DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.

3 – 1

1.3 Change of State

Useful Vocabulary
boiling point 沸點 liquid 液體
condensation 凝結 melting 熔解
condensation point 凝結點 melting point 熔點
cooling curve 冷卻曲線 solid 固體
evaporation 蒸發 solidification 凝固
freezing point 凝固點 specific latent heat 比潛熱
fusion 熔解 specific latent heat of fusion 熔解比潛熱
gas 氣體 specific latent heat of vaporization 汽化比潛熱
heating curve 加熱曲線 vaporization 沸騰
latent heat 潛熱

3.0 Three States of Matter: Solid State, Liquid State, Gaseous State

1. Comparisons between three states of matter:

States Solid Liquid Gas
Internal Energy Lowest Higher than solid Highest
Molecules are closed Molecules are closed
Molecules are far
Molecular Structure packed and arrange packed, but arrange
apart
regularly irregularly
Distance between
Shortest Longer than solid Longest
Molecules
Weakest (can be
Intermolecular Force Strongest (Bond) Weaker
neglected)
Moves from one
Vibrates at its own Moves freely at high
Molecular Motion position to another
position speeds
position
Changes with the
Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape
shape of the container
Equal to the volume
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume
of the container

2. Particle Models of Three States

Solid Liquid Gas

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 2

3.1 Change of State

1. Latent Heat is Energy transferred during a change of state at a constant temperature.

2. When a substance changes from solid state to liquid state (from liquid state to gaseous state), its
intermolecular potential energy and the average separation between molecules increases.

3. When a substance changes from liquid state to solid state (from gaseous state to liquid state), its
intermolecular potential energy and the average separation between molecules decreases.

4. The temperatures of melting point and freezing point are the same.
The temperatures of boiling point and condensation point are the same.

5. During the change of state, the average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance is constant, so
the temperature of its particles is also constant.

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 3

3.2 Heating Process and Cooling Process

1. Consider the rate of heating or cooling remains unchanged, graphs of temperature against time
for heating and cooling curve are obtained as follows:

Heating Curve Cooling curve

2. During heating:
State Temperature Average molecular kinetic energy Molecular potential energy
AB

BC

CD

DE

EF

3. During cooling:
State Temperature Average molecular kinetic energy Molecular potential energy
AB

BC

CD

DE

EF

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 4

4. Advanced Studies:
Two heating curves of two substances of same mass, P and Q, are shown in the figure below.
They are heated by identical heater. Make comparison of their properties in the following table.

Properties P Q
Melting point

Boiling point

Specific heat capacity at solid state

Specific heat capacity at liquid state

Specific latent heat of fusion

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 5

Example 1
The following figure shows the cooling curve of a liquid.
temperature

P
Y Z

(a) Determine whether each of the following statements is correct.

(i) The liquid releases energy in stage XY.
(ii) The liquid releases energy in stage YZ.
(iii) The liquid condenses in stage YZ.
(iv) The liquid solidifies in stage YZ.

(b) P represents the ____________________ of the liquid.

(c) The physical quantity S can be _______________.

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 6

3.3 Latent Heat

3.3.1 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion (lf)

1. Latent Heat of Fusion is the energy required when a body changes it states from solid to liquid
without any change in temperature.

2. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion (lf) is the energy required for a 1 kg substance to change it
states from solid to liquid without any change in temperature.
(Energy released for a 1 kg substance during freezing without any change in temperature.)

3. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of different substances:

Substance Specific Latent Heat of Fusion Substance Specific Latent Heat of Fusion /
-1
/ J kg J kg-1
Mercury 11 000 Alcohol 110 000
Oxygen 14 000 Aluminium 210 000
Lead 25 000 Ice 334 000
Sulphur 39 000 Copper 400 000

4. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion can be calculated by the following formula:

E m f
where E is the energy absorbed by the substance (with unit J).
m is the mass of the substance (with unit kg).
lf is the specific latent heat of fusion of the substance (with unit J kg-1).

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 7

3.3.2 Experiment to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice

1. Experimental Procedures:
Experimental Group Control Group

(a) Pour ice into two funnels.

(b) Set up the apparatuses as shown. Immersion heater in the experimental group is
connected to the low-voltage power supply while that in the control group is not
connected.
(c) First record the initial reading of the joulemeter, switch on the power supply for 5
minutes.
(d) Record the final reading of the joulemeter.
(e) Wait until the dripping rate from the two funnels becomes similar, use an electronic
balance to measure the mass of the two beakers to find out the mass of ice melted by the
immersion heater.
(f) By E = mlf , find out the specific latent heat of fusion of ice (lf ).

4. Students should be aware of:

(a) The use of controlled group:
During the experiment, energy is gained from the surroundings, extra amount of ice
will be melted.
The controlled group can measure the mass of ice melted by the heat gained from
the surroundings alone.
(b) Heater should be completely immersed into the ice.
(c) Melting ice should be used (at 0oC), so that no energy is used to heat the ice to 0oC.
(d) There is still heat transfer from the heater even through the heater is switched off.
(f) Crushed ice should be used.
Better thermal contact between the ice and the heater.
(g) The measured value is usually higher than the theoretical value:
Energy is lost to the funnel and the air surrounding the ice.

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 8

Example 2
The following set-up is used to measure the specific latent heat of fusion of ice. The reading of the
joulemeter changes from 20 300 J to 39 994 J during the experiment.

heater to unconnected
joulemeter heater

joulemeter

funnel containing
crushed ice

experiment control
beaker beaker

The mass of each beaker is measured before and after the experiment:

Before experiment After experiment

experiment control experiment control

beaker beaker beaker beaker

110.5 g 109.8 g 173.9 g 121.1 g

Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice from the above results.

