Well Completion Manual

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MANUAL Issue 1
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COMPLETION TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 3 of 14
MANUAL Issue 1
Registration Certificate
Revision Record
Table of Contents
WELL COMPLETIONS
1 OVERVIEW OF THE MANUAL

1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope
1.3 Completion Manual Structure
1.4 Terminology
1.5 Manual Control
1.6 Revision
2 TYPES OF WELL COMPLETIONS

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Well Configuration
2.3 Open-hole
2.4 Cased-hole
2.5 Single Completions
2.6 Multiple Completions
2.7 Monobore Completions
2.8 Selecting a Completion Type
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COMPLETION DESIGN
3 COMPLETION DESIGN CRITERIA

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Basic Decisions in Completion Design
3.3 Factors Affecting Completion Design
3.4 Completion Design Procedure
4 PRIMARY CEMENTING
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Cement Fundamentals
4.3 Cement Properties
4.4 Factors Affecting Job Design
4.5 Example : Selection of API Cementing Schedule
4.6 Cement Slurry Design
4.7 Example : Density and Yield of 8% Bentonite Slurry
4.8 Cementing Equipment
4.9 Planning A Primary Cement Job
4.10 Primary Cementing Operations
4.11 Annular Fluid Migration
4.12 Special Primary Cementing Considerations
4.13 References
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5 WELLHEADS
5.1 Wellhead System
5.2 Christmas Trees
5.3 Suspension Methods
5.4 Special Wellhead Equipment
5.5 Flanges and Seal Connections
5.6 Wellhead Design Considerations
5.7 Equipment Specifications
5.8 Splitter Wellhead Technology
6 TUBULARS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Tubular Nomenclature
6.3 Tubular String Components
6.4 Corrosive Wellbore Fluids
6.5 Tubular Materials
6.6 Tubular Performance Properties
6.7 Tubular Connections
6.8 Connection Manufacturers
6.9 Connection Makeup
6.10 Production Tubing String Design Criteria
6.11 Tubing Size Selection
6.12 Tubing Load Analysis
6.13 Tubing Movement Analysis
6.14 Tubing Stability Analysis
6.15 Operational Considerations
6.16 References
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7 PACKERS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Packer Fundamentals
7.3 Permanent Packers
7.4 Hook-Wall Retrievable Packers
7.5 Special Packers
7.6 Packer Selection
7.7 Summary
8 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVES

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Subsurface-Controlled Valves
8.3 Surface-Controlled Valves
8.4 Surface Safety Valves
8.5 Safety Valve Selection
9 COMPLETION FLUIDS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fluid Properties
9.3 Water-Base Fluids
9.4 Clear Brines
9.5 Example-Brine Composition
9.6 Weighted Brines
9.7 Water-Base Mud
9.8 Hydrocarbons
9.9 Oil-Base Mud
9.10 Nitrogen
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9 COMPLETION FLUIDS (CONT’D)

9.11 Foam
9.12 Circulating Fluids
9.13 Packer Fluids
9.14 Perforating Fluids
9.15 Field Handling Of Fluids
Appendix A - Brine Data
Appendix B - Hydrocarbon Data
10 PERFORATING
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Shaped Charge Fundamentals
10.3 Gun Design and Testing
10.4 Casing Deformation/Damage
10.5 Perforation Productivity
10.6 Retrievable Hollow-Carrier Guns
10.7 Expendable Guns
10.8 Tubing Conveyed Guns
10.9 Perforation Design
10.10 Perforating Operations
10.11 Specialized Equipment and Operations
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11 SAND CONTROL
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sand Control Methods
11.3 Mechanical Sand Control
11.4 Gravel Pack Design
11.5 Gravel Pack Productivity
11.6 Gravel Pack Well Preparation
11.7 Gravel Placement-Prepacking
11.8 Gravel Placement
11.9 Plastic Consolidation Principles
11.10 Plastic Consolidation Chemicals
11.11 Well Preparation For Plastic Consolidation
11.12 Plastic Placement
11.13 Commercial Plastic Consolidation Systems
11.14 Resin-Coated Sand
11.15 Selecting A Sand Control Method
11.16 Well Bean-up Procedure
STIMULATION
12 FORMATION DAMAGE
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Effect Of Damage
12.3 Indicators Of Damage
12.4 Causes Of Formation Damage
12.5 Damage Removal
12.6 Damage Prevention
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13 SOLVENT AND SURFACTANT TREATMENTS

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Solvents
13.3 Surfactants
13.4 Paraffin Deposition
13.5 Asphaltene Deposition
13.6 Emulsions
13.7 Relative Permeability Effects
13.8 Organic Damage Removal
14 MATRIX ACIDIZING OF CARBONATES

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Carbonate Minerals
14.3 Dissolving Carbonates
14.4 Acid Attack Of Carbonates
14.5 Acids Used To Dissolve Carbonates
14.6 Acid Additives
14.7 Treatment Design
14.8 Treatment Implementation
14.9 References
15 SANDSTONE ACIDIZING
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Sandstone Composition
15.3 Reaction Chemistry
15.4 Mechanism Of Acid Attack
15.5 Treatment Design
15.6 Field Implementation
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16 SCALE TREATMENTS
16.12 Introduction
16.2 Location Of Scale Deposits
16.3 Carbonate Scale
16.4 Sulfate Scales
16.5 Iron Scales
16.6 Silicon Base Scales
16.7 Salt Scale
16.8 Scale Diagnosis
16.9 Treatment Design And Implementation
16.10 Scale Inhibition
16.11 References
17 FRACTURING
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Benefits From Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation
17.3 Essence Of The Hydraulic Fracturing Process
17.4 Productivity Increases From Fractures
17.5 Fundamental Rock Mechanics
17.6 Fundamentals Fluid/Proppant Mechanics
17.7 Proppant Fracture Design
17.8 Acid Fracture Design
17.9 Field Implementation
17.10 Field Diagnostics
17.11 Reference Material
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18 DIVERSION
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Mechanical/Hydraulic Diverting Techniques
18.3 Particulate Diverting Agents
18.4 Viscous Fluid Diverting Agents
18.5 Perforation Ball Sealers
18.6 Ball Sealer Treatment Design
18.7 Perforation Ball Sealers - Field Results
18.8 Treatment Evaluation
18.9 Appendix A : Limited Entry Design
18.10 Appendix B : Rising Or Settling Velocities Of Ball Sealers
WORKOVERS
19 WORKOVER PLANNING
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Well Problems Requiring Workovers
19.3 Well Assessment - Determining The Problem
19.4 Alternative Operations And Techniques
19.5 Evaluating And Selecting A Technique
19.6 Job Execution And Follow-Up
19.7 Well Analysis Checklist
19.8 References
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20 PRODUCTION LOGGING
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Temperature Logs
20.3 Pressure Measurement Logs
20.4 Sonic Logs
20.5 Electrical Logs
20.6 Magnetic Logs
20.7 Nuclear Production Logs
20.8 Spinner Flowmeters
20.9 Mechanical Survey Logs
20.10 Running Production Logs
20.11 Cement Evaluation
20.12 Flow Distribution Inside Casing
20.13 Production From Unperforated Zones
20.14 Evaluating Stimulation Treatments
20.15 Tubular Or Equipment Evaluation
20.16 Reservoir Monitoring
21 REMEDIAL CEMENTING
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Wellbore Fluids
21.3 Bottom-Hole Temperature
21.4 Bottom-Hole Pressure
21.5 Example : Determination Of Fracture Pressure
21.6 Example : BHP During Cementing Operations
21.7 Formation Type
21.8 Bullhead Technique
21.9 Cement Plugs
21.10 Bradenhead Technique
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21 REMEDIAL CEMENTING (CONT’D)

21.11 Retrievable Packer Technique
21.12 Drillable Packer Technique
21.13 Circulation Technique
21.14 Job Objective
21.15 On-Site Operations
21.16 Example : Calculation Of Balanced Plug
21.17 Job Design Guidelines
21.18 References
22 WIRELINE OPERATIONS
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Wireline Surface Equipment
22.3 Types Of Wirelines
22.4 Wireline Tool String
22.5 Landing Nipples
22.6 Removable Locking Devices
22.7 Communication Equipment
22.8 Production Control Equipment
22.9 Wireline Pulling/Releasing Tools
22.10 Field Procedures
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23 RIG WORKOVER OPERATIONS

23.1 Introduction
23.2 Well Killing And Well Control
23.3 Conventional Workovers
23.4 Concentric Workovers
23.5 Coiled Tubing Workovers
23.6 Snubbing Unit Workovers
23.7 Fishing Operations
23.8 Workover Rig Selection
APPENDIX A
24 GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR COMPLETION AND WORKOVER OPERATIONS
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 PURPOSE...................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 SCOPE ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 COMPLETION MANUAL STRUCTURE ................................................................... 4
1.4 TERMINOLOGY .......................................................................................................... 4
1.5 MANUAL CONTROL .................................................................................................. 5
1.6 REVISION ..................................................................................................................... 5
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1.1 PURPOSE
The number of possible completion configurations for oil and gas wells is infinite.
The objective of this manual is to provide a single source of information containing
a collation of significant items on subjects related to well completions and its role in
the overall well project. The information contained was derived from internal
procedures and reports, SPE, JPT, and other industry publications. Information was
also provided by the service companies involved. The purpose of this PCSB
Completion Manual is to ensure that wells are completed in the most efficient, safe
and cost effective manner to achieve each wells optimum production capability.
The aim of this manual is to provide a clear, up to date text covering the principles
of well completions. Because of this, it is necessary to start from first principles in
order to give both trainee and practicing engineer a comprehensive understanding of
the subject. Hence, no prior knowledge of any topic is assumed, and all necessary
equations and calculations required in completion design are presented.
Today, the completion engineer must be an expert in the traditional aspects of well
completion, he must also be familiar with computing, accountancy, risk analysis,
metallurgy, chemistry, and so on-the list is almost endless.
The purpose of this manual is to provide engineers with information that relates to
their job performance. The text are designed to chronologically follow the
development, completion, and maintenance of a well.
1.2 SCOPE
The contents of this manual shall be applied by PCSB personnel working anywhere
in the world. The purpose of this manual is to provide engineers with a working
knowledge of current state-of-the-art technology in matters critical to successful well
completions and workovers. Engineers should find the material in these pages to be
helpful throughout their daily operations.
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1.3 COMPLETION MANUAL STRUCTURE
This manual is intended as a reference document for production technology,

production and drilling operations.
The Completion Manual is divided into five main sections:
1) Well Completions
2) Completion Design
3) Stimulations
4) Workovers
5) Appendix
Each chapter of the manual was written as more or less a stand alone document
which can be directly accessed if required. The section entitled Well Completions
begins with details of several completion techniques and the considerations involved
in selecting an interval for completion. A discussion of casing and tubular goods
follows which includes information of various types and grades of pipe, plus their
connections, makeup, performance, and design.
The completion process of cementing is outlined next. Primary cementing

operations, together with compositions of oil-well cements, are also examined.
Next follows a discussion of subsurface completion equipment. Packers as well as

other types of tools are discussed. Completion and workover fluids are then
analyzed. The section ends with a review of perforating techniques
A complete list of contents is provided at the beginning of each chapter to aid the
reader to locate specific subjects of interest.
1.4 TERMINOLOGY
Throughout the manual abbreviations and/or terms used are defined within the
subject text, beyond that, please refer to the Appendix.
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1.5 MANUAL CONTROL
Controlled copies of the manual shall be distributed to the manual holders listed on
the control page. The manual owner is also responsible for the distribution and
registration of any uncontrolled copies. All Drilling personnel must be familiar with
the contents of this manual. They must apply the contents and ensure that other
stake-holders understand their responsibilities.
1.6 REVISION
It is the intention to update the Completion Manual whenever the need arises. The
Custodian of the manual is DDR. Corrections and comments will be welcome and
should be directed to the Custodian.
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MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF WELL COMPLETION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….……... 4
2.1.1 Chapter Objective ………………………………………………………….. 4

2.1.2 Definition of Completion ………………………………………………….. 4
2.1.3 Objective of Completion …………………………………………………... 5
2.1.4 PCSB Completion Strategy ........................................................................ 5
2.1.5 Fluid Flow Considerations ………………………………………………… 6
2.2 WELL CONFIGURATION …………………………………………………….....…… 8

2.2.1 Wellhead …………………………………………………………………… 8
2.2.2 Conductor Pipe …………………………………………………………….. 9
2.2.3 Surface Casing …………………………………………………….……….. 9
2.2.4 Intermediate Casing ……………………………………………….……….. 10
2.2.5 Production Casing …………………………………………………………. 10
2.2.6 Liners …………………………………………………………………….… 10
2.2.7 Tubing ……………………………………………………………………… 10
2.3 OPEN-HOLE COMPLETIONS ………………………….…………………………… 11
2.3.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 11

2.3.2 Advantages ………………………………………………………………… 11
2.3.3 Disadvantages ……………………………………………………………… 12
2.3.4 Methods ………………………………………………………………….… 13
2.3.5 Examples …………………………………………………………………... 13
2.4 CASED-HOLE COMPLETIONS ……………………………………………………. 14
2.4.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 14

2.4.2 Advantages ……………………………………………………………….... 14
2.4.3 Disadvantages ……………………………………………………………… 15
2.4.4 Examples …………………………………………………………………... 16
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2.5 SINGLE COMPLETIONS ………………………….……………………………...… 17
2.5.1 Definitions ………………………………………………………………..... 17

2.5.2 Tubing Without Packer ………….....……………………………………… 17
2.5.3 Tubing With Packer ………………….....…………………………………. 17
2.5.4 Tubingless …………………………………………………………………. 18
2.6 MULTIPLE COMPLETIONS …………………………………………….……...….. 20
2.6.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 20

2.6.2 Reasons For Use …………………………………………………………… 20
2.6.3 Single String, Single Packer ……………………………………………….. 21
2.6.4 Single String, Multiple Packer …………………………………………….. 22
2.6.5 Multiple String, Multiple Packer …………………………………………... 24
2.6.6 Multiple Tubingless ………………………………………………………... 27
2.7 HORIZONTAL AND MULTILATERAL WELLS ........................................................ 28
2.7.1 Horizontal Wells …....……………………………………………………... 28

2.7.2 Multilateral Wells ........……………………….........……………………… 30
2.7.3 Multilateral Well Classification Matrix ........…………………………….... 31
2.8 MONOBORE COMPLETIONS ................................................................................. 28
2.8.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 28

2.8.2 Introduction ..………………………………….........……………………… 30
2.8.3 Monobore Completion ..………………..........…………………………….. 31
2.8.4 Advantages ..……...............................…………………………………….. 31
2.8.5 Disadvantages .……………………………………..............................…... 32
2.8.6 Examples .…………………………………………………….................... 33
2.9 SPLITTER WELLS ..................................................................................................... 34
2.10 SUBSEA COMPLETIONS …....................……………………………………...…… 38
2.11 SMART WELLS ........................................................................................................ 40
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2.11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 40

2.11.2 System Components .................................................................................. 40
2.11.3 Telemetry .................................................................................................. 40
2.11.4 Downhole Sensors ..................................................................................... 42
2.11.5 Controls ..................................................................................................... 42
2.11.6 Reservoir Management with Smart Wells .................................................. 43
2.12 SELECTING A COMPLETION TYPE ………………………………………...…… 45
2.12.1 Reservoir Drive Mechanism ……………………………………………….. 45

2.12.2 Reservoir Extent …………………………………………………………… 45
2.12.3 Number Of Reservoirs ……………………………………………………... 45
2.12.4 Well Location ……………………………………………………………… 46
2.12.5 Enhanced Recovery ………………………………………………………... 46
2.12.6 Stimulation Needs …………………………………………………………. 47
2.12.7 Sand Production …………………………………………………………… 47
2.12.8 Permanent Downhole Monitoring Systems ................................................ 47
2.13 SPOLLABLE COMPLETIONS ............………………………….……………...…… 51
2.13.1 Candidate Selection ................…………………………………………….. 51

2.13.2 Coiled Tubing Material ……..……..……………………………………… 52
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Chapter Objective
The objective of this chapter is to review the different types of well completions, which are
available, and to discuss the important factors that need to be considered when selecting a
completion configuration. By the end of this chapter, the advantages and disadvantages of
a particular completion type in different producing environments should be clear.
2.1.2 Definition of Completion
A well completion is usually defined as the final string of casing, the production tubing and
associated downhole equipment, and the specific arrangement of these components. This
chapter will examine the considerations, which lead to the decision on where and how to set
the final casing string. Chapter 3 - “Completion Design Criteria” will deal with the
decision making process whereby the actual tubing and downhole completion equipment
are designed.
2.1.3 Objective of Completion
The primary objective of the completion process is to develop a well that will yield the
highest productivity over the life of the well. All wells present unique problems depending
on specific operating conditions. A partial list of factors that influence the design of a
completion program include (1) investment required, (2) desired producing rate, (3)
reserves in various zones, (4) reservoir drive mechanism, (5) stimulation needs, (6) sand
control requirements, (7) workover aspects, (8) artificial lift considerations, and (9) the
possibility of future additional recovery projects.
For each individual well there will be a specific completion technique of optimum design
that will yield the maximum productivity. Major decisions that must be reached in this
regard are (1) bottom-hole completion technique (cased or open hole) (2) number of
completions in a single wellbore, and (3) size of the production casing and/or tubing.
2.1.4 PCSB Completion Strategy
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Coincident with the ongoing groundwork of any field development plan (FDP) is the
preparation of a well completion strategy for the field in question. The deliverable is an
extensive documented study on completion options including a recommended completion
method(s) addressing operational requirements and contingency plans. Examples of
operational requirements may include, but not be limited to : using coiled tubing for acid
stimulation of multiple perforated intervals over a long measured interval; using slickline
and plug systems for isolating a perforated interval to permit selective acid stimulation
and/or hydraulic fracturing, selection of gravel packing method, and stimulation techniques
which require the use of a stimulation vessel.
The deliverable is a strategic approach for optimum completion of our wells to contract or
allowable requirements. This is not viewed as a highly detailed technical document, but
will provide us with a solid starting position for field development. The document will be
dynamic and will change as we obtain more information and ideas.
There is a necessity for documenting our general well completion approach as soon as
possible to :
• assist in planning requirements for equipment, materials, studies and expertise in

advance of commencing rig operations
• emphasize best practices in completion operations
• address important completion issues.
for example: perforating gun system, size, shot density, number of runs, conveyance
method (wireline or other)
• address strategy and contingencies for well completion and evaluation of the first wells
on a platform (“data” wells) or field and for subsequent batch completed wells. For
example : guidelines will be required for stimulation alternatives such as the use of
fracturing technology depending on observed or log inferred reservoir quality. A
related contingency may be testing a specific well prior to batch completions as a
result of inconclusive logging results.
• illustrate geometry and configuration of proposed wells.
• provide a reference during preparation of detailed design procedures.
This is a reference document of our collective knowledge, experience and ideas on well
completion alternatives, including other operator experience, with primary emphasis on
cost effective completion techniques and operational practices. Reservoir management
work and objectives will be utilized to guide completion practices. An example is
determining the perforated intervals with consideration for reserves and permeability
distribution.
The focus is on integrating individual factors in well completion including : reservoir

description, simulation results, drilling and completion fluids, cased hole logging,
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perforating and stimulation options, well testing and fluid sampling requirements.
Completion alternatives should be documented with their respective techniques, advantages
and disadvantages.
The study will provide definition of objectives, deliverables, participants, resources,

activities, and schedule. A small team is normally appointed to develop this scope, prepare
a draft table of contents, including a first pass at completion alternatives. Direct input from
Field Development, Field Operations, Drilling, DPE, and DDR parent is required to
complete this study.
Keep in mind that the overall deliverable is strategic in nature and should not become a
length process.
2.1.5 Fluid Flow Considerations
In the analysis of fluid flow from the reservoir to the wellhead (Figure 1), it is convenient to
think of the system as being comprised of four distinct regions, namely :
• the reservoir (A)

• the near-wellbore region (B)
• the perforation tunnel (C)
• the tubing (D)
These regions are shown in Figure 1. Flow through the reservoir itself (A) is controlled by
such factors as reservoir pressure, permeability, and fluid saturations. Although we can
influence each of these items to varying degrees, they are outside the scope of this Chapter.
Due to the converging flow profiles associated with the radial flow geometry that exists in
the near-wellbore region, the well productivity is strongly influenced by the conditions in
this region. The most productive arrangement exists when flow continues radially into the
wellbore, as occurs in open-hole completions. Productivity is impeded, on the other hand,
when fluid must converge on individual perforations in order to flow into the casing. When
this happens, the velocity increases around the perforations, causing a higher pressure drop
than if it did not converge on the perforations. For this reason, open-hole completions
generally have higher productivity than cased-hole completions.
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Figure 1. Fluid Pathway
An additional factor to be considered is that the open-hole completion has much more flow
area than the cased-hole completion. Therefore, a greater number of pore spaces can
become plugged in an open-hole completion than in a cased-hole completion before a
decline in productivity is noticed. Therefore, open-hole completions generally have longer
lifetimes than their cased-hole counterparts, when factors such as hole stability and
composition of production fluids are unimportant.
The next region is the perforation tunnel. The perforating parameters the completion
engineer has to work with are the number of perforations, their diameter and depth, their
phase relative to one another, and the conditions existing in the wellbore when the
perforations are made. All these factors can influence the well’s productivity and will be
discussed later in Chapter 10 - “Perforating”.
Finally, the fluid flows up the completion string from the perforations to the wellhead. The
tubing string can have a pronounced effect on a well’s deliverability. It also represents a
large fraction of the well’s capital investment. For this reason great care is taken to select
the tubing string which best depletes the reservoir while still being economical. Design of
tubing strings will be covered in Chapter 3 - “ Completion Design Criteria ” and Chapter 6 -
“ Tubulars ”.
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2.2 WELL CONFIGURATION
Before we discuss specific completion configurations we need to review the general

components of a completion, which include the wellhead and the various casing strings.
2.2.1 Wellhead
The wellhead serves a number of functions. First, it suspends all the strings of casing and
tubing that together comprise the well. Second, it provides a means of isolating one string
from another. Third, it provides a place to attach the blowout preventers when drilling the
well. Figure 2 is a diagram of a typical wellhead. More details about the design and
specifications of wellhead equipment can be found in Chapter 5 - “Wellheads”.
Figure 2. Wellhead and Christmas Tree
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2.2.2 Conductor Pipe
The conductor pipe (Figure 3) is a large diameter pipe which is usually set very shallow
(100-300 ft). It provides a means of taking returns and controlling hole washout when
drilling the surface hole.
2.2.3 Surface Casing
The surface casing is the first (i.e., outermost) string of casing that is cemented in place and
has pressure integrity. Most government regulations specify that the surface casing will
completely cover all fresh -water sands encountered while drilling.
Figure 3. Casing/Tubing Configuration
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2.2.4 Intermediate Casing
The intermediate casing string may not be required for all wells, depending on the
intended target depth and the type and pressure of the different strata to be drilled. Some
of the functions of intermediate casing are to isolate zones which will support and/or
require higher hydrostatic pressure from lower pressure ones and to reduce the chance of
the drill pipe getting stuck when drilling long sections of permeable hole.
2.2.6 Liners
Liners are casing strings that are suspended within the wellbore. That is, they do not
extend all the way to the wellhead. Liners may be either intermediate liners or production
liners, and they serve the same functions as their full string counterparts. There are two
main advantages to running a liner in lieu of a full string. First, the liner requires a lower
capital expenditure since it extends for a shorter distance in the wellbore than the full
casing string. Second, in very high rate completions, the use of a liner allows for a larger
flow area for the produced fluids, resulting in increased well deliverability.
The disadvantages of using liners is that they are difficult to cement effectively. Often
money that is saved on the purchase of pipe is spent on remedial cementing operations.
Nonetheless, liners are still used, and are a necessary component of very deep holes.
2.2.7 Tubing
The tubing is the conduit through which fluids flow from the reservoir to the wellhead.
The tubing must be able to withstand tensile, collapse, and burst loads while efficiently
and economically delivering fluids to the surface.
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2.3 OPEN HOLE COMPLETIONS
Up until this point we have been discussing the general components of a completion and
some basic concepts in fluid flow from the reservoir to the wellhead. Next we shall
examine some aspects of the basic completion options available. Depending on the
objective and particular completion considerations an endless variety of alternative well
designs are possible. We begin by discussing the open-hole completion.
2.3.1 Definition
An open-hole completion is one in which there is no casing set across the production
interval. This leaves the entire zone open for flow into the wellbore.
2.3.2 Advantages
Open-hole completions, as shown in Figure 4, have the following advantages.
1. No perforating expense.
2. Log interpretation is not critical since entire gross interval is open.
3. Full diameter opposite the pay. In fact, many open-hole completions are under-
reamed to 13 in. or larger to increase the effective radius of the completion.
4. Slightly reduced casing cost.
5. Can be easily deepened.
6. Can be easily converted to a perforated liner or casing completion.
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Figure 4. Types of Open-Hole Completions
The cost savings associated with item 1 can be significant for long interval lengths. For
example, if 150 ft of pay are available, it would take 5 gun runs of 30 ft each to perforate
the entire interval. The money spent on perforation charges (perhaps 600 charges or more)
as well as the rig time associated with multiple wireline runs can be substantial, especially
offshore.
2.3.3 Disadvantages
Open-hole completions have some disadvantages, however. Several of these are listed
below.
1. Excessive gas and/or water-oil ratios cannot normally be controlled (except in the
case of bottom water).
2. Cannot be selectively fractured or acidized.
3. Normally requires more rotary rig time since rig is tied up waiting on cement before
drilling the production casing shoe.
4. Will require frequent clean-outs if sands are not completely competent.

2.3.4 Methods
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There are two basic alternatives in setting an open-hole completion; (a) set casing before
drilling the pay zone or (b) drill the pay zone, then set the casing above the pay. Each of
these techniques is discussed below.
The primary reason for setting the production casing prior to drilling the pay is that the
drilling fluid (mud) may be replaced by a low-solids viscosified drilling fluid. This
reduces the chance of damaging the formation due to plugging by bentonite or barite
solids, which might have been in the original drilling mud.
One risk associated with this technique is that casing is run and cemented before the
formation is evaluated. Thus it is important that the pay zone depth and its characteristics
be well known before adopting this procedure.
The other alternative when making an open-hole completion is to drill the entire pay prior
to setting casing. This method allows one to log and/or test the interval before incurring
the expense of running the production casing. It also ensures that casing is set to the
proper depth. The only disadvantage is that the hole cannot easily be drilled with special
“low-solids” drilling fluids.
This is ordinarily not a serious drawback, however, since the hole can be underreamed
with a clear fluid if required.
2.3.5 Examples
A classic example of an open-hole completion can be found in the Middle East, where
many wells are completed open-hole through long, highly productive carbonate formations
with very little water production. All these characteristics (high productivity, competent
formation, low water) make an open-hole completion the most economic choice.
Another example is the North Sea, where open-hole gravel packs have been installed.
Again, these are high rate wells with a water-oil contact away from the completion
interval. The open-hole gravel pack can provide higher productivity with greater longevity
than its cased-hole counterpart because its greater productivity results in less drawdown
and hence, less stress on the sand.
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2.4 CASED-HOLE COMPLETIONS
2.4.1 Definition
A cased-hole completion (Fig .5) is one in which the production casing string (or
production liner) is cemented across the intended completion interval. In this case
communication between the inside of the casing and the reservoir is effected by
“perforating” the casing.
2.4.2 Advantages
The advantages of cased-hole completions relative to open-hole completions are given

below.
1. Excessive gas and/or water-oil ratios can normally be controlled.
2. Can be selectively fractured or acidized.
3. Easier workovers such as retrieving screens or other fishing operations.
4. Will control many incompetent sands and is adaptable to special techniques to

minimize sand problems.
5. Rotary rig time is normally minimized.
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Figure 5. Cased-Hole Completion
2.4.3 Disadvantages
Some disadvantages of cased-hole completions follow :
1. Perforating costs.
2. Not adaptable to special drilling techniques to minimize formation damage.
3. Slightly higher casing expense than an open hole completion.
4. Log interpretation is critical in order not to miss commercial sands while avoiding
sub-marginal sands.
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Although perforated completions will be the proper choice in the vast majority of wells,
the engineer should be alert to recognize areas where another method of completion would
be preferable. In productive zones that are especially susceptible to formation damage
(such as the Austin Chalk), the best approach may be to set the casing above the pay zone,
use a nondamaging fluid to drill the zone, and then complete in the open hole. In long
producing intervals with severe sand problems, open-hole gravel packs yield higher
capacities at less cost than plastic consolidation or gravel packs made inside perforated
casing.
2.4.4 Examples
Cased-hole completions are found throughout the world. A vast majority of offshore
completions are cased hole, perhaps because of the large number of isolated zones that are
often encountered. Injection wells, whether they be for water flooding, steam, or disposal,
are mostly cased-hole.
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2.5 SINGLE COMPLETIONS
2.5.1 Definitions
A single completion is a completion where only one conductive path to the surface exists.
There are several varieties of single completions, however, as shown in Figure 6. Each of
these is discussed below.
2.5.2 Tubing Without Packer
In this type completion (Fig .6a), a tubing string is normally installed inside the casing for
production purposes. Even in high-productivity wells where production is directly up the
casing, tubing will often be installed to permit circulation of kill fluids, corrosion
inhibitors, and paraffin solvents. For maximum production, the tubing is run open-ended
and the well produced through both the tubing and annulus.
2.5.3 Tubing With Packer
Figure 6b shows a single completion utilizing a packer at the bottom of the tubing string.
Packers are run for a variety of reasons, such as :
• To keep formation pressure off of the casing.
• To prevent corrosive fluids from contacting the casing.
• To improve flow characteristics of some wells.
• To provide an annulus for gas lift or continuous annular injection of treating

chemicals.
• To improve safety in event of uphole casing leaks (i.e., external corrosion).
2.5.4 Tubingless
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Figure 6c is an example of a single tubingless completion. Tubingless completions are

distinguished by the fact that the production tubing is cemented in the hole in lieu of a
production casing string. Thus, the tubing becomes the production casing.
Some advantages of tubingless completion are :
• Reduced cost through the elimination of the large production casing, the need for
packers and wireline completion equipment, and the need for more expensive
servicing and workover techniques.
• Workover procedures are simplified, and less total time is required. This is
particularly true in the case of squeeze cementing, stimulation, and plug-back
operations.
However, there are limitations to be considered when deciding whether or not to run a
tubingless completion. Some of these limitations are :
• The tubing is not retrievable should a tubing leak develop.
• The small diameter precludes the successful application of gravel packing techniques.
• Small (1-in.) screens have been run, but the success of such attempts has not been
good.
• Most methods of artificial lift are more difficult in tubingless completions.
For these reasons, most tubingless completions have been limited to routine, low pressure
reservoirs where a considerable amount of information about the reservoir is known.
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Figure 6. Single Completions
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2.6 MULTIPLE COMPLETIONS
2.6.1 Definition
A multiple completion is one where a number of different reservoirs can be produced

through separate flow paths within the same wellbore. As we shall see, this may be
accomplished with tubing/annulus flow, multiple tubing strings, or by cementing a number
of totally independent tubing strings in the same wellbore (a multiple tubingless
completion).
2.6.2 Reasons For Multiple Completions
A multiple completion is one where a number of different reservoirs can be produced

through separate flow paths within the same wellbore. As we shall see, this may be
accomplished with tubing/annulus flow, multiple tubing strings, or by cementing a number
of totally independent tubing strings in the same wellbore (a multiple tubingless
completion).
• Higher producing rates and faster payouts - This is the most common reason for
multiple completions. Several productive zones in a well may have varying
productivity indices. When these variations are significant, the weakest interval
usually will produce at a higher rate if it is segregated than if it is commingled with
the better zones.
• Separating different types of reservoirs - It is generally considered undesirable to

commingle oil from a water-drive reservoir with oil from a dissolved-gas-drive
reservoir because the pressure decline curves are different. Similarly, oil and gas
zones should normally not be commingled in a common wellbore.
• Proper reservoir control - This can be important in both primary and secondary
operations. In gas-cap drive or water-drive reservoirs having several pays, proper
exploitation may require that the different zones be produced at controlled rates to
recover the maximum amount of oil. In secondary recovery projects, it is often
advisable to inject gas or water into the various pays at controlled rates to maximize
oil recovery. It may also be advantageous to multicomplete key wells to monitor
reservoir behavior.
• Other reasons may include government regulations, the need for accurate production
history from each zone, price differentials between crudes, etc.
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While multiple completions are useful in many situations, they are more costly than single
completions, and in the case of tubing/packer completions, they increase the risk of
equipment failures and the need for fishing jobs. Where all zones have short flowing
lives, it is often more practical to commingle all zones on initial completion or to complete
in only one zone and open the others on later workovers. Therefore, if commingling
production does not violate governmental regulations, result in a substantial reduction in
the producing rate, or adversely affect the ultimate recovery, a commingled single
completion should be preferred to a multiple completion.
2.6.3 Single String, Single Packer
Figure 7 depicts a multiple completion employing only one tubing string and one packer.
Wells completed in this manner can be produced in two different ways. First, the lower
zone may flow up the tubing while the upper zone is produced up the annulus. This is
shown in Figure 7a. The alternative method (Figure 7b) is to set a plug in the tubing string
below a communication device such as a sliding sleeve or side-pocket mandrel, thereby
blanking off the lower zone. Then, by manipulation of the communication device, the
upper zone could be produced up the tubing.
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Multiple Completions : Single String, Single Packer
As you can see, the distinction between single and multiple completions gets rather hazy at
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this point. If both zones are produced simultaneously, it is a multiple completion.

