬇90% of children born with heart Perhaps no aspect of cardiology is as uniquely identified with
defects now survive to adulthood.2 In addition, using im- congenital heart disease as intracardiac shunting lesions.
proved noninvasive techniques, adult cardiologists are in- Most adult congenital heart disease patients who require
creasingly identifying adults with septal defects that were therapy present with a shunt.
undiagnosed in childhood. The adult congenital heart disease With normal cardiac anatomy, there is complete septation
patients carry a spectrum of disease, from small septal defects of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. The 2 circulations
and minor valvar obstructions to complex single-ventricle run in parallel, each feeding the other, and maintain a 1-to-1
lesions that have been palliated with staged surgical repairs. It volume relationship on the systemic and pulmonary sides of
is estimated that ⬎1 million adults in the United States now the circulation. The deoxygenated, systemic venous return to
have congenital heart disease, outnumbering their pediatric the right atrium (RA) is pumped to the lungs as the pulmonary
counterparts for the first time.3,4 blood flow (abbreviated Qp). Once oxygenated, the blood
While the adult cardiology community struggles with a returns via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium (LA) and is
population that once was the exclusive domain of pediatri- pumped to the aorta as the systemic blood flow or cardiac
output (Qs). The term “shunt” refers to an abnormal connec-
cians, governmental agencies, national physician associa-
tion allowing blood to flow directly from one side of the
tions, and cardiology advisory boards are trying to define the
cardiac circulation to the other. A left-to-right shunt allows
scope of this national healthcare issue and to figure out how
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the oxygenated, pulmonary venous blood to return directly to


to train current and future generations of doctors.5 This
the lungs rather than being pumped to the body. A right-to-
specialized cardiac care will require the diagnosis of adult
left shunt allows the deoxygenated, systemic venous return to
congenital heart disease in patients presenting de novo with
bypass the lungs and return to the body without becoming
new or chronic symptoms, the long-term maintenance of
oxygenated. In each case, the circulation is less efficient and
those previously diagnosed, and the ability to recognize when
creates increased demand on the ventricles. In most patients,
primary or additional interventions are required. As these
the volume of shunted blood determines the severity of
patients increasingly present to cardiologists’ offices for care, symptoms.
healthcare professionals will need to develop a better level of
comfort with adult congenital heart disease. Left-to-Right Shunting
This 3-part series focuses on the pathophysiology of The metabolic needs of the body’s tissues are highly variable,
congenital heart lesions, which are seen commonly in adult depending on the patient’s level of activity. To maintain
patients. In this first portion, simple shunt lesions are re- normal aerobic respiration at the cellular level, oxygen must
viewed. For each, the natural history and common clinical be delivered in quantities sufficient to meet those needs. One
presentations resulting from the shunt are discussed. A measure of how well the cellular needs are being supplied is
discussion of therapeutic options and the literature supporting tissue oxygen delivery, the mathematical product of systemic
these options is beyond the scope of this series. Patient arterial oxygen content and cardiac output.6 By definition, a
management is limited to a discussion of which patient left-to-right shunt allows a portion of the pulmonary venous
requires intervention. The second article in the series exam- return to escape back to the lungs, thereby reducing the
ines the pathophysiology of simple congenital obstructive cardiac output by the amount of the shunted volume. Tissue

From the Center for Interventional Vascular Therapy, Cardiovascular Research Foundation, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
(R.J.S.); Department of Pediatrics and Medicine, Rush Center for Congenital and Structural Heart Disease, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago,
Ill (Z.M.H.); and Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC (J.F.R.).
This article is Part I in a 3-part series. Parts II and III will appear in the March 4, 2008, and March 11, 2008, issues of Circulation.
Correspondence to Robert J. Sommer, MD, Director, Invasive Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine and Pediatrics,
Cardiovascular Research Foundation, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032.
(Circulation. 2008;117:1090-1099.)
© 2008 American Heart Association, Inc.
Circulation is available at http://circ.ahajournals.org DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.714402

1090
Sommer et al Shunts in Congenital Heart Disease 1091

oxygen delivery is thereby reduced. The pathophysiology


associated with each congenital shunt is reviewed in more
detail below.

Right-to-Left Shunting
SVC
With normal cardiac anatomy, lung function, and hemoglobin Aort
levels, arterial blood oxygen contents vary only to the extent MP
that pulmonary alveolar oxygenation changes. Under most
physiological conditions, the blood oxygen content changes
little and is more than adequate to supply the needs of the
tissues. With a right-to-left shunt, however, deoxygenated 1
systemic venous blood returns directly to the systemic arterial
circulation. The oxygen content of the systemic arterial blood
falls in proportion to the volume of systemic venous blood 2 3
mixing with the normal pulmonary venous return. With
R
reduced oxygen content, even with normal cardiac output,
RV
tissue oxygen delivery falls and the work capacity of the
muscles is limited.6