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 9

Example 3
A glass containing 200 g of melting ice is put inside a room. How much energy is absorbed by the ice
when half of it turns into water?
A 0.2 4200 100 J
B 3.34 104 J
C 0.2 3.34 105 J
D Undetermined because the temperature of the water is not given

Example 4
The following graph shows how the temperature of 1 kg of ice changes as it is heated. What is the total
energy absorbed by the ice from P to S?
Given: specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg–1 C–1
specific heat capacity of ice = 2050 J kg–1 C–1
specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 105 J kg–1

temperature / C

25 S

Q
R time

–10
P

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 10

3.3.3 Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization (lv)

1. Latent Heat of Vaporization is the energy required when a body changes it states from liquid to
gas without any change in temperature.

2. Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization (lv) is the energy required for a 1 kg substance to change
it states from liquid to gas without any change in temperature.
(Energy released for a 1 kg substance during condensation without any change in temperature.)

3. Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of different substances:

Substance Specific Latent Heat of Substance Specific Latent Heat of
-1
Vaporization / J kg Vaporization / J kg-1
Oxygen 210 000 Alcohol 880 000
Sulphur 290 000 Aluminium 1 010 000
Mercury 300 000 Water 2 260 000
Lead 860 000 Copper 4 730 000

4. Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization can be calculated by the following formula:

E m v
where E is the energy absorbed by the substance (with unit J).
m is the mass of the substance (with unit kg).
lv is the specific latent heat of vaporization of the substance (with unit J kg-1).

5. Larger value of latent heat of vaporization:

During vaporization, distance separated from the other molecules are much longer than
melting.

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 11

3.3.4 Experiment to measure the specific latent heat of vaporization of water

1. Experimental Procedures:
(a) Place an empty beaker on an electronic
balance and set the reading to zero.
(b) Pour boiling water into the beaker and
record the net mass of the water poured.
(c) Connect the apparatuses as shown and turn
on the heater for 5 minutes.
(d) Record the mass of water vaporized and the
joulemeter reading.
(e) By E = mlv , find out the specific latent heat of vaporization of water (lv ).

2. Students should be aware of:

(a) Lid should NOT be used to prevent condensation of vapour on the lid.
(b) The heater should be immersed completely in the water.
(c) The measured value is usually higher than the theoretical value:
Heat is lost to the surroundings.
Part of vapour may condense on the side of the container, measured mass of
vapourized water may be higher than actual mass.

Example 5
The following set-up is used to measure the specific latent heat of vaporization of water.

heater to power heater disconnected heater disconnected

supply from power supply from power supply

5 minutes 2 minutes

512.1 g 398.6 g 386.4 g

The power of the heater is 1000 W. Find the specific latent heat of vaporization of water from the above
results.

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 12

Example 6
Joan prepares a glass of iced milk tea. Firstly, she puts some ice cubes at –10 C into a glass. Then she
adds 0.15 kg of tea at 85 C and 50 g of fresh milk at 4 C into the glass. If all the ice just melts after all
the ingredients mix together, how much ice does Joan put into the glass initially?

Given: specific heat capacity of ice = 2050 J kg–1 C–1

specific heat capacity of tea = 4200 J kg–1 C–1
specific heat capacity of fresh milk = 3900 J kg–1 C–1
latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 105 J kg–1

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 13

3.4 Evaporation

1. The Definition of Evaporation:

The change of a substance from liquid to vapour occurring on its surface below its boiling
point.
Example: Sweating; Wet road dries; Alcohol volatilizes.
Comparison: Definition of Boiling:
- Boiling occurs in any parts of the liquid once the temperature of the liquid reaches the
boiling point.

2. Some molecules have a larger average molecule

kinetic energy. They can reach and escape from the
surface of the liquid as they can get over the
gravitational force and force due to atmosphere
pressure.

3. To increase the rate of evaporation:

Increase temperature
Increase exposed surface area
Increase the movement of air (wind)
Decrease humidity
Decrease pressure

4. Cooling effect by evaporation:

Particles in a liquid have different speeds and hence different kinetic energies.
They collide each other frequently. Some particles gain kinetic energy from the others durig
collision.
The particles with high enough kinetic energy and near the surface will escape from the
liquid surface and become vapour.
The average kinetic energy of the particles remaining in the liquid decreases, so the
temperature of the liquid drops.

QESOSASS Physics Department

DSE Physics Notes 1.3 Change of State Note – 1.3 – 14

Example 7
Which process(es) does each of the following statements describe, boiling or evaporation?
(a) It may occur in the central part of the liquid.
(b) It occurs only at boiling point.
(c) It may occur when the liquid is heated.
(d) It requires latent heat of vaporization.
(e) It occurs when the liquid is calm.

Example 8
Determine whether each of the following is an example of evaporation.
(a) Wet clothes are dried by ironing.
(b) Wet floor is left to dry up.
(c) A wet hand feels cool in the wind.
(d) A can of soft drink gets wet soon after it is taken out from a refrigerator.

Example 9
A glass of liquid at 70 C is left in a room. After a period of time, 20 g of water in the liquid evaporates.
(a) How much energy is taken away from the liquid due to evaporation?
(b) Given that the heat capacity of the liquid is 6500 J C–1, estimate the decrease in temperature of the
liquid due to evaporation.
Take the specific latent heat of vaporization of water to be 2.26 106 J kg–1.

QESOSASS Physics Department