However, if each zone is sequentially produced through the tubing string, it becomes a
selective single completion.
• The upper zone cannot be produced through tubing unless the lower zone is blanked
off.
• The casing is subject to pressure and possible damage by corrosive fluids.
• Only the lower horizon can be artificially lifted.
• Sand production from the upper zone may require a washover operation in order to
pull the tubing.
• Both zones must be killed if it is desired to work-over the upper zone or if a

concentric-type workover is not feasible in the lower interval.
2.6.4 Single String, Multiple Packer
The addition of a second packer can increase the flexibility of dual completions. Figure 8a
illustrates a well with a wireline-retrievable straight-flow choke installed so that the upper
zone is produced through the annulus and the lower zone through the tubing. Crossover-
flow chokes, as shown in Figure 8b, permit the upper zone to be produced through the
tubing and the lower zone through the casing-tubing annulus, but will flow through the
tubing owing to the increased fluid velocity at the same producing rate. Crossover chokes
permit this flexibility and also permit artificial lift of the upper zone
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Figure 8. Multiple Completions : Single String, Dual Packer
The arrangement overcomes some of the limitations of the single-packer type of dual
completion; however, it is still not possible to artificially lift both zones simultaneously.
Also, the casing is subject to damage by high pressures or corrosive fluids, and it is still
necessary to kill both zones to work over the upper zone. The installation of crossover
equipment also presupposes that the lower zone will flow on the casing; if it will not, dual
selective crossover equipment serves no purpose.
Figure 8c shows a multiple selective single completion, which allows a number of

different zones to be sequentially produced up the tubing string.
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2.6.5 Multiple String, Multiple Packer
The most popular type of multiple completion is comprised of multiple parallel tubing
strings and multiple packers. An example of such a completion is shown in Figure 9.
Installations employing parallel tubing strings allow each zone to flow up a separate
conduit, which keeps potentially corrosive high-pressure fluids away from the
production casing. They also permit several zones to be artificially lifted
simultaneously.
Wireline tools provide circulation between the tubing strings and the casing tubing
annulus. Concentric tubing and wireline workovers are also possible with this type of
completion.
In the vast majority of cases, a multiple completion consists of a single permanent

lower packer and a dual retrievable upper packer. If a number of different zones exist
in the lower section of the hole, it is often desirable to set the lower packer above all of
them. Then, each zone can be sequentially depleted using concentric techniques to
perforate, squeeze perforations, reperforate higher, etc.
Figure 9. Completions : Parallel String, Multiple Packers
Multiple concentric completions have also been tried in the past, but they have proved to
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be very complex completions with a high risk of mechanical failure. An example of such a
completion is shown in Figure 10. Although the drawing looks simple enough, there are
numerous difficulties associated with running and servicing such a completion.
Figure 10. Multiple Completions : Multiple Concentric Tubing Strings
For similar reasons, multiple parallel completions with more than two strings of tubing are
also seldom run. Consider, for example, Figure 11. This completion is a mechanical
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nightmare. The opportunities for servicing this type of completion are very limited, and
the chance of having stuck packers is very high. Consequently, dual completions are by
far the predominant type of multiple completion.
Figure 11. Multiple Completions : Multiple Parallel Tubing Strings

2.6.6 Multiple Tubingless
Multiple tubingless completions are characterized as having two or more strings of tubing
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run through different intervals and then cemented in place. In theory this leaves a number
of totally separate strings which simply share a common wellhead and wellbore. Figures
12 (a) and (b) are examples of such completions.
While multiple tubingless completions have most of the advantages associated with their
single tubingless counterparts, they have serious limitations. One major limitation is the
difficulty encountered when attempting to cement multiple strings of tubing. Very often,
behind-pipe communication or “crossflow” occurs. “Crossflow” generally requires
remedial cementing action, and often increases the cost of the completion significantly.
Figure 12. Multiple Completions : Multiple Tubingless
A second disadvantage of multiple tubingless completions is the chance of perforating a

neighboring string when perforating the target sand. Usually, magnetic detectors or
radioactive sources are used to orient the perforating gun away from the other string (s).
However, mistakes happen. This is especially true when perforating long intervals where
the tubing strings tend to wind around one another.
2.7 HORIZONTAL AND MULTILATERAL WELLS
2.7.1 Horizontal Wells
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Most experts agree that horizontal wells have become a preferred method of recovering oil
and gas from reservoirs in which these fluids occupy strata that are horizontal, or nearly
so, because they offer greater contact area with the productive layer than vertical wells.
While the cost factor for a horizontal well may be as much as two or three times that of a
vertical well, the production factor can be enhanced as much as 15 or 20 times, making it
very attractive to PCSB. Despite these facts, it took several decades for the industry to
embrace the technique.
“Some of the earliest development toward horizontal drilling took place during the early
1940’s when John Eastman and John Zublin developed short-radius drilling tools designed
to increase the productivity of oil wells in California,” explains Frank Schuh, a horizontal
drilling consultant.
“The tools were designed to drill 20 to 30 ft (60.96 to 91.44 m) radii and horizontal
distances of 100 to 500 ft (304.8 to 1,524 m) and they permitted the drilling of numerous
laterals in the same formation in various directions around the wellbore. Typical designs
used between four and eight laterals.”
The equipment preceded downhole survey tools and included extraordinary knuckle-
jointed flexible drill collars that could be rotated around the extremely high curvatures.
Also, it allowed for the employment of a drilling technique that was the perfect completion
companion to standard, vertical open-hole completions being used at the time. “Basically,
Eastman and Zublin were instrumental in drilling the first multilaterals,” Schuh states.
“Today’s multilateral wells are simply modern versions of these earlier efforts.”
Unlike a directional well that is drilled to position a reservoir entry point, a horizontal well
is commonly defined as any well in which the lower part of the wellbore parallels the pay
zone. And, the angle of inclination used to drill the well does not have to reach 90° for the
well to be considered a horizontal well.
Applications for horizontal wells include the exploitation of thin oil-rim reservoirs,
avoidance of drawdown-related problems such as water/gas coning, and extension of wells
by means of multiple drainholes.
True development and employment of horizontal-well techniques began in the U.S. During
the mid-1970’s. However, horizontal-drilling experimentation began much earlier.
The U.S. Dept. Of Energy (DOE) marks the starting date as 1929 in Texon, Texas. Here
says the DOE, the first “true horizontal well” was drilled. Additionally, the DOE cites a
well drilled in Yarega, U.S.S.R., in 1937 and a 500 ft (1,524 m) well drilled in 1944 in the
Franklin Heavy Oil field in Venango City, Pennsylvania, as being some of the first wells
to be drilled horizontally.
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During the 1950’s, the Soviet Union drilled 43 horizontal wells, a considerable effort with
respect to the equipment available then. Following their foray into horizontal drilling, the
Soviets concluded that while horizontal wells were technically feasible, they were
economically disappointing or, in other words, not profitable. As a result, they abandoned
the method.
in the mid-1960’s - 10 years after the Soviet experience - the Chinese drilled two
horizontal wells. The first, 500 m (164.04 ft) in length and not cased, collapsed after a
week of production. The second was interrupted by the “Cultural Revolution.” Like the
Russians, the Chinese concluded that horizontal drilling was uneconomical and abandoned
the method for more than 20 years.
From 1979 to 1982, a renaissance of true horizontal-well development work occurred in

North America. It was during this period that Alan Barnes, an engineer for a major oil
company, used a complex reservoir-simulation model to promote the benefits of the
Eastman/Zublin short-radius technique to his superiors.
Following his modelling studies, the company drilled approximately 12 horizontal wells in
the Empire Abo reef in New Mexico. They targeted a thinning oil column in a massive
limestone reservoir with a significant as cap and active water drive. Oil recovery of the
first hole exceeded the production of a comparable vertical well by more than 20 times
before breakthrough of the gas cap. The success of the Empire Abo project led the
company to look for means of a broader application. The company appointed Schuh to
lead the search.
“We developed what is generally referred to now as ‘medium radius’ (20°/100 ft)
horizontal drilling,” Schuh says as he recalls the project. “The development determined
the maximum hole curvatures possible in drilling horizontal wells without damaging
conventional drillstring and drilling tools. We found that the unique application of
horizontal drilling allows hole curvatures that are five to 10 times greater than can be used
in conventional directional drilling. We utilized the latest advancements in downhole
motors and measurement-while-drilling (MWD) equipment to develop methods for
establishing long, low-cost horizontal boreholes.”
Using their technique, Schuh and his colleagues drilled their first medium-radius well in
January 1985. During the 1980’s, more than 300 horizontal wells were drilled in North
America including the first one in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, in 1985. During this period,
Texas’ Austin Chalk trend also received a great deal of attention from horizontal-well
operators who, at the time, drilled some of the highest-producing-rate wells in the U.S.
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But the decade of the 1990’s most certainly will become known as “the decade of the
horizontal well.” Through 1998, the number of horizontal wells drilled in the U.S. Has
totaled more than 3,000, an increase of 1,000% over the previous 10 year period.
By the late 1990’s, a dramatic shift in corporate philosophy regarding horizontal drilling
occurred when one major operator set a requirement that prior management approval was
necessary for all vertical wells.
The renaissance of horizontal-well drilling techniques in Europe began about the same
time as in North America. In 1977, Elf Aquitaine and L’Institut Francaise du Petrole (IFP)
began work on the FORHOR project, which eventually led to the success of the Rospo
Mare field, the only oil field in the world at that time that produced systematically through
horizontal wells. Drilled in the Adriatic Sea in water depths ranging from 200 to 300 ft
(61 to 91 m), the technical and economic success of this field is credited with triggering
the world’s interest in horizontal drilling.
Jacques Bosio, a former R & D deputy director and Vice President of Elf Acquitaine, was
one of the pioneers in the field of horizontal drilling as a project manager of the Elf/IFP
FORHOR horizontal drilling research study.
“What I remember about that period, when nobody in the world would believe that
horizontal wells could become a new tool for the industry, is that it was more difficult to
change, by 90°, the way people were thinking than it was to do it with the wells,” says
Bosio, recalling those early days in Italy. “We had been raised with the idea that the
maximum possible inclination for a well could not exceed 70°. I don’t know why, that’s
just the way we were taught. But, one of the main reasons the FORHOR project
succeeded was because we had the perseverance to go one step further with a rotary
drilling rig. Remember, we didn’t have downhole motors then.
“When we talked to our drillers [about going beyond 70° inclination] . . . they first laughed
and then turned real mad at those crazy R & D people,” Bosio muses. “Even supposing
that you could drill it, a horizontal well made ‘no economic sense,” they said. It will cost
at least 10 times as much as a nearby vertical well but will never produce 10 times more.
Besides, no coring, logging or testing will be possible and it will collapse on you before a
liner can be run.”
In spite of the ridicule and disbelief of others, Bosio and his colleagues pressed on in May
1980 to drill the Lacq 90 (a total coincidence that this was the name of the well) in
southern France, the first well drilled at 90° inclination.
“We had to swear that we would plug the well if it happened to disturb the drainage of the
reservoir so production could go back to normal,” Bosio says as he stifles a laugh. “Lacq
90 went 275 m (902 ft) within the reservoir with 100 m (328 ft) purely horizontal at a cost
of 3.2 times that of a vertical well,” he continues. “It did produce . . . much more water
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than its neighbors since the reservoir was 90% watered out.” This led to claims that
horizontal wells were only god for producing water, an unfair statement that did not
nothing to advance the technology. Shrugging off such comments, Bosio had much better
luck later on with the well’s successor, the Lacq 91.
With their data in hand, Bosio’s group set out to apply it in the Rospo mare field, a perfect
laboratory for the development of horizontal-drilling techniques. The field is unique
because the nature of its reservoir and the characteristics of its oil prevent it from being
produced through conventional vertical wells. By early 1981, five wells, all vertical, had
been drilled from a platform at the center of the field to appraise, set the field’s limits, and
begin exploitation.
“Our attention now turned to the Rospo Mare field,” states Bosio enthusiastically. “We
drilled the Rospo Mare 6 in January 1982, 370 m (1,214 ft) of which was horizontal at a
cost factor of 2.1 times more than a vertical well. More importantly, it was an immediate
success, producing 20 times more oil than a neighboring vertical well and boosting the
field’s recoverable reserves from near zero to 70 million barrels,” says Bosio proudly.
Bosio believed the Rospo Mare 6 well’s success would jolt the industry into jumping
aboard the horizontal-well bandwagon. Unfortunately, the success was greeted with a big
industry yawn.
Bosio recalls his experience in giving a paper on the well at the 1983 World Petroleum
Congress (WPC) meeting in London. “When I went to the chair to present the first paper
ever presented on horizontal wells, more than half the room, which was full from the
preceding paper, got up and left! They simply weren’t interested,” Bosio explains. “At
the next WPC in 1987 in Houstan, the paper I presented attracted a small crowd. Then, at
the 1991 WPC in Buenos Aires, we had a full session on horizontal wells.”
Finally, producers had begun to realize that horizontal wells can increase production rates
and ultimate recovery, reduce the number of platforms or wells required to develop the
reservoir, reduce stimulation costs, and bypass environmentally sensitive areas.
2.7.2 Multilateral Wells
The acknowledged father of multilateral technology technology is Alexander Grigoryan.

In 1949, Grigoryan became involved in the theoretical work of American scientist L.
Yuren, who maintained that increased production could be achieved by increasing
borehole diameter in the productive zone. Grigoryan took the theory a step further and
proposed branching the borehole in the productive zone to increase surface exposure.
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Grigoryan put his theory into practice in the former U.S.S.R.’s Bashkiria field (today’s
Bashkortostan). There, in 1953, he used downhole turbodrills without rotating drillstrings
to drill Well 66/45 in the Bashkiria Ishimabainefti field. His target was the Akavassky
horizon, and interval that ranged from 10 to 60 m (33 to 197 ft) in thickness. He drilled
the main bore to a total depth of 575 m (1,886 ft), just above the pay zone, and then
drilled nine branches from the open borehole without cement bridges or whipstocks.
When completed, the well had nine producing laterals with a maximum horizontal reach
from kickoff point of 136 m (447 ft). It was the world’s first truly multilateral well,
although rudimentary attempts at multilaterals had been since the 1930’s.
Compared to other wells in the same field, 66/45 was 1.5 times more expensive, but it
penetrated 5.5 times the pay thickness and produced 17 times more oil each day.
Grigoryan’s success with the 66/45 well inspired the Soviets to drill an additional 110
multilaterals wells in their oil fields during the next 27 years, with Grigoryan drilling 30 of
them himself.
Like horizontal wells, multilateral wells justify their existence through their economics.
Defined as a single well with one or more wellbore branches radiating from the main
borehole, they can be an exploration well, an infill development well or a re-entry into an
existing well. But, they all have a common goal of improving production while saving
time and money.
Multilateral-well technology has not yet evolved to the point of horizontal-well

technology. The complexity of multilateral wells ranges from simple to extremely
complex. They may be as simple as a vertical wellbore with one sidetrack or as complex
as a horizontal extended-reach well with multiple lateral and sublateral branches. While
existing techniques are being applied and fresh approaches are being developed,
complications remain and the risks and chances of failure are still high.
As indicated earlier, it took several decades for the industry to endorse the concept of
drilling horizontal and high-angle wells. Producers had to be convinced that the two- or
three-fold cost increase of horizontally drilled wells would be justified. Once producers
got a taste of the 15- to 20-fold production increases, they wholeheartedly jumped on the
bandwagon.
“This initial growth of horizontal drilling has been quite rapid and now represents about
10 to 15% of all drilling activity. The future growth of horizontal wells depends on how
the industry handles the next rounds of technological advancement,” Schuh says.
“The present state-of-the-art is economically attractive in easily drilled formations where

the reservoir can be efficiently produced without the need of mechanical intervention. The
greatest growth potential is in harder-to-drill formations and reservoirs that require
selective completions, selective isolations, and stimulation operations. “Success in these
areas will require new drilling equipment, a great expansion of completion options and
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development of new completion equipment and well-repair techniques,” Schuh concludes.
It seems that the future of multilateral technology will follow that same course. According
to Jim Longbottom, a service/supply company engineer in multilateral technology and a
highly published author, multilateral completions have a bright future but it will be some
time before that future is realized. “Drilling and completion of multilateral wells is at the
same development state as horizontal drilling and completion was 10 years ago,” he says.
“Acceptance and expansion of multilateral drilling indicate that within a decade,
multilaterally completed wells will be as commonplace throughout the industry as
horizontal wells are now.
“Asset managers have at their disposal the tools and technology to extract more value than
ever before from their holdings,” he continues. “Horizontal and re-entry multilateral
drilling has increased 50% during the past 5 years and will likely grow at more than 15% a
year through 2000.”
However, if Longbottom’s predictions are to come true, multilateral technology will have
to win over the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) operators who seem to possess a mysterious lack
of enthusiasm. Apparently these producers, who by nature are conservative, differ with
their more risk-oriented counterparts operating in other parts of the world. GOM operators
have a long tradition of resisting innovation, opting instead for systems that are dominated
by near-term profit. They tend to shun new, exotic solutions to their daily problems.
Some believe the future of multilateral well development is tied to advances in the
methods for drilling these wells - directional and horizontal drilling techniques, advanced
drilling equipment and coiled tubing drilling. This may be true. However, it is also
important to note that the industry’s ability to analyze the production and reservoir
performance of multilaterals, particularly in a cost-effective manner, has fallen behind.
Currently, drilling technology has temporarily outstripped the industry’s capabilities in
production and reservoir engineering analysis. It will catch up, but these factors are also a
major impediment to more widespread application of multilaterals, particularly where
improved-recovery methods are expected to be used.
Perhaps the biggest push on operators to install multilaterals in the future will come from
the technology’s economics. Historically, when operators have found themselves in
extended periods of depressed oil prices about which they could do nothing, they have
reduced operating and capital expenditures to help the bottom line. Then to help squeeze
more oil from every drilling and completion dollar spent, they have turned to new
technologies, even if they hadn’t endorsed them before. Most recently that technology has
included geosteering, improved seismic data, and horizontal wells.
Also, multilateral technology offers an attractive package of economic incentives to

producers looking for bottom-line help. Multilaterals allow multiple wells to be drilled
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from a single main wellbore, eliminating costly rig days for drilling an upper hole section
for each well. And, the ability to tap several zones from branches off a single wellbore,
rather than a number of vertical ones drilled through the same section, holds the added
attraction of risk reduction.
But, the biggest economic driver will be deepwater offshore wells where risks are high and
the huge cost of deepwater installations can be reduced by multilaterals that shrink the
number of wells and the amount of ancillary drilling and completion work needed to
access high-production-rate fields.
As for horizontal wells, their future is assured. For multilateral wells, the pendulum is
beginning to swing in their favor as operators steadily realize that the advantages of these
systems are increasingly out-weighting their risks. This is making their future look a low
more secure.
2.7.3 Multilateral Well Classification Matrix
TAML, a group of companies with ML experience, held its kick-off meeting in Aberdeen,
Scotland, on March 13 & 14, 1997. The objective of the forum was for participants to
share their worldwide ML experiences, with a view to providing a more unified direction
for the development of multi-lateral technology. Advice was also solicited from several
additional operators and service companies providing multi-lateral equipment and
services, including a discussion on the topic at the 1997 SPE Forum Series on Multi-
Lateral Completions in Breckenridge, Colorado, USA.
Delegates unanimously agreed that, with the wide range of ML well complexities being
drilled, development of a common classification system would have considerable added
value during the planning phase of a ML well. The main benefits from this were seen to
be:
• Determination of functional requirements - It was agreed that determination of

functional requirements of a proposed ML well is one of the key success factors in
delivering a well that meets its objectives. A classification system would provide a
“road map” which would allow well and petroleum engineers to efficiently achieve
this.
• Utilization of the most appropriate system - With functional requirements

determined, a classification “code” would be enable the comparison of well
requirements and capabilities of the various systems on the market.
• Transfer of learning – Albeit, the number of ML wells being drilled worldwide is
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growing rapidly, there is a relatively insignificant amount of pertinent “offset”

information. A classification code would enable relevant and accurate comparison
of case histories and performance indicators.
At present there are several matricies in existence, all with fundamental differences. The
TAML participants agreed that the one proposed here will supercede the others and will be
used by them and their companies in the future.
MATRIX EXPLANATION
The system is made up of two tiers : 1) Complexity Ranking, and 2) Functionality

Classification. The Complexity Ranking consists of a single numeric character while the
Functionality Classification includes a series of alpha and numeric characters that describe
critical functionality characteristics of the well.
Tier 1 - Complexity Ranking. Using a number between 1 and 5, the complexity ranking
gives a “first-pass” indication of the complexity of the well, which is based on junction
complexity. In a well with more than one junction, the most complex one would be
referred to.
Tier 2 – Functionality Classification. Broken down into two sections, Well Description
and Junction Description, the Functionality Classification provides more technical detail
of the well. Its primary use would be that of a “roadmap” in ascertaining critical
requirements during the planning of a ML well or in describing the status of an existing
well. in a well with more than one junction, each is described, from bottom to top.
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CLASSIFICATION CODE EXAMPLES
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Complexity ranking Well description Junction description

Example 1 : Level 2; Ranking N-1-PN-S/2-TR-SEL
Level 2 N-1-PN-S 2-TR-SEL
Mother-bore cased New Well Mother-bore cased &
and cemented; One Junction cemented;
lateral open Producer-Natural lift lateral open
Single bore completion Through-tubing re-entry
(above the production packer) Selective production
Example 2 : Level 5; Ranking E-2-IN-D/2-PR-NON/5 (3,000 psi)-TR-SEP

Level 5 E-2-IN-D 2-PR-NON (Lower Junction)
Pressure integrity at Existing well Mother-bore cased &
the (upper) junction, Two Junctions cemented;
achieved with the Injector lateral open
completion Dual bore completion Re-entry by pulling completion
No flow control
5 (3,000 psi)-TR-SEP
(Upper Junction)
Pressure integrity at the
junction (3,000 psi)
Through-tubing re-entry
Separate production
2.8 MONOBORE COMPLETIONS
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2.8.1 Definition
This type of completion was the original, so called, slim hole or slim well which has been
used in North America for thousands of low rate, non-corrosive wells. In these instances,
2-7/8 inch production tubing served the dual purpose of production casing and tubing.
More recently, slim hole fit-for-purpose or slim well drilling and the monobore completion
emerged independently and it can be agreed that they are synergistic. A monobore
completion is a completion featuring fullbore access across the pay zone/s, without
diameter restrictions (but not necessarily with a constant diameter from top to bottom).
The completion style first designed for wells in the North Sea, utilized primarily 5-1/2”
inch or 5 inch production tubing above 5 inch or 4-1/2” inch (respectively) production
liners. A comparison of a conventional completion and a monobore completion is
illustrated in Figures 13 and 14 that follow:
Figure 13. Conventional versus slimhole monobore
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Figure 14.
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The primary difference is that the monobore completion’s inner diameter tapers downward
with the smallest inner diameter being the production liner (or casing) whereas the
conventional completion tapers down to a minimum inner diameter, usually located at the
base of the packer tailpipe, and the production liner (or casing) is of increased inner
diameter.
The monobore completion is not well suited to wells where zonal selectivity is required.
Where selective completions are required, a conventional completion is likely the
preferred choice. Prior to committing to a well with selectivity, the completion engineers
should challenge whether:
• Commingling of production with (or without) production logging to allocate

production to reservoirs is an option. The value of conventions/regulations
prohibiting commingled production should be challenged. In the event that
commingling is acceptable, a monobore completion may become the most effective
option.
• A sequential, bottom up, depletion strategy is appropriate. In this case, a monobore

completion is ideal and the operational advantages of the monobore completion
could be realized.
2.8.2 Introduction
Wells drilled using slim hole techniques are reducing initial drilling costs. The technology
to conduct effective petrophysical evaluation in slim wells is currently available or
emerging rapidly. Thus, slim hole development wells will warrant consideration in many
projects.
This section provides information on the consideration of slim hole development wells.
Although tubular sizes and well designs are specified, these configurations are only of an
illustrative nature and fields (or area) specific optimisation will be required. Slim wells
are not necessarily an optimal solution for general application but they should always be
compared with conventional and horizontal wells on a case by case basis.
A number of currently undeveloped fields could become profitable if the well costs,
including tie-in, were reduced by 30%; an overall saving which is a realistic objective if
the wells, subsea equipment, and tie-ins are down-sized. Wells in many of these fields
will not flow at the rates traditionally required to justify subsea procedures. Thus the
smaller production conduit of the down-sized well may be adequate.
2.8.3 Monobore Completion
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As stated previously, “a ‘monobore’ (MB) completion is a completion featuring fullbore

access across the pay zone, without diameter restrictions (but not necessarily with a
constant diameter from top to bottom)”. This completion style was pioneered by Shell
Expro for use in their North Sea operations for wells utilising primarily 5½” or 5”
production tubing above 5” or 4½” (respectively) production liners. A comparison of a
conventional completion and a monobore completion is illustrated in Figure 13.
2.8.4 Advantages
Monobore completion advantages are as follows:
• Monobore completions provide maximum flow area and a smooth uniform bore. As
a result, they are the most efficient completions available for maximizing high rate
production.
• The high rate advantage of monobore completions provides maximum rate

flexibility for peak production swings or periods when wells in a field are off
production.
• For equivalent production rates between packer type completions, monobores can
reduce the number of wells required for a development thus providing significant
cost savings and increased net present value.
• The smooth uniform bore minimizes turbulence and reduces the effects of
corrosion/erosion. This is one of the reasons why L-80 material may be run for the
tubing strings in a sour gas environment instead of the much more expensive CRA
stuff.
• With the full bore internal diameter from the top of the tree to the bottom of the
well, monobore completions readily allow a full range of concentric intervention
activities.
• The large internal diameter also allows maximum flexibility in tool selection for
intervention operations. Tools that couldn’t be used in packer type completions due
to tubing restrictions can readily be used in monobore completions.
• The reduced vertical friction losses provided by large bore diameters can be a
significant advantage in delaying compression requirements for a gas project.
• Since monobore completions don’t utilize a conventional packer, one pipe string can
be eliminated for equivalent tubing size packer completions.
• With the monobore completion design, packer setting concerns during completion
operations are eliminated while maintaining static tubing seal integrity at the same
time.
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• Full bore PLT can be used for reservoir monitoring.
• Thru tubing workover for reservoir intervention. (slickline, e-line, CTU)
• Less complex in design
• Compatible with splitter wellhead
• Ideal for CTU sidetracks. Cheaper infills.
• Use of a 3-1/2 inch production liner, in conjunction with 3-1/2 inch production
tubing allows cost savings associated with slim wells to be achieved while
maintaining an outflow system suited to a large proportion of wells around the
world.
2.8.5 Disadvantages
• A drawback to monobore completions is that it is relatively new technology with

limited suppliers in some equipment areas, especially for large diameter, high
pressure gas completions.
• In many cases, a monobore completion requires more casing/liner flow than in a

conventional completion. This may have two implications:
− Limited ability to circulate a well dead at the top of the productive zone. This is
generally not a concern because most wells can be bullhead dead, and the option
of placing a retrievable bridge plug in the top of the liner section and circulating
the well dead above it is possible.
− Corrosion of the liner may cause irreparable problems. This can generally be
pre-empted by appropriate materials selection for the liner. Also the costs of
sidetracking round mechanical damage, corrosion, and formation impairment
have fallen relative to workover. In many cases a sidetrack round a corroded
liner may be justifiable.
• If monobore plugs become stuck in the liner, it becomes necessary to mill them out
compared to a conventional completion where it may be possible to hoist tubing and
retrieve a stuck plug or even to ‘shoot off’ or ‘perforate’ a packer tailpipe to restore
production in the event of a stuck plug.
• Generally, but not necessarily, when a monobore completion is run in larger sizes,
the tubing size selected is one size larger than liner size. For instances, 5” tubing is
set above a 4-1/2” production liner: this completion will tolerate scale build up in
the tubing while still facilitating full bore access to the production liner. In the 3-
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1/2” monobore completion, all scale build up would have to be removed from the
entire production tubing to allow full bore access to the production liner.
• The limited operating history of 3-1/2” monobore tools is an issue. An extensive

favourable operating history for 4-1/2”, 5” and 5-1/2” monobore operating tools is
available. Indicators are that the 3-1/2” tools will perform favourably but operating
experience is required.
• Slip damage to the production liner arising from use of monobore tools can act as a
point of initiation for corrosion. The consequence of slip damage initiated corrosion
in and adjacent to the productive interval is probably not an issue but is a concern in
the liner section above the producing interval.
• In the case of a 3-1/2” liner, flow velocities while producing and subsequent to
perforating underbalanced may inadvertently lift tools. In most cases, it is expected
that this can be managed with appropriate job planning but tool lifting by flow must
be recognised as a potential hazard.
• In the event of a poor primary cement job, remedial cementing in a 3-1/2”

production liner is expected to be difficult.
2.8.6 Examples
In the Middle East, several high capacity, high pressure gas wells have been completed
using a 7 inch monobore completion. Initial completions were sized to provide 75
MMCFD for the 25 year contract period with a design capacity of 125 MMCFD. The
operator chose the monobore for simplicity, reservoir control and monitoring, stimulation
effectiveness, and high rate capacity.
Shell, in the North Sea, have adopted the 3-1/2 inch monobore completion as their base
case for all new wells. They site the following reasons:
− 3-1/2 inch production tubing is typically suited for wells with oil production rates of
3000 to 5000 BOPD or gas production rates of 50 MMCFD or less.
− 3-1/2 inch production tubing can be run inside of 5 inch and 5-1/2 inch production
casing. A 3-1/2 inch liner is complementary to the 4-1/8 inch and 4-3/4 inch slim hole.
2.9 SPLITTER WELLS
The Twin Wellhead System, also known as Twin Monobore Wellhead System or Surface
Splitter Wellhead System has been pioneered and used by PCSB in East Malaysia. The
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systems allow more than one well to be drilled, cased and completed from a wellbore
while maintaining full access to each well.
Two or three wells can be drilled from one platform slot or surface location using this
design, and it is ideal for multiple horizontal or vertical wells. Once completed, wells can
be independently produced, serviced and worked over.
When an operator decides to develop additional reserves from an existing field

infrastructure there are normally six (6) alternatives to consider. These are as follows :
• Adding more slots on the platform
• Downhole splitter systems
• Surface splitter systems
• Subsea wells
• Multi-lateral wells
• Conductor sharing
Two systems currently exist that we can use to achieve drilling two or more wells in one
slot. In the case of a Surface Splitter System wells are kicked-off immediately below the
conductor pipe. Beyond the 36-in conductors, wells feature 13-3/8-in surface pipe and 9-
5/8-in production casing. Beyond that wells can have an 8-1/2-in diameter horizontal hole
which may be lined or completed openhole. The Downhole Splitter System utilizes a
splitter which can be run on the bottom of the surface or intermediate casing strings. The
dual bore head can suspend two 9-5/8-in casing strings which will accommodate standard
7, 5-1/2, 5 or 3-1/2-in liner systems after being drilled out.
The wellheads are a “major project aspect” for a splitter wells. The close proximity of the
wellheads requires them to be staggered vertically such that larger diameter components
are not at the same level. On occasion, orientation of the trees may have to be changed to
avoid clashing with existing steelwork or impinging on walkways. Valves also have to be
located at a workable height. Stack-up tests prevent difficulty in assembling and testing
the systems onsite.
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Figure 15 Triple Splitter Well at BODP-C, East Malaysia
Figure 16. Plan view of Triple Wellhead at BODP-C, East Malaysia
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Figure 17. Elevation view of Splitter Wellhead and Tree
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Figure 18. Downhole Splitter Configuration
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2.10 SUBSEA COMPLETIONS
A subsea completion is one which the wellhead and christmas tree are located on the sea
floor. This is in contrast to offshore wells completed on platforms or floating facilities,
where wellheads and trees are above the water. From a completions standpoint, subsea
wells present a number of challenges relating to wellhead accessibility, fluid production,
well maintenance and equipment realiability.
(Statistical information in this section is gathered primarily from R. L. Hansen’s and W. P.

Rickey’s paper SPE 29084, Evolution of Subsea Production Systems : A Worldwide
Overview, (JPT, August 1995).)
More than 750 subsea completions had been installed in various parts of the world by the
end of 1993. While the majority of these wells lie in less than 600 ft (183 m) of water, a
substantial number—more than 60—have been completed in water depths exceeding 1000
ft (305 m). In the Campos Basin of Brazil, maximum water depth has reached 3369 ft
(1027 m).
Subsea wells can be located long distances from a main platform or other host facility,
beyond those attainable by extended-reach drilling. In the North Sea, maximum distances
are 30 miles (48.3 km) for a gas reservoir and 12 miles (19.3 km) for an oil reservoir.
Although most subsea wells have produced by natural flow, artificial lift methods are
becoming more common, along with the use of water injection to maintain reservoir
pressure.
These wells employ a variety of production configurations, including single satellite wells
consisting of wellhead assemblies on individual guide bases; steel template structures with
production manifolds; and clustered well systems (i.e., single satellite wells connected to a
subsea manifold).
Installing subsea completions can be cheaper than drilling highly deviated platform wells,
and more economical than constructing additional surface facilities. They do, however,
have a number of drawbacks and limitations. For example, in long flowlines, substantial
pressure losses can occur between the well and the host facility. Also, the cooling effects
of seawater can result in poor oil flow properties and gas hydrate formation. Most
important, well maintenance and workover costs are high because wells are not easily
accessible—rig work requires moving in a floating drilling unit or jackup. Subsea wells
thus require extensive, careful planning to ensure adequate equipment and operational
reliability in the harsh sea floor environment.
Historically, the main problem in servicing subsea completions has been the subsurface
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safety valve (SSSV). Two developments that considerably ease this problem are the
availability of long-service-life tubing retrievable subsurface safety valves (TRSSSV) and
accessories, and through flow line (TFL) servicing.
TFL servicing involves the modification of wireline tools so that they can be pumped into
the tubing via the flow line. Rather than manipulating the tools via a wireline, operations
of the tool string can be performed by varying the pump pressure on the tools after they are
pumped down the well. The main requirement for this type of well servicing is two
conduits (either two tubing strings or a tubing and annulus). Special tools are required
since they must be able to pass through a 5 ft (1.5 m) radius bend at the well-head.
Surface facilities must also be designed to conform to these specifications.
Although the year-round service capability afforded by TFL completions is obviously

highly attractive for severe environmental conditions, the consequences in terms of rate
restrictions, cost, and operational complexity should not be underestimated. A popular
alternative to TFL is to design a well completion with redundancy (e.g., install two
subsurface safety valves and anticipate frequent servicing). Wireline operations from
workboats have also proven successful in shallow water (100-300 ft, or 30-90 m depth).
2.11 SMART WELLS
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2.11.1 Introduction
During the 1980s, many operators installed pressure and temperature instruments
downhole to gather real-time production data. These data provided valuable information
concerning how to produce the target zones more effectively. More recently, the industry
has favored installations that have remotely operated controls placed in the well. Sensor
requirements have now extended beyond just pressure and temperature to include flow
rates, fluid composition, reservoir characteristics, etc. A well that has a system of
downhole sensors and controls, and that includes a surface system to collect and transmit
the production data to a remote facility for analysis, has been dubbed a “smart” well.
The most significant benefit that a “smart” well will provide is improved economics. The
ability to sense the production processes and react to changing conditions to continuously
optimize production will result in improved production and recoverable reserves. In
addition, properly designed systems should reduce the operating expenses in a typical
installation. Reduced capital expenses may also be realized when, for instance, a system is
fielded that separates and reinjects the produced water downhole.
Imaginative solutions to commonplace production situations are being contemplated, and

the technology to address these issues is under development. Some basic system designs
will be necessary before any systems are used.
2.11.2 System Components
The subsystems that comprise a “smart” well include a telemetry system for conveying
data to and from the surface, downhole sensors for collecting the desired parameters in the
well, controls to reconfigure the downhole tools, and a surface subsystem. The surface
subsystem includes a data collection terminal, software to analyze the data and make
decisions based on the output, and some means of transmitting this data to a remote
facility, if required. These systems are shown in Figure 19.
2.11.3 Telemetry
Most operators equate telemetry with a wireless system, but such systems may not be used
in the earliest of “smart” wells. The technologies that are currently available are limited in
various installations for specific reasons such as conductivity of the formation, variation in
fluid properties, and noise either from surface facilities or from the flow in the well.
Therefore, the proven hardwired telemetry system will most probably be the first
technology deployed in a “smart” well.
The telemetry system may need to transmit some considerable data streams depending on
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the needs of a particular well. For instance, if a well is equipped with 3D reservoir sensors
that visualize the movement of oil, water, and gas near the wellbore, some significant data
rates will be needed in the telemetry system. In the event of a multilateral or multizonal
completion with multiple flow controls installed, the need for operational process data
may exceed all other data. Since the well-control signals will be transmitted from the
surface downhole, the telemetry system plays a very important role in the “smart” well.
Figure 19. Typical “smart well

2.11.4 Downhole Sensors
A “smart” well must control production procedures. Therefore, sensors that provide
information about the flowing conditions downhole will be important. Although the
pressure and temperature instruments that were previously used are now more accurate
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and reliable, sensors will also be needed to determine multiphase flowing conditions and
the rates and volumes of the flowstream constituent.
A major change in data retrieval has recently been introduced with the use of fiber-optic
sensors in wells. These sensors use changes in the properties of the fiber to provide
temperature and pressure profiles downhole. Optical energy is reflected from the point in
the fiber where a temperature or pressure change has altered the optical properties of the
fiber, giving the desired profile information.
Microelectronic technology from the medical and defense industries now allows the oil
industry to assess fluid viscosity, composition, and density reliably and continuously both
inside the wellbore and in the reservoir adjacent to the wellbore.
The “smart” well of the future will contain numerous sensors that will relay information
about the reservoir, the fluids around the wellbore, and the produced fluids in the
wellbore. Sensors will combine with well controls to mitigate or prevent adverse
producing situations. For example, downhole sensors may detect the formation of scale;
there may be controls built into the completion that will remove the scale and change the
flowing conditions that caused it to form initially.
Current geophysical research is determining the interpretation problems associated with

gathering between well seismic data to provide a real-time 3D seismic within the reservoir.
With such a capability, a reservoir management team could image reservoir features such
as channels, faults, and fractures; they could also “listen” to flood front movement within
the reservoir.
2.11.5 Controls
Before the data from wellbore sensors can be used to alter the producing scheme, remotely
controlled downhole flow devices must be developed. A number of flow control devices
exist that are now manipulated by wireline or hydraulic systems. The simplest of these is
the downhole choke, which can be used between packers to regulate flow from a particular
reservoir.
Used in the industry for more than 30 years, downhole chokes are the most direct means of
controlling flow downhole. However, the existing chokes require intervention to extract
and/or insert the flow control. The “smart” choke will be remotely operable, which
represents a major improvement over existing completion methods.
Remote actuation of the controls is an entirely new subject. Hydraulics have dominated
this industry because of the high force capabilities and the robustness of the tools.
However, recent advances in the areas of electromechanical actuation may change the
technology used downhole.
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More sophisticated downhole systems may also be necessary. For example, downhole
separation is already being evaluated in field trials. When used with ESPs, this technology
offers the prospect of avoiding the production of unwanted water or gas to surface with
some method whereby the water or gas is injected either for reservoir pressure
maintenance or into a disposal reservoir. Electronically operated gas-lift valves are
another example of developments being under-taken in this area.
The surface system will typically include a computer that can collect and store production
data, a software package that analyzes this data and helps users decide how the controls
should be configured, and a telemetry system for transmitting this data to a remote
terminal should it be required. Currently, a number of software packages are used for this
task. In some cases, this software will function adequately; however it is currently
considered a growth technology.
2.11.6 Reservoir Management with Smart Wells
Smart well technologies will provide changes in reservoir management. The variety and
type of information available continuously throughout field life will be greatly enhanced.
Both in-well data (pressure, temperature, viscosity, and compositional profiles) and
between well data (seismic, passive listening) will provide greater reservoir
characterization. These enhancements will combine to advance reservoir management
toward precise mapping of fluid fronts and reservoir properties throughout the reservoir.
Most likely, reservoirs will be divided into discrete management intervals in the future.
Systems and technologies will be developed to control that part of the reservoir with which
they are in contact. Therefore, if more reservoir is contacted, greater control can be
achieved, and potentially greater reserves can be accessed.
Horizontal wells will benefit from smart well technology that can penetrate multiple
fractures and isolate reservoir compartments. Reduced drawdown in horizontal wells may
help eliminate unwanted water or gas influx. The capability to control production from
such wells in a series of management intervals further increases their utility.
Multilaterals also offer significant reservoir management potential with smart well
technology. Multilaterals enable a single wellbore to be used (1) for concurrently
producing reserves from low-permeability areas of a heterogeneous reservoir, (2) to access
multiple high-productivity fractures, (3) to access different reservoirs from the same
wellbore, or (4) to better manage injection for pressure maintenance. Flow control in
multilateral wells is critical to their success. Smart well technology will maximize
production from such completions.
Current projections for increased production and recoverable reserves that are directly
attributable to “smart” systems is approximately 10 to 15%, but increases could be greater.
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In addition, this technology may make marginal field developments viable.
The facility to receive continuous in-well and between well data, interpret these data, and
remotely control or reconfigure the completion accordingly, is a fundamental change in
current completion technology. These advances will enable new reservoir management
schemes that can allow engineers to continuously characterize and monitor reservoir
behavior, improve recovery, and enhance field economics.
2.12 SELECTING A COMPLETION TYPE
2.12.1 Reservoir Drive Mechanism
The reservoir drive mechanism and the well’s location within the reservoir can play an
important role in determining the completion type. For example, a primary concern should
be the production of water in a water-drive reservoir. In many wells, which produce with
bottom-water drive, it will be necessary to seal the portion of the well that is making the
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water, and cased-hole completions favor this operation. On the other hand, if the reservoir
has a flank water-drive mechanism, the wells in the central portion of the field may see
little or no water until very late in the life field. Hence these wells might be open-hole
candidates while the wells on the flanks would probably be cased-hole producers.
Similar arguments exist for gas-cap drive reservoirs. In this case, an expanding gas cap
may eventually move into the completion interval. Hence, the cased completion would be
favored because the upper section could be squeezed while production was taken from the
lower perforations. For an open-hole completion this option would not exist.
The reservoir drive mechanism also strongly influences the tubular sizing. The tubular
program must consider the possible production of water and the effects of declining
reservoir pressure. This will in turn affect the need for artificial lift, and the final
completion type. For instance, there is no sense running 3-1/2-in. tubingless completion if
a large diameter downhole pump will eventually be required. This is only one of many
possible considerations.
2.12.2 Reservoir Extent
The amount of recoverable reserves may also affect the completion type. For example,
there is a little incentive to accelerate production with a dual completion if one or more of
the zones has a limited amount of time before it will be depleted. It would probably be
better to complete as a single completion and recomplete as necessary.
As mentioned previously, tubingless completions can have applicability if the reservoir is

expected to be drained in a relatively short period of time (and corrosion problems are not
expected to develop). These are only two of many possible examples of the effect of
reservoir extent.
2.12.3 Number Of Reservoirs