Quantifying Shunt Volumes


The ratio of total pulmonary blood flow to total systemic blood Figure 1. Types and typical locations of ASDs. In this view, the
flow, the Qp/Qs ratio, is a useful tool for quantifying the net free walls of the RA and RV have been removed, looking left-
ward toward the septal surface. MPA indicates main pulmonary
shunt. A Qp/Qs ratio of 1:1 is normal and usually indicates that artery; 1, sinus venosus ASD at the junction of the superior vena
there is no shunting. A Qp/Qs ratio of ⬎1:1 indicates that cava (SVC) and RA; 2, ostium secundum ASD; and 3, ostium
pulmonary flow exceeds systemic flow and defines a net primum/AV canal type ASD.
left-to-right shunt. Similarly, a Qp/Qs ratio of ⬍1:1 indicates
a net right-to-left shunt. Both left-to-right and right-to-left with isometric strain. The bulk of the shunt flow occurs
(bidirectional) shunting may be present in the same patient. If during diastole. In this phase, blood in each atrium has 2
the left-to-right shunt equals the right-to-left shunt in magni- alternative pathways: following the normal route through the
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tude, it is possible to have a Qp/Qs of exactly 1:1. AV valve to the ventricle on that side or passing through the
ASD to fill the opposite ventricle. The direction of flow
Atrial Septal Defect across the ASD during diastole is determined by the instan-
The formation of the atrial septum is a complex process, taneous differences in the compliance and the capacity of the
consisting of the growth and partial reabsorption of 2 tissue 2 ventricles.
membranes, septum primum and septum secundum; the Ventricular chamber compliance is determined to a large
fusion of these membranes to the forming endocardial cush- extent by afterload. (Other factors such as intravascular
ions; and the reabsorption of the fetal sinus venosus into the volume status, myocardial muscle mass, chamber geometry,
structure that will ultimately become the RA. In ⬇4 of coronary perfusion, and pericardial and intrathoracic pres-
100 000 newborns,7 an error in this developmental process sures also contribute to the intrinsic distensibility of the
will result in a defect in the wall separating the 2 atria, an chamber.) In an otherwise normal patient, the left ventricle
atrial septal defect (ASD). There are a number of types of (LV), pumping to the systemic circulation, faces a substan-
ASD (Figure 1), including the ostium primum defect (a result tially larger workload than the right ventricle (RV), pumping
of the deficiency of endocardial cushion tissue), the ostium to the lungs. The LV becomes physiologically hypertrophied,
secundum defect (a result of excessive reabsorption of sep- reflecting its level of work, whereas the RV myocardium
tum primum), and the sinus venosus defect (resulting from an remains thin. The thick-walled LV will stretch/distend to
error in the incorporation of the sinus venosus chamber into accept additional volume less readily than the thinner RV. As
the RA).8 Although the following discussion of ASD patho- a result, in the usual ASD patient, the difference in chamber
physiology is true for all types of ASD, the sinus venosus compliance favors a left-to-right shunt because the blood in
ASD also may be associated with anomalous pulmonary the LA finds it easier to fill the more compliant RV. In
venous return and the ostium primum ASD with significant patients with increased RV afterload resulting from congen-
atrioventricular (AV) valve abnormalities. These additional ital obstructions in the pulmonary arteries or veins or with
features may complicate the physiology further and are high pulmonary vascular resistance resulting from pulmonary
beyond the scope of this review. parenchymal disease or primary pulmonary hypertension, the
RV will be hypertrophied and less compliant. Left-to-right
Pathophysiology shunting at the ASD may be minimal, reflecting little overall
The pathophysiology of an ASD is complex and multifacto- difference between the 2 ventricles. With more severe RV
rial.9 Flow across the defect occurs in both systole and noncompliance or distensibility, flow across the ASD may be
diastole. In most patients, flow is predominantly left to right, predominantly from right to left. In some patients with
but transient right-to-left shunts are common, particularly reduced RV compliance, the RV may be able to handle a
1092 Circulation February 26, 2008

normal cardiac output at rest but will not readily accept Atrial arrhythmia, resulting from stretching of the conduc-
additional flow (when cardiac output increases), and a right- tion system, may be the first presenting sign of an ASD. An
to-left shunt may occur only with exertion. Other factors such adult who presents with atrial arrhythmia at a young age
as a prior RV myocardial infarction, extrinsic compression of should be evaluated for dilatation of the right-side cardiac
the RV, or any associated congenital abnormality that results chambers and evidence of an atrial level shunt. Prevention of
in RV or tricuspid valve hypoplasia may reduce the effective long-term atrial fibrillation is one of the reasons for repairing
RV capacity and impede its filling. ASD in young asymptomatic patients,13 although the subse-
When the AV valves are closed, ventricular compliance no quent development of atrial fibrillation may depend more on
longer affects blood flow across the defect at the atrial level. the patient’s age at intervention and may occur despite
Several factors determine flow volume and direction in surgery in patients ⬎25 years of age.14 Although both RA and
systole. As in diastole, the size of the defect is a critical RV volumes are reduced acutely with ASD repair and both
determinant in the volume but not the direction of flow. The chambers return to normal dimensions in children, there
atria may have differential capacities or compliances them- appears to be persistent RA enlargement when the ASD is
selves, which may affect flow direction during systole. In closed in adult patients.15 This may explain an ongoing,
patients with a large left-to-right shunt in diastole, pulmonary increased risk of atrial fibrillation after adult ASD repairs
venous return will exceed systemic venous return (because compared with patients who underwent closure at a younger
Qp⬎Qs). Volumes in the 2 atria tend to equilibrate during age.16
systole, resulting in a left-to-right flow during that phase of Rarely, a patient with ASD will present with stroke or other
the cardiac cycle. AV valve regurgitation also may affect the systemic ischemic event caused by paradoxical embolization
direction of ASD flow during systole. Significant mitral or of thrombus through the defect17 similar to the patent foramen
tricuspid regurgitation may impede flow across an ASD, ovale (PFO; see below). Although most patients have a
increasing or decreasing shunting during systole. significant net left-to-right shunt through the defect, virtually
Finally, the size of the ASD itself helps to determine the all have transient flow reversal with the Valsalva maneuver or
volume of shunting. If the ASD is large, the defect creates other isometric strain.
A small number of adult patients also may be identified
little or no resistance to flow. Blood flow across the defect in
echocardiographically when a heart murmur or unrelated
diastole is determined entirely by the relative properties of the
cardiac symptoms in the absence of exercise, rhythm, or
ventricles as above. With a smaller, restrictive defect, blood
embolic symptoms bring them to a physician’s attention.
flow is limited by the resistance of the ASD itself, no matter
Pulmonary hypertension is uncommon with ASD, even in
how large the difference in ventricular compliance.
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patients with large defects, in part because of the large