If a large number of separate reservoirs are intersected by the wellbore, then a multiple
completion scheme may be the optimum solution, depending on a number of other factors
such as the estimated reserves in each zone.
However, there are many occasions when a single completion is preferred even though a
number of reservoirs exist. If this is the case, the completion will be cased hole so that
each zone may be produced separately. It is a good idea to design the completion for ease
of concentric workovers so that the well may re-completed as economically as possible.
2.12.4 Well Location
By “well location” we are referring to the physical location of the wellhead (i.e., offshore,
inland waters, onshore, etc.). This is important for two reasons. First, running dual
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completions in preference to singles can result in a large cost saving if less wells need to
be drilled. If an additional platform can be eliminated, then the cost savings are very large
indeed.
The second impact well location has on completion type is the generally higher workover
costs associated with offshore operations. Thus, offshore completions tend to emphasize
reliability, even at the expense of higher capital expenditures. Thus, multiple completions
on the one hand are desirable in an offshore situation because they can reduce the number
of wellbores required, yet at the same time, the higher workover costs of a dual completion
leads in the opposite direction. The final resolution strongly depends on local
circumstances.
2.12.5 Enhanced Recovery

Secondary recovery projects, whether they be CO2 injection, waterflooding, or other
techniques, almost always work best with cased-hole completions, since many secondary
recovery operations periodically require diversion techniques to inject materials which
are intended to move oil to neighboring wells.
With a perforated cased hole completion, diversion can be accomplished with ball
sealers, isolation packers, squeeze cement, etc. With an open hole completion, about the
only choice available is particulate diverting agents, which are not as effective as the
former techniques.
Tertiary recovery projects such as steam stimulation and fireflooding also impose
restrictions on the completion. Again, these are usually cased hole completions, for the
same reasons as outlined above. In addition, the high temperatures involved dictate that
special elastomers and cement formulations be used.
2.12.6 Stimulation Needs
As with enhanced recovery, successful stimulation requires the ability to effectively divert
the stimulating fluids. For this reason, cased hole completions are usually preferred if
stimulation efforts are to be required.
Attempts have been made to stimulate open-hole sections, most notably across prolific
carbonate horizons in Saudi Arabia, by reciprocating coiled tubing across the interval.
While this at least places live acid in front of the formation, it is not known whether the
fluid is effectively diverted into the formation by this technique.
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2.12.7 Sand Production
Both cased-hole and open-hole completions can be gravel packed successfully, so that
sand production does not affect whether a cased-hole or open-hole completion is selected.
However, sand production problems can affect whether a single or dual completion is run.
In general, dual gravel packs are a complicated arrangement. If they are attempted, the
completion is said to be “piggy-backed”. An example of such a completion is shown in
Figure 20. Tubingless wells, because of their small diameter, should not be run if a gravel
pack will be required. For thin intervals, plastic consolidation has been used effectively.
Many wells in the Gulf of Mexico are dual tubingless completions with sand control
effected by plastic consolidation. This has allowed recovery from many zones, which
probably could not have been economically, exploited using a gravel-packed completion.
2.12.8 Permanent Downhole Monitoring Sytems
A total of 952 pressure and temperature monitoring systems have been installed since
1987. For systems installed in the period 1987-88, the five-year survival probability was
40%. This improved to 75% survival for systems installed in the period 1991-92. Beyond
1992, no further improvements have been observed, resulting in a five-year survival
probability of 69% for the period 1993-98. This section contains a description of
permanent downhole gauge (PDG) systems and their components.
PDG systems have been installed in several hundred oil and gas wells. These systems
form an alternative to wireline-conveyed downhole surveys. In comparison, PDG systems
avoid hazardous operations and offer continuous measurements, which enable better
reservoir management and production optimization. Pressure and temperature (p,T)
monitoring systems that use electricity are the most common. Other systems that have
been installed are :
• Permanent downhole flowmeters for liquid-only mixtures
• PDG systems in ESP-lifted wells that use ESP power cable for data transmission
• The Fiber-Optic Well Monitoring system for measuring pressure and temperature
and the Fiber-Optic Distributed Temperature Systems for measuring temperature
profiles
• The Tucatran system for cableless communication
• The SCRAMS system
The installation of electric-gaslift valves, all-electric inflow control devices and reservoir
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monitoring systems are planned in the near future. When these systems are available, the
so-called “intelligent well” concept, which can be defined as a modular combination of
downhole monitoring and control systems, will become a reality.
For all these systems, reliability is key. PCSB’s targets are : a 90% probability to survive
five years for monitoring systems and a 90% probability to survive 10 years for actuators.
Figure 20. Dual “Piggyback” Gravel-Pack
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Figure 21. Schematic of a subsea PDG system. The sensing element is an electronic
gauge, mounted in a mandrel that forms part of the tubing string; it measures pressure
and temperature within the tubing. The cablehead forms the top of the gauge and is
connected to the metal-sheathed electrical cable that runs along the tubing to the hanger.
A schematic of an electrical PDG system for pressure and temperature measurement is

depicted in Figure 21. The electric cable is coaxial, comprising an insulated mono-
conductor encapsulated in a metal sheath. In most cases, the sheath is encapsulated in
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thermoplastic to prevent damage during installation. The cable is supported by protectors

at all tubing joints. These hold the cable in place and protect it across the couplings where
the cable is most vulnerable to crushing.
The wellhead outlet differs on subsea and platform/land wellheads, resulting in different
installations. For a land or platform system, the cable is normally fed through the tubing
hanger, with compression fittings at the top and bottom, and fed out of the tree through a
downhole safety-valve-line port or a flanged outlet. Immediately outside the tree, the
cable is terminated in a connector, from which an instrument cable runs to the surface
acquisition unit.
For subsea installations, wet-connectors are used between the hanger and the tree (Figure
21) and between the hanger and the tree and either the control pod, a control lone in the
umbilical or an acoustic telemetry system.
Data from the PDG are usually fed into a computer system via an interface unit.
2.13 SPOOLABLE COMPLETIONS

When operators in Prudhoe Bay wanted to revive declining production in a well in the
Western Operating Area, they evaluated several completion methods, including traditional
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workover rig completion. Then they installed the world’s first Spoolable CT gas lift
string.
Four Spoolable gas lift valves were spaced over 10,076 feet of 2-3/8” x. 156” CT and hung
from the surface inside existing production tubing. The string was stung into the wireline-
set bottom hole assembly located in the original completion’s 4-1/2” tail pipe. Camco’s
Spoolable safety valve was not yet available, so the well was regulated by a wireline-
retrievable subsurface-controlled safety valve in a standard “D” type landing nipple at
2,000 feet. Refer to completion schematic, Figure 22.
Prior to the Spoolable completion, the well was not capable of stable flow. Today it is
producing 850 bbl/day of liquid at a gas injection rate of 1.2 MMSCF/day. Actual cost for
the tubing workover was only 40% of the estimated cost of a conventional workover.
2.13.1 Candidate Selection
The best candidate wells for SPOOLABLE completions are operated:
o In areas where the operating cost of coiled tubing units is much less than that of
traditional rigs (e.g. offshore);
o Offshore, on platforms with at least 25 ton load bearing capabilities, cranes that
can lift 15 tons and have 1,500 ft2 of deck space. (These figures vary significantly
with tubing size and length). Many more platforms can be serviced, at extra cost,
from jack up barges or service boats;
o In areas where gas lift equipment or safety valves or both are used;
o By producers who are already using coiled tubing units for other purposes;
o By producers who have many marginal wells (and, therefore, a potentially high
payoff for risking a trial and taking the time to learn how to install SPOOLABLE
completions);
o By producers who are innovators (e.g. have high asperations, have financial
strength, are well educated, and remain alert for new developments).
2.13.2 Coiled Tubing Material
The coiled tubing used in the majority of completions was ASTM A-606 Type 4 Modified
coiled tubing steel. Tensile and yield strength for the steel was 80,000 and 70,000 psi,
minimum, respectively.
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Recent developments of advanced-composite spoolable tubing offers several new solutions

to many challenging oilfield operations. Such attributes as excellent corosion resistance
and low material density and weight, coupled with high working-pressure rating and
extensive fatigue resistance, make these products attractive for a number of oilfield tubular
applications, including well-servicing strings and corrosion-resistant completion strings.
Advanced-composite spoolable pipe can be “engineered” for particular applications to take
advantage of the composite’s attributes while optimizing cost.
Recent activity has focused on gaining a full understanding of performance characteristics

of compositetube technology, particularly under complex loading conditions, and
evolution of standard products and standard qualification tests that provide a wide margin
of safety and cost-effective life under normal operating conditions. Various advanced-
composite-tubular and connector-product designs have been tested extensively to
determine their operating characteristics and to improve their performance. These
extensive tests have led to a line of standardized products developed for the well-servicing
and production-tubing/permanent-installation include 2-3/8-in. CT, 2-in. production
tubing, 1½-in. velocity string, and 1½-in. CT, each with a thermoplastic liner, fiber/epoxy
matrix, and exterior fiber protective layer.
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Figure 22. Spoolable Coiled Tubing Completion
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CHAPTER 3
COMPLETION DESIGN CRITERIA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….…. 2
3.1.1 Purpose ……………………………………………………………… 2

3.1.2 Importance Of Completion Design …………………………………. 2
3.1.3 Completion Objectives ……………………………………………… 2
3.2 BASIC DECISIONS IN COMPLETION DESIGN ……………………………… 4
3.2.1 Completion Interval …………………………………………………. 4

3.2.2 Tubing Diameter ……………………………………………………. 4
3.2.3 Tubing-Casing Configuration ………………………………………. 5
3.2.4 Completion Equipment ……………………………………………... 5
3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING COMPLETION DESIGN …………………………..... 6
3.3.1 Reservoir Properties ………………………………………………… 6

3.3.2 Production Requirements …………………………………………… 7
3.3.3 Future Operations …………………………………………………… 8
3.3.4 Intangibles …………………………………………………………... 9
3.4 COMPLETION DESIGN PROCEDURE …………………………….…………. 10
3.4.1 Size Tubing …………………………………………………………. 10

3.4.2 Select Packer ………………………………………………………... 10
3.4.3 Calculate Tubing Loads …………………………………………….. 12
3.4.4 Specify Completion Equipment …………………………………….. 12
3.4.5 Select Perforating Technique ……………………………………….. 12
3.4.6 Consider Artificial Lift ……………………………………………… 13
3.4.7 Allow For Stimulation ……………………………………………… 13
3.4.8 Provide Ease Of Workovers ………………………………………… 13
3.5 INHOUSE COMPUTER PROGRAM USED TO AID IN WELL DESIGN ..… 10
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this Chapter is to acquaint the engineer with the basic factors, which need to
be considered when designing the “inner portion” of a well completion. By “inner portion”
we mean the items of the completion, which are run inside the production casing. This is in
contrast to Chapter 2, “Types of Well Completions”, which outlined the considerations for
selecting the broader aspects of completion design, such as whether the well should be
cased or open hole, single or dual completion, etc.
Subsequent chapters will deal with specific aspects of completion design in greater detail.
3.1.2 Importance Of Completion Design
The importance of a good completion design cannot be overstressed. With drilling costs
routinely exceeding several million dollars for many wells, it is imperative that the
completion be sound. In addition, the ability to perform future operations on a well, such as
gas lift, hydraulic fracturing, or water injection, will depend on the care and planning taken
in the initial completion design.
3.1.3 Completion Objectives
A basic well completion has the following objectives :
• Production - The completion should be designed to handle the anticipated production

rate. In most cases, the production rate is determined by the flow capacity of the
reservoir, although there may be instances where other considerations, such as sales
contracts or pipeline capacity, dictate the production rate.
• Safety - Paramount in every aspect of completion design is safety. The completion

must be strong enough to withstand all the forces that can occur during the life of the
well since the completion string is the primary mechanism for containing reservoir
pressure.
• Profit - Without profit there is no incentive to complete the well, so we must ensure
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that the completion design is profitable as well as safe. As a general rule, profitability
is usually enhanced by selecting the simplest completion design possible. Fortunately,
this generally enhances the safety of the completion as well.
• Government Regulation - Care must be taken to ensure compliance with any

applicable government regulations. These laws generally pertain to the protection of
the environment, protection of fresh water sands from contamination, and the
“efficient” depletion of the various reservoirs.
3.2 BASIC DECISIONS IN COMPLETION DESIGN
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The following discussion summarizes the fundamental decisions to be made when

designing a well completion. These considerations include :
• Completion Interval : Where is it? What is it near?
• Tubing Diameter : What size is required for a given production rate?
• Tubing - Casing Configuration : Is the completion open or cased hole? Single or

multiple? Where is the tubing in relation to the productive zone?
• Completion Equipment : What are the reasons for running completion equipment?
Design considerations for the actual selection of tubing and hardware will be discussed
later in the section.
3.2.1 Completion Interval
The first question to be addressed in the completion design is the selection of the
completion interval. This is a decision which requires input from a number of sources
including the reservoir engineer, the geologist, a well log specialist, and the completion
engineer. The completion engineer needs to consider such factors as the effect of the
perforation strategy on future stimulation requirements and the effect of interval length on
future workover plans. If the well has a number of zones to be sequentially produced, then
the completion engineer should be consulted to determine the order in which the zones will
be produced, always considering factors to minimize future workover and recompletion
costs.
3.2.2 Tubing Diameter
The required tubing string diameter is the next decision which needs to be made. The
tubing diameter is usually based on deliverability calculations which show the relationship
between reservoir pressure, flowing bottom hole and surface pressures, and flow rate for a
given tubing size. From these calculations, an appropriate tubing size can be determined.
The required tubing diameter can sometimes dictate the type of completion to be used. For
example, if calculations show that 5-1/2 in. or 7-in. tubing is required, it is safe to assume
that a single completion will be run due t space limitations. Likewise, deliverability
calculations may show the need for artificial lift, and the completion can be designed
accordingly.
3.2.3 Tubing-Casing Configuration
Tubing-casing configuration refers to the relationship between the tubing, the casing, and
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the productive zone. One aspect of this relationship is covered in Chapter 2, “Types of
Well Completions”, where open-hole versus cased-hole completions are discussed. In
addition to this, questions such as whether the tubing is to be run open-ended or with a
packer and where the tubing will be set relative to the reservoir need to be answered. This
is particularly important in wells that could be candidates for a PBR (polished bore
receptacle) completion, since the PBR needs to be run with the casing or liner and hence
becomes part of the drilling program.
3.2.4 Completion Equipment
Once the tubing string has been designed and the tubing-casing configuration established, it
is necessary to specify the remaining pieces of completion equipment which will be
required. The downhole completion equipment is run for the following basic reasons :
• To improve flow performance (packer, gas-lift mandrels, pump seating nipple)
• To increase the safety of the completion (packers, subsurface safety valves, flow
couplings)
• To increase completion flexibility (landing nipples, communication devices)
3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING COMPLETION DESIGN
This subject is a review of the primary factors which can affect the completion design. The
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material is broken down into the following categories :
• Reservoir Properties
• Production Requirements
• Future Operations
• Intangibles
Specific items within each category are discussed below.
3.3.1 Reservoir Properties
One of the major determining factors in completion design is the reservoir itself. The
characteristics of the produced fluids influences the type of completion that will be
necessary for safe and efficient operations. For example, the completion will certainly be
different for a 3,000 ft low pressure oil well than for a 25,000 ft high pressure sour gas
well. Some individual reservoir parameters which affect the completion design are :
• Pressure - Pressure sets a minimum strength requirement for the tubular goods. Thus,
design of the tubing string is begun by selecting weights and grades of tubing (for a
given size) that will satisfy wellbore pressure requirements.
• Temperature - The reservoir temperature affects the selection of materials for the
completion. For example, special elastomers for the packer seals are required in very
high temperature wells. Temperature also plays a role in the nature and rate of
corrosion problems.
• Depth - The depth of the well influences many areas of the completion design. One
influence is the strength of materials (pipe and connections) necessary to withstand the
tensile forces of a long tubular string suspended from the surface. The ability to do
wireline operations also decreases quickly beyond a certain depth. The ability to work
over a well, with coiled tubing in particular, is also limited by depth.
• Deviation – The wellbore deviation plays a critical role in determining the amount of
downhole manipulation of packers and completion (i.e., wireline) equipment that can
be obtained. Thus, in highly deviated wells, the completion equipment should be
designed to require as little manipulation as possible.
• kh - The kh of the well, its permeability thickness product, is a partial measure of the
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well’s flow capability. Taken in conjunction with the reservoir pressure, kh can be
used to estimate the volume of fluids that could be produced through different sizes of
tubing. These fluid volume estimates are a primary input to tubing string design.
• Corrosiveness - The corrosive nature of the fluids impacts both material selection and
the need for chemical corrosion inhibition.
• Reserves - The expected lifetime of the well is important to the completion design
because it influences the amount of durability and reliability which needs to be built
into the completion. In addition, the amount of money spent on a completion is
sometimes influenced by the amount of recoverable reserves, especially when the
reserves are limited.
3.3.2 Production Requirements
Production requirements are dictated by sales contracts or surface facilities considerations

can sometimes be important to the overall well completion. Some of these considerations
(rate, pressure, temperature) are discussed below.
• Rate - The required production rate influences the size of the tubulars needed. The
production rate is normally governed by the reservoir deliverability. However,
occasionally a required rate will be dictated by an outside factor such as sales
contracts or processing plant requirements.
• Flowing Wellhead Pressure (FWHP) - Sometimes a minimum FWHP will be set for
a well. For example, the pressure limit can be the pressure necessary to flow the
produced fluids through the pipeline without compression or it can be the working
pressure of the first stage separator. The tubular program and/or artificial lift program
is then designed to meet such requirements.
• Flowing Wellhead Temperature (FWHT) -While not usually an important factor in

determining the completion design, FWHT can become important for wells which
have paraffin or asphaltene deposition problems. For these wells, maintenance of a
high FWHT may prevent the deposition from occurring, thereby alleviating the need
for other types of corrective action.
3.3.3 Future Operations
In addition to reservoir and production requirements, a host of future operations need to be

considered. The future operations that are deemed important will strongly depend on local
factors. Presented below are a few of the more universal considerations accounted for in
most producing areas of the world.
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• Production Trends - The completion may need to account for possible increases in
the gas/oil or water/oil ratio over a period of time. Declining reservoir pressure is
another important consideration. Knowledge of the reservoir drive mechanism and the
well’s location within the structure can sometimes give clues to possible future trends.
• Secondary Recovery - Wells initially completed for production of warm oil or gas
may be subjected to injection of cool fluids in enhanced recovery operations. In many
cases a standard completion suitable for production will not be acceptable for
injection. However, careful planning can sometimes result in a completion suitable
for both, eliminating the need for a workover to convert from a production to an
injection mode.
• Stimulation - Consideration must be given to possible stimulation operations and

attendant completion requirements. For example, the following questions should be
asked :
1. What are the pressure requirements of the job?
2. Are the various pieces of the downhole assembly compatible with

injection?
3. Is the perforated interval suitable for stimulation?
The completion must be designed to satisfactorily meet these questions.
• Sand Control - The need for sand control should be assessed during the initial
completion design. This is particularly true if (a) a tubingless completion is being
considered, or (b) the sand producing zone is the upper zone of a dual completion. In
the former, mechanical sand control efforts have proven to be unsuccessful due to the
very small clearances between tubing and screen. In the latter case, sand production
from the upper zone of a conventional dual completion can result in sand fill around
the tubing, causing it to become stuck In the hole.
3.3.4 Intangibles
Other factors affecting completion design must be taken into account which do not fit into
rigidly defined categories. These include :
• Safety - The proposed well completion must be safe so that people’s lives are not
endangered. It must also be able to protect the environment from damage in case of
loss of control of the well. Great care must be exercised in completion efforts for
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wells containing H2S, since this gas is extremely poisonous in even small quantities.
The method by which the well is perforated needs to be thoroughly reviewed to ensure
a safe operation throughout.
• Well Location - The well location can affect the completion design in a number of
ways.
Remote locations often result in high workover costs due to logistical problems of
mobilizing a rig, materials, etc. When this is the case, the completion is usually designed to
minimize future planned workovers.
Populated areas usually dictate that extra safety precautions be taken. This includes
installation of a subsurface safety valve and redundancy in the wellhead master valve
arrangement.
Finally, offshore wells have their own special design considerations. Workover costs tend
to be high and government regulations as well as prudent operating practices require the use
of subsurface safety valves. Equipment reliability therefore becomes an important factor in
offshore well completion design.
• Local Personnel – Local experience can sometimes be an important factor in

completion design. The degree to which local service companies are able to perform
certain operations (concentric workovers, complex dual gravel packs) may influence
the completion design.
3.4 COMPLETION DESIGN PROCEDURE
A summary of the main tasks which need to be performed when designing a completion
(see completion schematic, Figure 1) is given below. This list is not intended to cover
every detail of completion design but rather to highlight major points which must be
completed.
The major tasks to be performed are to :
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• Size Tubing
• Select Packer
• Calculate Tubing Loads
• Select Completion Equipment
• Specify Perforating Technique
• Allow for Artificial Lift, if required
• Provide Ability to Perform Future Workovers
3.4.1 Size Tubing
The first task is to size the tubing string for its production requirements. Tubing is sized by
calculating possible production rates and wellhead pressures for different sized tubing
strings and then selecting the size that best meets the production requirements. This step
must be done first because the rest of the well, from the casing program down to the size of
the landing nipples, will be affected by the tubing size chosen.
3.4.2 Select Packer
The next step is to decide whether to use a packer and, if so, what type. Basically, there are
three broad choices for a packer :
• Permanent -set on wireline and removed from the hole by milling operations
• Retrievable – set on tubing and designed to be retrieved with the tubing string
• Polished Bore Receptable (PBR) – a specially honed sealing nipple run as part of the
casing string or liner
In general, permanent packers are typically run in deep wells, wells which produce
corrosive fluids, and wells with very high pressure. Retrievable packers have been used in
shallow wells, gas lift wells, and in injection wells such as water flooding and steam
injection.
The PBR eliminates the need for a permanent packer but permanently fixes the sealing
location for the tubing within the wellbore.
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Figure 1. Typical Completion Schematic

3.4.3 Calculate Tubing Loads
After the tubing size is determined and a packer tentatively selected, the forces acting on
the proposed completion are calculated. In general, the static loads existing during initial
completion are calculated first. Then the loads created by production and/or stimulation are
calculated. If the calculated loads are excessive, the completion design is modified to
reduce the loads to acceptable levels. Tubing loads and movements are covered in detail in
Chapter 6, “Tubulars”.
3.4.4 Specify Completion Equipment
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The completion equipment for the well should be specified early in the design process,
especially if special materials are to be used. A standard completion usually includes, in
addition to a packer, one or more landing nipples, a wireline re-entry guide, and possibly a
sliding sleeve or side-pocket mandrel. Chapter 22, “Wireline Operations” will explain
completion equipment in greater detail.
3.4.5 Select Perforating Technique
The completion design should be compatible with the perforating method selected. In
general there are three basic perforating options available, namely :
• With through-tubing guns, underbalanced
• With casing sized guns, overbalanced
• With tubing-conveyed guns, underbalanced.
With the first choice, the completion must be designed with sufficient dimensions to allow
passage of the perforating gun.
No special completion arrangements are required for the second choice, perforating with
casing guns. Caution must be taken, however, to ensure an adequate fluid density in the
hole during the perforating process.
Tubing-conveyed perforating guns (the third option) are a relatively new development
which attempt to combine the advantages of perforating with differential pressure into the
wellbore (“underbalanced”) while using large perforating guns (as in overbalanced
perforating).
This is accomplished by connecting large perforating guns to the bottom of the tubing
string, below the packer. Then, the guns are fired by a detonating bar or by some other
means. Because production commences as soon as the well is perforated, the bottom-hole
perforating assembly must not interfere with planned future workovers. It is the
responsibility of the completion engineer to ensure compatibility between this perforating
method and future operations.
3.4.6 Consider Artificial Lift
If artificial lift is deemed necessary, either upon initial completion or at some future date,
then the completion needs to be designed accordingly. Check to see that :
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• The tubing string provides optimum deliverability,
• The tubing/casing configuration is suitable for the chosen artificial lift method, and
• The artificial lift operation will not interfere with other planned operations in the well.
3.4.7 Allow For Stimulation
When stimulation treatments are possible, the completion engineer must :
• Check pressure limitations of completion equipment and tubular goods and compare
with proposed treating pressures,
• Minimize fluid diversion problems by careful selection of the perforated interval and
the perforation shot density,
• Check tubular movement during stimulation treatment.
3.4.8 Provide Ease of Workovers
Finally, the completion needs to be designed with an eye towards simplifying future
workover operations. This can be done by :
• Providing as large a through-tubing bore as possible,
• Using packers with simple, straight pick-up releasing mechanisms,
• Careful attention to the number of holes shot while perforating,
• Using quality equipment throughout.
It is a good idea to design the completion so that as many types of workovers as possible
may be accomplished using concentric techniques. For example, in a well with many zones
that are to be sequentially squeezed and reperforated by using concentric methods only.
This saves the cost of a full workover rig and eliminates the risks associated with
conventional workovers.
The completion should be designed to facilitate well killing operations, should a

conventional workover be required. For high pressure gas wells this can be a problem,
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especially if large tubular goods are involved. One way to improve the well killing
operation, especially for gas wells, is to set the packer close to the perforations. Another
possibility is to provide a means for setting a plug in the packer before pulling the tubing.
3.5 INHOUSE COMPUTER PROGRAM USED TO AID IN WELL DESIGN
PCSB has purchased a suite of programs called Flosytem which was developed by
Edinburgh Petroleum Services Limited to aid the petroleum engineer in the optimisation,
design and diagnosis of oil wells and production systems.
This software, which consists of three programs : WellFlo (including an optional gas lift
section), WellFlo-ESP and FieldFlo. WellFlo is a single well Nodal Analysis program
which models natural producers, injectors and, optionally, gas-lifted wells; WellFlo-ESP
adds the option to model Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) lifted wells. FieldFlo is a
network model specifically written to optimise the allocation of gas to gas lifted oil wells in
complex networks.
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WellFlo supports a range of PVT, IPR, Vertical Lift, Temperature and Choke correlations
and models. It can be used in two main modes:
(i) to find the operating point (i.e. production rate) of a well or system,
or
(ii) to find the pressure drop along a well or pipeline
In both modes of operation, a wide range of sensitivity variables can be used to study
different “what-if” cases. Graphs can be made of results of these calculations. A gas lift
option is available which includes a design facility for the positioning of unloading and
orifice valves.
FieldFlo takes as a starting point the individual well performance curves generated by
WellFlo. You define the network of wells and manifolds, and used WellFlo again, to
describe the pipelines connecting them. Then, a series o f calculations can be made in order
to calculate the optimum lift gas distribution for your field, and to predict its production.
The calculation takes into account the pressure drop along pipelines, and the mixture of
wells: non-lifted, naturally flowing but gas lifted, wells required minimum gas, electrically
pumped wells and gas wells.
Both WellFlo and FieldFlo operate under the Microsoft Windows, Windows 95, Windows
NT and UNIX environments. The custodian for the package of programs is DPE.
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COMPLETION PRIMARY CEMENTING Page 1 of 48
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 4
PRIMARY CEMENTING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 4
4.1.1 Purpose of Chapter …………………………………………………... 4

4.1.2 Functions of Primary Cementing ……………………………...……. 4
4.1.3 Problems Caused By Inadequate Primary Cementing ……………… 4
4.2 CEMENT FUNDAMENTALS ……………………………………………………. 6
4.2.1 History of Portland Cement ………………………………………… 6

4.2.2 Manufacture of Portland Cement …………………………………… 6
4.2.3 Components of Portland Cement ...…………………………………. 6
4.2.4 API Cement Classes ……………………………………...…………. 7
4.2.5 Cement Setting Process ……………………………………………... 7
4.2.6 Effect of Temperature 8
4.2.7 ……………………………………………….. 8
Effect of Pressure ……………………………………………………
4.3 CEMENT PROPERTIES …………...……………………………………………. 10
4.3.1 Thickening Time ………………………...………………………….. 10

4.3.2 Fluid-Loss Rate ……………………………………………...……… 11
4.3.3 Density ……………………………………………………………… 12
4.3.4 Free Water …………………………………………………………... 12
4.3.5 Rheology ……………………………………………………………. 12
4.3.6 Compressive Strength ………………………………………………. 13
4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN ………….…………………………….. 15
4.4.1 Chemical Environment ………………………………...……………. 15

4.4.2 Bottom Hole Static Temperature ……………………………………. 15
4.4.3 Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature ……………………………… 16
4.4.4 Formation Integrity …………………………………………………. 17
4.4.5 Pore Pressures ……………...……………………………………….. 17
4.4.6 Formation Permeability ……………………………...……………… 17
4.4.7 Hole Geometry ……………………………………………………… 18
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4.5 EXAMPLE : SELECTION OF API CEMENTING SCHEDULE …....………... 19
4.6 CEMENT SLURRY DESIGN ……………………………………………………. 20
4.6.1 Introduction ………………………………...……………………….. 20

4.6.2 Neat Cement Slurries ……………………………………………….. 20
4.6.3 Cement Additives …………………………………………………… 20
4.6.4 Water Requirements ………………………………………………… 21
4.6.5 Accelerators …………………………………………………………. 21
4.6.6 Retarders …………………………………………………………….. 23
4.6.7 Fluid-Loss Additives ………………………………………………... 23
4.6.8 Additives To Decrease Density ……………………………………... 24
4.6.9 Additives To Increase Density ……………………………………… 25
4.6.10 Dispersants ………………………………………………………….. 25
4.6.11 Silica ………………………………………………………………… 26
4.6.12 Defoamers 27
4.6.13 …………………………………………………………… 27
4.6.14 Sodium Chloride ……………………………………………………. 27
Lost Circulation Materials …………………………………………...
4.7 EXAMPLE : DENSITY AND YIELD OF 8% BENTONITE SLURRY ..……... 28
4.8 CEMENTING EQUIPMENT …………………………………………..……….... 30
4.8.1 Guide Shoe ………………………………………...………………... 30

4.8.2 Float Equipment …………………………………………………….. 30
4.8.3 Wiper Plugs …………………………………………………………. 31
4.8.4 Centralizers ………………………………………………………….. 32
4.8.5 Scratchers …………………………………………………………… 33
4.8.6 Bulk Units …………………………………………………………... 34
4.8.7 Mixers ………………………………………………………………. 34
4.8.8 Pumping Units ………………………………………………………. 36
4.8.9 Densitometers ……………………………………………………….. 36
4.8.10 Cementing Heads …………………………………………………… 36
4.9 PLANNING A PRIMARY CEMENT JOB ………………………………..……. 38
4.9.1 Government Regulations ……………………………………………. 38

4.9.2 Cement Volume Requirements ……………………………………... 38
4.9.3 Specifying A Slurry …………………………………………………. 38
4.9.4 Cement Testing ……………………………………………………... 39
4.9.5 Spacer Fluids ………………………………………………………... 39
4.9.6 Displacing Fluids ..…………………………………………………. 40
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4.10 PRIMARY CEMENTING OPERATIONS .………………………………...…… 41
4.10.1 Preparing The Casing Surface ………………………………………. 41

4.10.2 Mud Conditioning ………………………...………………………… 41
4.10.3 Running Casing ……………………………………………..……… 41
4.10.4 Mud Displacement ………………………………………………….. 41
4.10.5 Casing Movement …………………………………………………... 42
4.10.6 Pumping Rate ……………………………………………………….. 42
4.10.7 Pressure Considerations …………………………………………….. 42
4.10.8 Displacement Volume ………………………………………………. 43
4.10.9 After-Cementing Considerations ……………………………………. 43
4.10.10 Waiting-On-Cement Time ………………………………………….. 43
4.11 ANNULAR FLUID MIGRATION ………...………………………………...…… 44
4.11.1 Problems Caused By AFM …………………………………...…….. 44

4.11.2 Pressure Reduction In Cement …………………………………...…. 44
4.11.3 Conducive Conditions ………………………………………………. 45
4.11.4 Prevention Procedures ………………………………………………. 46
4.11.5 Repair Technique …………………………………………………… 46
4.12 SPECIAL PRIMARY CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS ….…………...…… 47
4.12.1 Cementing Liners …………………………………………………… 47

4.12.2 Cementing Deviated Wells ………………………………………….. 47
4.12.3 Stage Cementing ……………………………………………………. 48
4.12.4 Cementing Multiple Strings ………………………………………… 48
4.1 INTRODUCTION
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4.1.1 Purpose of Chapter
The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of
• the properties and behavior of well cements and
• the primary cementing process
An understanding of the properties and behavior of well cements is important because

cement is used in a number of well completion and workover operations. These operations
include primary cementing of the production casing, repairing channels behind casing,
plugging perforations, fixing casing leaks and plugging the well for abandonment. This
section reviews cement fundamentals, cement properties, factors that affect cement
properties, and basic cement slurry design.
An understanding of the primary cementing process is also important for

completion/workover personnel. For most wells, communication with the pay zone is
through perforations that penetrate the cement sheath. By studying the primary cementing
process, production personnel can better understand how the cement sheath affects
completion, stimulation, and workover operations. The subjects covered include cementing
equipment, planning, primary cementing operations, annular fluid migration, and special
primary cementing considerations.
4.1.2 Functions of Primary Cementing
Primary cementing is the process of placing cement in the annulus between the casing and
the formation. This cement sheath serves a number of functions :
• It seals the annulus isolating the different fluid bearing zones the borehole has
penetrated.
• It mechanically supports the casing and helps prevent the casing from buckling.
• It helps protect the casing from external corrosion.
4.1.3 Problems Caused By Inadequate Primary Cementing
There are a number of problems that are associated with inadequate primary cementing.
These include :
• Production of unwanted fluid
• Interzonal flow through the annulus
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• Annular flow to surface
• Formation damage
• Casing buckling
• Casing leaks
4.2 CEMENT FUNDAMENTALS
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4.2.1 History of Portland Cement
Although cementitious materials have been used since ancient times, the invention of
modern Portland cement is usually attributed to Joseph Aspdin, an Englishman, who filed a
patent for Portland cement in 1824. He called it “Portland” cement because it resembled
the limestone quarried in Portland, England.
4.2.2 Manufacture of Portland Cement
Portland cement is manufactured with materials and methods that have changed little since
Aspdin’s time. The material is prepared by sintering fixed proportions of calcium
containing materials (limestone, chalk, seashells) with aluminosilicates clays) in a kiln at
2600-2800°F (1425-1535°C). The resulting material, clinker, is then cooled and
interground with gypsum, a commonly occurring mineral, to form a powder called Portland
cement. Small percentages of other substances, such as sand, bauxite or iron ore are
sometimes used in the kiln feed to adjust the properties of the clinker.
4.2.3 Components of Portland Cement
Portland cement consists primarily of the four chemical compounds shown in Table 1. All
grades or classes of Portland cement contain these four compounds. However, the relative
percentages of the compounds can vary, depending on the feed materials in the
manufacturing process. The relative percentages of these compounds along with the grind
of the cement have been found to strongly affect the cement performance.
Table I
Principal Components of Portland Cement
Compound Formula Standard Typical % (Wt)

Designation
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO•SiO2 C3S 50%

Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO•SiO2 C2S 25%
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO•Al2O3 C3A 10%
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite 4CaO•Al2O3•Fe2O3 C4AF 10%
Other Oxides 5%
4.2.4 API Cement Classes
Specifications for cements used in oil-well applications have been written by the American
Petroleum Institute (API). These specifications are found in “API Specifications for
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Materials and Testing for Well Cements”, (API Spec 10).
There are nine API cement classes. Table II provided a summary of the chemical
composition, grind and special properties of some of these API cements. (Class J is a
special non-Portland cement). Most oil-field operations use Class A, C, G, or H. A
description of the intended use of these different cements can be found in API Spec 10.
Table II
API Cement Classes
API Compounds, Typical % Fineness Special