capacitance of the pulmonary bed. Natural history studies
Natural History dating to the presurgical and pre-echocardiography eras
In a patient with an ASD, shunt direction and magnitude are
suggested an incidence of ⬇15% in the ASD population.18
variable and age dependent. In fetal life, RV noncompliance,
The observations that pulmonary vascular disease may de-
a result of high pulmonary vascular resistance, allows nearly
velop in patients with a tiny ASD and that it is absent in the
unidirectional right-to-left flow at the atrial level. Immedi-
vast majority of patients with large ASDs suggest that the
ately after birth, with RV compliance comparable to that of ASD may be an associated marker of pulmonary hyperten-
the LV, there may be little net shunting through an ASD. sion but not necessarily causative. More recent reviews
Over several months, with the physiological fall in pulmonary suggest a rate of 6% to 9%.19,20 Once a patient has reached
vascular resistance, the RV thins, compliance falls, and the adulthood with normal PA pressures, the natural history is
typical left-to-right shunt develops in children and young established: They no longer develop significant pulmonary
adults. hypertension related to the shunt, but they may have pressure
As a result of normal physiological changes associated elevation, like any other patient, as a result of the develop-
with aging, the LV myocardium tends to become more ment of pulmonary parenchymal disease, left-sided heart
hypertrophied and less compliant.10 With similarly sized dysfunction, or obstructive sleep apnea. It would be fair to
ASDs, therefore, adults tend to have larger shunts as they age. say that the overall risk of and specific risk factors for
It is part of the reason why children are rarely symptomatic developing pulmonary vascular disease with an ASD remain
but patients in their fourth or fifth decade may begin to unknown.
develop the symptoms frequently associated with ASD. There When severe pulmonary hypertension from any cause
are 4 common clinical presentations of ASD in the adult results in RV systolic failure, high RV end-systolic volumes
population. impede filling from the RA. With an intact atrial septum,
Most frequently, adult patients complain of progressive there is systemic venous stasis and symptoms of “classic”
shortness of breath with exertion. Studies have shown a right-heart congestive failure (anasarca and low cardiac
reduction in maximum oxygen consumption in the unrepaired output) because the LV can pump out only what it receives
ASD population because of the inherent inefficiency of a back from the lungs. In a patient with pulmonary hyperten-
continuously preload-reduced LV in combination with a sion and an ASD, however, the defect allows decompression
volume overload in the pulmonary circulation. After repair of of the right heart via a right-to-left shunt. The systemic
the ASD, exercise capacity improves within days to venous blood does not need to traverse the lungs to reach the
weeks.11,12 LV. It may cross through the ASD, mixing with the pulmo-
Sommer et al Shunts in Congenital Heart Disease 1093

nary venous return in the LA, to augment LV preload. These surement, can be used to decide which patient will tolerate
patients are cyanosed from the right-to-left shunt and show ASD closure.
minimal response to supplemental oxygen.21 However, tissue
oxygen delivery is often better than in the patient without an Patent Foramen Ovale
ASD because the detrimental reduction in blood oxygen PFO, another communication in the atrial septum, is a
content is far outweighed by the maintenance of a normal or remnant of the normal fetal circulation. Anatomically, the
nearly normal cardiac output. For this reason, it is likely that foramen ovale comprises overlapping portions of septum
repair of adult patients with ASD and moderate or severe primum and septum secundum, acting as a 1-way flap valve
pulmonary hypertension may not improve survival.16 Simi- allowing continuous right-to-left flow during fetal life. Be-
larly, in patients with end-stage primary pulmonary hyperten- cause all venous blood (both deoxygenated systemic and the
sion, the creation of an ASD has been demonstrated to be of high-oxygen umbilical venous return) drains to the RA
benefit in prolonging life and as a bridge to lung throughout fetal life, right-to-left flow is critical for perfusion
transplantation.22 and growth of the left heart. Postnatally, septum primum
fuses to septum secundum, completing septation of the atria.8
Indications for Intervention However, in 20% to 25%, incomplete fusion leads to the
Significant questions remain about which ASDs should be persistence of the flap valve, leaving a PFO. Because it is
closed because the natural history of the disease remains present in all newborns, a PFO technically is not a “congen-
elusive. Generally accepted indications for closure of ASD ital” defect. But as the most common “hole in the heart” and
include patients with ASD and echocardiographic evidence of currently the most common catheter intervention for struc-
right-sided cardiac volume loading, patients with ASD who tural heart defects,27 the PFO is deserving of mention in this
are symptomatic (principally exercise related), patients with discussion.
ASD with exercise-related cyanosis (without pulmonary hy-
pertension), patients with ASD who have suffered an episode Pathophysiology
of paradoxical thromboembolization, and potentially as pro- Immediately after birth, with the acute increase in pulmonary
phylaxis in patients who require a noncardiac procedure with blood flow, LA pressure rises to exceed RA pressure, pushing
high risk of paradoxical embolization (ie, joint replacement septum primum rightward, against septum secundum, shut-
therapy). A traditional open heart approach, dating back to ting the flap of the PFO. When RA pressure rises intermit-
1954,23 and newer minimally invasive and robotic tech- tently with Valsalva or other isometric strain, the leaflets of
niques24 are all available for surgical repair of the defects. the PFO may separate, with leftward excursion of septum
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The success and safety of transcatheter techniques have primum, allowing flow from RA to LA, as was the norm
significantly increased the number of percutaneous closure throughout fetal life.
procedures.25,26 The degree to which the leaflets separate, the frequency
As above, pulmonary hypertension, with right-to-left with which the flap valve opens, and the amount of blood that
shunting at rest (or a pulmonary vascular resistance of ⬎14 crosses from right to left depend on a number of variables,
Woods units), is the principal contraindication to ASD including RV compliance, the difference in RA and LA
closure.20 However, patients may present with intermediate pressure, distortion of the anatomy (ie, dilated aortic root,
degrees of pulmonary hypertension with bidirectional or elevation of right hemidiaphragm), and most important, the
predominantly left-to-right shunts. It may be difficult with the tissue characteristics of septum primum. With a relatively
limited data available in the literature to decide which of rigid septum primum, right-to-left flow may occur only with
these patients should be offered closure. We have used strain. At the other extreme, the septum primum may be
temporary balloon occlusion of the ASD in the catheteriza- extremely thin and mobile, the so-called atrial septal aneu-
tion laboratory as our primary determinant. With occlusion of rysm, and may open spontaneously with the changing phases
the defect and elimination of the right-to-left shunt, one can of the cardiac or respiratory cycle. If septum secundum is less
directly assess the acute impact on RA and pulmonary artery sturdy or in the case of LA hypertension, septum secundum
pressures and on cardiac output. may be pushed rightward and left-to-right shunting can be
Similarly, patients may present with signs of left-sided seen, the functional equivalent of a prolapsing or regurgitant
congestive heart failure with a left-to-right shunt at the atrial valve. It is common for such a PFO to be labeled an ASD,
level. Typically occurring in the elderly, this is related to although with clear overlap of septum primum and septum
changes in LV compliance (ie, status after myocardial infarc- secundum, it is preferentially called a PFO.
tion). In this scenario, the stiffer the LV chamber becomes,
the larger the left-to-right shunt is. The shunt acts as a Natural History
“popoff” for the LA, allowing the patient to maintain man- In general, patients with PFO are never identified because
ageable pulmonary venous pressures, but also reduces LV they have no symptoms. Paradoxical embolization of throm-
preload and cardiac output. With closure of such a defect, the botic material is the most frequent clinical presentation.28
full impact of the LV diastolic dysfunction is felt (because all Although thromboembolic events to noncritical systemic
pulmonary venous return is forced into the LV), resulting in structures may go unnoticed, cerebral embolization may
an acute rise in LA pressure and the potential development of produce stroke or transient ischemic attack,29 and coronary
pulmonary edema. Temporary balloon occlusion in the cath- embolization may result in myocardial infarction in the
eterization laboratory, with simultaneous LA pressure mea- absence of atherosclerotic disease.30 Splenic, hepatic, renal,
1094 Circulation February 26, 2008

and retinal infarcts have all been seen in our practice in


patients with no risk factors other than PFO. Therefore, when
no other source of thromboembolism can be detected, a PFO
may be suspected.31
A number of other clinical syndromes are being studied for
their apparent relationship to PFO, including migraine head-
ache,32,33 hypoxemia,34 and decompression illness in divers
and in people who work at altitude,35 as well as high-altitude
pulmonary edema.36 The mechanism of the migraine relation-
ship to PFO remains entirely unknown. Hypoxemia may
occur in a patient with PFO, like in ASD, when RV
compliance or capacitance is diminished and hemodynamics
favor a right-to-left flow across the PFO. This physiology has
been described for patients with obstructive sleep apnea,37
after pulmonary embolic events,38 and with RV infarction.39
In addition, significant hypoxemia can occur in the presence
of normal right-heart pressures when anatomic distortion of
the atrial septum accentuates right-to-left shunt at the atrial
level, the platypnea orthodeoxia syndrome.40 These patients
experience an acute fall in arterial oxygen saturation on
changing from a supine to an upright position. Decompres- Figure 2. Types and typical locations of VSDs. In this view, the
free walls of the RA and RV have been removed, looking left-
sion illness is presumed secondary to right-to-left air embo- ward toward the septal surface. SVC indicates superior vena
lization through the PFO in divers or people who work at cava; 1, perimembranous VSD; 2, muscular VSD; 3, inlet/AV
altitude.35 canal type VSD; and 4, subpulmonary VSD.