Class C3S C2S C3S C3S Sq m/kg Properties
A 53 24 8 8 150-190 Common Portland

B 47 32 3 12 150-190 Common Portland
Sulfate Resistant
C 70 10 3 13 200-240 High Early Strength
Lighter Weight
D 26 54 2 12 110-15- Retarded
G 50 30 5 12 140-160 Basic Oil Well
West Coast/Outside USA
H 50 30 5 12 120-140 Basic Oil Well
Gulf Coast/Mid Continent
J - - - - - High Temperature
4.2.5 Cement Setting Process
When water is added to Portland cement, a chemical reaction (hydration) takes place that
eventually causes the cement particles to bond together to form an impermeable, hard, rock-
like material. The strength and impermeability of the cement is due to the formation of a
dense network of interlocking fibers (see Figure 1).
Two of the byproducts of the cement hydration reaction are calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
crystals and heat. The Ca(OH)2 crystals cause the cement to be very basic (high pH).
Because of this a cement sheath will provide corrosion protection for the steel casing.
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PASTES OF PORTLAND CEMENT appear in scanning electron micrographs made at various stages of hydration, that is, at various
times after water was mixed with the cement. After two hours (1) the initial gel coatings are visible around the cement grains. After
a month (2) the fibrils are evident, as are large platelike crystals of calcium hydroxide. Detail of same sample (3) shows the
interlocking fibers.
Figure 1. Setting of Portland Cement
The heat given off during the hydration reaction is sometimes used to detect the top of
cement by temperature logging. The time at which the slurry achieves its maximum
temperature depends on the particular slurry and its curing conditions, but generally is
between 3 and 12 hours.
4.2.6 Effect of Temperature
Temperature is perhaps the most important factor that affects the performance of cement in
a well. As with most chemical reactions, the hydration of cement is accelerated by
increasing temperature. This effect is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows the effect of
temperature on the thickening time of the cement. The thickening time is the length of time
necessary for the cement to reach a certain viscosity in a standard measuring device and is a
measure of the rate of hydration. Figure 2 shows that, as the temperature increases, the
thickening time decreases, indicating that the hydration reaction rate has increased.
4.2.7 Effect of Pressure
The effect of pressure on the thickening time of a Class H slurry is shown in Figure 3.
Generally above 5000 psi, increasing pressure increases the rate of reaction and thus
decreases the thickening time. The effect of pressure, however, is not as significant as the
effect of temperature.
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Figure 2. Effect of temperature thickening time of various API cements

4
at atmospheric pressure
Figure 3. Effect of pressure on thickening time
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4.3 CEMENT PROPERTIES
Cement has a number of measurable properties that can be used to predict its performance
in a well.
4.3.1 Thickening Time
Perhaps the most important property of a cement slurry for well applications is its
thickening time. The thickening time provides an indication of the length of time the slurry
will remain pumpable. A thickening time that is too short can result in the cement setting
inside the casing, tubing or drill pipe with severe economic consequences. A thickening
time that is too long, on the other hand, can necessitate an unduly long and costly delay
waiting for the cement to set.
The API defines the thickening time of a cement slurry to be the time required for the slurry
to reach 100 Bearden units of consistency (Bc), using the methods of API Spec 10. One
hundred Bearden units of consistency is roughly equivalent to a viscosity of 100 poise.
Cement is considered to be unpumpable at this viscosity.
The thickening time is measured in a device called a consistometer. Consistometers are

designed so that the consistency of the cement slurry can be continually monitored while
the cement is subjected to a temperature, shear, and pressure history that simulates what the
cement will see as it is pumped downhole.
Since the thickening time depends not only on the slurry being tested, but also on the
simulated downhole conditions, it is important to simulate these conditions as accurately as
possible. The API has published a series of cementing schedules, based on field
measurements that can be used to simulate the downhole conditions for many wells. There
are different API scheduled, depending on the type of job (casing, liner or squeeze), well
depth, and the bottom hole static temperature.
The API schedules have proven to be accurate and reliable over many years. However,
there are certain situations where the API cementing schedules may not be appropriate. If
unusual temperature conditions are encountered, such as geothermal gradients outside the
0.9-1.9°F/100 ft API range, highly deviated wells or offshore cementing through long risers,
it may be necessary to develop a cement-testing schedule using computer simulation.
The thickening time of a cement slurry is generally selected to be equal to the job time plus
a safety factor. The job time is the estimated time required to mix the slurry and pump it
into place. Usual practice is to employ a 50-100% safety factor, depending on the type of
job and the experience in the area. Through the use of the appropriate additives (see
Subject 4.6), well cement slurries have been designed with thickening times as short as 60
minutes or as long as 12 hours.
4.3.2 Fluid-Loss Rate
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The rate at which a cement slurry loses water through a permeable barrier when a
differential pressure is imposed is referred to as filtration rate fluid-loss rate. The water lost
is the water that does not take part in the chemical reaction, that is, the water required for
slurry fluidity.
When this water is lost, the slurry viscosity increases, and the slurry loses its fluidity. In
addition, as water is lost, the concentration of the cement particles increases. This may
result in the formation of cement bridges in areas of narrow clearance.
Thus, control of the fluid-loss rate of a slurry is necessary when :
• Cementing past very permeable intervals
• Cementing through narrow clearances (for example, liners)
• Squeeze cementing perforations or channels
Because the water lost is that used to maintain slurry fluidity, there is still sufficient water
to complete the hydration reaction. In fact, because the cement particles are closer together,
the strength of a slurry that has lost water is greater than the strength of the parent slurry
(that is, the slurry that did not lose any water).
Testing procedures for fluid loss rates are given in API Spec 10. There are two types of
tests: (1) low temperature/low pressure (LT/LP) and (2) the well-simulation or high
temperature/high pressure (HT/HP). While the LT/LP test is more convenient than the
HT/HP test, research has shown that the LT/LP test may give misleading results. Therefore
the HT/HP tests should be used to determine fluid-loss rates for cement slurries.
The HT/HP fluid-loss rate of a neat cement slurry (i.e. just cement and water) is on the
order of 1000-2000 cc/30 min. However, through the use of certain additives (see Subject
4.6), the fluid-loss rate can be adjusted to lower values. Table III presents some general
fluid loss guidelines for different cementing operations. Additional discussion of fluid loss
rate can be found in the Remedial Cementing Chapter (Section 21.2).
Table III
Guidelines for Cement Slurry Fluid-Loss Rates
Operation HT/HP Fluid-Loss Rate

(cc/30 min.)
Casing Cementing 300-450
(past high permeability formations)
Liner Cementing 100
Squeeze Perforations, Repair Channels 50
4.3.3 Density
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The density of a cement slurry is important for well control and the prevention of lost
circulation while cementing. Density is also a useful field monitor of whether or not the
slurry has been mixed with the designed water requirement. With the appropriate additives
(see Section 4.6), cement slurries can be designed with densities ranging from about 8 ppg
to about 20 ppg.
Procedures and equipment for density measurement are described in API Spec 10. Methods
using both a pressurized and unpressurized mud balance are presented. Because cement
slurries often contain entrapped air, the pressurized mud balance provides a more accurate
measurement. Errors of 1-2 ppg may occur using the unpressurized balance.
In the field, in-line radioactive densitometers are often used to monitor density as the job is
pumped. These are discussed in Section 4.8.
4.3.4 Free Water
The water added to the dry bulk cement is used both as a reactant in the hydration reaction
and to provide fluidity to the slurry. When properly mixed, about 2/3 of the water is
involved in the chemical reaction while 1/3 provides fluidity. All of the water in a properly
mixed slurry, however, is either bound to the cement particles by chemical bonds or loosely
attracted to the cement particles to form a stable suspension. If excess water is added, the
cement particles will settle, leaving a layer of free water above the suspension.
Excessive cement free water may lead to the formation of water pockets in a well,
especially on the high side of deviated wells. Also, since excessive free water indicates
solids settling, it may result in difficulty in mixing and displacing the slurry.
Procedures for determining the free water content of a cement slurry have been specified by
the API. There are two types of tests : a specification test conducted at 80°F and a new
(tentative) operating free water test conducted under downhole conditions. Under the API
specification procedure, the maximum allowable free water is 1.4% (3.5 ml water from 250
ml of cement). For critical wells PCSB guidelines recommend a free water content less
than 1%. Guidelines for the operating test have not yet been established.
4.3.5 Rheology
The rheology of cement is complicated because the hydration reaction causes the structure
of the material to change with time. In addition, the correct interpretation of laboratory
rheological data is complicated by wall slip phenomenon and difficulty in simulating
downhole temperature and pressures. Furthermore, because fluid loss can drastically alter
cement rheology, predictions based on laboratory - measured cement rheology may be
inaccurate.
The API has specified a procedure for the determination of cement rheological properties
using a rotational viscometer. However, because of the limitations cited above, predictions
based on cement slurry viscometric data should be used with care.
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Perhaps the best general indication of the rheological behavior of a cement slurry can be
obtained from the consistency readings during the free water test. The API has designated
11 Bc as the normal water content and 30 Bc as the minimum water content at the end of a
20-min. stirring period in an atmospheric consistometer. For critical wells PCSB
recommends 11± 2 Bc.
4.3.6 Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of set cement is the stress required to cause failure of the cement
under a uniaxial compressive load. Figure 4 shows the compressive strength development
for a class A cement. The rate of strength development depends on the type of cement, the
type and concentration of additives and the curing temperature. However, 75-80% of the
ultimate compressive strength is generally achieved within 3 days.
Figure 4. Compressive Strength Development
Compressive strength data are used for
• Establishing waiting-on-cement time,
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• Determining optimum time to perforate, and
• Monitoring the stability of the set cement.
After cement has been pumped into the annulus, it must obtain sufficient strength so that
further operations will not damage the cement sheath. Although the loadings placed on the
cement downhole are not necessarily uniaxial compressive loads, the compressive strength
has been found to be a convenient indirect measure of the ability of the cement to withstand
these loads.
The industry has generally accepted a value of 500 psi as the minimum required
compressive strength before further drilling operations can commence. Tests have shown
that a cement sheath with 500 psi can easily support the weight of the casing, even under
rather poor bonding conditions4.
Similarly, laboratory experiments indicate that a well should not be perforated until the
cement has achieved at least 2000 psi compressive strength. Above this value, the tests
indicate that perforating does not damage the cement bond.
Compressive strength data are also used, in some cases, to monitor the long-term
performance of the cement. This is especially important when the cement will be exposed
to temperature above 250°F, thermal cycling or other unusual downhole conditions (e.g.
acid gases).
The API testing procedures for determining compressive strength are given in API Spec 10.
These tests use conventional compressive strength testing equipment. An Ultrasonic
Cement Analyzer (UCA) is also available for making non-destructive compressive strength
measurements. The UCA is based on measurement of the travel time of ultrasonic waves
pulsed through a cement sample. While the UCA provides a useful time history of strength
development, the actual values of compressive strength predicted by the UCA may not
agree with conventional crush tests, especially for non-standard slurries. Therefore
compressive strength values obtained from the UCA should be used with caution.
4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN
A number of factors influence the design of a primary or remedial cement job. The
chemical environment and physical parameters such as bottom-hole temperature, formation
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integrity, pore pressures, formation permeability, and hole geometry all influence the
behavior of the cement as it is pumped into place and as it solidifies.
4.4.1 Chemical Environment
The parameters which make up the chemical environment of the cement include :
• Mix water
• Wellbore Fluids
• Formation Types
• Formation Fluids
Since the cement setting process is a chemical reaction, these factors may affect the
behavior of the cement slurry and will sometimes even affect the properties of the cured
cement. For example, inorganic salts in the mix water or formation may accelerate the
cement set. The chemical composition of substances that will contact the cement should be
kept in mind when designing the cement slurry and when planning the cementing operation.
4.4.2 Bottom-hole Static Temperature
The bottom-hole static temperature (BHST) is one of the most important parameters to
establish when designing a cement job. It is important for two reasons :
• The bottom-hole static temperature is often used to help estimate the temperature
history that the cement will see as it is pumped into place. The temperature history
strongly affects the thickening time of the cement.
• The bottom-hole static temperature is usually the maximum temperature the cement
will see during its lifetime. This temperature affects the rate at which the cement
gains compressive strength. Also, if this temperature exceeds 250°F, silica should be
added to the slurry to prevent long term strength retrogression (see Section 4.6).
The bottom-hole static temperature can be determined by :
• Direct measurement in offset wells
• Estimation from logging temperatures
• Knowledge of the local geothermal gradient
The direct measurement of BHST from nearby offset wells is probably the most accurate
method.
If direct measurements are not available, the BHST can be estimated by using an empirical
correlation of static temperature with logging temperatures. Tables are available from
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cementing companies for converting logging temperatures to static temperatures. This

method is generally most accurate for logging temperatures taken 3-4 hours after circulation
is stopped.
Another, perhaps more accurate method for estimating BHST is to use a Horner-plot-type
method in which temperature is plotted in a manner similar to a pressure buildup analysis.
This method, however, requires at least two separate logging temperatures.
4.4.3 Bottom-hole Circulating Temperature
When designing a cement slurry, the bottom-hole circulating temperature (BHCT) is

considered to be the temperature of an element of cement as it reaches the bottom of the
hole. The BHCT will usually be less than the BHST because the inlet temperature of the
cement at the surface is usually less than the BHST. For testing, the BHCT is taken to
represent the highest temperature the slurry will see as it is pumped into place. The API
thickening time testing procedure calls for holding the slurry at the BHCT after it has been
brought up to temperature according to the appropriate schedule.
There are two methods for determining the slurry temperature history :
• API Cementing Schedules and
• Computer Simulation
To use the API Cementing Schedules, it is necessary to know only the type of job (casing,
liner or squeeze), the well depth, and the BHST. The job type and well depth are used to
select the appropriate schedule type. The BHST is used to calculate the temperature
gradient from
T. Grad. = (BHST-80) ÷ (Depth/100 ft) (Eng.)

= (BHST-27) ÷ (Depth/100 m) (Metric)
Once the temperature gradient is known, the particular schedule for that gradient can be
identified (See 4.6 for an example). The BHCT is the highest (final) temperature for that
gradient.
As mentioned earlier, for unusual conditions such as highly deviated wells or offshore
cementing through long risers, it may be necessary to use computer simulation to develop a
cement testing schedule.
To determine the BHCT using computer simulation, significantly more information is

required than for the API method.
4.4.4 Formation Integrity
Another fundamental consideration is designing a cement job is formation integrity. The
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breakdown fracture pressure (often expressed as a fracture pressure gradient) will limit the
density of the cement and/or the surface pumping pressure that can be used without losing
returns. Losing returns while cementing is generally undersirable because
• Since some cement is lost to the formation, the top-of-cement may not be high
enough to cover all necessary zones.
• Fracturing may cause undersired interzonal flow.
• Fracturing could expose the cement to high permeability and lead to a costly bridge-
off in the annulus.
• Cement may plug up a naturally-fractured pay zone.
Information on formation integrity can often be obtained from the Daily Drilling Reports
for the well. If returns were lost while drilling, the mud weight being used at the time
provides some indication of the formation integrity. More direct information may be
available from pressure integrity tests (PITs). In addition, formation integrity can be
estimated from offset wells or empirical formulas. For additional information see the
Fracturing Chapter (Section 17.3).
4.4.5 Pore Pressures
The pore pressures of the fluid-bearing formations also affect the design of the cement job.
The density of the cement should be such that the hydrostatic pressure exceeds the pore
pressure at all depths in the well. Generally this will be the case if the cement density
exceeds the drilling fluid density used to drill the well. However, because of the possibility
of annular fluid migration (see Section 4.11), special consideration may be necessary if
there are large differences in pore pressure between nearby zones.
4.4.6 Formation Permeability
Another factor to consider when designing a cement job is the formation permeability that
the cement may see. Long intervals of high permeability formation increase the potential
for fluid loss from the cement. This may cause high slurry viscosities leading to increased
pumping pressures and lost circulation or perhaps total loss of slurry mobility.
It should be recognized, however, that the drilling fluid filter cake or particle plugging from
the drilling fluid may reduce the permeability that the cement sees. However, any broach in
this shield (e.g. by fracturing or erosion) could lead to disaster without the appropriate
cement fluid-loss control.
4.4.7 Hole Geometry
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Hole geometry is another important factor in designing a cement job. The hole geometry
can influence the cement job in a number of ways. For example :
• The hole size, casing size, and desired top of cement will affect the volume of cement
to be pumped.
• The amount of annular clearance may affect the amount of fluid loss control required
to prevent bridging. It may also limit the pumping rate to prevent excessive friction
pressures.
• The angle of deviation may necessitate reducing the free water content of the slurry
to prevent high-side water pockets. The deviation angle may also affect the
placement of centralizers.
For many wells the hole geometry is obtained from caliper logs. In those wells where
caliper logs are not run, the size of the annulus can be roughly estimated from a fluid
caliper. In this method, the volume required to pump a marker pill (e.g. oats, carbide) down
the casing and up the annulus is monitored. The annular volume is then obtained by
subtracting the casing volume.
4.5 EXAMPLE : SELECTION OF API CEMENTING SCHEDULE
For an 8000 ft well with a BHST of 168°F :

a) What is the correct API Casing Cementing Schedule?
b) What is the BHCT?
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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Answer : a) For an 8000 ft well, the Casing Cementing Schedule to use is Schedule 5g.
(API Spec 10, Appendix E).
b) The temperature gradient is :

(168-80)/8000/100 = 1.1°F/100 ft
The maximum temperature on this schedule is 129°F. This is the BHCT.
4.6 CEMENT SLURRY DESIGN
4.6.1 Introduction
While there are a number of different API cement classes, the properties of these cements
are fairly limited. For example, when mixed with the specified percentage water, the API
cements span a density range of only 14.8 to 16.4 ppg (see Table IV).
To achieve desired slurry properties for cements used in wells, additives are usually
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required. Additives are substances added to alter the properties of the cement.
Table IV
Neat Cement Slurries
API Cement Recommended Slurry Density

Type Water/Cement Ratio (lb/gal)
(gal/sack)
A&B 5.2 15.6

C 6.3 14.8
D&E 4.3 16.4
G 5.0 15.8
H 4.3 16.4
J 4.9 15.4
4.6.2 Neat Cement Slurries
Neat cements are mixtures of cement in water containing no other component. Table IV
presents the water requirement and densities for neat API cement slurries.
4.6.3 Cement Additives
There is a wide variety of cement additives. Most cement additives are powders or granular
materials that are dry blended with the cement at the cementing service company bulk plant.
By convention, the concentration of all additives, except sodium chloride, is expressed as a

percentage of the weight of the dry cement used in mixing up the slurry. Thus, a cement
containing 0.75% Additive A contains 0.75 lbs of Additive A for every 100 lbs of dry
cement used. The concentration of sodium chloride is usually expressed as a percent by
weight of the mix water.
In remote areas, liquid additives are sometimes used. This facilitates formulating different
slurries without dry blending. Liquid additive concentration is usually expressed in gal per
sacks of cement. (A sack of cement weighs 94 lbs). Density control is very important when
using liquid additives, since variations in density can cause significant changes in the
cement to additive ratio.
4.6.4 Water Requirements
All of the API cement classes have a recommended water requirement (see Table IV). This
water requirement is based on the cement composition and grind. Too much water in a neat
cement may lead to free water break out and mixing problems. Too little water may cause
excessive viscosity and increase the rate of set.
Some cement additives also have water requirements. Table V lists the water requirements
for some common additives. More extensive information on additive water requirements is
usually available in cementing company literature.
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The water requirements of additives are in addition to the water requirement of the basic
cement. Thus a Class H slurry with 4% bentonite would require 6.9 gal of water per sack of
cement : 4.3 gal for the cement and 2.6 gal for the bentonite.
Table V
Water Requirements of Some Common Cement Additives
Additives Water Requirement

Bentonite 1.3 gal/2% in cement
Hematite 0.36 gal/100 lb sk
Silica Flour 1.6 gal/35% in cement
Gilsonite 2.0 gal/50 lb
4.6.5 Accelerators
The additive most commonly used to accelerate the set of cement is calcium chloride
(CaCl2). This compound is used in the concentration range 1 to 4%. Figure 5 shows the
effect of CaCl2 concentration on thickening time for class A cement tested with a 4000 ft
thickening time schedule (Schedule 3g).
Since CaCl2 is effective at relatively low concentrations, it is an economical additive. In

addition, the accelerating effect of CaCl2 is predictable, and it has few adverse side effects.
The presence of CaCl2 , however, will decrease the effectiveness of some fluid loss
additives.
Another additive sometimes used as an accelerator is sodium chloride (NaCl). At

concentrations below 18% (by weight of mix water), NaCl accelerates the set of cement.
At greater concentrations, however, NaCl acts as a retarder. Sodium chloride is not
compatible with most fluid loss additives. In addition it increases the tendency for slurry
foaming.
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Figure 5. Effect of CaCl2 on thickening time7
Table VI
Cement Retarders
BHCT Service Company Equivalents

Application Range, °F HB D-S BJ-T WN Notes
Low Temperature < 200 HR4 - R1 WR2 -

Low Temperature/ < 200 HR5 D13 R5 WR15 -
Dispersing
HR7
Moderate 150-250 - D120 - - -
Temperature
Moderate 180-225 Dicel D8 R6 Diacel CMHEC : Also acts as
Temperature LWL LWL a fluid-loss additive,
viscosifies slurry
High Temperature 225-400 HR12 D28 R11 WR6 -
HR15 D99 R17
HR20
High Temperature > 300 Borax D93 MHR9 WR7 Borax : Added to
enhance behavior of
high temp. retarders.
Not to be used alone.
4.6.6 Retarders
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Retarders are additives that delay the set of cement. Most commercially available retarders
are organic materials. Table VI presents a summary of the generic types of organic
retarders. Retarders are generally used in the concentration range of 0.1 to 1.0%. Since
retarders are generally composed of heat-sensitive organic molecules, particular attention
should be paid to the recommended temperature range for using the retarder. Information
on specific retarders is available from cementing company literature.
Another additive that will retard the set of cement at certain concentrations is sodium
chloride (NaCl). At concentrations greater than about 18% (by weight of mix water), NaCl
acts as a retarder. For example, the thickening time of a Class G cement increases from
about 2-1/3 hours to 3 hours as the NaCl concentration increases from 18 to 30% for an
8000 ft API casing schedule. While sodium chloride can sometimes be used as a retarder, it
has certain drawbacks. These include incompatibility with most fluid loss additives, an
increased tendency for slurry foaming, and a limited extent of retardation.
4.6.7 Fluid-Loss Additives
Fluid-loss additives are used to reduce the rate of fluid loss from the cement. There are two
basic types of fluid loss additives : polymers and bentonite.
Polymers function primarily by plugging the pore space in the cement filter cake.
Polymeric fluid loss additives
• are sensitive to temperature,
• seem to have a threshold concentration of about 0.8%,
• generally retard the slurry and
• tend to increase the viscosity of the slurry.
Bentonite functions as a fluid loss additive by decreasing the permeability of the cement
filter cake. As a fluid loss agent bentonite generally
• will result in a lower density slurry,
• will increase thickening time,
• will decrease compressive strength and
• is sensitive to mix-water salinity.
Attapulgite clay is sometimes used as a fluid-loss additive in salt-containing slurries

because it is not sensitive to the salts. Attapulgite, however, does not have the same water-
absorbing power as bentonite.
4.6.8 Additives To Decrease Density
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There are a number of additives available to lower slurry density. Table VII presents a
summary of additives to lower slurry density. These additives lower the density of the
slurry because they have a lower specific gravity than the cement, and in most cases, have a
higher water requirement than the cement.
Perhaps the most widely used additive to decrease slurry density is bentonite. Bentonite in
cement lowers density chiefly because of its high water requirement. Whereas each pound
of Class G cement requires 0.05 gal water, each pound of bentonite requires 0.69 gal water.
Thus, for example, the density of a Class G cement can be lowered from 15.8 ppg (neat) to
12.8 ppg by the addition of 12% bentonite. Because of loss of compressive strength,
bentonite is generally not used at concentrations greater than 12%.
Table VII
Additives to Lower Density
Additives Specific Gravity Water Requirement

Bentonite 2.65 1.3 gal/2%/sk cmt.
Attapulgite 2.89 1.3 gal/2%/sk cmt.
Diatomaceous Earth 2.10 3.3-7.4 gal/10%/sk cmt.
Gilsonite 1.07 2 gal/50 lb
Pozzolan 2.50 3.6-3.9 gal/74 lb
Ceramic Spheres 0.72 0.31 gal/2 lb
Glass Bubbles 0.39 0.36 gal/2 lb
Sodium Meta-silicate 2.40 3.2-12.3 gal/2-3%/sk cmt.
Foam Pressure-dependent -
When bentonite is dry blended with the cement, the high Ca+2 content of the cement
prevents full hydration of the bentonite. If bentonite is prehydrated, i.e. allowed to hydrate
in fresh water before being added to the cement, it will have a greater capacity for water.
One part by weight of bentonite prehydrated in the mix water has an effect that is
essentially equivalent to 3.6 parts by weight of bentonite dry blended with the slurry. In
other words, if the bentonite is to be prehydrated (usually 2-12 hours is sufficient) the
amount of bentonite can be reduced by the factor 3.6.
To obtain ultra lightweight slurries, ceramic spheres, glass bubbles, or foam can be used.
Although ceramic spheres and glass bubbles are relatively expensive, slurry densities as
low as 8.3 ppg can be achieved while maintaining good compressive strength properties.
However, because the spheres will crush at sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure (generally
around 4000 psi), there are density and depth limitations associated with their use.
Ultra lightweight slurries can also be achieved by incorporating air or nitrogen into the
cement as a foam. Using foam, slurry densities as low as 9 ppg can be achieved while
maintaining good strength properties in the cured cement.
4.6.9 Additives To Increase Density
For purposes of well control, it is sometimes necessary to use additives that increase slurry
density. Table VIII presents a summary of the additives commonly used to increase slurry
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density.
Table VIII
Additives to Increase Density
Additive Specific Gravity Water Requirement

Class G Cement 3.14 5.0 gal/94 lb
Barite 4.23 2.64 gal/100 lb
Hematite 5.02 0.36 gal/100 lb
Okla. # 1 Glass Sand 2.63 0
These additives generally increase the slurry density because they have a high specific
gravity and/or a low water requirement in comparison to the cement. Hematite is more
commonly used than barite because it has a higher specific gravity and a lower water
requirement. A pumpable slurry with a density as high as 20 ppg can be achieved with
hematite.
Although Oklahoma #1 sand has a lower specific gravity than cement, it can increase slurry
density (up to 17.5 ppg) because of its zero water requirement.
Since these weighting additives “dilute: the cement particles, the final strength of the set
cement will be lower than that of a neat cement. Reductions in compressive strength can be
minimized by using a reduced water content in conjunction with a dispersant. This method
is discussed further below.
4.6.10 Dispersants
Dispersants (also called thinners or turbulence inducers) are used to reduce slurry viscosity
or increase slurry density.
A reduction in slurry viscosity may sometimes be desirable to reduce friction pressures.

This may occasionally be necessary when the cement column is long, the annulus is narrow
or when the annulus might be partially obstructed. However, dispersants to thin a slurry
should be used with care. Their misuse can lead to high free water breakout and they can
affect the behavior of other additives.
Dispersants are also useful for increasing slurry density. Because dispersants thin the
slurry, when a dispersant is present a pumpable slurry can be formulated with a lower water
requirement than normally recommended for the neat cement. By adding a dispersant and
reducing the water content, slurry densities as high as 17.5 ppg can be achieved (see Table
IX) without the addition of barite or hematite.
Table IX
Use of Dispersants to Increase Class G Slurry Density
CFR-2 % (bwc) Mix Water (gal/sack) Density (lb/gal)

0 5.0 15.8
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0.75 4.0 16.7

0.75 3.78 17.0
0.75 3.38 17.5
An advantage of using this technique for increasing slurry density is that the cement
particles are not diluted. In fact, since the concentration of cement particles is increased,
the strength of the set cement will be higher than that of a neat cement.
4.6.11 Silica
On being cured at temperatures in excess of 250°F, one of the components of Portland

cement (C2S) undergoes a change in structure that results in a significant loss in
compressive strength and a significant increase in permeability. This phenomenon is called
strength retrogression.
Figure 6. Effect of silica concentration on strength retrogression8

Class A cement cured at 320°F
It has been found that the addition of 35% or more of silica can prevent this degradation
(see Fig. 6). Any silica sand finer than 100 mesh can be used. Note that the use of less than
20% silica will intensify the problem, whereas the maximum benefit is obtained at around
40%.
4.6.12 Defoamers
Excessive foam makes it difficult to maintain slurry density control and can cause other
problems, such as “air locking” of the pumps. This is often a problem in salt-containing
slurries. Chemical foam inhibitors, which minimize air entrainment and foaming, are
available. These materials can be obtained in liquid or solid form.
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With the exception of foam cements, these compounds have no known detrimental effects
on other cement properties.
4.6.13 Sodium Chloride
The use of high concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) in cement serves a useful purpose
in some primary cementing operations. Salt can function as a freezing point depressant for
cements to be used in permafrost or opposite ice lenses. In some locations salt-containing
mix water is used for reasons of logistical convenience. If salt-containing cement is used, it
should be remembered that :
• The effect of NaCl on the rate of set of cement varies according to NaCl
concentration.
• NaCl is not compatible with some fluid-loss additives.
• NaCl causes slurry foaming.
• NaCl reduces the durability of set cement.
4.6.14 Lost Circulation Materials
Additives commonly used to control lost circulation while cementing include : gilsonite,
walnut shells, coal, and cellophane flakes.
In selecting and using materials to control lost circulation, two factors should be considered :
• The material must be small enough that it can be handled by the pumping equipment.
• The formation opening must be small enough to allow the material to bridge and seal.
When lost circulation occurs in formations with large openings, e.g. vugular carbonates,
lost circulation materials are not effective. In these cases, it may be necessary to use a
thixotropic cement to seal the formation. Thixotropic cements are special cements that
develop gel strength very rapidly. Additional information can be obtained from cementing
service companies.
4.7 EXAMPLE: DENSITY AND YIELD OF 8% BENTONITE SLURRY
The following problem was selected to illustrate the principles involved in calculating
density, water requirement, and yield for a cement slurry.
For a slurry composed of Class A cement and 8% bentonite :
a. What is the water requirement?
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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b. Calculate the slurry density and yield.
This problem was worked using the Halliburton Red Book. The “Water Requirement”
Table is found in Section 230, pg.18. (1995 Edition).
Water Requirements
Class A Cement 5.2 gal/sk. cement

Bentonite 1.3 gal/2% bentonite/sk.cmt.
Water Requirement 5.2 gal
+ 5.2 gal = 8% / 2% x 1.3 gal
10.4 gal
To determine the slurry density, we use
Weight Wcement + Wadditives + Wwater

Density = =
Volume Vcement + Vadditives + Vwater
It is simplest to do all calculations based on 94 lb (1 sack) of cement.
The volume of an additive refers to its absolute volume, i.e., the volume taken up by the
additive itself (no air spaces). This number can be obtained by multiplying the absolute
volume in gal/lb times the number of pounds of the additive/sk. cmt. Values of absolute
volume can be found in the Halliburton Red Book, Section 230, pgs. 14-15.
It is sometimes easier to set this up as a table :
For our problem :
Conversion Absolute
Component Weight Factor Volume
Class A Cement 94.00 lb 0.0382 gal/lb 3.59 gal

8% Bentonite :
8 x 94/100 = 7.52 lb 0.0453 gal/lb 0.34 gal
Water 86.63 lb 8.33 lb/gal 10.40 gal
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Totals : 188.15 lb 14.33 gal
Density = 188.15/14.33 = 13.1 lb/gal

Sl. Yield = 14.23 gal/sk/7.48 gal/cu.ft.
= 1.92 cu.ft./sk.
4.8 CEMENTING EQUIPMENT
The equipment used to execute a primary cement job can be categorized into downhole
equipment and surface equipment. The downhole equipment facilitates cement placement
and can affect later completion or workover operations. The surface equipment is generally
supplied by a cementing service company. Much of the surface equipment used for primary
cementing is also used in remedial cementing operations.
4.8.1 Guide Shoe
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The guide shoe (Figure 7) is a special collar that is placed on the first joint of casing to help
direct the pipe through the hole. Cement pumped down the casing flows out of the guide
shoe and then up the annulus. The standard shoe is designed so that all the fluid flows
through the bottom of the tool, though shoes that contain additional side ports are also
available.
Figure 7. Cement Guide Shoe
4.8.2 Float Equipment
Float equipment refers to check valves that are incorporated into the casing string to prevent
U-tubing of the cement back up the casing after the job is completed. It is called float
equipment because it also allows the casing to be run into the hole partially empty, thus
increasing the buoyant force acting on the casing.
There are generally two types of check valve mechanisms used in cementing float
equipment : ball valves and flapper valves (Figure 8). Often more than one piece of float
equipment will be run in a casing string to enhance reliability through redundancy.
Sometimes a float valve will be placed in the casing shoe. It is better practice, however, to
place the float valve in a collar 1-3 joints (called float joints) above the shoe. This allows a
margin of safety to protect from over-displacement and also containment for the last portion
of cement (which tends to be contaminated from the wiping action of the top wiper plug).
If several float joints are used, sufficient rat hole must be drilled so that the float collar is
below the deepest pay zone.
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Figure 8. Cement Float Equipment
While float equipment is generally beneficial for cementing, care must be taken in running
casing containing float equipment because of the pressure surges created as the casing is
lowered. The running speed should be slow enough so that the fracture pressure of the
formation is not exceeded.
4.8.3 Wiper Plugs
Bottom and top wiper plugs (Figure 9) help prevent cement contamination by separating the
cement from the drilling and displacing fluids. The bottom plug precedes the cement slurry
down the pipe and displaces the drilling fluid. When the plug reaches the float collar or
landing collar, a diaphragm in the center of the plug ruptures and allows the slurry to pass
through. After all the cement is in the pipe, the top plug is released and is pumped down by
a displacing fluid. As it follows the slurry, it wipes any adhering mud or cement from the
casing wall. Be sure that the bottom plug with the rupturable diaphragm is used ahead of
the cement slurry. If the plugs are reversed, the cement cannot be displaced from the
casing.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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Figure 9. Wiper Plugs
4.8.4 Centralizers
A centralizer (Figure 10) is a mechanical device attached to the outside of the casing to
hold it off the wall. Laboratory experiments by a number of researchers have confirmed
that centralization is important to good mud displacement. Because fluid flow is
preferentially established along the path of least resistance, mud located on the narrow side
of an eccentric annulus is less likely to be displaced than mud on the wide side of the
annulus.
Figure 10. Casing Centralizer
Centralizer placement depends on a number of factors including the deviation angle of the
well, the location of producing zones, and the location of washouts. A typical centralizer
program for vertical wells might consist of two centralizers per joint on the bottom two
joints, two centralizers per joint through the pay zone (s), and one centralizer per every
third joint in the remainder of the well.
For deviated wells additional centralizers are usually required. Many centralizer suppliers
have computer programs for calculating centralizer placement.
While centralizers aid cement placement, they can affect perforating. Although the annular
geometry is perhaps most uniform near a centralizer, it is generally inadvisable to perforate
directly through a centralizer.
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4.8.5 Scratchers
Scratchers (Figure 11) are devices placed on the outside of the casing to aid mud
displacement by shearing the drilling mud during pipe movement.
While scratchers may help break the gel structure of the mud, they probably do not have
much effect in removing mud filter cake, especially in washed-out portions of the hole.
Although scratchers can be of benefit, centralization and pipe movement are more
important.
RECIPROCATING
Figure 11. Scratchers ROTATING
A variety of surface equipment is used to mix the cement slurry and pup it down the hole.
4.8.6 Bulk Units
On most jobs, the dry cement is transported to the well site in bulk, preblended with
additives. The bulk unit, shown in Figure 12 in a land configuration, is generally equipped
with solids storage tanks with a capacity of about 200 sacks each. Pressurized air is used to
convey the cement from the tanks to the mixing unit.
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Figure 12. Land Bulk Unit
4.8.7 Mixers
Figure 13 illustrates the three basic types of mixers used to mix the dry cement and water :
continuous, recirculating, and batch. In the continuous (or jet) mixer, dry cement is
dropped through a hopper into a jet of water. When the cement contacts the jet of water, it
forms a cement slurry, which is then transferred to the pumping unit.
A circulating mixer can produce a higher quality, more uniform slurry than the jet mixer. A
recirculating mixer is shown in Figure 13. Recirculating mixers increase the slurry
residence time between mixing and pumping, thereby providing better density control.
A batch mixer is simply a holding tank equipped with a mechanical agitator. The dry
cement, water, and additives are initially mixed by a jet mixer or recirculating mixer, and
are then transferred into the batch unit. There, final adjustments in slurry properties can be
made before the slurry is pumped into the well. Batch mixing can provide a highly uniform
slurry. Because of the longer holding time, however, batch mixing may not be feasible
where volumes are large or surface temperatures are high.
CONTINUOUS
RECIRCULATION DRILLING DEPARTMENT