Indication for Intervention distinct septal components.45 The membranous septum, the
Despite the rapid growth, relative ease, safety, and efficacy of site at which all of these components fuse, sits behind the
transcatheter devices,41– 44 particularly compared with surgi- septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve and immediately below
cal closure, there are currently no approved indications for the aortic valve in the LV outflow tract. The perimembranous
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transcatheter PFO closure in the United States. Each patient type of VSD, which accounts for ⬇80% of all VSDs, occurs
with PFO should be considered individually. Treatment in this location. Defects of the muscular septum are the next
depends on the presenting symptom. Because the vast major- most frequent, are the result of excessive fetal muscular
ity of patients with isolated PFO never have symptoms, there resorption, can be single or multiple, and can be located
is no rationale for prophylactic closure in asymptomatic anywhere in the muscular septum. Endocardial-cushion–type
patients at this time. VSDs (associated frequently with primum ASD as part of a
For patients who have had paradoxical embolization, complete AV canal defect), malalignment defects, and other
treatment options include antithrombotic agents, entrance in a defects of the outlet septum are less common (Figure 2).
randomized trial comparing blood thinners and closure, Endocardial-cushion VSDs often are associated with AV
“off-label” transcatheter closure with a non-PFO device, or valve insufficiency, and outflow defects often are associated
surgical repair. Because prospective, randomized, controlled with aortic insufficiency, which further complicate the phys-
trials are not yet completed, there is no definitive answer as to iological consequences of the lesion.
which therapy provides the best long-term prophylaxis from
recurrent stroke. Similarly, there are few prospective data to Pathophysiology
date to support the closure of PFO in migraine sufferers. The hemodynamic effects of a VSD are very different than
Multiple studies addressing this question are underway in the those of an ASD. With a VSD, blood in each ventricle has 2
United States and Europe. possible systolic pathways: through the usual outflow tract of
In contrast, patients with the platypnea orthodeoxia syn- that ventricle or through the VSD to the outflow tract of the
drome should have their PFO closed in all cases. Closure other ventricle. It is the comparative resistance of each
results in immediate elimination of right-to-left shunting and pathway that determines both the direction and volume of
normalization of oxygen saturation. Recurrent decompression systolic flow across the VSD according to Ohm’s law.45 For
illness in divers may be preventable with PFO closure, example, with normal pulmonary vascular resistance and a
although few data exist at this point. large, nonrestrictive VSD, the sum of resistors from the LV to
the pulmonary artery is very low compared with the resis-
Ventricular Septal Defect tance of flow to the systemic circulation, resulting in a large
Ventricular septal defect (VSD) is the most common form of left-to-right systolic flow across the defect. If the VSD is very
congenital heart defect in children, accounting for ⬇20% of small, there is high resistance at the defect itself, limiting the
human cardiac malformations. This is undoubtedly based on left-to-right shunt, even with low pulmonary resistance. With
the complexity of the embryological development of the elevation of pulmonary vascular resistance and a large defect,
ventricular septum, which involves the fusion of multiple the sum of the resistors may approximate the aortic resis-
Sommer et al Shunts in Congenital Heart Disease 1095

tance, and net shunting will be minimal. With pulmonary Natural History: Large VSDs
resistance higher than systemic resistance, the shunt will be In patients with moderate to large defects, symptoms of
right to left, no matter what size the defect is. congestive heart failure become evident in the first few weeks
A left-to-right shunt at the ventricular level reduces LV of life. Untreated, these infants with high pulmonary blood
output by the amount of the shunt. However, the body’s flow and high pulmonary artery pressures will present with
compensatory mechanisms will increase intravascular vol- congestive heart failure: poor growth, rapid/labored breath-
ume in response to a lower cardiac output until LV end-dia- ing, tachycardia, and diaphoresis. They will be at risk for
stolic volume is sufficient to pump both a normal cardiac recurrent pulmonary infection. If they survive without ther-
output and the proportionate left-to-right shunt. This results in apy, they will develop pulmonary vascular disease in the first
significant LV volume overload. If, for example, 50% of the few years of life and progress to Eisenmenger’s physiology.
blood is shunted across the VSD to the lungs, the LV volume In this process, the medial layer of the pulmonary arterioles
at end diastole must be 200% of normal to maintain a normal becomes hypertrophied in response to the volume and the
cardiac output. High LV volumes elevate LA filling pressures pressure transmitted from the LV.46 As pulmonary arteriolar
and may cause pulmonary venous congestion at rest or during vessel lumens shrink, pulmonary vascular resistance begins to
periods of exertion. rise. The pathway from the LV through the VSD to the lungs
A secondary effect of the large VSD is the transmission of is no longer a low-resistance alternative, and the left-to-right
LV pressure to the pulmonary vascular bed. With a large flow diminishes. By history, children who have been in
enough defect, the LV and RV become a functionally severe heart failure for the first few years of life “get better”
common chamber. With no RV outflow obstruction, the as Qp/Qs returns to 1:1. The medial muscle layer of the
pressure in the pulmonary artery in systole equals the pres- pulmonary arterioles continues to hypertrophy, however,
sure in the aorta in systole. This pulmonary artery pressure until small vessels are obliterated. Pulmonary resistance will
elevation distinguishes a shunt at the ventricular level from a eventually rise to exceed systemic resistance. At this point,
shunt at the atrial level. Although the volumes may be the patients will shunt from the RV through the VSD to the aorta,
same, the ASD does not generate the same pressure head/ and the patient will become cyanotic. Intervention to close the
shear forces in the pulmonary bed. The combination of the defect at this time would lead to acute RV failure, venous
volume and pressure contributes to the development of stasis, low cardiac output, and a shorter life expectancy than
pulmonary vascular disease or Eisenmenger’s syndrome.46 if the defect were left open.51
Rarely, adults may present with new symptoms of exercise
Compared with the volume that crosses a VSD in systole,
intolerance as a result of a moderate VSD associated with a
there is little flow in diastole. Diastolic flow across the VSD
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left-to-right shunt sufficient to cause LV dilatation. These


is much like that across the ASD in systole. Relative chamber
patients have had no symptoms through childhood but may
volumes and compliance, as well as differences in ventricular
become ill as the LV becomes less compliant with normal
contractile and relaxation properties,47,48 determine instanta-
aging. In contrast to the ASD in which the volume is shunted
neous flow direction. Flow outside of systole does not
to the right heart in response to LV chamber noncompliance,
contribute significantly to the net shunt volume.
the LV must receive the shunted blood back from the lungs.
When diastolic filling properties begin to change, the LV can
Natural History: Small VSDs no longer accommodate the additional volume at diastolic
Patients with VSD present initially in infancy. With a small
pressures as low as it had in childhood. LA pressures rise, and
VSD and normally falling pulmonary vascular resistance, the
pulmonary venous congestion leads to symptoms of dyspnea
patient develops a heart murmur in the first week as left-to-
on exertion.
right flow develops. But because the shunt is small, these
In ⬇0.2% of patients after myocardial infarction, rupture
babies remain asymptomatic, and they grow and develop of the ventricular septum can produce a significant left-to-
normally. With time, the septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve right shunt, with physiological consequences identical to
may become adherent to the ventricular septal surface, those of the congenital VSD.52 Unfortunately for these
spontaneously closing the perimembranous VSD. Similarly, a patients, the acute reduction in LV stroke volume (reduced by
muscular VSD may close spontaneously with progressive the amount of the shunt) and the resulting volume load
compression of the defect by the growing myocardial tissue. imposed on the LV compound the global or segmental
Once closed, these defects usually present no further medical myocardial dysfunction from the ischemic insult. Over the
issue for the patient. Endocardial-cushion defects and outlet first 10 to 14 days after the infarct, shunting across the septal
defects do not close without intervention. defect may increase, potentially dramatically, as surrounding
For adults with small persistent VSDs that have not closed tissue continues to necrose, enlarging the diameter of the
who have nondilated LV and normal pulmonary artery defect.53 Supportive care alone results in ⬇90% mortali-
pressure, there are only 2 ongoing risks. Infective endocardi- ty.54,55 Iatrogenic VSDs also may occur after aortic valve
tis (any type of VSD) may be prevented with antibiotic replacement, septal ablations, and the Konno procedure to
prophylaxis for dental procedures.49 Progressive aortic insuf- enlarge the LV outflow tract.
ficiency also may develop with either perimembranous or
subpulmonary VSD as a result of aortic cusp prolapse into the Indication for Intervention
VSD.50 Lifelong follow-up with echocardiographic evalua- Because the natural history of the congenital VSD is well
tion is recommended. established by the time patients reach adulthood, intervention
1096 Circulation February 26, 2008