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Figure 13. Types of Mixers
4.8.8 Pumping Units
A cement pumping unit (Figure 14), accommodates the pumps used to mix the slurry and to
pump it down the well. Positive displacement pumps are always used for pumping the
cement downhole. The mixing pumps are of either centrifugal or positive displacement
design, depending on the pressure requirements. The pumps are arranged in a controllable
configuration so that adjustments in pressure and output rate can be made as conditions
demand.
BATCH
Figure 14. Cementing Pumping Unit
4.8.9 Densitometers
Slurry density is monitored and recorded with a radioactive densitometer. The

densitometer has three basic components : radioactive source, detector, and recorder. The
densitometer measures the slurry density by emitting a radioactive beam through the slurry
to the detector.
Since this instrument is the only routinely available method to monitor cement properties
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continuously during a primary cement job, the densitometer should be properly calibrated
and correctly operated. The densitometer should always be placed where the slurry is under
pressure. Air bubbles present in the unpressured slurry can significantly affect the
measured density. A pressurized mud balance may be used to spot-check the density of the
slurry and the densitometer calibration.
4.8.10 Cementing Heads
Cementing lines are attached to the casing by a cementing head, which also holds the wiper
plugs before release. The widely used single-plug, quick-change cementing head is shown
in Figure 15. If two plugs are employed, loading the second, top plug requires that pumping
be stopped and the head reopened. This change should be executed as quickly as possible
to minimize the time the slurry is not being pumped. Double-plug, continuous pumping
heads do not require reloading.
However, because of their large size and greater complexity, these heads are not in common
use. Special cementing heads are also available that greatly facilitate pipe rotation while
cementing. This has proven to be beneficial to primary cementing, as discussed later (see
Section 4.12).
Figure 15. Single Plug, Quick Change Cementing Head
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4.9 PLANNING A PRIMARY CEMENT JOB
Planning a primary cement job should begin weeks in advance. Generally the steps
involved in planning the cement job involve reviewing government regulations, estimating
the volume of cement to be pumped, specifying the slurry, testing the slurry, and selecting
the spacer and displacing fluids to be used.
4.9.1 Government Regulations
In many areas there are government regulations for primary and remedial cementing. These
regulations are generally motivated by the desire to protect fresh water aquifers, to protect
the environment, or to prevent interzonal flow that could inadvertently charge low-pressure
zones or commingle reservoirs. These regulations should be observed in all cementing
operations.
4.9.2 Cement Volume Requirements
The volume of cement to be pumped is determined by coverage requirements, hole

geometry and excess volume percentages. Coverage requirements are usually specified by
government regulation, company policy or field rules. For production strings, cement is
usually required to be brought 500-1000 ft above the highest fluid-bearing zone.
For planning purposes, the hole geometry is usually estimated based on bit size or past
experience. Final volume adjustments are made after the results from caliper logs are
known.
In many areas, the volume of cement is often increased by an excess volume percentage (or
factor) due to uncertainty in knowing the exact geometry. Typically 25% is used. Care
should be taken, however, in using too much cement because of the possibility of lost
returns induced by a long cement column.
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4.9.3 Specifying A Slurry
After the anticipated annular cement column height has been established, the cement slurry
can be specified. This is often done with the cooperation of cementing service company
representatives. However, the engineer has the responsibility for accurately portraying the
well conditions and assessing any proposed cement slurry formulation. The considerations
involved in cement slurry formulation have been discussed previously (See 4.6).
4.9.4 Cement Testing
Perhaps the most important phase in planning a cement job is cement testing. There are
generally two types of cement samples that can be tested : (1) lab blend and (2) field blend.
A lab blend is a laboratory-size sample that is used to test a proposed slurry formulation.
Often, testing a number of different lab blends is required until an acceptable slurry
formulation is achieved. Lab blends may not use cement and additives from the same stock
as is used for the actual job.
A field blend sample is a sample drawn from the actal blend of dry cement and additives
that is to be used for the job. The field mix water should be used, whenever possible, for
field blend testing.
For critical wells, both lab blend and field blend testing should be performed. On routine
jobs, where there is sufficient field experience with a successful slurry formulation,
laboratory blend testing may not be necessary. However, field blend testing should be
conducted periodically to verify that cement performance is consistent with design
assumptions.
4.9.5 Spacer Fluids
A spacer or preflush is a fluid pumped ahead of the cement to separate the cement from the
drilling fluid and to improve the displacement of the drilling fluid.
Separation of the cement from the drilling mud is sometimes required because of
incompatibility. For example, a drilling mud that contains CaCl2 could cause premature set
when mixed with the cement.
Even if the mud and cement are compatible, a spacer or preflush fluid should be used to
enhance mud displacement. Research has shown that, for water-base muds, fresh water can
significantly improve mud displacement. For oil-base muds, diesel has been reported to be
effective.
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Other spacer/preflush products are sold by the cementing service companies If these
products are used, their compatibility with the fluids to be contacted should be considered.
For displacement purposes, generally the more spacer pumped the better. However,
hydrostatic pressure conditions or economic constraints often limit the spacer volume.
Typically 10-50 bbls of spacer are pumped.
When using a spacer fluid that is lighter than the cement and drilling mud (e.g. water or
diesel), it is generally advisable to pump the spacer ahead of the bottom plug. This helps
prevent mixing of the lightweight spacer with the heavy cement above it on the trip down
the casing.
4.9.6 Displacing Fluid
The choice of the fluid used to displace the top plug depends on the next operation to be
carried out. If additional drilling is required, drilling fluids is often the displacement fluid.
If the next operation is to complete the well, the displacing fluid generally should be a
formation-compatible completion fluid.
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4.10 PRIMARY CEMENTING OPERATIONS
After the cementing equipment and cementing materials have been selected, careful
consideration should be given to the operations involved in executing a primary cement job.
4.10.1 Preparing The Casing Surface
Research has shown that cement bonds best to rough or slightly rusty casing surfaces.
Smooth, oily finishes result in the poorest bond. Therefore, if the casing is new, any mill
varnish should be removed. Sandblasting is an effective removal technique. Special
coatings to roughen the surface are not usually required.
4.10.2 Mud Conditioning
Before running the casing a final bit trip should be made to circulate and condition the mud.
This circulation breaks the gel structure of the mud that develops while the mud is static.
Solids control equipment should be operated and the mud circulated until the in and out
mud properties have stabilized at values conducive to good displacement. For vertical
wells, a 10-min. gel strength less than 10 lb/100 ft2 at 120°F is often specified.
The mud should also be circulated and conditioned after the casing is run. Generally the
rate should be as fast as possible without losing returns to promote good hole cleaning. The
mud again should be conditioned to the predetermined properties. At a minimum, one
casing volume should be pumped to ensure that nothing blocks the float equipment.
4.10.3 Running Casing
The casing should be run slow enough so that the surge pressure does not exceed the
formation fracture pressure. This is particularly important in areas having relatively fragile
formations. Calculation methods are available for determining the maximum safe running
speed. Typical values are 30-150 sec/joint.
The casing should be spaced so that the last coupling is below the casinghead and that the
cementing head, if possible, is located at a convenient height above the rig floor.
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4.10.4 Mud Displacement
Perhaps the most important factor for achieving a successful primary cement job is
obtaining good mud displacement. Failure to displace all of the mud from the annulus will
leave a mud channel within the cement sheath. In some cases the mud channel may occupy
a significant portion of the annulus. The mud channel can greatly reduce the integrity of
the cement sheath. For example, if perforations penetrate such a channel, unwanted fluid
may flow along the channel to the perforations.
Research and field experience have identified a number of factors to enhance mud
displacement while cementing. These include
• Casing centralization
• Mud conditioning
• Using spacer fluids
• Pipe movement
• High pumping rates
Casing centralization, mud conditioning, and spacer fluids have been discussed previously.
Casing movement and pumping rate are discussed below.
4.10.5 Casing Movement
Research and field experience have clearly shown that casing movement while cementing
improves cementing success. Two types of movement are possible : reciprocation and
rotation.
Reciprocation is usually accomplished using the rig drawworks. Typically the casing is
reciprocated in 20 ft strokes at speeds not exceeding the last running speed.
Rotation requires the use of a swivel type cementing head. The rotation is often imparted
by a special hydraulic motor incorporated into the cementing head. Typically the casing is
rotated at 15-25 rpm. The applied torque, should not exceed the makeup torque of the
casing.
4.10.6 Pumping Rate
Laboratory studies have demonstrated that for best mud displacement the best pumping rate
is the fastest rate possible. The experiments indicate that mud displacement improves with
increasing flow rate whether or not the cement is in turbulent flow. Therefore the best
practice is to pump as fast as possible without losing returns. (Of course the rate should be
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slowed as the top plug approaches its landing collar).
4.10.7 Pressure Considerations
The major limitation to pumping at high rates is the risk of exceeding the formation fracture
pressure at some point. Lost returns while cementing can lead to cement bridge offs, too
low a top-of-cement and possible formation damage.
To avoid lost returns while cementing, the surface pumping pressure should be low enough
so that the bottom hole pressure is below the fracture pressure of the well. The bottom hole
pressure is approximately equal to the surface pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure of the
liquids in the casing, since the friction pressure in the casing is usually negligible.
4.10.8 Displacement Volume
The volume of displacement fluid to be pumped is the volume from the float or landing
collar to the surface. The volume should be carefully monitored using the calibrated
cementing company displacement tanks. If the rig pumps are used for displacement,
volume can be monitored from the pump stroke count. However, the rig pumps should be
calibrated beforehand.
If the top plug does not bump when the calculated displacement volume has been pumped,
it is generally inadvisable to overdisplace (i.e. pump additional fluid). This is because of
the risk of leaving the critical lower portion of the annulus uncemented by-passing a hung-
up top plug.
4.10.9 After-Cementing Considerations
After all the fluids have been pumped, the remaining steps to complete the cementing
operation include :
• Suspend the casing from a set of slips
• Check that the float equipment check valves are holding
• Release the internal casing pressure
• Rig down the cementing equipment
• Wait on the cement
• Run an optional temperature log as the cement sets
• Drop the casing hanger and land the casing in the casinghead
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4.10.10 Waiting-On-Cement Time
The required waiting-on-cement (WOC) time varies, depending on well conditions, cement
slurry, and local regulations. WOC time should be long enough to provide a minimum
compressive strength of 500 psi before the well is drilled out and 2000 psi before it is
perforated.
4.11 ANNULAR FLUID MIGRATION
4.11.1 Problems Caused By AFM
In some areas operators have encountered evidence of fluid flow through the cement sheath
shortly after cementing. This phenomenon is often called annular fluid migration (AFM),
annular gas flow (AGF), or flow induced by loss in annular pressure (FILAP). The problem
is often manifested by pressure on the annulus at the surface several hours after the cement
job. The problem may also be indicated by noise or temperature logs suggesting interzonal
flow prior to perforating. The severity of the problem can vary from simply being a
nuisance to causing a blowout.
4.11.2 Pressure Reduction In Cement
Laboratory measurements have demonstrated that the pressure in a stationary vertical

column of cement decreases with time. By monitoring the pressure in the annulus through
sensors attached to casing at several depths, Cooke et al. showed that the pressure reduction
also occurs in the field (Figure 16). Cooke et al. showed that the pressure can even fall
below the pressure that would be exerted by the cement mix water. The pressure loss in a
cement column before the cement cures is believed to be frequently responsible for vertical
fluid flow through the cement sheath in the casing/borehole annulus.
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Figure 16. Field measurement of pressure decline in cement columns

(from Reference 23)
It is likely that annular gas flow occurs when the pressure in the cement across a gas-
bearing zone falls below the pore pressure of the zone and the cement has not attained
sufficient strength/impermeability to prevent flow (Figure 17).
Figure 17. Annular Gas Flow that may occur when the pressure in the cement
falls below the formation pore pressure
Annular fluid migration is generally distinguished from poor mud displacement by its
occurrence prior to perforating. Neither problem, however, precludes the other as a source
of fluid flow in the annulus.
4.11.3 Conducive Conditions
Based on current knowledge, Cooke et.al. identified conditions that are believed to be
conducive to AFM. These include :
• High pore pressures. A smaller reduction of pressure in the cement then allows fluid
to enter the wellbore.
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• Large difference in pore pressure in nearby permeable zones. Fluid loss in the
pressure-depleted zones decreases the cement column pressure and allows higher
pressure fluids to enter.
• High fluid loss from cement. This contributes to volume reduction of the cement,
which results in pressure reduction.
• High gel strength in the cement before curing. This factor decreases the likelihood
that the column will move to compensate for volume reduction.
• Log cement columns. A long cement column increases the length of the annular
interval that is likely to undergo a pressure reduction.
• A long period of time before the cement develops strength and impermeability.
4.11.4 Prevention Procedures
No completely successful technique to prevent AFM has yet been found. However, a
number of procedures have been reported that apparently work in some cases.
• Applying pressure to the annulus immediately after cement placement.
• Minimize the height of the cement column.
• Use low-fluid-loss cements.
• Do not over-retard the cement.
A number of other techniques have been proposed to prevent annular fluid migration.
These techniques include in situ gas generation in the cement slurry, additives to
immobilize the water in the pore space of the cement, and external casing packers. Though
some of these techniques may have merit in certain situations, there has not been sufficient
field or independent laboratory data taken to fully evaluate them.
4.11.5 Repair Techniques
The mechanism of AFM suggests that the unwanted annular flow may be caused by
relatively small and numerous channels cut through the cement. For this reason, repair of
AFM is very difficult.
Repair often requires numerous squeeze attempts. In some cases a non-Portland epoxy-type
cement has been used with success.
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Channel repair techniques are discussed further in the Remedial Cementing Chapter
(Sections 21.7 and 21.13).
4.12 SPECIAL PRIMARY CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS
There are a number of primary cementing jobs that warrant special consideration. These
include cementing liners, cementing deviated wells, stage cementing, and cementing
multiple strings.
4.12.1 Cementing Liners
A liner is a string of casing that does not extend up to the wellhead. Liners are generally
run into the hole on drill pipe and are suspended from a previous casing string. Cement is
then pumped through the drill pipe, down the liner, and into the annular space.
Some of the common problems that should be considered when cementing a liner are small
annular flow areas, cement contamination at the liner top, and temperature differential
between the top and bottom of the liner.
Careful attention should be paid to slurry design. In general a low-fluid-loss slurry should
be used. However the viscosity may also need to be kept low. (Recall that many fluid-loss
agents also viscosify). In addition, the compressive strength of the slurry should be tested
at both the BHST and the static temperature at the liner top.
Field experience has also suggested that liner cementing success is greatly enhanced by
moving the liner while cementing and by pumping a sufficient volume of cement past the
liner top. However, care must be taken if cement above the liner top is reverse-circulated
out. This is because high pressures may be exerted on the liner top during this operation.
4.12.2 Cementing Deviated Wells
Cementing a deviated or directional well is generally more difficult than cementing a

vertical well because the problems of good cement placement are move severe. Research
and experience have shown that cementing a deviated well requires particular attention to
pipe centralization, hole cleaning, cement free water, and pipe movement.
Because of the difficulty in displacing settled solids from the low side of the hole and also
the probability that the casing will be decentralized toward the low side of the hole, it is
likely that a coherent mud channel remains along the low side of the cemented annulus in
many deviated wells.
Also, free water breakout from the cement may result in water pockets along the high side
of the annulus.
In some deviated wells the possibility of these channels in the cement sheath may have
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implications for completion and workover operations. For example in some high-angle
wells, it may be desirable to perforate away from the low side on initial completion.
4.12.3 Stage Cementing
Stage cementing is the sequential placement of cement into different intervals of the
wellbore. Usually stage cementing consists of a conventional placement of cement slurry
around the lower portion of the casing (first stage) followed by placement of cement across
an upper interval by the pumping of a slurry through ports in a stage collar higher up in the
casing string (second stage). The ports in the stage collar are opened by special opening
plugs or mechanical movement of a work string.
Stage cementing is most commonly used when long casing strings are cemented. Some of
the reasons to use stage cementing are :
• To place cement across weaker portions of the wellbore that would break down if
subjected to the pressure of a full column of cement.
• To avoid excessive cement setting times at the lower temperatures higher up in the
annulus.
• To place cement selectively across widely separated formations.
• To limit the height of the setting cement column to help mitigate AFM.
• To reduce the pump pressure required to displace the cement at a desired flow rate.
One disadvantage of stage cementing is that the pipe cannot be removed to enhance mud
displacement after the first stage has set. Other disadvantages are that stage cementing
increases the mechanical complexity of the cement job and that leaks at the stage collar may
occur. Also multiple-stage cementing generally requires more time than a single-stage job.
4.12.4 Cementing Multiple Strings
Some types of completions, such as multiple tubingless completions, require more than one
string to be run and cemented in the same borehole. Often these strings serve as both
casing and tubing and may be more economical than a conventional completion.
Perhaps the most significant problem in the cementing of multiple strings is to obtain
effective mud displacement. Obtaining good displacement during the cementing of
multiple strings is difficult because the annular areas are usually large and irregular.
Many of the factors for good displacement in the cementing of a single string also apply in
the cementing of multiple strings. In particular, pipe reciprocation may help.
Another technique to improve displacement is to pump down more than one string. For a
given surface pressure limit, this increases the flow rate achieved. Also, a string that could
be landed at a shallower depth can be run to the bottom to increase the annular velocity by
decreasing the annular area.
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CHAPTER 5
WELLHEADS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 WELLHEAD SYSTEM …………………………………………………………...... 3
5.1.1 Wellhead Function ………………………………………………….. 3

5.1.2 Christmas Tree Function ……………………………………………. 4
5.1.3 Tubulars …………………………………………………………….. 4
5.1.4 Typical Wellheads …………………………………………………... 6
5.1.5 Casing Head ………………………………………………………… 8
5.1.6 Intermediate Casing Head …………………………………………... 9
5.1.7 Tubing Head ………………………………………………………… 11
5.1.8 Christmas Tree Assembly …………………………………………... 14
5.2 CHRISTMAS TREE …………………………………………………………...…. 16
5.2.1 Master Valves ……………………………………………………….. 17

5.2.2 Flow Tree …………………………………………………………… 17
5.2.3 Wing Valve …………………………………………………………. 17
5.2.4 Choke ……………………………………………………………….. 17
5.2.5 Crown Valve ………………………………………………………… 19
5.2.6 Valve Operation …………………………………………………….. 20
5.2.7 Testing The Tree ……………………………………………………. 20
5.2.8 Fire Resistant Trees …………………………………………………. 20
5.3 SUSPENSION METHODS ………………………………………………………. 22
5.3.1 Casing Suspension ………………………………………………….. 22

5.3.2 Automatic-Type …………………………………………………….. 22
5.3.3 Non-Automatic-Type ……………………………………………….. 23
5.3.4 Mandrel-Type ……………………………………………………….. 23
5.3.5 Tubing Suspension ………………………………………………….. 24
5.3.6 Double-Box Method ………………………………………………… 24
5.3.7 Adapter Flange Method …………………………………………….. 26
5.3.8 Mandrel Method …………………………………………………….. 27
5.3.9 Slip Suspension Method ……………………………………………. 29
5.4 SPECIAL WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT …………………………………………. 30
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5.4.1 Tubingless Wellheads ………………………………………………. 30

5.4.2 Multiple Completion Wellheads ……………………………………. 33
5.4.3 Ground Subsidence Wellheads ……………………………………… 35
5.4.4 Injection Wellheads …………………………………………………. 38
5.4.5 Artificial Lift Wellheads ……………………………………………. 39
5.5 FLANGES AND SEAL CONNECTIONS ………………………………………. 40
5.5.1 Flanges ……………………………………………………………… 40

5.5.2 Oval Ring Seal ……………………………………………………… 40
5.5.3 Octagonal Ring Seal ………………………………………………… 40
5.5.4 RX Ring Gasket Seal ……………………………………………….. 40
5.5.5 Grayloc Connection …………………………………………………. 42
5.5.6 Flex-Float Connection ………………………………………………. 42
5.5.7 Resilient Seals ………………………………………………………. 43
5.5.8 Pressure-Temperature Ratings 44
……………………………………….
5.6 WELLHEAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS …………………………………... 45
5.6.1 Casing Program …………………………………………………….. 45

5.6.2 Metalluragical Requirements ……………………………………….. 45
5.6.3 Special Applications ………………………………………………… 45
5.6.4 Pressure Requirements ……………………………………………… 46
5.6.5 Crossover/Pack-off Flanges ………………………………………… 49
5.7 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS ………………………………………………. 51
5.7.1 Industry (API) Specifications ……………………………………….. 51

5.7.2 PCSB Company Specifications …………………………………….. 51
5.7.3 Service Environments ………………………………………………. 52
5.7.4 Sweet Oil ……………………………………………………………. 52
5.7.5 Sweet Gas …………………………………………………………… 52
5.7.6 Hydrogen Sulfide …………………………………………………… 53
5.7.7 Special Temperatures ……………………………………………….. 53
5.8 SPLITTER WELLHEAD TECHNOLOGY .....…………………………………. 54
5.1 WELLHEAD SYSTEM
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Every oil or gas well has some type of wellhead. Conventional wellhead assemblies
include the casing head, casing hangers, spool sections, tubing head, tubing hanger, valves,
and fittings. (See Figure 1).
Figure 1. The Wellhead System
5.1.1 Wellhead Functions
The wellhead performs three important functions :
• It provides connection and support for BOP’s and other well control equipment;
• It provides a sealed connection and support for each tubular string; and
• It provides a connection and support for the Christmas tree.
5.1.2 Christmas Tree Function
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The Christmas tree, in turn, performs several important functions :
• It controls the flow of fluids from the wellbore;
• It provides a means of shutting in the well; and
• It provides a means of entering the well for servicing and workover.
5.1.3 Tubulars
The wellhead is divided into sections. Each section of the wellhead will be used to suspend
and/or seal off a separate string of casing or tubing.
Therefore, the number of wellhead sections will vary with the number of tubular strings.
The tubular strings in a well are the conductor pipe, the surface casing, the protective
(intermediate) casing, the production casing, and the production tubing (see Figure 2). In
some wells, where formation conditions do not place extreme loads on the surface casing,
the protective string may not be required. In other wells, usually where abnormally
pressured formations are encountered, additional strings of protective casing may be
necessary. In a tubingless well, the production tubing is omitted.
A common wellbore configuration, sometimes called a three-string well, will make use of
each of the above strings. The three strings referred to are the surface casing, protective
casing, and the production casing. Each of these strings will be effectively sealed to
contain pressures within each string.
The conductor pipe, which may be set or driven, maintains the integrity of the walls of
shallow, unconsolidated formations. It is not normally attached to the wellhead, because it
is exposed to minimal pressures. However, in some cases, a base plate may be welded onto
the A-section and placed on top of the conductor pipe in order to distribute the weight of
the casing and wellhead (Figure 3). When extreme loading conditions are expected, the
plate provides additional support and stability.
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Figure 2. The Tubular Strings
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Figure 3. The Base Plate
5.1.4 Typical Wellhead
The typical wellhead for a three-string well will consist of (Figure 4) :
• The A-section Casing head (sometimes referred to as the Bradenhead);
• The B-section Casing head (or Intermediate Head);

;
• The C-section (or Tubing Head); and
• The Christmas Tree.
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Figure 4. A Three-String Wellhead
NOTE : The sections of the wellhead may be divided into separate parts at times such as A1, A2, A3,
etc.....
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5.1.5 Casing Head
The A-section casing head is attached to the top of the surface casing (Figure 5). Since the
other tubular strings are tied to the A-section, the surface casing must support the weight of
all subsequent strings, the tubing, and the entire wellhead system.
Figure 5. The A-Section Casing Head
The A-section is screwed or welded onto the surface casing. This casing head accepts the
next string of casing - either a protective string, or the production casing, depending on the
needs of the well.
The space between any two strings of pipe is called an annulus. The space between the
surface casing and the wall of the hole is designated as the ‘surface casing-by-hole-annulus’
(Figure 5). It may also be referred to as the casing-hole annulus. When the surface casing
is set, the surface casing-by-hole annulus is filled with cement, which (1) eliminates
potential contamination of fresh water zones behind the surface casing, (2) prevents flow
between pressured formations behind the surface casing, and (3) provides additional
stability of the casing string.
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5.1.6 Intermediate Casing Head
The intermediate casing head, or B-section, is bolted onto the A-section (Figure 6). It can
be used to suspend either the production casing string, as shown, or an additional string of
protective casing, if required. For each additional protective string, an additional
intermediate section is required.
Figure 6. The Intermediate Casing Head
The intermediate casing head consists of a lower flange, for connection to the A-section,
and an upper flange, for connection to the subsequent wellhead section. A cylindrical bore
with shoulders, essentially the same as that of the A-Section, is milled into the upper half of
the head to receive the casing hanger. The intermediate casing head will contain a primary
seal, located inside the top flange, which seals the production-protective casing annulus and
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a secondary seal, located in the lower flange, that seals the protective-surface casing
annulus (Figure 7).
Figure 7. The Intermediate Casing Head with Secondary Seal
The secondary seal performs essentially the same function as the primary seal of the A-
section. That is, it contains pressures from the production-protective casing annulus within
the B-section. It also works in conjunction with the A-section primary seal to prevent
communication between the protective casing and the protective-surface casing annulus.
A ring gasket, made of a special metal alloy, is placed between all flanged connections.
The ring gasket fits into specially machined grooves in the upper flange of the A-section
and the lower flange of the B-section.
The gasket serves to contain pressures in the wellhead in the event that either or both the
primary and secondary seals should fail. Each ring gasket is designed to withstand a
maximum pressure that the tubulars will be exposed to during the life of the well. A further
explanation of ring gaskets and pressure ratings is discussed later.
The side outlets on the intermediate casing head are used to check and relieve pressures
inside the production casing by protective casing annulus.
5.1.7 Tubing Head
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The tubing head suspends the production tubing and seals off the tubing-casing annulus
(Figure 8). Like the intermediate casing head, the tubing head includes a secondary seal
and side outlets. The top flange of the tubing head is used to connect blowout preventers
during conventional workover operations; that is, workovers that require pulling the tubing.
The lower flange connects to the top flange intermediate section. A ring gasket is also used
between these flanged connections.
Figure 8. The Tubinghead
The tubing hanger assembly (Figure 9) performs essentially the same function as the casing
hangers; i.e., it suspends the tubing and seals off the tubing-production casing annulus.
Virtually the full weight of the tubing string is supported by the tubing hanger. However, in
some cases, the tubing is attached to the tubing head adapter by one of several possible
methods. In such a situation, the weight of the tubing rests on the adapter flange which, in
turn, rests on the upper flange of the tubing head. In this situation, the tubing hanger only
serves to seal the tubing-casing annulus.
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Figure 9. The Tubing Hanger Assembly
The side outlets of the tubing head can be accessed to (1) inject a fluid into the tubing-
casing annulus, as in a gas lift operation (Figure 10); (2) confirm that there is no annulus
pressure; (3) test for leaks; and (4) relieve pressure in the tubing-casing annulus.
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Figure 10. Gas Lift Operation
5.1.8 Christmas Tree Assembly
The Christmas tree is a system of gate valves and a choke that regulates the flow of fluids
from the well, opens or shuts production from the well, and provides entry into the well for
servicing. The tree is connected to the uppermost flange of the wellhead, which typically is
the upper tubing head flange.
A typical tree for a three-string wellhead includes a tubing head adapter, several gate
valves, a flow tee, and a choke (Figure 11). This system routes well production into the
flowline. The flowline then conducts the fluids from the choke to surface treating or
processing facilities.
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The gate valves normally include three types: the master valves, the wing valve or valves,
and the crown valve. Each valve has only two operating positions - fully open and fully
closed (Figure 12). They are used to open or shut the flow from the well. The choke
performs the function of regulating the flow rate.
Figure 11. The Christmas Tree
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Figure 12. Operation of a Gate Valve
5.2 CHRISTMAS TREE
The Christmas tree is a system of gate valves that regulates the flow of fluids from the
well, opens or shuts production from the well, and provides entry into the well for
servicing. They are available in either composite (Figure 11) or block-type (Figure 13)
construction. Composite trees indicate that they are a composite of valves and flow tees
that are bolted together. On the other hand, a block-type tree is machined out of a single
piece of metal.
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Figure 13. Christmas Tree Assembly – Block Type
5.2.1 Master Valve
The master valves are used to close in the well to allow servicing of the wing valve, crown
valve or choke, or to allow connection of treatment lines, lubricators, and wireline BOP’s.
Two master valves are installed in high pressure (5,000 psi and above) wells. The lower
master valve is a backup for the upper master valve.
Valves used on Christmas trees and wellheads are subject to special requirements. Master
valves and other valves in the vertical flow path of the tree must have full bore, round
openings to allow passage. of tools. As a result, wellhead master-type valves are the gate
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type as shown in (Figure 12). Round opening steel, or gate valves are specified for this
service with API flanged end connections or threads. Valves used on multiple-completion
trees have center distance between bores established and limited by the casing size and
hanger spacing.
Directional orientation of the multiple completion valves and tree equipment is determined
by the direction of slots in the wellhead which accommodates the hanger bowl. The desired
direction should be determined prior to installing the wellhead for proper location of the
valves.
Various types of valve operating mechanisms are available and individual well
requirements will determine this need. Location, regulatory requirements, and safety
aspects of well operation should be considered when selecting valve operators.
5.2.2 Flow Tree
The flow tee connects immediately above the upper master valve. It is used to connect the
upper master valve to the crown and wing valves.
5.2.3 Wing Valve
The wing valve, like the master valves, is used to close in the well. Located between the tee
and the choke, it is the first valve that is closed when shutting off the well, and the last one
opened when opening the well.
5.2.4 Choke
Connected to the wing valve, the choke regulates the flow of fluids from the wellhead. A
choke functions by increasing or decreasing the diameter of the fluid path. The non-
adjustable choke includes removable inserts that can be used to alter the rate of flow by
means of larger or smaller choke beans (Figure 14). An adjustable choke can be used to
alter the flow rate without having to shut in the well to replace an insert (Figure 15).
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Figure 14. The Non-Adjustable Choke
Figure 15. The Adjustable Choke
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5.2.5 Crown Valve
The crown valve (also a gate valve), connected to the top of the flow tee, is also referred to
as the swab or wireline valve. In wireline or swabbing operations, a wireline lubricator is
flanged to the top of the crown valve. The lubricator provides a hydraulic seal around the
wireline, which prevents the escape of pressure while the wireline is in the well (Figure 16).
The crown valve should be closed while installing the lubricator, and then opened to allow
wireline entry into the well.
Figure 16. Wireline Lubricator
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Frequently, a pressure gauge will be attached to the top of the Christmas tree (the upper
flange of the crown valve). This pressure gauge is used to monitor either the flowing
wellhead pressure, or the static wellhead pressure with the wing valve closed.
5.2.6 Valve Operation
The tree is operated by operating or closing the valves in a specific order. When shutting in
the well, the first valve that should be closed is the wing valve. The upper master valve is
then closed, and is followed by the lower master valve. The lower master valve is closed
last to ensure that is not closed against a differential pressure; thus saving the valve seats
from excessive wear. In a well control situation, this valve may be the last available valve
to shut in the well so its integrity should be preserved until the valve is needed.
For reopening the flow stream, the procedure is reserved, starting from the lower most
master valve, and ending with the wing valve.
The choke is used to adjust the rate of flow, but cannot be used to shut in the well.
5.2.7 Testing The Tree
The tree is pressure tested for leaks after it has been flanged onto the tubing head or casing
head.
The Christmas tree components individually bolt together. The tree is normally assembled
and pressure tested as a complete unit prior to being flanged onto the wellhead, and
pressure tested again after installation.
Each connection is tested to the specified rating of the tree. In the field, a small hydraulic
pump is used to test the connection between the tubing head and the tubing head adapter.
A light oil is injected into a port on the upper flange of the tubing head. The pressure is
increased until the desired maximum is reached. If the pressure does not hold steady after
waiting a few minutes, the lock screws are retightened and the test repeated.
5.2.8 Fire Resistant Trees
Fire-resistant trees are sometimes required and are of the block type. However, they differ
from the normal block type tree in that clamps are used instead of stud bolts to secure the
tree and wellhead and the seals are metal-to-metal to prevent deterioration in the event of a
fire. An example is shown in Figure 17.
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Figure 17. Fire Resistant Wellhead
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5.3 SUSPENSION METHODS
Suspension or hanger assemblies are used to suspend the casing or tubing in a particular
casing or tubing head as is shown in Figures 6, 8, and 9.
5.3.1 Casing Suspension
The casing hangers most generally used in PCSB operations are the slip-pack type of which
there are two general categories : (1) those that may be set and sealed without removing
blowout preventers (the automatic type), and (2) those that may be set through preventers
but require removal of preventers to establish a seal. The type chosen depends upon
operating conditions and economics since the automatic type is more expensive than the
others but can save on rig time costs. Either of these categories of hangers will permit
setting casing at desired depths without use of space nipples. Examples of the two types are
shown in Figures 18 and 19.
5.3.2 Automatic Type
The automatic seal wrap-around controlled suspension hanger is hinged and may be
installed on the casing landing joint by wrapping around the pipe and lowering or dropping
through the blowout preventers into the casing head. When the weight of the suspended
casing is transferred to the hanger slips and to the casing head, the seal is expanded. The
controlled suspension feature, or the dulled teeth on the back of the slips, prevents the
hanger slips from moving far enough to wedge the casing detrimentally. These hangers are
designed for heavy casing loads and are therefore recommended for long strings where the
automatic sealing feature is also required.
Figure 18. Automatic-Type Hanger
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Figure 19. Non-Automatic-Type Hanger
5.3.3 Non-Automatic Type
With the non-automatic seal with wrap-around slips, the slips are lowered through the
preventers to suspend the pipe, but then a “doughnut type” seal is made only after removing
the preventers and cutting the casing off. The seal, depending upon the make, is either
expanded by set screws on top of the packing or by external lock screws. This type, which
is generally the lowest cost slip-pack hanger, is recommended for shallow or medium depth
wells automatic sealing is not considered necessary. Generally speaking, the longer the
slips, the greater the safe load carrying capacity.
5.3.4 Mandrel Type
The threaded mandrel hanger is commonly called a “boll weevil” hanger. It can be used on
casing although it is more frequently used with tubing1, particularly in tubingless
completions for hanging the production casing. An example is shown in Figure 20. If close
tolerances on setting depths are necessary, its use requires space nipples and pup joints
which are more costly per foot than casing or tubing. This additional cost may more than
offset the lower cost of the threaded hanger and additional rig time required to use space
nipples.
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Figure 20. Mandrel-Type Hanger
5.3.5 Tubing Suspension
Tubing, like casing, is run through blowout preventers and suspended in a head section.
There are four tubing suspension methods. In the double-box and adapter flange methods,
the tubing is hung from the tubinghead adapter. In the mandrel-type and slip-type
suspension method, the tubing is hung from the tubing head.
5.3.6 Double-box Method
In the double-box method, an adapter nipple is threaded onto the end of the tubing (Figure
21). This nipple has an internally machined profile designed to accept a back pressure
valve (or BPV).
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Figure 21. The Double-Box Method of Tubing Suspension
The BPV is used as a well control backup on wells that have been killed prior to workover
or completion. In this method, the use of the BPV assures that pressures in the tubing are
safely contained while nippling-up or nippling-down the Christmas tree and workover
BOP’s. The BPV may be installed or removed on wireline, through a lubricator.
The tubing hanger is wrapped around the last joint of tubing. With this double-box method,
the tubing hanger will only serve to seal the tubing annulus, not to suspend the tubing. A
temporary spacing element called a slip protector is then placed immediately above the
hanger which will keep the nipple threads safely away from the lateral lock screws in the
tubing head when the lock screws are tightened.
A short piece of tubing called a landing joint is used to lower the hanging assembly into the
BOP’s. The hanger passes through the BOP’s and lands in the tubing head.
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Once the hanger has been properly seated, the lock screws on the upper flange of the tubing
head are tightened to activate the hanger seal, and secure the hanger in place. The landing
joint is backed off of the adapter nipple, and the BOP’s are nippled down.
A set of O-rings, which provide the pressure seal between the adapter nipple and the
Christmas tree, are slipped into position on the adapter nipple. The adapter nipple is
properly doped. The assembled Christmas tree, including the tubing head adapter, is then
lowered onto the adapter nipple, and J-latched or screwed into place. Once the adapter
nipple is secured, the weight of the tubing rests on the adapter flange, and the temporary
slips are removed. The ring gasket groove on the tubing head and in the base of the adapter
flange are carefully cleaned. The ring gasket, which had been placed above the temporary
slips, is then placed in the groove. A light grade of oil is used to fill the space between the
gasket and the tubing. The Christmas tree assembly is lowered onto the tubing head and
ring gasket, then flanged-up.
The lock screws of the tubing head are retightened to further secure the tubing hanger seal.
Once the tree assembly has been flanged-up and pressure tested, the back-pressure valve is
removed through the lubricator on wireline. The well is shut-in using the gate valves of the
tree.
5.3.7 Adapter Flange Method
The second type of tubing suspension is called the adapter flange method (Figure 22). This
technique is the same as the double-box method, with the exception that the adapter nipple
is not used. Instead, the Christmas tree and tubing adapter are screwed directly onto the last
joint of tubing.
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Figure 22. The Adapter Flange Method of Tubing Suspension
5.3.8 Mandrel Method
The third common tubing suspension method is called the mandrel, or “bowl weevil,”
method. In this method, the tubing hanger is screwed directly onto the end of the tubing
and hung off in the tubing head (Figure 23). Since the weight of the tubing bears down on
the hanger seals, they are automatically actuated. Lock crews, however, are still tightened
to secure the seal.
After the tubing is suspended and sealed off, the landing joint is backed off, and the tubing
head adapter and tree are bolted on. Since the tubing is not tied into the adapter flange, the
ring gasket will be subjected to the production fluids and pressures. Therefore, this
technique is normally used only on low pressure, sweet service applications.
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Figure 23. The Mandrel (Boll Weevil) Method of Tubing Suspension
5.3.9 Slip Suspension Method
The slip-type hanger is used for tubingless completions. It resembles a standard casing
hanger used to suspend other casing strings (Figure 24). Set screws passing through the
packing are tightened to effect the seal. Lock screws are tightened to secure the seal.
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Figure 24. The Slip-Type Method of Tubing Suspension
5.4 SPECIAL WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT
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Special wellhead equipment is required for certain types of wells and applications. These
special applications include :
• Tubingless wells
• Multiple completion wells
• Ground subsidence wells
• Injection wells
• Artificial lift wells
5.4.1 Tubingless Wellheads
In a tubingless well, the oil or gas is produced through the production casing; a separate
string of production tubing is not installed. The production casing, in these wells, is
essentially a string of tubing has been cemented in place (Figure 25).
Normally, intermediate strings of casing are not used in a tubingless well. As a result, a
tubingless well will have only one casing head - the A-section. The tubing, or production
casing, will be suspended from this same casing head (Figure 26).
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Figure 25. A Tubingless Well
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Figure 26. A Tubingless Wellhead
5.4.2 Multiple Completion Wellheads
A well may have more than one producing zone. Multiple-completions reduce the number
of wellbores required (Figure 27). Regulations may require that the production from each
zone is kept separate.
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Figure 27. Multiple Completion
In this cases, the completion may require the installation of two or more strings of
production tubing. Special wellhead equipment is required to suspend these multiple tubing
strings, and to keep the flow streams separate (Figure 28).
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Figure 28. A Multiple Completion Wellhead
5.4.3 Ground Subsidence Wellheads
In some areas, large volumes of fresh water are produced from shallow formations, causing
the ground and surface casing to sink. As the ground subsides, the wellhead also subsides.
As a result, the tension stress originally placed in the casing strings tends to decrease
(Figure 29). Proper tension is important for maintaining casing stability. A ground
subsidence wellhead allows the production casing to be retensioned as the ground subsides.
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Figure 29. Effects of Subsidence
With a ground subsidence wellhead, the tubing head is not bolted to the casing head.
Instead, it is screwed onto the top joint of casing (Figure 30). The casing string is easily
retensioned by releasing the lockdown screws, then lifting up on the tubing head. When the
correct tension is achieved, the lock screws are retightened (Figure 31).
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Figure 30. A Subsidence Wellhead
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Figure 31. Retensioning the Casing in a Subsidence Wellhead
5.4.4 Injection Wellheads
Injection wellheads are commonly used for secondary and tertiary recovery processes, or
for the disposal of field saltwater.
Typically, an injection wellhead requires an injection flow loop which consists of a casing
head, tubing head, flow tee, wing valve, crown valve, and elevated flow loop (Figure 32).
The flow loop often incorporates a check valve, ball valve, screen, and flow meter. Some
injection wells, however, require full Christmas trees.
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Figure 32. An Injection Wellhead
5.4.5 Artificial Lift Wellheads
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Two artificial lift techniques require some modification of the standard wellhead equipment
- rod pumping and electrical submersible pumping.
In a rod pumping installation, the wellhead incorporates a stuffing box, which seals the rod
by tubing annulus. This stuffing box is made up onto the flow tee, which is screwed onto
the top joint of tubing (Figure 33). A submersible pump wellhead contains a passageway
which allows the electrical cable to be run through it.
A wellhead outfitted for gas lift is illustrated in Figure 10.
Figure 33. A Rod Pumping Unit
5.5 FLANGES AND SEAL CONNECTIONS
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5.5.1 Flanges
The most common end connections used in the oil industry aside from welds and threads
are flanges. API has standardized flanges and so has the ASA. Because we use both ASA
and API flanges, it is necessary that we know the differences between them.
Only API flanges are used on wellheads, Christmas trees, and drilling through equipment
such as blowout preventers, rotating heads, and valves connected to them. ASA flanges,
fittings, and valves are used in gas plants and lease equipment such as headers, separator
heaters, dehydration units, etc. Occasionally, API flanges are used in high pressure gas
gathering lines where the working pressure of an API valve fits the pressure requirements
better than an ASA valve and there is an economic advantage to be gained.
5.5.2 Oval Ring Seal
The oval ring shown in the oval groove in Figure 34 also fits the flat bottom groove;
however, the octagonal ring will not fit the oval groove. The oval groove was discontinued
about 1945. The oval ring obtains a seal by deforming into the shape of the groove. If
additional weight is added to the upper half of a flange, such as in a wellhead assembly, it
may crush the ring additionally which has the same effect as loosening the flange bolts.
The oval ring has been used more extensively than the others because it would fit both
shapes of grooves and a little less susceptible to damage from handling.
5.5.3 Octagonal Ring Seal
The octagonal ring seal is not as susceptible to crushing as the oval ring. Until the
development of the RX and BX rings (Figure 34), it was the only acceptable ring for use in
the 10,000 psi flanges.
5.5.4 RX Ring Gasket Seal
The RX gasket is a pressure energized ring which fits the standard API flange ring groove
and has been accepted by API as an alternate form of oval ring gasket. The RX ring
evolved during the department of 15,000 psi working pressure flanges. It was determined
that when the ratio of the height of the ring to the height of the sealing surfaces was 3 to 1
greater, the seal was energized by pressure.
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Figure 34. API Ring Gaskets
Specifically, the internal pressure tended to expand the ring against the outer sides of the
ring groove with sufficient force to form a seal. To insure that initial contact is made
between the sealing surfaces of the ring and the outer surfaces of the ring groove, the pitch
diameter of the ring is made slightly larger than the groove. Also, the ring height is
generally greater in proportion than the conventional octagonal ring.
The advantages of the RX ring are (1) less bolt load is required since the ring does not have
to be crushed to effect the seal, and (2) it is pressure energized. The fact that the ring does
not crush while tightening permits faster tightening of flanges as only one round of bolt
tightening is required. This is especially helpful when working with large flanges in a
limited working space. A specific example where RX rings are helpful occurs when
blowout preventers and drilling through equipment need to be worked on underneath the
derrick floor. It is pointed out that care should be taken to insure that the bolts are
tightened securely to prevent breathing of the flange and subsequent galling of the flange
seals.
5.5.4 Grayloc Connection
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The Grayloc connection, Figure 35, is also pressure energized and is used in certain
wellhead connection applications. The lips of the seal ring have a slightly different taper
than the hub to insure a seal when the hubs are drawn together by means of a two-piece,
two-bolt clamp. Once the ends of the clamps are brought together, the bolts are only to
prevent the clamps from spreading. This is a proprietary connection and is available only
from the manufacturer or licensees. The advantages of this type of connection are (1)
reduced area exposed to pressure, thus reducing end thrust, (2) quick connecting, thus time
saving, and (3) lighter weight. Disadvantages are (1) seal on bore are is subject to damage
from tools and direct washing action of fluids, and (2) it is a proprietary connection that is
only available from Grayloc.
Figure 35. Gray Tool Co. Grayloc Connection
5.5.5 Flex-Float Connection
The Laurent or Flex-Float pressure energized connection, Figure 36, utilizes a soft steel
ring wedged by pressure between two surfaces. Adaptations of this seal were originally
used in the bonnets of WKM gate valves and subsequently by National Supply Company to
seal in multiple bores on wellheads and Christmas trees. This is a good sealing principle,
but due to the strict control of parents, its use has been limited.
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Figure 36. Flex-Float Connector
5.5.6 Resilient Seals
Resilient seals used with wellheads in hangers and auxiliary seals are good to about 300º F.
For temperatures above 300º F, special packings containing asbestos and soft metals are
used. Furthermore it is well to consult the wellhead manufacturer for their
recommendation. Use of O-ring seals to seal against the OD of casing and tubing is not
acceptable because the tolerances of tubular goods OD’s are too great to permit
dependability of seal. Also, if a leak should develop, no outside means is available for
additional make-up.
Small clearances and dimensions between bores of valves and center lines of multiple
completion Christmas trees, wellheads and hangers have necessitated the development of
lip type resilient seals that can be expanded or re-energized by injection of plastic packing.
In all designs, however, these resilient seals should be backed up or contained by metal-to-
metal seals to the outside, because of susceptibility to damage during installation and to
deterioration with age.
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5.5.6 Pressure Temperature Ratings
Maximum equipment working pressure ratings for seals and flanges are applicable to the
steel parts of the assemblies for metal temperatures between - 20º F and 250º F. For metal
temperatures below - 20º F, steels which have adequate notch toughness and are suitable for
low temperature service should be used.
Investigations for arctic environments indicate that materials with adequate mechanical
properties exist for these conditions.
The comparatively recent introduction of steam injection for well stimulation necessitated
the need for pressure ratings of wellheads and associated equipment at temperatures in
excess of 250º F. In recognition of these requirements, the API established pressure-
temperature ratings for metallic parts in wellheads, valves, and fittings as shown in the
following table.
PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE RATINGS OF METALLIC PARTS OF API WELLHEADS, VALVES