is rarely required in the adult population. Adult patients with congestion may limit exertion. In contrast to the VSD patient,
large VSDs will have developed irreversible pulmonary aortic blood has a route to the pulmonary circuit in both
vascular disease decades earlier and should never undergo systole and diastole, so flow occurs throughout the cardiac
intervention to close the defect because RV failure and cycle. In large enough defects, this diastolic “runoff” (similar
sudden death may ensue. Small VSDs from childhood have to a patient with aortic valve regurgitation) may result in
usually closed spontaneously or, if they remain open, do not impaired coronary and splanchnic perfusion.
create a clinically important shunt. Intermediate-sized de-
fects, large enough to create symptoms but not large enough Natural History
to have damaged the pulmonary vasculature, are extremely The clinical course of PDA is similar to that of patients with
rare. A patient with exercise intolerance, orthopnea, or other VSD. If the PDA is large, the patient presents with symptoms
signs of heart failure with a dilated heart on echocardiography of congestive heart failure in infancy and usually goes on to
and normal pulmonary vascular resistance should be consid- develop Eisenmenger’s physiology if the defect is not re-
ered for VSD closure. paired.63 As pulmonary vascular resistance rises, a right-to-
More often repair of the VSD is required for non–shunt- left shunt develops at the PDA. This creates a unique clinical
related issues such as endocarditis or the development of picture. The aorta proximal to the PDA receives fully satu-
clinically important aortic insufficiency related to inadequate rated flow from the LV, and the postductal aorta receives a
support of the coronary cusps (particularly with subpulmo- mixture of LV and desaturated RV blood. “Differential
nary VSD). Surgical repair remains the gold standard for cyanosis” is the result, with normal or nearly normal oxygen
treatment of VSD.51 Transcatheter closure of VSD remains saturation in the arms and head and hypoxemia/desaturation
largely an investigational technique despite the development in the lower body. Patients may be identified by this differ-
of defect-specific devices.56 – 60 Two devices designed for ential coloration and by selective clubbing in the feet.63 These
congenital muscular VSD have now been approved by the PDAs cannot be closed for the same physiological reasons
Food and Drug Administration for use in the United States. that the Eisenmenger patients do not tolerate VSD closure.
In patients with ventricular septal rupture, congestive heart If the PDA is small in the child or young adult, there are no
failure symptoms may be so severe that even maximal clinical symptoms because of the relatively small volume of
medical support may not be sufficient to maintain cardiac left-to-right flow. The risk of endarteritis remains, and pro-
output. The need for and the timing of intervention depend on phylaxis is required for dental work.
the severity of symptoms. Patient age, baseline clinical status, More frequently than in the VSD population, we have seen
and the family’s wishes may significantly affect the decision- small to moderate PDAs present with new symptoms in
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making process. To date, insufficient data are available to adulthood. The development of systemic hypertension, with
make definitive comparisons between surgical and transcath- its rise in systemic resistance, increases shunting at the PDA.
eter closure outcomes.53,61 This, combined with diminishing LV compliance (as the
ventricle hypertrophies), may substantially increase LV fill-
Patent Ductus Arteriosus ing pressures and lead to pulmonary venous congestion. In
The ductus arteriosus, like the PFO, is a critical component in patients with moderate shunts but normal PA pressure,
the fetal circulation. It is a tubular arterial structure connect- chronic LA volume loading and dilatation may lead to the
ing the aorta and main pulmonary artery. In utero, the ductus development of atrial arrhythmia.
allows blood flow from the RV to bypass the nonfunctioning Finally, the diastolic runoff from the aorta may lead to a
lungs to return to the placenta via the descending aorta. coronary “steal” phenomenon as the ductus competes for
Within 72 hours of birth, the ductus closes in most newborns aortic diastolic flow. Patients may present with exertional
through the contraction of an arteriolar smooth muscle layer, angina in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease.
a mechanism signaled by the rise in postnatal systemic
oxygen levels.62 If the lumen of the ductus is not fully Indications for Intervention
obliterated, an arterial connection remains between the sys- There are several clinical indications for intervention in adult
temic and pulmonary circulations, a “patent” ductus arterio- patients with PDA, including a significant left-to-right shunt
sus (PDA). with LV and LA volume overload (without pulmonary
hypertension), clinical symptoms as above, or a history of
Pathophysiology endarteritis at the PDA or adjacent structures. There are no
As in the patient with VSD, shunt direction and volume data to suggest that closure of a small, non–volume-loading
depend on the relative resistances to flow in each pathway. In PDA in an asymptomatic adult is superior to dental prophy-
most patients, systemic resistance is significantly higher than laxis alone. Surgical closure of PDA, first performed in
pulmonary resistance, resulting in left-to-right flow (aorta to 1938,64 has been replaced over the last decade by transcath-
main pulmonary artery). As in VSD physiology, the size of eter closure devices in both children and adults.65–70
the PDA is the critical resistor in the circuit and is the
principal determinant of the volume of flow. As with a VSD, Pulmonary Arteriovenous Malformations
in a patient with a large PDA, the LV end-diastolic volumes Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are abnor-
(preload) must increase to allow the stroke volume to supply mal connections between branches of the pulmonary arterial
both the normal cardiac output and the left-to-right shunt at and pulmonary venous systems that bypass the small arte-
the PDA. LA filling pressures rise, and pulmonary venous rioles and the air-containing spaces of the lung. They occur
Sommer et al Shunts in Congenital Heart Disease 1097