AND FLANGES
Metal Temperature F
-20 to 250º F 300º F 350º F 400º F 450º F 500º F 550º F 600º F 650º F
2000 1995 1905 1860 1810 1735 1635 1540 1430
3000 2930 2860 2785 2715 2605 2455 2310 2145
5000 * 4880 5765 4645 4525 4340 4090 3850 3575
* Does not apply to 5000 psi 6BX API flanges.
5.6 WELLHEAD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
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Selecting the appropriate size, type, and pressure rating for each wellhead flange and seal
is a critical task performed in planning the well completion. The design specifications for
a particular wellhead will vary widely from area to area and from well to well, depending
on the specifications and guidelines to cover the particular characteristics of a given field
or geographical location.
The weight, size, number, and metallurgy of the wellhead components will depend upon
the following considerations.
5.6.1 Casing Program
The number of wellhead sections required is dependent upon the number of casing strings
in the well. As already stated, the A-section accommodates the surface and protective
casing string. Also, each casing string diameter will influence the size of the casing hanger
and casing head required.
5.6.2 Metallurgical Requirements
Corrosive conditions such as with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or in offshore environments will
require special metal alloys.
5.6.3 Special Applications
The installation of artificial lift equipment, or the conversion of a producing well into an
injection well may require special equipment or connections to be installed in the
wellhead. A gas lift system, for example, requires the injection of gas into the tubing-
casing annulus, typically, the injection is through the tubing head side-entry port. For a
submersible pump system, the power cable passes through a special conduit in the
wellhead to the downhole motor of the pump (Figure 37). Installation of a surface
controlled, downhole subsurface safety valve (SSSV) usually requires a hydraulic line that
is run from the surface to the downhole valve. Like the submersible pump, the SSSV will
require a special conduit to allow passage of the hydraulic line through the wellhead.
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Figure 37. A Submersible Pump Tubinghead
5.6.4 Pressure Requirements
The pressure rating of each section of the wellhead must be sufficient to control the
maximum working pressure that it is expected to encounter (that is, the maximum shut-in,
injection, or treating pressure that the equipment will be subjected to).
Formation pressures often increase with increases in drilled depth, and each subsequent
casing string is subjected to higher bottom-hole pressures. To match these pressure
increases, the pressure ratings of the wellhead components must also be sure that it is
expected to see during the life of the well.
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Figure 38. Wellhead Working Pressure Ratings
Standard working pressures for flanged wellhead equipment are : 2000, 3000, 5000,
10,000, 15,000 and 20,000 psi. Each flange, however, is tested to twice its working
pressure up to 10,000 psi and 1.5 times the working pressure rating above 10,000 psi (see
Table 1). Essentially, then, each wellhead section has its own built-in safety factor. In all
wells, the pressure rating of the uppermost section of the wellhead is used to categorize the
wellhead. A-sections are normally rated at 3,000 psi because surface casing strings are
normally set to shallow depths and are exposed to minimal pressures. A 2,000psi A-
section was commonly installed on low-pressure wells at one time, and they are found in
many older fields, but are not commonly installed within PCSB today. Wellhead sections
rated at 10,000 psi or higher are normally associated with deep or abnormally pressured
wells.
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As noted previously, each casing head contains casing hanger assembly (Figure 39). The
casing hanger assembly consists of a set of slips with built-in seals. The primary seal is
contained in the assembly and seals off the annulus of the string suspended in it. These
seals may be automatically compressed by the weight of the string, or they may be
compressed by tightening lock screws that pass laterally through the casing head upper
flange.
Figure 39. Primary and Secondary Seals
Secondary seals contained in the lower flange of intermediate casing heads and tubing
heads serve as a pack-off. They fit around the end of the casing joint suspended in the
hanger immediately below. As such, the secondary seal performs essentially the same
function as the primary seal located in the flange below.
When possible, the pressure rating of flanges that are bolted together should be the same.
For example, if a top flange on a B-section is rated at 3,000 psi, the lower flange on the
tubing head must also be rated at 3,000 psi. However, one pressure jump is permitted, i.e.,
3,000 - 5,000 psi or 5,000 - 10,000 psi.
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If the upper flange of the tubing head will be potentially exposed to pressures greater than
5,000 psi, it should be rated at 10,000 psi. The jump from a 3,000 psi B-section upper
flange to the 10,000 psi tubing head upper flange constitutes a double-jump. A double-
jump is unsafe because the B-section upper flange would be exposed to pressures well in
excess of its rated maximum, should the tubing head’s secondary seals fail.
5.6.5 Crossover/Pack off Flanges
This situation can be remedied be means of a crossover, or pack-off flange (Figure 40).
The crossover is interposed between the casing head and the tubing head. It consists of a
flange with two seals. To satisfy the case described above, the crossover flange would be
rated at 5,000 psi. Consequently there is now only one pressure jump per flange. The
crossover flange is also a double-studded adapter, with bolts extending from its centerline
outward in both directions to match the particular flanges, that allows connection of the
3,000 psi casing head flange to the 5,000 psi tubing head flange. Flanges rated for
different pressures have different API standard bolt patterns and differently sized seal ring
gasket grooves, so that without a double-studded adapter it is not possible to connect two
differently rated flanges.
Figure 40. The Crossover/Pack-off Flange
Table 1 : API Working Pressure Ratings *
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Test Pressure (Psi)

Working Pressure Rating (Psi) (For flanges 14 in. and smaller)
2,000 4,000
3,000 6,000
5,000 10,000
10,000 15,000
15,000 22,500
20,000 30,000
* Derived from “Table 1.6A - Test Pressure” in API Spec 6A, for Wellhead Equipment, American
Petroleum Institute, January 1981, p.17
5.7 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
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Two wellhead specifications are often referenced within PCSB in the design of wellhead
and Christmas tree components. They are API Spec 6A and NACE Standard MR-01-75.
5.7.1 Industry (API) Specifications
The American Petroleum Institute has published standardized specifications for oil
industry wellhead equipment. This publication is called API Spec 6A, Specifications for
Wellhead Equipment, and specifies material and physical properties for wellheads. It also
specifies test requirements for equipment components. The API Spec 6A is accepted
worldwide, and is routinely followed by all major wellhead manufacturers.
API designates wellhead equipment by the following working pressures: 2,000, 3,000,
5,000, 10,000, 15,000 and 20,000 psi (also 30,000 psi as covered in API Spec 6AB).
Generally speaking, the rating of any unit of wellhead equipment is governed by the
working pressure ratings of its flanged connections.
For units having end and outlet connections with different pressure ratings, the lowest
rating determines the test pressure to be applied to the head.
For hydrogen sulfide environments, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers

(NACE) has developed the NACE Standard MR-01-75 specification. It is compatible with
the API Spec 6A and is intended to aid oil companies and wellhead manufacturers in the
selection of materials resistant to sulfide stress cracking. It specifies the materials, heat
treatments, and metal property requirements for components that are exposed to hydrogen
sulfide service.
5.7.2 PCSB Company Specifications
PCSB standards specify that wellheads and trees shall be manufactured and made of
materials in accordance with API Spec 6A. By standardizing wellhead assemblies, PCSB
encourages reuse and interchangeability of salvaged equipment that results in large savings
to the Company.
In addition to API Spec 6A, each office may provide additional provisions to cover the
particular needs of a given field or geographical location. These specifications may include
the following :
1. Purchasing Procedures - including recommended vendors, bidding procedures, and

requisition exceptions for special equipment.
2. Wellhead Assemblies - including the number of side outlets, number and type of
valves of plugs, types of casing heads and tubing heads, and special hanger
assemblies.
3. Christmas Tree Assemblies - including the size of tubing, number and size of valves,
type of tubing suspension, types of metallurgy, types of chokes, types of ring gaskets,
and types and number of pressure gauges.
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4. Testing Specifications - including specifications for Non-Destructive Evaluation

(NDE).
5.7.3 Service Environments
The type of service environment is of paramount importance in equipment selection since it

directly affects the choice of materials. The four major service environments are sweet oil,
sweet gas, sour oil and gas (hydrogen sulfide), and special temperature service. The
equipment for each environment must be tailored for the specific conditions in which it will
serve.
5.7.4 Sweet Oil
PCSB specifies low alloy steel materials for use in sweet (non H2S) oil wells with up to
5,000 psi pressure. Several steel grades are considered to be low alloy steel and hence are
used in PCSB wellheads. A typical grade is AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) 4130.
Other alloy steel sometimes used for sweet oil wellheads are AISI 4140 and AISI 8620-30
grades. The code indicates the material composition of the steel, specifying the inherent
percentages of iron, carbon, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, copper, and other included
metals. At pressures above 5,000 psi, the material for sweet oil wellheads should follow
the specifications for sweet gas.
5.7.5 Sweet Gas
PCSB’s standard for sweet gas wells and for oil wells of over 5,000 psi requires the use of
12-14 percent chromium stainless steel in the (1) tubing head adapter flange, (2) lower
master valve, and (3) choke. The typical grade of steel used in PCSB for these components
is AISI 410. The remaining wellhead and tree components are of alloy steel and designed
to withstand specified design pressures by specification, the ring gaskets are made of 18
percent chromium - 8 percent nickel (AISI 316) stainless steel.
5.7.6 Hydrogen Sulfide
The PCSB Material Specification for Wellhead and Christmas Tree Assemblies Used in
H2S Service requires the use of similar materials as are used in sweet wells; however,
additional requirements must be met. A sour service well is identified according to NACE
MR-01-75. In general, if the partial pressure of H2S is greater than or equal to 0.05 psi, the
material is susceptible to sulfide stress cracking. All parts used under these conditions must
be heat treated as recommended in NACE Standard MR-01-75 to have not more than a
specified maximum material hardness. Material hardness is defined as the resistance of
metal to plastic deformation, usually by indention. In H2S tests, the common unit for
material hardness is Rockwell C hardness, which is obtained by applying a cone-shaped
diamond indentor with a load of 150 kilograms to the material and measuring the depth of
indention. NACE Standard MR-01-75 specifies that all wellhead and tree components
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subjected to H2S must have a controlled hardness. The hardness maximum depends on the
materials used for the components. Rockwell C-22 is the maximum for AISI 410 stainless
and low alloy steel. (Rockwell hardness numbers may be converted to other units of
material hardness by referencing appropriate tables in two other documents - ASTM E140,
and Federal Standard No. 151 Method 241.1).
5.8 SPLITTER WELLHEAD TECHNOLOGY
Splitter wellhead technology permits drilling and completion of three independent wells
through one shared conductor slot. In addition to the advantage of being able to drill,
complete and workover each of the three wells independently, the system uses standard
compact internal wellhead component. The only change required over the conventional
wellhead system is the compact housing external shape to allow spacing of the three
housings. The system is flexible, which allows implementation of standard drilling and
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completion procedures.
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CHAPTER 6
MATERIAL AND TUBULAR SELECTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION …………………….……………………………………………. 5
6.1.1 Chapter Objectives ………….………………………………………. 5
6.2 TUBULAR NOMENCLATURE ………………...………………………………… 6
6.2.1 API Standards and Specifications ..………..………………………... 6

6.2.2 Non-API Standards …………………………………………………. 7
6.2.3 Tubing and Casing ...………………..………………………………. 7
6.2.4 Outside Diameter ………...…………………………………………. 7
6.2.5 Length Range …………….…………………………………………. 7
6.2.6 Weight Per Foot …..………………………………………………... 9
6.3 TUBULAR STRING COMPONENTS ……………………….……….….……… 10
6.3.1 Nipples and Mandrels …..…………….…………………………...... 10

6.3.2 Flow Couplings ….……...…..…….......................…...………….…. 10
6.3.3 Blast Joints ……………………...…...............……………………... 10
6.3.4 Pup Joints …………….……………………………………………... 11
6.4 CORROSIVE WELLBORE FLUIDS ……………..……………..……………… 12
6.4.1 Hydrogen Sulfide – Sour Service ….…...…………………………… 12

6.4.2 Carbon Dioxide – Sweet Service …….…………..…………..……... 13
6.4.3 Corrosion Prevention ……...…………….………..………………… 13
6.5 TUBULAR MATERIALS ………………...………………………......….……….. 16
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6.5.1 Yield Strength …………...…..…….……………….……………..… 16

6.5.2 Hardness ……………..……………….…………………...………… 17
6.5.3 Heat Treatments ………..…………..……………………………...... 18
6.5.4 Chemical Composition ……………………………………………… 18
6.5.5 Grade Specification ………….……………………………………… 19
6.5.6 API Grades ………………...………………………………………... 21
6.5.7 Non-API High Strength Grades …………………….……………..... 22
6.5.8 High-Alloy Steels …………....…….……………….……………..… 22
6.6 TUBULAR PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES ..……………..……..….………... 25

6.6.1 Axial Yield Strength …….…..…….…………….……………..…… 25
6.6.2 Compression ………………...……………………………….……… 26
6.6.3 Burst Resistance ……….…………..………………………………... 26
6.6.4 Collapse Resistance ………….…….……………….……………..… 28
6.6.5 Bending ...………….…….…..…….……………….……………..… 30
6.7 TUBULAR CONNECTIONS …...……………………………………....….......… 31

6.7.1 Purpose of Connections ……….…...……………….……………..... 31
6.7.2 API Specifications ………………………………………...………… 31
6.7.3 Non-API Connections ……………..………………………………... 32
6.7.4 Thread Profiles ……….……………………………………………... 32
6.7.5 Tubular End Finishes ………….……………………………………. 33
6.7.6 Threaded and Coupled Design ……………………………………… 35
6.7.7 Integral Joint Design ……….…...………….……….…………….... 36
6.7.8 Connection Axial Yield Strength …….…………….……………..… 37
6.7.9 Connection Pressure Seal Mechanisms …………….……………..… 38
6.7.10 Tapered Thread Seals ……….….….……………….……………..… 39
6.7.11 Metal-To-Metal Seals ..……….…...……………….……………..… 41
6.7.12 Elastomer Ring Seals ………….…...……………….……………..... 41
6.7.13 Thread Compounds ……….…...……………….……………..…….. 43
6.7.14 Connection For Sour Service ……...……………….……………..… 44
6.7.15 Erosion Resistant Connections …....……………….……………..… 44
6.7.16 Thread Protectors ……….…...……………….……………..………. 45
6.8 CONNECTION MANUFACTURERS ……………….....…………………......… 46
6.8.1 API Connections …….…..............................................................… 46
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6.8.2 U.S. Steel Buttress Tubing …...………………................................. 48

6.8.3 Hydril …...….….………..……………………..............................… 49
6.8.4 Atlas Bradford ………….………………………………………….... 50
6.8.5 Vallourec ……………………………………………………………. 51
6.8.6 Other Manufacturers ……….…...……………….……………..…… 52
6.9 CONNECTION MAKEUP ……………………...……………………………...… 53
6.9.1 Makeup Torque …….……............................................................… 53

6.9.2 API Makeup Recommendations ….……….…..............................…. 55
6.9.3 Torque-Turn Makeup …..………….………..................................… 55
6.9.4 Non-API Connection Makeup ……..……………………………..… 57
6.9.5 Mill End Couplings …………………………………………………. 57
6.9.6 Galling …….………………………………………………………… 57
6.9.7 Thread Preparation ..….……….…...……………….……………..… 58
6.9.8 Tong Notches ……….…...……………….……………..…………... 59
6.10 PRODUCTION TUBING STRING DESIGN CRITERIA …..…….……….….. 60
6.10.1 Design Parameters …….….…......................................................… 60

6.10.2 Design Flowchart .…………………………................................….. 60
6.10.3 Example Tubing String Design ……………………………………... 62
6.11 TUBING SIZE SELECTION …..……….....…………....……………………...… 63
6.11.1 Tubing Flowing Pressure Gradients ……….….….....................…… 63

6.11.2 Tubing Size Effects ……………...….………...............................…. 66
6.11.3 Erosional Velocity …….…….………...........................................… 68
6.11.4 Well Deliverability …….…..……………..………………………… 70
6.11.5 Tubing Size Selection ..……….…...……………….……………..… 70
6.12 TUBING LOAD ANALYSIS …………….....……………....………..………..…. 73
6.12.1 Phases of Well Life …....…..........................................................…. 73

6.12.2 Design Factors ….……...……………………................................... 73
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6.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressure ..…..………………..…………………………. 74

6.12.4 Axial Loads ………...……………………………………………….. 75
6.12.5 Air Weight …………………………………………………………... 75
6.12.6 Buoyant Weight …………….………………………………………. 76
6.12.7 Neutral Point ………………………………………………………... 77
6.12.8 Burst Load …………………………………………………………... 78
6.12.9 Collapse Load ……….…...……………….……………..………….. 80
6.12.10 Collapse Strength Reduction Under Axial Tension ………………… 81
6.12.11 Bending ……….…...……………….……………..………………… 82
6.12.12 Deviated Wells ……….…...……………….……………..…………. 83
6.13 TUBING MOVEMENT ANALYSIS ……………....……..………………….…... 84
6.13.1 Temperature Effects ………..….…...............................................… 84

6.13.2 Ballooning ...……..………………..………………………………… 85
6.13.3 Piston Length Changes ………………………………………………. 87
6.13.4 Total Tubing Movement ……………………………………………. 92
6.13.5 Deviated Wells …..………………………………………………….. 93
6.14 TUBING STABILITY ANALYSIS ……………….…………………………...… 95

6.14.1 General Concepts ...….............................................................…… 95
6.14.2 Buckling Load ….……...………...………..............................……. 96
6.14.3 Stability Neutral Point …….……………....................................... 98
6.14.4 Length Changes …...…………………..…………………………… 99
6.14.5 Helical Curvature ……….…...………..…….……………..………. 101
6.14.6 Deviated Wells ……….…...……………….…………....…………. 102
6.15 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS .....……………………....…….………. 103

6.15.1 Radial Clearance …..….…............................................................. 103
6.15.2 Rod Pumping .…………..………………..………………………… 103
6.15.3 Hydraulic Pumping …………………….…………………………... 103
6.15.4 Submersible Pumps ……….……………………………………….. 104
6.15.5 Washover Operations ………….…………………………………… 104
6.16 REFERENCES ………………...…………………………...…………………...... 105
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1.1 Chapter Objectives
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The cost of tubulars for a well can often comprise a large portion of the total well cost, up
to 20% in some cases. Of course failure of a tubing or casing string can result in major
expenditures and even injuries or loss of life. Therefore, an understanding of oil well
tubulars is necessary. With this in mind, the objectives of this chapter are to :
• Introduce the fundamental nomenclature of oil well tubing and casing,
• Describe tubular steel properties and the effects of wellbore fluids on them,
• Define and describe the threaded connections used to join production tubing,
• Present guidelines and methods for the design of a tubing string,
• Review basic operational considerations for efficient and safe maintenance of the
tubing.
After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to design a typical conventional tubing
string.
6.2 TUBULAR NOMENCLATURE
6.2.1 API Standards and Specifications
The American Petroleum Institute (API) publishes a number of specifications, standards,

and recommended practices containing minimal requirements that the industry should
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follow in the manufacture, performance, and use of oil well tubular goods. Table 1 lists the
presently available API publications that contain information on tubing, casing, and other
oil field tubulars. A manufacturer wishing to sell or manufacture products which conform
to API standards must obtain a license which authorizes the use of the official API
Monogram. The Monogram indicates that the manufacturer has followed API
specifications and that the product should perform to API minimum standards.
Table 1
API Tubing and Casing Specifications and Standards
Publication Title
1. Specification 5A Specification for Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe

2. Specification 5AC Specification for Restricted Yield Strength Casing and Tubing
3. Specification 5AX Specification for High Strength Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe
4. Standard 5B Specification for Threading, Gaging, and Thread Inspection of
Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads
5. Bulletin 5A2 Bulletin on Thread Compounds for Casing, Tubing, and Line
Pipe
6. Bulletin 5C2 Bulletin on Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing, and
Drill Pipe
7. Bulletin 5C3 Bulletin on Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing,
and Line Pipe Properties
8. Bulletin 5C4 Bulletin on Round Thread Casing Joint Strength with
Combined Internal Pressure and Bending
9. Bulletin 5T1 Bulletin on Nondestructive Testing Terminology
10. Recommended Practice 5A5 Recommended Practice for Field Inspection of New Casing,
Tubing, and Plain-End Drill Pipe
11. Recommended Practice 5B1 Recommended Practice for Gaging and Inspection of Casing,
Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads
12. Recommended Practice 5C1 Recommended Practice for Care and Use of Casing and
Tubing
13. Recommended Practice 37 Recommended Practice Proof-Test Procedure for Evaluation
of High-Pressure Casing and Tubing Connection Design
6.2.2 Non-API Tubulars
Non-API tubulars are products designed and manufactured outside the scope of API
specifications and are generally claimed to meet or exceed the minimum performance
standards (burst, tensile, and collapse strength) of API tubulars. Non-API products are
commonly referred to as “proprietary” products denoting that to sell or manufacture a
product of proprietary design requires a licensing or royalty agreement in accordance with
patent rights.
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6.2.3 Tubing and Casing
Two general classifications of oil well pipe are casing and tubing.
Casing is most often used to seal off geologic formations from the wellbore and to prohibit
communication between different formations. After drilling to a predetermined depth,
casing is “run-in” the borehole and the annular space between the casing and the borehole
wall is filled with cement. The cement is used to seal the annulus and to increase the
stability and structural integrity of the casing.
Tubing provides a conduit for the flow of production fluids from the reservoir to the
wellhead, or for the injection of fluids from the surface to a subsurface formation.
Although the tubing is the last string of pipe run in the well, its size is determined first,
before the casing sizes. It is generally not cemented in place. Instead, brine is placed in the
tubing-by-casing annulus. The annular fluid is often called a “packer fluid”. Figure 1
shows a wellbore sketch of typical casing and tubing design for a conventional completion.
6.2.4 Outside Diameter
The API defines tubing to be of outside diameter 1-1/20 inches through 4-1/2 inches and
casing to be of outside diameter 4-1/2 inches and greater. This classification is generally
followed throughout the industry.
6.2.5 Length Range
Oil well tubulars are manufactured in lengths called “joints” (see Figure 2). The API has
specified that tubing joints be manufactured in only two length ranges :
Range 1: 20-24 feet
Range 2: 28-32 feet
The API permits that Range 1 tubing may be specified as 20-28 feet if both the user
manufacturer agree to do so.
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Figure 1. Conventional completion design
Figure 2. Joints of tubing or casing are threaded end-to-end to build a string of pipe
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There are three API standard casing length ranges:
Range 1: 16-25 feet
Range 2: 25-34 feet
Range 3: 34-38 feet
6.2.6 Weight Per Foot
The strength of a tubular - its ability to resist failure under wellbore pressure and axial
loads - can be increased by increasing its wall thickness. But since the API standardizes
tubulars by outside diameter, increasing the wall thickness decreases the inside diameter
and increases the weight. The weight of a tubular is generally expressed as the weight of
the pipe per linear foot, or “weight per foot”, in lb/ft denoted “ppf”. The weight per foot
includes the tubular end finish such as upsets or integral joint finishes. For example, API 3-
1/2 inch, 9.3 ppf EUE tubing has an OD of 3-1/2 inches, an ID of 2.992 inches, wall
thickness of 0.254 inches, and a weight of 9.3 lb per linear foot.
The API publishes standards for only a limited number of weights for a particular size
tubular. For instance, the API only has standards for 3-1/2 inch OD tubing in weights of
7.7, 9.2, 9.3, 10.2, 12.7, and 12.95 ppf. To meet the need for greater strength tubing for
very deep or high pressure wells, several manufactures can supply tubulars in higher
weights. For example 3-1/2 inch tubing is available in non-API weights of 15.8, 16.7, and
17.05 ppf. Non-API weights are available in all sizes of casing and tubing.
6.3 TUBULAR STRING COMPONENTS
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Integral to the tubing string are a number of short tubulars designed as receptacles for
downhole tools or flow control devices. These short tubulars are called “nipples”.
Generally, nipples have specially machined inner and outer profiles to facilitate receiving a
locking device or seal assembly. Figure 3 is an example tubing string design showing
where such equipment is usually placed. A brief description of the most common nipples
and related equipment follows.
6.3.1 Nipples and Mandrels
A landing nipple is a short tubular with threaded connections that is run in the well on the
tubing string string to a predetermined depth. Landing nipples are internally machined to
receive a locking device; and they are internally honed to receive packing for sealing.
Landing nipples are manufactured in all nominal tubing sizes, weights, and threads.
Side pocket mandrels (SPM’s) are devices used to receive injection valves (gas lift valves,
chemical injection valves). They function similarly to landing nipples. SPM’s allow nearly
full tubing flow through its ID while the injection valve is placed in a “side pocket” landing
nipple. This makes the SPM have a large, irregular OD which must be considered in
tubing-casing annular clearance. Landing nipples and side pocket mandrels are discussed in
greater detail in Chapter 22 - Wireline Operations.
6.3.2 Flow Couplings
A flow couplings is a thick wall tubular used as protection against internal erosion. It is
machined with coupling-size outside dimensions and a full-tubing inside diameter. Flow
couplings are positioned immediately above and, in some instances, below a landing nipple
designed to receive a production control device such as a subsurface safety valve, bottom-
hole regulator, or bottom-hole choke.
6.3.3 Blast Joints
Blast joints give added protection against erosion caused by the jetting action of producing
perforations. They are usually manufactured in lengths of 10, 20, and 30 ft and they are run
on the tubing string. They are usually positioned opposite perforated intervals in multiple
completions. Blast joints can be constructed of a variety of very hard, high strength
materials including stainless steel and carbide.
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Figure 3. Typical placement of subsurface tools
6.3.4 Pup Joints
Pup joints are short tubulars of varying length that are used to space downhole equipment.
They are used to fit the tubing string to the specific length requirement of a given well. The
process of exactly fitting the tubing string length into the well at the wellhead is termed
“space-out”.
6.4 CORROSIVE WELLBORE FLUIDS
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Downhole environment factors can affect the design of tubing strings. Specifically, the
corrosive tendencies of hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and brines may alter
choices with regard to materials, sizes, and overall completion equipment. A discussion of
these factors follows.
6.4.1 Hydrogen Sulfide – Sour Services
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can cause brittle failure of tubulars by a mechanism called sulfide
stress cracking (SSC). Figure 4 illustrates the brittle failure of tubing due to sulfide stress
cracking.
The National Association of Corrosive Engineers (NACE) publishes the NACE Standard
MR-01-75 “Material Requirement : Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic material for
Oil Field Equipment”.1 The standard describes and defines materials which have been
used successfully in well environments containing water and hydrogen sulfide. According
to MR-01-75, SSC is affected by the following parameters :
Figure 4.
• Chemical composition of the tubing steel,
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• Tubing steel heat treatment and resulting steel microstructure,
• Tubing steel yield strength,
• pH of the wellbore fluid,
• H2S concentration and total pressure of the environment
• Total tensile stress (applied and residual in the metal structure),
• Temperature,
• Time.
It is known that the hardness of materials in sour environments should not exceed HRC22
(Rockwell C hardness scale) for carbon and low-alloy steels. Failures due to hardness of
material exceeding HRC2 are numerous. Upset tubing which is to be used in sour service
should be fully quenched and tempered or normalized after upsetting to lower hardness
below HRC22. It is best to use pipe that has been quenched and tempered after upsetting.
Some high-alloy steels can be used in H2S environments up to a hardness of HRC35.
However, the selection of these alloys must be done with great care since some alloys can
be susceptible to failure under certain environmental conditions.
One of the requirements for H2S to cause sulfide stress cracking is a state of tensile stress in
the material. If it is known that the well is sour, a stress analysis of the tubing string should
be done to determine if any stresses are near the yield strength. The total tensile stress,
including any residual stresses, should always be considered.
6.4.2 Carbon Dioxide – Sweet Service
In the presence of water, carbon dioxide (CO2) can cause corrosion of tubulars. CO2
generally causes weight loss corrosion, or corrosion pitting. An example of CO2 pitting is
shown in Figure 5. Severe pitting can also be caused by oxygen or H2S dissolved in water.
However, oxygen contacts wellbore water only after it reaches the surface.
6.4.3 Corrosion Prevention
There are three methods used to prevent corrosion of tubulars :
1. Inhibitors
2. Corrosion Resistant Alloys
3. Plastic Coating
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Figure 5. An example of severe pitting on the ID of tubing due to exposure to CO2 and water
Each method may be applicable to a particular corrosion problem. Most often, a

combination of the method is employed. When a corrosion problem appears to be evident,
a materials specialist should be consulted to determine an effective inhibitor program.
Chemical inhibitors are often used to control weight-loss corrosion. These inhibitors can
be oil-soluble, water-dispersible, or water-soluble to suit the needs of the well. Inhibitors
prevent corrosion by forming a thin film on the surface of the tubing which prevents
corrosive fluid from contacting the tube wall. There are in general two methods of treating
a wellbore with inhibitor: batch treatment and continuous treatment. In a batch treatment, a
predetermined volume of inhibitor is injected into the wellbore. The well is then shut in so
that the inhibitor forms the film on the tubing ID. In a continuous treatment, inhibitor is
“continuously” injected into the tubing string through a chemical injection valve (CIV)
placed in a side pocket mandrel or it is pumped through a “kill string” to the packer depth
where it is injected into the production stream. In any case, it is important that production
flow velocity be determined and controlled so that the thin film of inhibitor is not “washed”
away from the tube wall by turbulent fluid flow.
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Corrosion resistant alloys (CRA’s) are stainless or high-alloy steels which have proved to
be particularly resistant to many types of severely corrosive environments. However,
CRA’s are very expensive. Selection of a CRA for tubing or casing must be done with care
and a materials specialist should be consulted as one CRA may be suitable to a certain
corrosive fluid while it may not be suitable for another.
Plastic coating of the tubing inner walls is often used to protect tubing from corrosion.
Although plastic coated tubing is used in many corrosive environments, it is mainly used to
prevent weight loss corrosion. In a sour (H2S) environement, hydrogen can diffuse through
the plastic coating to cause embrittlement cracking. Due to the brittleness of the coating,
various types of coating damage such as scratches or chips can expose tubing materials to
corrosive fluids. Wireline operations through plastic coated tubing should either be
eliminated or else done with great care.
6.5 TUBULAR MATERIALS
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6.5.1 Yield Strength
Casing, tubing, and drill pipe are manufactured from ductile steels. Ductility is the ability
of material to withstand significant (plastic) deformation prior to fracture. A brittle steel
may fracture without appreciable deformation. The strength of a steel is generally indicated
by its yield stress or ultimate tensile strength. Figure 6 is a stress-strain diagram for a
particular ductile steel. A stress-strain diagram is obtained by pulling tension on a small
cylindrical sample of steel. If the tensile load applied is F and the cross-sectional area of
the sample is As, then the axial or tensile stress is given by
F
σa =
(5.1)
As
Figure 6. Stress-strain diagram for a typical ductile steel
Axial strain is defined as the ratio of sample axial elongation due to the applied tensile
loads to the original length of the sample, or
∆L
ε =
(5.2)
L
These concepts are illustrated in Figure 7.
In Figure 6, Point A represents the yield strength (elastic limit) of the steel. If the steel is
stressed below the elastic limit, it returns to its original shape (or zero strain) upon
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unstressing or unloading the specimen. Below the elastic limit, the stress-strain curve is
linear. The API specifies that the yield stress is the tensile stress required to produce a total
elongation of 0.5 percent of the tensile test specimen (or “gage”) length. This is shown as
point A’ in Figure 6. Stresses greater than the elastic limit cause permanent deformation of
the steel which will not diminish after the load is taken away. In most situations, it is
undersirable to exceed the yield stress of a material.
Figure 7. Schematic of a simple tension test specimen
Point B in Figure 6 is the point at which the steel reaches its ultimate tensile strength. The
ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress that the steel can sustain.
6.5.2 Hardness
Another important property of steel is its hardness. Hardness generally increases with
increasing material ultimate tensile strength. When a material is selected to resist wear,
corrosion, erosion, or plastic deformation, it may be important to specify a high hardness.
Very hard materials are brittle and will tens to crack or fracture easily. Hardness is
determined by a test in which a standard load is applied with a small ball or pointed object.
Hardness is then expressed by the depth of indentation caused by the object. Generally, oil-
water tubular hardness is expressed on the “Rockwell C” hardness scale or the “Brinell”
scale.
6.5.3 Heat Treatments
Producing a steel of desired mechanical properties such as yield stress, ultimate tensile
strength, ductility, or hardness, can be achieved by controlling the heat treating portion of
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the manufacturing process and the chemical composition of the steel. Heat treating affects
changes in the microstructure (or gain structure) of the steel which directly affects its
mechanical properties.
Heat treating is an operation involving heating and/or cooling the solid steel tubular to
develop desired steel microstructures. There are generally five different heat treatments
employed in the production of oil well tubulars:
Quenched and Tempered – The steel is heated to 1500°F – 1600°F. The steel is then
rapidly cooled, or quenched, in water or oil to produce a desired microstructure. It is then
reheated, or tempered, at 1000°F – 1300°F to affect a desired combination of strength and
ductility. Quenched and tempered (Q&T) is the preferred method of producing high
strength casing and tubing.
Normalizing – The steel is heated to 1600°F – 1700°F and then cooled in still air to produce
a uniform microstructure and to alter mechanical properties.
Normalized and Tempered - The steel is first normalized, as above, and then tempered and
air cooled. This tempering process slightly lowers the strength from the normalized
condition but improves ductility. It will also help to relieve residual stresses.
Hot Rolled - The tubular is reduced, or shaped to the desired OD, at a very high
temperature. Hot rolling does not cause the changes in microstructure that cold rolling does
(see below). Hot rolling produces a steel similar to the normalized condition.
Cold Drawn and Tempered - The tubular size is reduced to the desired OD at room
temperature, a process which causes high residual stress in the tube and increases hardness
due to plastic deformation. The tubular is then tempered to reform the microstructure from
the cold drawn state. Tempering reduces the hardness and relieves residual stress.
Tubulars manufactures by this process are undersirable.
6.5.4 Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of a steel directly affects all of its mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance. Steels can be classified according to chemical composition as
follows:
Carbon steel is generally considered to be a mixture of iron and carbon with up to 2%

carbon. Actually, carbon steels can contain more than just iron and carbon. Other
elements, such as manganese or silicon, are added for various reasons. Carbon content
varies from 2% (high carbon steel) to 0.25% (low carbon steel). Carbon steels exhibit less
ductility than alloy steels.
Alloy steels are steels containing significant quantities of alloying elements other than
carbon. Steel is generally considered to be an alloy steel when the maximum of the range
given for the content of the alloying elements exceeds one or more of the following limits:
1.65% manganese, 0.6% silicon, 0.6% copper; when a definite range or a minimum quantity
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of any of the following elements is specified or required: aluminum, boron, cobalt,

chromium, niobium, molybdenum, nickel; or when any other alloying elements is added to
obtain a desired or specific effect.
Low-alloy steels contain less than 5% metallic alloying elements. High-alloy steels contain
more than 5% alloy elements; in particular, high concentrations of chromium, molybdenum,
and nickel are used for high-alloy tubulars. High-alloy steels are often called “stainless”
steels (usually containing greater than 12% chromium). High-alloy steels are now being
frequently used in hostile wellbore environments.
6.5.5 Grade Specification
Grade of steel is a classification of the steel according to its yield stress and ultimate tensile
strength, chemical composition, heat treatment or other characteristics. There are many
grades of steel from which tubing and casing are manufactured. In the oil industry, the
grade of of steel is denoted by a letter of the alphabet followed by the minimum yield stress
of the particular steel. For instance, the API standard grade N-80 has a minimum yield
stress of 80,000 psi. The N is merely a distinguishing prefix to avoid confusion between
different steel grades. The various grades of steel from which oil field tubing and casing
are manufactured are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3.
Generally, steel mills manufacture a particular grade having a range of yield stress; that is,
tubulars of the same grade will not have identical yield stress (i.e., the API 0.5 percent
elongation specification will not give identical values of yield stress for a large number of
tubes). Tubulars will be specified to have a specific minimum and maximum yield stress.
The API permits standard ranges of yield strength for each grade. Figure 8 is bar graph
showing the yield stress range (minimum to maximum) of standard API casing and tubing
grade materials.
Table 2
Physical Properties of Casing and Tubing Grades
Yield Strength Tensile Strength Rockwell Oil Country

Nominal -ksi -ksi Hardness Range API Tubulars
Designation Standard
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Min. Max. Min. Ultimate B C Csg Tbg
F-25 25 40 X X
H-40 40 60 5A X X
J-55 55 80 75 7 -16 5A X X
K-55 55 80 95 13 -24 5A X
S-80 55 95 7 -16
C-75 75 90 95 13 -24 5AC X X
L-80 80 95 95 15 -23 5AC X X
N-80 80 110 100 15 -29 5A X X
C-95 95 110 105 17 -28 5AC X X
P-105 105 135 120 5AX X X
P-110 110 140 125 28 -35 5AX X
V-150 150 180 160 35 -39 X
Table 3
Composition of alloy stainless steels used for oil well tubulars and other equipment
Composition, &
Type Materials Fe Ni Cr Mo Cb+Ta Ti Al Cu Others

Stainless steels
Martensitic……… 12-13% Cr bal - 12 - - - - - -
CA6NM bal 4 12 0.70 - - - - -
Precipitation hardened 17-4 PH1 (martensitic) bal 4 17 - - - - 4 -
Custom 4502 bal 6 15 0.75 - - - 1.5 -
(martensic)
A-286 (austenitic) bal 26 15 1.3 - 2.0 0.2 - 0.015B
Austenitic……..... 20Cb-e2 bal 33 20 2.5 1.0 max - - -
904 L7 bal 25 20 4.5 - - - -
Al 6X9 bal 24 20 6.0 - - - -
Sanicro 283 bal 31 27 3.5 - - - -
Duplex (austenitic
ferritic)………….. Af-224 SAF-22053 bal 5.5 22 3 - - - 0.14N
Uranus 50 bal 7 21 2.5 - - - -
Ferralium5 bal 5.5 26 3 - - - 0.1 N min
DP-38 bal 6 25 1.5 - - - 0.1 N min
Nickel alloys
Cold reduced……. Hastelloy C-2765 6 bal 15 16 - - - 2.5 Co max, 4.0 W
Hastelloy G5 20 bal 22 6 2 - - 2.5 Co max, 1.0 W max
Inconel 6256 25 bal 21 9 3.5 0.2 0.2 - -
Incoloy 8256 30 42 22 3 - 0.9 - 2.25 -
Incoloy 8006 45 32 21 - - 0.4 0.4 0.38 -
Precipitation hardened Inconel 7186 19 bal 19 3 5.0 0.9 0.5 0.15 -
Pyromet 312 15 bal 23 2 0.85 2.3 - 1.3 0.005 B
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Figure 8. Minimum to maximum yield stress ranges and ultimate tensile

strengths of API casing and tubing grades
6.5.6 API Grades
API H-40, J-55, K-55, and N-80: These are carbon, very ductile, low-yield strength steels
standardized in “API Specification 5A: Specification for Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe”.
K-55 steel has an ultimate strength of 95,000 psi and J-55 steel has an ultimate strength of
75,000 psi. K-55 grade steel is generally used for casing since a higher ultimate tensile
strength is normally desired for casing. H-40, J-55, and K-55 are satisfactory for use in
hydrogen sulfide environments because of their low yield stress.
N-80 is the strength steel covered in API Spec. 5A. N-80 tubing is commonly ordered
quenched and tempered since this heat treatment results in better quality tubulars for oil
well use. PCSB guidelines restrict the use of N-80 tubulars in sour service to service to
service temperature above 200°F for production casing.
API C-75, L-80, and C-95: These low-alloy grades of steel are covered in “API
Specification 5AC: Restricted Yield Strength Casing and Tubing”. C-75 and L-80 grade
have been used successfully in sour service. Their ultimate tensile strength, yield stress
ranges, hardness, and chemistry are specified. The difference between L-80 and N-80
grades is the maximum yield stress. L-80 has a maximum yield stress of 95,000 psi, while
the maximum yield stress for N-80 is 110,000 psi. The maximum hardness of L-80 is also
restricted to HRC23. Numerous SSC failures have been experienced with C-95; therefore,
PCSB guidelines restrict the use of C-95 grades in sour wells to temperatures above 150°F
(for production casing).
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The API has recently developed a specification for C-90 grade tubulars which will be
acceptable for sour service. This new specification is expected to be included in API Spec
5AC.
API P-105 and P-110: These grades are covered in “API Specification 5AX: High Strength
Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe” and are the highest strength casing and tubing grades
standardized by the API. P-110 material is normally manufactured for casing and P-105 for
tubing. The API specifies that these grades be either quenched and tempered or normalized
and tempered. Most P-110 tubulars are ordered quenched and tempered. These grades are
normally restricted from use in sour environments. In very deep wells where temperatures
exceed 250°F, PCSB guidelines permit the use of P-105 and P-110 tubulars as they are not
as susceptible to stress cracking at such high temperatures.
6.5.7 Non-API High Strength Grades
Some companies have manufactured 95,000 psi yield strength tubing as “high collapse”
tubulars. This means that the tubulars can withstand higher external pressures (that would
cause collapse of the pipe as predicted by API formulas) because of manufacturing
processes that increases its collapse strength. However, full scale testing has shown that in
some cases, such “high collapse” tubulars fail at external pressures equal to the API
collapse resistance pressures (the tubulars may not exhibit higher collapse strength).
Therefore, such “high collapse” tubulars should be regarded as having standard API
collapse strength.
There are also 125,000 psi, 140,000 psi, 150,000 psi, and 155,000 psi yield strength grades.
These are generally used for casing only. Due to the high risk of sulfide stress cracking and
other corrosive/erosive problems associated with such high yield strength materials, these
grades are normally not allowed for use in sour service or are restricted to high temperature
environments.
6.5.8 High-Alloy Steels
The above API and non-API tubular materials are all carbon steels or low-alloy steels.
Table 3 is listing of the basic chemical components of the high-alloy materials (or corrosion
resistant alloys, CRA’s) used in completion tubing and casing.
The use of high-alloy materials has become popular due to their resistance to the corrosive
environments. These materials are metallurgically complex and must be selected on a case-
by-case basis, depending upon the specific environment. A specialist in materials
engineering should be consulted before using high-alloy tubulars.
Several suppliers of CRA materials provide guidelines to help the engineer choose
materials for service in our wells. Two methods, one from Sumitomo and the other from
Kawasaki are provided here in Figures 9 and 10.
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(Note) * Cι– content is less than 50,000 ppm for SM 9CR and SM 13CR
Figure 9. Concept of Material Selection according to Gas

(CO2 and H2S) Partial Pressure (Sumitomo)
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Figure 10. General Guideline For Material Selection For OCTG (Kawasaki)
6.6 TUBULAR PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES
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Performance property values are load limits which when applied to a tubular will cause
yielding or failure of the tubular. The performance properties give the strength of a tubular
under certain loading conditions such as axial tension and internal or external pressure.
“API Bulletin 5C2: Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe” contains the
joint strengths and burst and collapse resistance values for API standard casing, tubing, and
drill pipe”. API Bulletin 5C3: Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, and Line
Pipe Properties” contains the equations used to calculate the performance properties given
in Bul. 5C2. It is important to recognize that tubing performance properties are the loads
(axial, burst, or collapse) required to yield the tubular. Performance properties for tubing
do not predict actual failure loads or permit stress in excess of the minimum yield stress of
the steel. Some performance properties for casing, the axial strength, are based on the
ultimate tensile strength of the steel allowing stress in excess of minimum yield.
6.6.1 Axial Yield Strength
The axial yield strength of the pipe body of a tubular is the axial load necessary to cause the
axial stress to equal the minimum yield stress of the pipe steel. The load is given by the
formula :
π
Py = Sy (OD2 – ID2) (6.1)
4
where:
Py = axial yield strength of the pipe body, lbs.
OD = outside diameter of pipe body, in.
ID = inside diamter of pipe body, in.
Sy = minimum yield strength of pipe body material, psi
For example, the axial yield strength of 3-1/2 in., 9.3 ppf (ID = 2.992 in.), N-80 tubing is :
π
Py = (80,000 psi) (3.5 in.)2 – (2.992 in)2 = 207,200 lb.
4
Tubular threaded connections must also be considered when determining the axial yield
strength of a tubular. Because of the mechanical properties of threads, the connection may
be weaker than the pipe body. These concepts are addressed in this section under the
subject TUBULAR CONNECTIONS.
6.6.2 Compression
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For most oilfield tubular steels, the compressive strength is taken to be equal to the yield
strength in tension. Therefore, compressive strength of the pipe body is equal to its axial
tensile strength.
The compressive strength of tubing threaded connections is also important. Compressive

strength of a connection depends upon thread geometry.
6.6.3 Burst Resistance
Burst resistance of the tubing and casing pipe body is the internal pressure necessary to
cause the tangential (or hoop) stress in the pipe to reach the minimum yield strength of the
pipe steel. There are two formulas used to calculate the burst resistance of oil well tubing
and casing, the Barlow formula and the Lame’ formula.
The Barlow formula is an approximation of the hoop stress in thick walled cylinders under
internal pressure. Burst resistance using the Barlow formula is determined by calculating
the internal pressure required to cause the hoop stress at the ID of the tubular to equal the
minimum yield stress. The Barlow formula is presently used by the API and is given by :
PB = 0.875 2Syt
OD (6.2)
where:
PB = axial yield strength of the pipe body, lbs.
Sy = minimum yield stress of pipe steel, psi,
t = tube wall thickness, in.
OD = Tube outside diameter.
The 0.875 coefficient assumes that the pipe wall meets the API minimum pipe thickness
specification of 8.7% of nominal thickness. For example, the burst resistance of API 3-1/2
in., 9.3 ppf (t = 0.254 in.), N-80 tubing is :
PB = 0.875 2(80,000 psi)(0.254 in.) = 10,160 psi

(3.5 in.)
The Lame’ formula is based on more rigorous theory than the Barlow formula and is given
by :
PL = SY [OD2 – (OD – 1.75 t)2]
(6.3)
[OD2 + (OD – 1.75 t)2]
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The terms are defined in equation 6.1. The coefficient of 1.75 assumes the API minimum
allowable wall thickness (87.5% of nominal). For example, PL is 10,800 psi using the
above example data. The Lame’ pipe body burst resistance value is slightly higher than the
Barlow value.
Figure 9 graphically illustrates the difference between the Barlow and Lame’ burst
resistance values. Note that the plot is for various values of outside diameter to wall
thickness ratio, D/t. API tubulars have D/t ratios in the range of approximately 6 to 45. As
D/t increases the Barlow and lame’ formulas provide approximately equal results. It should
be cautioned that burst design factors used in tubing string design depend upon which
formulas, Barlow or Lame’, are used to compute the hoop stress at the ID of the tubular.
In addition, the API considers connection couplings and thread sealability in determining
internal pressure, or burst resistance. These concepts are addressed later in the discussion
of connections.
Figure 9. Plots of the Barlow and Lame’ burst resistance formulas showing that the Barlow formula
predicts yield at the tube ID at lower pressure than the Lame’ foemula.
6.6.4 Collapse Resistance
Collapse of tubulars is a mode of pipe failure in which the wall cross section becomes
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structurally unstable at a critical external pressure. Since collapse is a stability failure, it

can occur at pipe wall stress values which are greater than or less than the minimum yield
stress of the tube steel. However, the equations used by the API to calculate collapse
strength do not allow for stresses in the tubing wall greater than the minimum yield stress.
Tube wall thickness is a critical parameter. If the tube wall is thin, the tube wall collapse
easily. If the wall is thick, the tube wall can undergo plastic deformation before the wall
collapse.
Pipe collapse formulas are normally expressed as a function of D/t. The API specifies four
different collapse formulas corresponding to different D/t values : (1) yield strength
collapse, (2) plastic collapse, (3) transition collapse, and (4) elastic collapse. Collapse
resistance is determined by first calculating the value of D/t for the given size tubular. API
Bul 5C3 gives the D/t range for each collapse formula. The appropriate formula for the D/t
value is then used to calculate the collapse resistance. Figure 10 is a plot of API collapse
formulas as a function of D/t for N-80 grade tubulars.
Figure 10. API collapse formulas plotted for N-80 grade tubulars.
Yield strength collapse is valid for very thick-walled tubulars (small values of D/t). The
plastic collapse formulas can predict external pressures which can cause hoop stress equal
to or exceeding the tube minimum yield stress. Since it is undesirable to allow stress which
exceeds the minimum yield stress the API uses the external pressure that would cause the
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hoop stress at the inside diameter of the tube wall to equal the minimum yield stress of the
pipe steel.
This formula is given by:
PYp = 2YP (D/t) – 1

(D/t)2 (6.6)
Plastic collapse takes place in slightly thinner walled tubes (when D/t ratios are slightly
larger). There have been many attempts to analytically model this mode of collapse with
varying success. At present, the API uses an empirically derived formula based on a
statistical analysis of full scale external pressure tests on different sizes, grades, and
weights of pipe. This formula is given as :
Pp = YP A -B -C (6.7)
(D/t)
where A, B, and C were determined by a statistical analysis as a function of D/t and pipe
grade.
Transition collapse is due to an anomaly in the statistical analysis used to analyze plastic
collapse data. The plastic collapse equation, when plotted, does not intersect the elastic
collapse equation (given below). So that a smooth transition occurs between plastic and
elastic collapse, the transition collapse formula was statistically derived. It is given as :
PT = YP F -B (6.8)
(D/t)
when F and G were determined statistically as functions of D/t and steel grade.
Elastic collapse is valid for very thin wall tubes and is analytically derived by considering
the external pressure necessary to cross-sectionally buckle a very slightly eccentric or out-
of-round cylinder. However, this formula is not meant for cylinders of elliptical cross
section. The formula is given as :
46.95 x 106 (6.9)

PE =
(D/t)[(D/t) – 1]2
It is well known that axial tension can lower collapse resistance. This is a result of a
combined stress state arising from hoop, radial, and axial tensile stresses. Methods to
derate collapse resistance due to axial tension are discussed under the subject TUBING
LOAD ANALYSIS.
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6.6.5 Bending
Bending is usually considered as an axial stress. Bending of a tubular causes the axial
stress in the outer fiber of a bend to increase and the axial stress on the inner fiber of the
bend to decrease. That is, the inner fiber bending stress is compressive and the outer fiber
bending stress is tensile. Figure 11 illustrates the stresses induced by bending. Axial stress
due to axial tensile or compressive loading and bending stress are algebraically added to
give total axial stress at the fiber. Bending of a threaded connection causes loss of thread
contact that can lead to loss of pressure integrity. However, analysis of the bending of
threaded connections is considerably more complicated.
Figure 11. The effects of bending on a connection and on the axial stress in the tube body
6.7 TUBULAR CONNECTIONS
6.7.1 Purpose Of Connections
Threads are machined onto the ends of a tubing joint (see Figure 12) so that two joints can
be connected end-to-end to build a string.
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The function of the threaded connection is to provide a mechanism for joining oil well
tubular joints which :
• Hold the string together under axial design loads, and
• Provides internal and external pressure seal integrity.
The most desirable connection design would enable the connection to withstand the same
loads as the pipe body.
Figure 12. A typical threaded and coupled tubular connection
6.7.2 API Specifications
The API standards and specifications apply only to API tubing and casing connections. The
standard dimensions and tolerances of API thread forms are contained in “API Standard 5B:
Specification for Threading, Gaging, and Thread Inspection of Casing, Tubing, and Line
Pipe Threads” and “API Recommended Practice 5B1 : Recommended Practice for Gaging
and Inspection of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads”.
6.7.3 Non-API Connections
Non-API connections have performance properties, manufacturing tolerances, and

operational guidelines determined by the manufacturer. Usually, some of the non-API
connection information is proprietary. The designs of non-API connections enable them to
provide greater axial strength, a smaller connection OD, and in some cases improved
sealability at higher pressures. Industry criteria concerning when (i.e., at what depth,
Pp =toYuse
pressure, etc.) P - B connections
non-API -C rather than API connections varies widely.
Pp = YP -B -C
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However, most major operators indicate that non-API connections are considered for use
when differential pressure across the tubing exceeds 3000 psi to 5000 psi and well depth
exceeds about 10,000 to 12,000 feet.
There are four basic differences between API and non-API connections :
• axial load strength,
• additional downhole radial clearance,
• performance in severely corrosive or erosive environments,
• price.
To increase the joint yield strength of a connection while keeping the outside diameter of
the connection close to the tubing outside diameter requires a structurally stronger thread
form than the API threads. Greater axial strength without increasing the outside diameter is
also needed when clearance problems arise between tubing and casing. Certain non-API
connections are claimed to minimize connection stresses. Generally, the less expensive
API connections are used unless downhole conditions dictate otherwise.
6.7.4 Thread Profiles
Shown in Figure 13 are the four most basic thread profiles used on oil field casing and
tubing threaded connections. Figure 13a is the API round-thread profile standardized in
API Standard 5B. This thread profile is cut onto API casing, tubing and line pipe. As
shown, the threads are symmetrical, both thread flanks are 30° and the total thread angle is
60°.
The Acme thread profile is shown in Figure 13b. It is also symmetric and is used on only a
few non-API connections.
The API buttress casing thread profile is shown in Figure 13c. The buttress thread flank
angles are not equal. The steeper flank of the profile shown is often called the load flank as
it transfers axial load when the connection is in tension. The opposite flank is usually
called the lead or stab flank as this flank is in contact with the coupling flank when the pin
is stabbed or lowered into the box during makeup. Buttress threads are used on API casing
only, the API does not publish standards for tubing connections with buttress threads.
Many non-API connections employ buttress type threads on tubing and casing with
variations in the flank angles.
Hook threads, shown in figure 13d, are buttress type threads in which the load flank is cut
at a negative angle. When the connection is loaded in axial tension the threads tend to grip.
This is claimed to produce greater axial strength and reduce the possibility of jumpout
under high axial loading. Hook type threads have been used primarily on casing
connections where axial strength is a primary concern.
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6.7.5 Tubular End Finishes
There are two basic tubing end-finishes upon which threads are machined: non-upset-end
and upset-end. Non-upset-end tubing, illustrated in Figure 14a, is simply tubing
manufactured with threads machined on the outer surface of the tubing end. When threads
are cut onto the surface of the tubing end, the cross-sectional area of the tubing underneath
the threads is decreased. The smaller cross section results in higher axial stress in the
threaded end.
To keep the threaded end at least as strong as the tubing body, material must be added to
the tubing end to increase the cross-sectional area below the threads. This is called
upsetting the end of the tubing. Upset tubing is shown in Figure 14b.
Tubing can be upset either externally, internally, or both. Although upsetting increases the
strength of the connection, it also increases the outside diameter and/or decreases the inside
diameter of the connection. In completions where radial clearance is limited, external
upsetting can be a problem. Excessive internal upsetting can cause problems running
downhole tools.
Upsetting of tubing is a manufacturing process that may change the microstructure of the
tubing steel in the neighborhood of the upset. If upset tubing is not properly heat-treated,
changes in microstructure can enhance corrosion/erosion problems. Upset tubing should
always be ordered heat treated quenched and tempered or normalized to assure a
homogeneous microstructure in the tube body-upset transition area.
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Figure 13. Four basic thread profiles used for oil well casing and tubing connections
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Figure 14. Tubular end finishes
6.7.6 Threaded And Coupled Design
Threaded and coupled tubing is shown in Figure 12. It consists of tubing joints with
threads cut on either upset or non-upset ends and a short piece of tubing approximately 3 to
6 inches in length called a coupling, or collar. The coupling, named for the fact that it
“couples” the joints, has a cylindrical outer diameter with threads cut into the inner
diameter. The threaded tubing end is commonly referred to as the pin. The coupling is
sometimes referred to as the box.
As seen in Figure 12, the diameter of the coupling is larger than the tubing body. In tight
fitting completions (such as multiple completions) it is possible for the coupling shoulder to
get hung-up or stuck on the internal profile of the casing connection or on the coupling of
another tubing string. Hang-up is illustrated in Figure 15. Similarly, logging tools could
hang-up in the tubing on the inside shoulder of the coupling.
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Figure 15. An example of couplings hanging-up during tubing manipulation in a dual completion
6.7.7 Integral Joint Design
Integral connections, shown in Figure 16, do not employ couplings. Instead, each joint has
a pin and box. Figure 16 shows an integral connection using a torque shoulder on the
external diameter. A torque shoulder is a machined surface at the end of the threads whose
main purpose is to halt makeup; that is, once the tube end hits the shoulder while screwing
the joints together, makeup cannot continue.
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Figure 16. Example of a typical integral joint connection design
6.7.8 Connection Axial Yield Strength
Tubing body axial yield strength is calculated as the force required to yield the tubing with
respect to the cross-sectional area of the tubing body. The axial yield strength of a threaded
connection is similarly calculated. However, the cross-sectional area of the threaded
connection must be considered. Figure 14a shows the detail of a non-upset API threaded
and coupled tubing connection pin end. Note the position of the last complete thread. This
section is the weakest of a non-upset connection. Hence, the yield strength of this
connection is taken at that point.
Upset tubing, as shown in Figure 14b, has at least the same cross-sectional area under its
last fully engaged thread as the tubing body, so that the connection has the same strength as
the tube body.
Sometimes, the axial yield strength of the connection is referred to as the joint yield load.
The cross section at which this yield load is calculated is the critical cross section shown in
Figure 14. The axial strength, or yield load, is given by
P = AcrSy (7.1)
where:
P = the axial load required to yield the critical cross section,

Acr = critical cross-sectional area, in2 and
Sy = yield stress of tubing or coupling steel, psi.
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An alternate means of expressing the axial strength of a tubular connection is joint

efficiency. The connection strength may be larger, smaller, or equal to the tubing body
depending on the connection cross-sectional area and the coupling steel (if different from
the joint steel). The ratio of the connection strength to the body strength expressed as a
percentage is defined as the joint efficiency, or
connection axial strength (7.2)

ej = X 100%
pipe body axial strength
Since the connection and the pipe body are generally made of the same steel, the yield
strength or ultimate tensile strength of the coupling (or box) and pin will be the same.
Since pipe body or connection strength is the product of critical area and material strength,
the joint efficiency can bee written as
Acrit
ej = X 100%
Apipe (7.3)
where Acrit is the connection critical cross-sectional area and Apipe is the pipe body cross-
sectional area.
Most connections do not have a joint efficiency of 100%. There are some connections with
a joint efficiency in excess of 100%. For example, most upset and integral joint
connections have at least 100% joint efficiency due to the increased wall thickness in the
upset ends.
Joint strength also depends upon thread profile. Generally, the coarser the thread profile,
the greater the axial strength of the joint. Round-threads may have a tendency to slip apart
under very high tensile loads due to thread deformation during axial loading. The
combined effects of the hoop, axial, and bending stresses in the threads produce radial
displacement. If radial displacement is large enough, the threads will slip apart until
insufficient joint tensile strength is left and the connection fails. This mode of failure is
commonly called jumpout, pullout, or unzippering. To prevent jumpout, square threads
with a steeper load-flank angle (greater than the round-thread 30°) such as buttress or hook-
type forms are often used in very deep wells where axial tension is large.
6.7.9 Connection Pressure Seal Mechanisms
To prevent gas or liquid from leaking through the threading of a tubing connection four
basic sealing mechanisms are utilized:
• Tapered thread interference fit
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• Metal to metal seals (shoulder and lip seals)
• Elastomers (ring seals)
• Thread compound
All tubing connections presently available use one or a combination of the above four
mechanisms.
6.7.10 Tapered Thread Seals
All API tubing connections utilize tapered threads which function as the primary sealing
mechanism (along with thread compound). Many non-API connections also employ
tapered threads, but the threads usually do not function as the primary seal. The tapered
threads of non-API connections serve as a secondary seal and to prevent downhole break-
out by the development of thread interference. This fact is sometimes used to denote the
difference between API and non-API connections.
Threads which are cut on an angle to the tube axis, on a taper, generate interference
between the threads. Interference produces a bearing pressure between the pin and box
thread flank surfaces. The further the pin is screwed into the box, the greater the
interference and the greater the bearing pressure produced. This bearing pressure caused by
the contact between pin and box thread flanks is the sealing mechanism. This mechanism is
illustrated in Figure 17.
The bearing pressure discussed above is generated solely by making up the connection.
However, it can be seen from Figure 18 that internal and external pressures have an effect
on the contact pressure between pin and box threads. The maximum sealable internal
pressure is theoretically equal to the bearing pressure caused by make-up and internal
pressure combined. Maximum sealable external pressure is found in a similar fashion.
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• THE PIN HAS ADVANCES INTO THE BOX N TURNS.