most frequently as part of the hereditary hemorrhagic telan- bypass grafting, or coronary angiography. Fistulas may arise
giectasia syndrome, an autosomal-dominant disorder,71 and from any branch of the coronary artery system. In congenital
may occur as isolated or multiple defects that develop later in fistulas, drainage is most often to the RV, RA, or the
life. Isolated pulmonary AVM also may be congenital in pulmonary arteries and less frequently to the superior vena
nature or secondary to trauma or infection. Small pulmonary cava, coronary sinus, pulmonary veins, or LA.80
AVMs distributed diffusely throughout the lung fields may be
a product of pulmonary parenchymal disease or the result of Pathophysiology
end-stage liver disease.72 In complex congenital heart disease The physiological derangement depends principally on the
patients, diffuse small pulmonary AVMs also may occur with resistance of the fistulous connection and on the site of fistula
a long-standing Glenn shunt (superior vena cava to pulmo- termination. The resistance is determined by the size, tortu-
nary artery).73 osity, and length of the pathway. As in a PDA, flow from the
coronary artery to a venous structure, or right-sided cardiac
Pathophysiology chamber, occurs throughout the cardiac cycle. Blood follows
In the presence of a pulmonary AVM, flow through the the lower-resistance pathway through the fistula rather than
pulmonary artery has 2 potential pathways: the high- traversing the smaller arterioles and capillaries of the myo-
resistance blood vessels of the pulmonary arteriolar and cardium. With larger fistulas, a “diastolic runoff” may occur,
capillary bed and the low-resistance, fistulous pathway back drawing blood away from the normal coronary pathway with
to the pulmonary vein and LA. This creates an intrapulmo- a widened pulse pressure and a coronary “steal.” There is a
nary right-to-left shunt because the desaturated blood by- left-to-right shunt if the fistula drains to the systemic venous
passes the filtering and oxygenation mechanisms at the side of the circulation. Unlike the left-to-right shunt of either
alveolar level. ASD (RV volume load) or VSD/PDA (LV volume load),
The magnitude of the shunt depends on the resistance of such a shunt volume loads both ventricles. When the drainage
the fistulous pathway and on the number of fistulas present. site is the LA or pulmonary vein, there is an effective
With smaller shunts, patients are usually asymptomatic. In “left-to-left” shunt, volume overloading the left heart only.
such a patient, the first clinical presentation of the pulmonary
AVM may be occlusive stroke or another thromboembolic Natural History
event secondary to paradoxical embolization. With much Most coronary artery fistulas are small, and patients are
larger single lesions or more numerous pulmonary AVMs, asymptomatic because myocardial blood flow is not compro-
patients may be hypoxemic because of the flow of desatu- mised. A continuous murmur may be audible at the left lower
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rated blood to the LA. Rarely, postural changes may sternal border. With increased flow, the coronary artery
redistribute pulmonary flow to the lung segment(s) that branches proximal to the shunt site become significantly
contain the pulmonary AVM, increasing shunting and enlarged. Small coronary fistulas in children tend to grow
creating postural desaturation (orthodeoxia). Recent studies with age. If untreated, fistulas cause clinical symptoms in
also have linked migraine headache with aura to right-to-left 19% of patients ⬍20 years of age and in 63% of older
shunting in the hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia syn-
patients.81 Symptoms and sequelae include chronic myocar-
drome population.74,75
dial ischemia and angina, congestive heart failure, cardiomy-
opathy, myocardial infarction, pulmonary hypertension, en-
Indications for Intervention
In the presence of clinical cyanosis, transcatheter emboliza- docarditis, and rarely fistula rupture.
tion is the treatment of choice for individual pulmonary
AVMs. Surgical lung resections are rarely required. The Indications for Intervention
Small fistulas in asymptomatic patients should be followed
choice of transcatheter closure device depends entirely on the
up clinically for signs of growth and increasing flow. Large,
size and location of the fistula to be closed.76 –78 With multiple
pulmonary AVMs, some or all of the defects may be closed, hemodynamically significant fistulas should be closed elec-
provided that pulmonary blood flow and pulmonary artery tively at the time of diagnosis. Surgical closure usually is
pressures are not adversely affected. Diffuse, microscopic performed on a beating heart from the epicardial surface, is
pulmonary AVMs such as those seen in end-stage liver associated with low mortality and morbidity, and has excel-
disease cannot be treated with embolic therapy. Closure of lent immediate and long-term outcomes.81 Various transcath-
pulmonary AVMs to prevent recurrent paradoxical emboli- eter occlusion techniques have been used82– 84 with excellent
zation and migraine headache79 remains unproven, similar to outcomes for fistulas with shorter, less tortuous courses.
PFO closure.
Conclusions
Coronary Fistulas Intracardiac and intravascular shunting is a common clinical
Communications between the coronary arteries and the car- condition for patients with adult congenital heart disease.
diac chambers (coronary-cameral fistulas) or low-pressure These patients can present de novo with a previously unde-
veins (coronary arteriovenous malformations) are most often tected lesion when shunt-related symptoms first occur in
congenital in nature. They also may be acquired secondary to adulthood. They may suffer from paradoxical embolization,
trauma or from invasive cardiac procedures such as pace- endocarditis, or valve deterioration indirectly related to the
maker implantation, endomyocardial biopsy, coronary artery defect, which draws attention to the defect for the first time.
1098 Circulation February 26, 2008

Familiarity with the pathophysiology of each lesion will help 19. Vogel M, Berger F, Kramer A, Alexi-Meshkishvili V, Lange PE.
the cardiologist care for these unusual patients. Incidence of secondary pulmonary hypertension in adults with atrial
septal or sinus venosus defects. Heart. 1999;82:30 –33.
20. Steele PM, Fuster V, Cohen M, Ritter DG, McGoon DC. Isolated atrial septal
Acknowledgment defect with pulmonary vascular obstructive disease: long-term follow-up and
We would like to thank Derron Cooke for his contribution to the prediction of outcome after surgical correction. Circulation. 1987;76:
artwork. 1037–1042.
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