• THE PIN TRAVELS DISTANCE PN.
• BECAUSE OF TAPER, THE DIAMETER OF PIN AT HAND
TIGHT POINT IS STRAINED TO SMALLER DIAMETER WHEN
PIN IS SCREWED INTO COUPLING.
• THE INTERFERENCE IS THE DIFFERENCE IN THE DIAMETER
OF THE PIN AT THE HAND TIGHT PLANE AND THE
DIAMETER OF THE PIN AT THE HAND TIGHT POINT IN
POWER IN POSITION.
E1 = DIAMETER OF PIN AT THE HAND TIGHT PLANE
Figure 17. The principal behind pressure sealibility of tapered threads
Figure 18. Internal and external fluid pressure can affect the magnitude
of the taper-induced thread bearing pressure
In April 1983, the API published a supplement to “API Bulletin 5C3: Formulas and
Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe, and Line Pipe Properties”. This supplement
presents a formula for determining the internal leak resistance of API casing and tubing
round-thread and Buttress connections. The formula gives the maximum sealable pressure
considering bearing pressure due to make-up and internal pressure. The API has adopted
use of the formula not to determine sealability of API threads, but to derate tubular burst
resistance based on the assumption that the thread may leak before the ID of the tube body
reaches the yield stress. Additionally, the API considers burst resistance of the coupling.
The coupling is considered as a short piece of tube and the coupling dimensions are
substituted into the API tube body burst resistance (Barlow) equation.
The minimum of the three calculations of burst resistance (tube body, coupling, and thread
sealability) is the internal pressure resistance given in API Bul 5C2.
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6.7.11 Metal-To-Metal Seals
The sealing mechanism of metal-to-metal seals is similar to the tapered connection. Two
smooth metal surfaces mate during makeup to produce a bearing pressure as a result of
metal-interference between the surfaces. However, whereas the seal is formed along the
entire helical length of the thread flanks on a tapered-thread interference fit seal, metal-to-
metal seals are usually placed at the beginning or end of the thread length. Metal-to-metal
seals are generally considered to be of two types: lip seals and torque-shoulder seals.
Figure 19 shows a connection with metal-to-metal seals.
Figure 19. Tubing connection employing metal-to-metal torque shoulder and lip seals.
6.7.12 Elastomer Ring Seals
Many non-API connection manufactures use an elastomeric ring seal as additional sealing
protection.
Most manufactures use a combination of 75% Teflon and 25% fiberglass. Some
connections employ the seal ring at the end of the pin against an internal shoulder. Other
connections have the ring seal placed in a machined groove in the threaded profile. Figure
20 shows a connection using a Teflon seal ring.
The distortion temperature of Teflon is about 260° and at higher temperatures the ring may
permanently deform. At temperatures close to 400°F Teflon becomes extremely soft and
will flow. Therefore most connection manufactures place an upper limit of about 300°F for
the reliable operation of Teflon seal rings.
It has frequently been reported that Teflon seal rings can get shredded and torn during
makeup. This is primarily due to improper preparation during seal ring placement prior to
makeup. The ring groove should be thoroughly cleaned and dried before inserting the seal.
Careful attention to thread cleanliness and ring placement are essential to error free running
of connections with Teflon ring seals.
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Figure 20. Tubing connection employing an elastomer seal ring in the thread region.
6.7.13 Thread Compounds
Thread compounds serve three basic functions:
• to seal gaps and thread clearances on and around the threads
• to lubricate the threads during make-up
• to assist in the prevention of galling due to metal-to-metal contact.
To accomplish these functions, thread compounds are composed of fine ductile metal
particles dispersed in a grease base.
In any thread profile there are helical passageways at the crests and roots or along the flanks
of the threads due to design tolerances (see Figure 13). There may also be nicks, cuts, or
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scratches in the thread surface caused by careless handling. To keep gases or liquids from
seeping through these clearances, thread compounds are used.
As the connection is made up, the gaps between the threads are gradually reduced forcing
the metal particles into the thread clearances. The powdered metals deform and compact
tightly together to fill the voids. In the most desirable circumstances, the powdered metallic
particles flatten out. Flattening out of the metallic particles allows grease and gases (air
bubbles) to be squeezed away from the metal particles so that the particles are compressed
into a solid mass which completely fills the thread clearances.3
“API Bulletin 5A2: Thread Compounds for Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe” gives
specifications for the amount of metallic and non-metallic components, and performance
test procedures for two standard thread compounds. The two compounds are: silicone
thread compound and modified thread compound. Silicone thread compound contains
silicone and modified thread compound does not. Section 1 of Bul. 5A2 lists the metallic
composition of the compounds as:
Table 4
Metallic Constituents of API Thread Compounds

(Percent by Weight)
Constituent Metallic Solids Compound
Powdered graphite 28.0 18.0 ± 1.0

Lead powder 47.5 30.5 ± 0.6
Zinc dust 19.3 12.2 ± 0.6
Copper flake 5.2 3.3 ± 0.3
Total 100.0% 64.0%
The applicable temperature range of a thread compound is also a very important

consideration. API Bul. 5A2 specifies that the modified and silicone thread compounds
should function adequately up to 300°F. That is, the compound should be able to hold a
seal on connections up to 10,000 psi pressure at 300°F. However, these thread compound
specifications should not be interpreted as threaded connection seability requirements. The
thread compound standards are to be used for lab tests to determine if a particular
compound meets API specification.
Thread compound is not an antigalling agent in itself. The prevention of galling is mainly
accomplished by thread surface treatments such as electroplating the threads with tin or
zinc or phosphatizing the threads. However, thread compounds help lubricate threads so
that excessive friction does not cause galling.
6.7.14 Connection For Sour Service
Tensile stresses in connections are the result of the combined effects of makeup, tensile
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load in the string, and internal/external pressure effects. Control of connection stresses is a
function mainly of connection design and amount makeup. These two parameters are not
independent of one another. Generally, makeup causes certain radial and, more
importantly, hoop tension stresses to develop in a connection.
Connections with little or no taper generate less interference which results in lower makeup
hoop stresses. Therefore, joint design can be effective in controlling stress corrosion
cracking (SSC) by H2S. Results of experimental investigation have indicated that a two-
step non-tapered connection design generates low overall hoop stress.4
Due to the limited knowledge of the stress characteristics of API connections, use of API
connections on tubing strings in sour wells should be avoided.
6.7.15 Erosion Resistant Connections
Abrupt changes in flow area can cause turbulence in high velocity/high productivity wells.
Such turbulence can cause erosion of the pipe wall near the pin ends, especially if the well
also produces sand. This problem is further aggravated by the presence of a corrosive fluid
such as carbon dioxide. Therefore, connections with flush or smooth internal profiles
should be used in high velocity hostile production wells. These connections use an internal
shoulder at the box or coupling center to create a continuous inner diameter. An example is
shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21. A tubing connection employing a flush internal profile to prevent turbulent flow
6.7.16 Thread Protectors
Of the entire tubular, the threaded ends are perhaps the most vulnerable to damage and
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defects. Even small scratches on the threads can cause leaks or failure. Therefore,
adequate protection of the threads is very important. Thread protectors are threaded caps
and plugs which are screwed onto the pin and box ends of the tubulars to protect the threads
from damage. They should be on all tubulars during shipping, in storage and on the rack
while the tubing is awaiting running-in. Figure 22 shows several different thread
protectors.
Traditionally, thread protectors have been made of steel to afford durability while
maintaining low cost. However, high impact plastic protectors with metal reinforcement
are now considered desirable. These are referred to as composite protectors.
Figure 22. Typical thread protectors used for casing or tubing connections
6.8 CONNECTION MANUFACTURERS
This subject contains brief descriptions of the most commonly used production tubing
connections presently available. Since most non-API manufacturers offer several
connections based on the same design principle, only the design philosophy of non-API
connection manufacturers will be given.
6.8.1 API Connections
API NON-UPSET - This is threaded and coupled connection and is probably the oldest,
most basic design for a tubing connection (see Figure 23). It has a low joint efficiency and
is therefore primarily used in shallow to moderate depth wells. Sealing is accomplished
with a tapered round-thread interference seal mechanism.
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Figure 23. API Non-upset tubing connection
API EXTERNAL-UPSET-END (EUE) - The API EUE connection, shown in Figure 24, is
threaded and coupled and is the strongest in axial yield strength of all the API tubing
connections. It exhibits an externally upset pin end to increase joint strength. It has 100%
joint efficiency in all sizes, hence it can be used in moderate to deep wells. Sealing is a
tapered round-thread interference fit seal mechanism.
Figure 24. API External-upset-end tubing connection

API INTEGRAL JOINT (IJ) - The API integral joint tubing connection, Figure 25, was
designed in an effort to develop a non-threaded and coupled, high tensile strength tubing
connection to be used in tight clearance completions where non-upset did not provide
sufficient joint strength and EUE couplings were too large. Additionally, it was intended
that such a connection be suitable for use as a work string. The connection is stronger than
non-upset tubing but not quite as strong as EUE tubing. This connection is most often used
as a work string.
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Figure 25. API Integral joint tubing connection
API LONG-THREAD CASING (LTC) - The API LTC connection is a threaded and coupled,
non-upset casing connection. It employs API round threads identical to the tubing round
threads. The seal mechanism is the thread interference fit. The joint efficiency varies
between 62% and 68% depending upon sizes, weight and grade. Figure 26 shows the API
LTC profile.
Figure 26. API Long-thread casing connection
API SHORT-THREAD CASING (STC) - The API short-thread casing connection is almost
identical to the LTC connection. The STC connection is used on thin wall casing where the
long thread length of the LTC connection would result in a sharp chamfer at the pin end.
The STC connection has the lowest axial strength capacity of all API casing connections.
The joint efficiency of the STC connection varies from 46% to 54% depending on the
outside diameter and weight per foot of the tube body.
API Buttress-Thread Casing (BTC) - Figure 27 is an illustration of the Buttress casing

connection. The API lists specifications for Buttress threads for casing only. Complete
thread run-out, threads are in full contact at the tube body outer diameter, and the square
thread profile enable this connection to attain nearly 100% joint efficiency without
upsetting. The connection seal mechanism is the tapered thread interference fit.
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Figure 27. API Buttress-thread casing connection
The Buttress thread profile has larger thread clearance than API round thread casing and
tubing. It is difficult to seal high pressure gas with Buttress threads due to the large thread
clearance. It has been a practice to heavily tin plate Buttress threads to help fill thread
clearances.
6.8.2 U. S. Steel Buttress Tubing
U.S. Steel manufactures a Buttress-thread tubing connection, the “Improved Buttress

Threaded” connection, shown in Figure 28. The thread form is slightly different than the
API BTC thread (the load flank is 0°). The pin and box threads run out completely. The
joint efficiency is nearly 100% with no external-upsetting. The sealing mechanism is
identical to the API tapered connection sealing.
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Figure 28. U.S. Steel Improved Buttress-thread tubing connection and thread profile
6.8.3 Hydril
Hydril offers several integral joint and threaded and coupled designs. Hydril was the first
to use a “two-step straight thread” connection. A schematic of a typical Hydril two-step
thread profile connection is shown in Figure 29.
Most Hydril tubing connections have modified buttress threads. There is no thread
interference since there is no thread taper. Therefore, the threads do not function as a seal.
Rather, threads are used to provide axial strength and mechanical advantage to load torque
shoulders and metal-to-metal seals. Hydril also offers an optional Teflon-fiberglass seal
ring to prevent corrosive fluids from entering the thread path. Since the threads are non-
tapered with no interference, little hoop stress in the connection is generated by makeup.
Some patents on the Hydril “two-steps” thread profile design have expired. There are now
many service companies which offer a variety of connections based on Hydril “two-step”
designs. Otis Premium Thread Service (PTS), which used to be a principal licensee to cut
Hydril threads, now offers a complete line of “two-step” threaded connections. Otis PTS
guarantees interchangability of their connections with Hydril’s.
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Figure 29. Hydril CS-CB tubing connection
6.8.4 Atlas Bradford
Atlas Bradford’s connection designs utilize multiple sealing mechanisms and Atlas
Bradford’s proprietary modified Buttress thread profile. Atlas Bradford offers both integral
joint and T&C designs. The sealing elements will be two or more of the following
depending on the connection design: (1) shoulder seal at the pin nose, (2) a metal-to-metal
lip seal just above the pin nose, (3) a Teflon-fiberglass ring seal, and (4) interference-fit
tapered modified buttress thread seal.
Although the threads are tapered, the interference between the box and pin is not usually as
great as the API connections. The primary use of the taper-induced interference is to
prevent down-hole breakout. Figure 30a shows the Atlas Bradford DSS-HTC “Dual Seal”
tubing connection.
Atlas Bradford also manufacturers a threaded and coupled connection, the TC-4S
“Quadraseal”, which has been used on large diameter producting tubing. The TC-4S is
shown in Figure 30b. Atlas Bradford and some other companies manufacturer a modified
API coupling. The coupling has a groove machined into its ID into which a Teflon-
fiberglass seal ring is installed as an additional seal mechanism. This is shown in Figure
31.
Figure 30. Two of Atlas Bradford’s tubing connections
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Figure 31. Modified API coupling in which a Teflon-fiberglass seal ring is used
to improve pressure sealability
6.8.5 Vallourec
Vallourec is a French based company whose tubing and casing connections have been used
widely in North Sea completions. There are 3 Vallourec tubing connections, each designed
for different for different service environments: VAM, (shown in Figure 32), VAM-AF,
and VAM-AG. The thread profile is of the buttress type. All of the designs share the same
basic characteristics, differing mainly in certain coupling dimensions.
The basic seal mechanism of VAM tubing connections is 30° tapered seal, as shown in
Figure 32. The pin end mates against the coupling shoulder and make-up theoretically
wedges the 30° seal surface on the pin nose against a similar surface on the coupling. The
casing size VAM connection seals in a slightly different manner. The metal-to-metal seal is
a 2.5° seal surface located between the pin threads and the 30° chamfer.
Otis Engineering Corporation (OTS-PTS) obtained permission, as a principal licensee, to

cut VAM threading in the United States.
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Figure 32. Vallourec VAM connection design
6.8.6 Other Manufacturers
There are many other companies that offer non-API connection designs. Most of these
designs employ multiple-to-metal seal, modified buttress or hook-type thread profiles, and
usually include a Teflon-fiberglass type secondary seal.
6.9 CONNECTION MAKEUP
6.9.1 Makeup Torque
Making up tubular connections by applying torque with rig tongs has been the prevalent
method of makeup for many years (see Figure 33). Loss of pressure integrity or failure of a
string can be caused by improper make up practices. Threads should always be thoroughly
cleaned with a solvent such as Varsol and a bristle brush before applying thread compound
or putting on thread protectors. The threads should always be visually inspected for
damage or defects before makeup.
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To screw together any threaded connection, torque is required to overcome friction and
interference between the pin and box threads. However, tubing and casing require careful
consideration of the torque necessary for makeup to provide a strong connection and assure
a leak tight seal against pressured production fluids, especially gas. The amount of torque
necessary to provide a leakproof connection is dependent mainly upon the following
parameters:
• Thread compound,
• Surface preparation of the thread (plating or phosphatizing), and
• Thread profile (type of connection or sealing mechanism).
To form a reliable seal, torque is applied by tongs and makeup of the connection continues
until sufficient pin-to-box interference is developed. The pin thread surfaces conform to
the box thread surface so that the voids above the threads are filled with thread dope
metallic filler and optimum bearing pressure is achieved. Similarly, sufficient torque must
be applied to connections using metal-to-metal seals to develop the necessary bearing
pressure between the seal surfaces.
The torque applied during makeup with the tongs is dependent upon the coefficient of
friction of the thread compound. If the coefficient of friction is high, the torque must work
mainly to overcome the friction and makeup is slow. If the coefficient of friction is low,
applied torque causes faster rotation of the pin into the box and a lower torque can be used
for makeup. Thus the lubricity of the compound, or the coefficient of friction, can control
the makeup. Either over-makeup or under-makeup can cause many problems; for instance,
insufficient joint strength, leaking, and overstressing.
The tool joints used on drilling tubulars employ large torque shoulders which function as a
seal. Because of its design, tool joints require a thread compound with a high coefficient of
friction. Tubing and casing thread compounds can cause damaging over-makeup of tool
joints due to their lower coefficient of friction; tubing and casing thread compounds should
never be used on tool-joint threads.
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A. STABBING THE PIN INTO THE BOX
B. APPLYING TORQUE WITH TONGS
Figure 33.
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6.9.2 API Makeup Recommendations
Optimum recommended makeup torques for API connections are given in API RP 5C1.
These recommendations apply to API Standard 5B connections only. Tables of makeup
torque values are supplied by all manufacturers of connections and these values are usually
determined by experiment or general oil field experience.
“API RP 5C1 : Care and Use of Casing and Tubing” also contains recommended makeup
procedures. The API recommends that the connection should be made up approximately
two turns beyond the hand-tight position. To prevent galling, the connections should not be
made up at speeds in excess of 25 rpm.
6.9.3 Torque-Turn Makeup
In a effort to reduce leaks by placing makeup of API connections upon a more operationally
reliable foundation, Humble (Exxon) developed a method of makeup based not only on
torque but also on the axial distance the pin is screwed into the box, he turns. This method
of makeup is called torque-turn6. An illustration of torque-turn makeup in the field is
shown in Figure 34. It should be understood that the torque-turn theory was developed in
an effort to increase the seal reliability of API threaded-and-coupled connections which
employ interference-fit tapered threads and no metal-to-metal seals. Therefore torque-turn
is best applied to API connections. This does not imply that API connections that are
torque-turned are hence superior to other connections; it means that torque-turned API
connections may provide a more reliable seal than API connections which are not torque-
turned.
The seal of API threaded-and-coupled tubing and casing connections is controlled by the
bearing pressure between the pin and coupling threads generated during makeup. During
initial makeup, the pin rotates into the coupling with ease until the hand-tight position is
reached. After the hand-tight position, metal-interference generates bearing pressure.
Thus, the sealability is a function of the number of rotations, the “turns”, of the pin into the
box after the hand-tight position is reached. Since connections are also made up by using
torque only, a relation exists between torque and turns to makeup. The relationship is the
basis for torque-turn.
The torque-turn method of makeup should be specified for production casing and tubing
with API connections in order to reduce the incidence of leaking strings. Specifically,
torque-turn should be used when the differential pressure across the connection is over
3000 psi. The higher the well pressure, the more important this recommendation becomes.
A. TORQUE INDICATOR ON TOP OF TONG WITH HORN WHICH INDICATES OVERTORQUE

OR OVERTURNS. A LOAD CELL IS ATTACHED TO THE TONGS TO INDICATE TORQUE.
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B. SCHEMATIC AND ACTUAL TORQUE-TURN

COUNTERS
Figure 34. Torque-turn operations and equipment
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6.9.4 Non-API Connection Makeup
Non-API connection makeup procedures are governed by the recommendations of the

manufacturer. These guidelines are usually contained in manufacturer’s bulletins on
running and pulling procedures. Generally, the manufacturer will provide a representative
to oversee the running of the first string equipped with their connection.
6.9.5 Mill End Couplings
Sometimes, tubing is shipped from a mill with the coupling made up on one end of the
tubing. This end of the tubing is called the “mill-end”. It has been reported that the mill-
ends of couplings are subject to excessive leaks7. It is thought that this is due to the
redistribution of thread compound in the mill-end threads during transportation from the
mill to the field. Also, drying up or sublimation of the thread compound grease base will
leave only the solidly compacted metal powder on the threads. This can cause damage
during breakout of connections and could even render breakout impossible. Therefore, it is
often suggested for high pressure, critical wells that couplings be boxed separately from the
tubing and floated on in the field so that the user can apply the compound as required.
6.9.6 Galling
Galling is a common problem occurring during makeup of any threaded connections.

Threads can become so severely deformed during makeup that breakout of the connection is
impossible and threads may have to be recut. Galling is the result of very high bearing
stress induced by interference between metal surfaces causing the surfaces to bond. The
two surfaces are severely deformed (galled) when one surface is moved relative to the
other. This galling is caused by excessive friction and interference between the pin and the
box thread surfaces during connection makeup. An example of thread galling is shown in
Figure 35.
Excessive friction can be caused by dirty threads, improper makeup speed, excessive thread
tolerance or improper thread compound. As mentioned previously, pin and box threads
should be thoroughly cleaned. Adequate thread cleanliness and control of makeup speed
can prevent most galling problems.
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Figure 35. Extreme galling of API round-threads
6.9.7 Thread Preparations
Galling and friction between surfaces of similar materials is greater than between dissimilar
materials. Therefore electroplating the threads of a tubular connection with a thin layer of
a malleable metal different from the thread metal is widely practiced to prevent galling
caused by friction and surface irregularities. The two most commonly used metals for
electroplating the thread surfaces are zinc and tin. Zinc and tin are most usually plated onto
the coupling thread - that is, upon the entire internal surface of the box. This is done to
protect the plating from chipping and additional damage by dragging a plated pin end on the
rig floor.
Zinc is by far the most commonly electroplated metal. Tin, being more malleable than zinc,
has generally been used on those threads with large spacing in the profiles such as Buttress
or Acme threading and on high yield strength grades of pipe (material above P-110).
Another method used to reduce galling of threads is phosphatizing (or parkerizing).

Phosphatizing is most commonly used for non-API metal-to-metal seal connections.
Phosphatizing is not an electroplating process; it is based on chemical reactions. A
phospate crylstalline structure or etching is formed which tends to hold the thread
compound in place so that the compound will not be wiped away under the action of
bearing stress during makeup and cause metal-to-metal contact.
Tubing and casing connections made of high-alloy steels have been known to experience
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severe thread galling problems during makeup. Galling of high alloy casing threads is
much more a problem than galling of smaller tubing size connections. Glass bead peening
or sand blasting of tubular threads is often practiced during manufacture to harden and
texture the immediate surface of the threads for prevention of galling. Copper
electroplating of coupling threads has been used as an anti-galling practice for high-alloy
connections.
6.9.8 Tong Notches
Tong notches in high-strength tubular goods have caused both tubing and casing failures.
Properly designed and maintained hydraulic-powered tongs with special contoured tong
dies will minimize notching.
Instances in which tong marks should be carefully guarded against are:
• High strength tubulars (P-110 and above),
• High-alloy tubulars, and
• Any tubulars to be used in H2S environments.
Tong dies and slip teeth should be inspected frequently to assure that they are sharp.
6.10 PRODUCTION TUBING STRING DESIGN CRITERIA
6.10.1 Design Parameters
The design of a production tubing string that will safely and efficiently bring hydrocarbons
to the surface over the life of the well requires the consideration of a variety of parameters.
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The parameters that are most important in production tubing string design are :
• Tubing ID (production rates)
• Tubing manufacturing process and steel composition (corrosion resistance)
• Tubing grade (yield strength)
• Wall thickness (body yield strength)
• Threaded connection selection (joint yield strength)
• Tubing string landing procedures (stability)
• Future enhanced recovery options and operational considerations
When selecting the tubing for a well completion, the tubing should consist of a single
weight and grade (in tapered strings each section of string should consist of one weight and
grade). This is very important in order to prevent mixing various weights and grades in a
string when tubing is pulled and rerun during a workover. Additionally, some tubing
strings may eventually be used as worksrings.
6.10.2 Design Flowchart
A flowchart which is helpful in designing a production tubing string is given in Figure 36.
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Figure 36. Flowchart for conventional production tubing string design
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6.10.3 Example Tubing String Design
To best illustrate the calculations involved in designing a production tubing string, an

example string will be designed step-by-step during the remainder of this chapter. The well
data for this example is given below in Table 5.
Table 5
Example Tubing String Design Data
Well type : Standard, non-corrosive (no CO2 or H2S)

Reservoir fluid : oil with gas
Gas-to-liquid ratio (GLR) :1000 scf/bbl
Produced water : 0%
Reservoir depth : 12,500 ft
Packer depth : 12,000 ft
Reservoir pressure (BHP) : 6000 psi (9.2 ppg equivalent)
Reservoir temperature (BHST) : 235°F
Surface ambient temperature : 80°F
Oil density : 7.260 ppg (30°API)
Gas gravity : 0.80 (rel. To air)
Packer fluid (completion fluid) density = 9.5 ppg
6.11 TUBING SIZE SELECTION
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Selecting the optimum size for a production tubing string requires a study of single and
two-phase flow of oil and/or gas through the pipe. Knowledge of the relationships between
flowing pressures through the reservoir and through the tubing are required. Generally, the
following steps are taken to determine optimum tubing size:
• Develop pressure gradients for various size tubing
• Develop flowrate versus pressure drop, flowing wellhead pressure, or flowing

bottomhole pressure plots for various tubing sizes
• Consider effects such as erosional velocity, possible future artificial lift requirements,
and other operational constraints.
It may be desirable to select a tubing size to
• Maintain a specific wellhead pressure,
• Produce at a specific flowrate,
• Maintain a specific bottomhole pressure.
Cost and availability of tubulars must also be considered. Well economics may be a
limiting factor.
6.11.1 Tubing Flowing Pressure Gradients
Hydrocarbons are delivered to the wellbore under pressure from a reservoir. Due to flow
restrictions through the reservoir rock and the perforations,, the flowing bottomhole
pressure (FBHP) will be less than the reservoir pressure. Thus, there is a fluid pressure
drop from the reservoir to the wellbore (below the tubing string).
To transport reservoir fluids through the tubing vertically against gravity causes a change in
potential energy. The flow of fluids through the tubing also causes losses in energy due to
flowing friction effects. These energy changes and losses manifest themselves in the form
of pressure losses as the fluid flows from the bottom of the well to the surface. Figure 37
illustrates pressure losses from the reservoir to the surface in a flowing well.
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Figure 37. Pressure losses in a flowing production well
The flowing pressure drop per increment of tubing length from bottom hole to the wellhead,
the pressure gradient, can be generally written as the sum of two pressure losses:
∆p gρ 4f pv2
= gc + ( d)
∆L 2gc
(11.1)
where:
∆p/∆L = pressure loss per increment of pipe length, (lbf/ft2)/ft

f = Fanning friction factor
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec2
gc = dimensional constant, 32.17 lbm-ft/lbf-sec2
ρ = density of fluid, lbm/ft3
v = fluid velocity, ft/sec
d = inside diameter of pipe or tubing, ft
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The first term on the right hand side of equation (11.1) describes the pressure loss due to
the change in potential energy of lifting the fluid of density ρ. This term is also known as
the static head loss. The second term gives the friction pressure drop of flowing liquid.
Since fluid velocity can be put in terms of the flowrate, Q, (see the following topic) the
friction term can be seen to be a function of flowrate, tubing ID, and a friction factor
(usually empirically derived). In practice, if the density is constant with depth, then
equation (11.1) can be solved exactly. However, for true multiphase flow or compressible
fluids, the density is a function of depth and the equation will have to be approximated
using numerical integration methods.
Flowing pressure gradients for the flow of the example well fluid through various tubing
string sizes are shown in Figure 38. Such gradients are generated using computer programs
which use one of many available pressure gradient correlations. For each of the plots in
Figure 38 flow rate, tubing ID, and basic fluid properties such as viscosity, gas and oil
densities, gas-liquid ratio (GLR), and water cut, plus either the FWHP or FBHP must be
given initially as known, or input, data. Given FBHP, the FWHP is calculated by the
program, or vice versa.
Figure 38. Flowing pressure plots for the example well data.
The FWHP was held constant at 1000 psi.
6.11.2 Tubing Size Effects
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Figure 39 shows plots of the following friction pressure drop for increasing flowrate
through various size tubing strings using the example well data. Frictional pressure losses
increase with decreasing tubing size. The pressure drop due to friction as given in equation
(11.1) can be written as a function of fluid velocity or flowrate :
∆pf = ( 4f) ρv2

=
32fρQ2
∆L d 2gc πgcd5 (11.2)
where
∆pf/∆L = pressure drop due to friction, (lbf/ft2)/ft

f = Fanning friction factor
v = fluid velocity,ft/sec
Q = fluid flowrate, ft3/sec
d = Inside diameter of tubing, ft
ρ = Fluid density, lbm/ft3
For a given flowrate, as the tubing ID decreases, the fluid velocity increases and friction
pressure drop increases.
Figure 39. Flowing friction pressure drop for increasing oil flowrate for different size tubing strings
Shown in Figure 40 are plots of total pressure drop (i.e. static head and frictional pressure
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losses) versus flowrate for various tubing sizes using the example well data. As the
pressure in the formation or the tubing declines below the bubble point, gas and liquid can
physically separate, that is, gas can break out of the mixture.
As gas breaks out, it rises faster than the liquid due to its lower density. If enough gas
breaks out and the velocity is sufficiently low, the heavier liquid may fall back in the string.
This phenomenon is also referred to as liquid hold-up. The pressure drop associated with
the increased fluid head may be high enough to kill a low BHP well. Liquid hold-up is the
reason the pressure drop for 4-1/2-in. tubing in Figure 40 is greater at 500 bbl/d than at
3000 bbl/d.
Figure 40. Total pressure drop (flowing friction plus head) with increasing oil
flowrate for different size tubing strings
It is also important to consider pressure drop when injecting through tubing. The principles
of analysis are the same for injection as they are for production, since pressure loss
increases with increasing flow rate and decreasing tubing ID. In injection operations such
as fracturing, acid stimulation, or any other fluid injection process, it is sometimes
important that a specific bottom hole pressure be maintained. Therefore, flowing pressure
gradients for injection through different tubing sizes need to be considered.
6.11.3 Erosional Velocity
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High velocity, two-phase flow of gas and liquid can cause tubing wall erosion. Wall loss
can be accelerated if the flow contains sand. Erosion can also be accelerated if a corrosive
agent such as CO2 is present. For sand-free production the API recommends that the fluid
velocity through the tubing be kept below a maximum velocity called the erosional velocity.
It is extremely important to understand that the API recommendation is for sand-free
production. There are at present no specific API guidelines for production fluids with
solids. Fluid velocity can be reduced by increasing the tubing ID. “API Recommended
Practice 14E : Design and Installation of Offshore Production Platform Piping Systems”
contains an equation for the erosional velocity:
ve = C
⊕ρm (11.3)
where
ve = fluid erosional velicity, ft/sec

c = an empirical constant
= 125 for sand free intermittent flow
= 100 for sand free continuous flow
ρm = gas/liquid mixture density at flowing pressure and temperature,
lbm/ft3
The mixture density is given by:
ρm = 12409SlP + 2.7RSgP
198.7P + RT z (11.3)
P = operating pressure, psi

Sl = liquid specific gravity (water = 1; use average gravity for
hydrocarbon-water mixtures)
R = gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl
T = operating temperature, °R
Sg = gas specific gravity (air = 1)
z = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless
The value of c in equation (11.3) is of particular importance. The value for c given above is
a standard API value. Some investigators have suggested changing c to account for sand
production.8 If the following fluid contains sand or a corrosive gas, it is generally
recommended that c should be reduced by 20-40%.
Once ve is calculated, the minimum flow area can be calculated from the API equation
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9.35 + RT
Ae =
21.25P
ve (11.4)
Ae = minimum flow area, in2/1000 bbl liquid per day

R = gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl
T = operating temperature, °R
P = operating pressure, psi
Then the minimum ID to prevent the fluid from exceeding the erosional velocity is derived
from the simple equation for area:
Ae = π (IDe)2/4
(11.5)
Figure 41 shows an example of a high productivity gas well where erosion velocity limits
tubing size.
Figure 41. An example of how the API erosional velocity limit is used to determine the minimum FWHP.
Above the minimum FWHP, the API erosion velocity is exceeded.
6.11.4 Well Deliverability
The reservoir delivers hydrocarbons to the wellbore by means of a pressure drop from the
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formation to the wellbore. The relationship between the flowrate delivered by the reservoir
and the FBHP is called an inflow performance relationship (IPR).
The IPR for a given reservoir is unique and depends on the reservoir pressure, formation
rock properties, fluid viscosity, near wellbore damage, and turbulence. The IPR for the
example well is shown in Figure 42. The FBHP necessary for a particular rate on the IPR
curve is then used to determine the tubing deliverability. Tubing deliverability concerns the
flow rate available from a particular tubing size. This was addressed in the Tubing Size
Effects topic. It should be understood that the FBHP, tubing size, FWHP, and flowrate, Q,
are somewhat interdependent. This is why it is usually necessary to consider parametric
studies if FBHP, FWHP, flowrate, and tubing size to select an optimum tubing diameter.
6.11.5 Tubing Size Selection
Several considerations must be made in selecting the optimum tubing ID: FWHP
requirements for the pipeline or for the pipeline or for efficient separator operation, future
water production or artificial lift requirements, operational or drilling limitations, and
tubular cost and availability.
Required FWHP - Using an IPR curve to determine FBHP, a plot of FWHP versus flow
rate can be developed for various tubing sizes. Figure 43 shows such a plot for the example
well.
The friction pressure loss in the small ID tubing results in low FWHP at high rates. Thus, if
a higher FWHP pressure was required, larger ID tubing would be needed.
Future artificial lift - Figure 44 shows FBHP for increasing flowrate with an increasing
percentage of liquid being produced. The increasing liquid content increases the density of
the production fluid and increases the FBHP. This in turn decreases the drawdown
reducing the feed-in-rate. Lower rate implies lower velocity which aggravates the fall-back
problem. The well kills itself. Injecting gas into the tubing (for example through a gas lift
valve in a side pocket mandrel) lowers the mixture density and the FBHP. This increases
the drawdown and permits higher feed-in-rates from the formation. Higher rate implies
higher velocity mitigating fall-back. Smaller ID tubing could also reduce liquid fall back,
but at the expense of initial oil production rate.
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Figure 42. Inflow performance relationship (IPR) for the example well reservoir data
Figure 43. Deliverability curve for the example well data
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Figure 44. A plot of the FBHP for increasing flowrate at different water cuts shows
that gas lift may be required to produce the well.
Operational and Drilling Limitations - In some areas, particularly offshore, there may be
government regulations on the size or type of casing and tubing strings. There are often
cases where limitations exist on downhole equipment availability, such as the size and
rating of subsurface safety valves. In other instances, overall well development may require
consideration. For instance, it may be very difficult to drill a large diameter hole in some
areas and this may require that smaller tubing and casing sizes be utilized despite the desire
for optimum production hydraulics.
Cost and Availability - In some instances, local tubular stocks may have an oversupply of a
particular size or grade of tubing. For economic efficiency it may be desirable to use such
tubulars even if they are not optimum for the given application, but do meet most needs. As
mentioned previously, it may be so expensive to use large tubing and casing to drill and
complete a well that tubular sizes are dictated by well development cost, not optimum flow
rate.
Example:
As discussed above, there are many factors affecting the selection of tubing size. Certain
local guidelines and tubular availability restrictions may apply which cannot be considered.
It is assumed that 3-1/2-in. OD tubing has been selected for the example well. It should be
noted that although there are many weights of 3-1/2-in. available, the change in ID from one
weight to another does not appreciably affect flowing pressure gradients.
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6.12 TUBING LOAD ANALYSIS
The purpose of this section is to define and quantity the different loads that can act on a
tubing string during well operations. Generally, the tubing is subjected to the following
loads:
(1) Axial tension and compression
(2) Burst
(3) Collapse
(4) Bending
The sign convention followed in this text is that tension forces and stresses are considered
positive (+) and compressed forced and stresses are considered negative (-).
Also covered are the design factors used to ensure that the tubing string design is
structurally sound and will not fail (or yield) under expected or unexpected wellbore
conditions.
6.12.1 Phases Of Well Life
In general, a well will pass through four operational phases during its life (not necessarily
in this order):
(1) Setting or landing - The packer and tubing are run in the hole and set. An initial
stress (tension or compression) may be applied to the tubing before it is hung in the
wellhead.
(2) Shut-in - The wing valve is closed and the well is prevented from flowing.
(3) Production - Production fluid flows due to pressure.
(4) Stimulation or injection - Fluid is injected under pressure into the tubing string
during fracturing jobs, acid jobs, or when killing the well.
Each particular operation causes changes in well temperature and pressure which results in
changing tubing loads.
6.12.2 Design Factors
Design factors are used to ensure that the tubular strength ratings are sufficient to withstand
expected wellbore loads and an additional amount of unexpected loading. The tubular
axial, burst, or collapse rating is divided by the design factor to give a reduced rating or
working load for the tubular. Tubular maximum loads should not exceed the working load.
The design factors given below are primarily a result of industry experience.
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Tension Design Factor - The tension design factor ranges from 1.5-1.8. The axial rating
selected is the minimum of the pipe body strength and the connection strength. The tubular
load is calculated on the basis of the string hanging freely in air; buoyancy is generally
neglected in production tubing design. If there is reasonable confidence in the prediction of
downhole forces or if the completion is being designed for a well developed area, lower
design factors, 1.5 to 1.6, are used. If the completion is for an exploratory or step-out well,
or if the downhole environment is known to be hostile, larger design factors, 1.7 to 1.8, are
suggested. If predicted wellbore temperature and pressure changes increase tubing loads so
that the design factor is exceeded, stronger tubing is required or alternate completion
operations should be considered (e.g., initial tubing stress when landed, annulus pressure
during stimulation, etc.).
Burst Design Factor - The recommended burst design factor ranges from 1.125 to 1.312
with lower factors for low pressure, well developed wells and higher factors for high
pressure corrosive wells. If the Lame’ formula is used to develop tubular burst strength
ratings, then the following design factors are recommended:
• 1.125 for standard well-developed fields
• 1.312 for hostile or high pressure or exploratory wells
Different design factors may be appropriate if the burst design is based on the Barlow
Formula.
Collapse Design Factor - The collapse design factor for production tubing is 1.125.
6.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressure
Due to its density, a column of fluid exerts pressure beneath its surface. The pressure at
any depth is due to the weight of the fluid above it. This pressure is referred to as the
hydrostatic pressure or hydrostatic head and is given by the density of the fluid times the
depth:
PH = 0.052 Hρ (12.1)
where :
PH = hydrostatic pressure at depth H, psi

ρ = fluid density, ppg (lbm/gal)
H = depth, ft
The coefficient 0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal is a conversion factor.
If pressure is applied at the surface of the well, the total static pressure at depth H will be
given by the sum of the applied surface pressure and hydrostatic head of fluid:
P = Psurf + 0.052 Hρ (12.2)
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where : Psurf = surface pressure, psi
6.12.4 Axial Loads
Axial or longitudinal tubing loads are the most difficult of all loads to accurately predict
due to the many different forces acting on the string in the well. Initial axial tensile or
compressive loads are generated by the buoyant weight of the tubing during initial landing
operations. After landing, the well is shut-in, brought onto production, or injected with
fluid. These operations cause changes in well pressures and temperatures with
corresponding changes in axial loads. Temperature changes cause changes in axial loads if
the tubing is prevented from elongating or contracting by the packer. Buckling also causes
axial and lateral loads.
6.12.5 Air Weight
The air weight, or weight in air, of a tubing string is simply the product of the weight per
foot of the tubing and the length of the tubing string:
Wair = wL (12.3)
Wair = air weight of tubing, lb,

w = nominal weight per foot of tubing, ppf, and
L = total length of tubing string, ft
The air weight is used to initially determine the required tubing weight and grade. Air
weight is used because the tubing will sometimes be anchored to a packer and often
additional axial tension load above the buoyant weight of the string will be pulled at the
surface. Additionally, the air weight can be an actual tubing load which occurs when
perforations become plugged and the tubing is evacuated or when a well is swabbed tot he
perforations.
Example:
As previously stated, 3-1/2-in. OD tubing was selected for the example well design. Using
tables of tubing performance properties such as given in API Bul 5C2 or the Halliburton
Cementing Tables, the lowest weight and grade (and therefore the cheapest) 3-1/2-in.
Tubing is 7.70 ppf, J-55 non-upset tubing with an axial yield strength of 89,470 lb.
Since this is a standard, non-corrosive well, apply a design factor of 1.5 so the working load
is
89,470 lb
= 59,647 lb
1.5
The air weight is
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Wair = (7.70 ppf)(12,000 ft) = 92,400 lb
7.70 ppf, J-55, NU tubing is inadequate since its working load of 59,700 lb is much less
than its air weight. However, checking the performance property tables again, it is found
that 9.3 ppf, N-80, EUE tubing has a joint yield load of 207,220 lb.
Applying the design factor to the axial yield strength:
207,220 lb = 138,146 lb
1.5
The air weight of the 9.3 ppf tubing string is
(9.3 ppf)(12,000 ft) = 111,600 lb
The 3-1/2-in. OD, 9.3 ppf, N-80 EUE tubing is adequate based on air weight. The initial
choice is therefore to use 9.3 ppf, N-80 tubing with EUE connections. Note also that this
well has differential tubing pressure greater than 3000 psi and that it is 12,000 ft deep. This
may require that torque-turn makeup of the EUE connections is required or that a non-API
connection with greater than 100% joint efficiency is required.
6.12.6 Buoyant Weight
It is important to consider the effects of fluid buoyancy on tubing or casing when

determining the reduction in collapse resistance due to axial tension or when considering
fishing operations. Buoyancy is also important when considering tubing or casing string
stability. When a tubing or casing string (or any object) is totally submerged in a fluid, its
weight is reduced by an amount equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the string. This
effect of reduced weight is buoyancy. By subtracting the weight of the fluid displaced by
the string from the air weight of the string the following equation can be derived for the
buoyant weight of the string:
WB = (B.F.)Wair
(12.4)
where :
WB = Buoyant weight, lb
Wair = air weight of tubing, lb,
B.F. = (65.5-ρ) / 65.5 = buoyance factor, and
ρ = Wellbore fluid density, ppg
65.5 = An average velue for the density of steel (some high-alloy
materials may have a slightly different density), ppg
Example:
The completion fluid (in which the tubing will set in the packer) is a 9.5 ppg brine.
Therefore, the buoyancy factor is
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65.5 - 9.5
BF = 65.5 = 0.85
and the buoyant weight for the 3-1/2-in. OD, 9.3 ppf, N-80 tubing is
WB = (0.85)(111,600 lb) = 94,860 lb
6.12.7 Neutral Point
Figure 45 shows a plot of the axial load in a tubing string hanging in air. Note that the axial
load is always a tensile load and varies from the air weight at the surface to zero at the
bottom of the string. This is due to the fact that each joint from the surface down must hold
the weight of the remaining tubing below it and there is no load or support acting upward
against the string.
A buoyant force can be considered to act upward against the end of the string to cause a
compressive axial load in the tubing string. The compression decreases with distance from
the bottom of the string as tension in the string increases due to the weight of all the tubing
below the depth of interest. This is also shown in Figure 45 which shows a plot of axial
load versus depth of a tubing string is zero, that is, changes from tension to compression, is
called the neutral point. The neutral point is used to determine the depth at which collapse
rating should be derated for axial tension (discussed later). The neutral point of a tubing
string in a fluid filled wellbore is given by:
n = (B.F.)L (12.5)
where :
n = neutral point, ft
B.F. = buoyancy factor
L = tubing depth, ft
Example:
Using the previously calculated buoyancy factor, 0.85, n = (0.85)(12,000 ft) = 10,200 ft
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Figure 45. Plots of axial load versus depth for a tubing string in air and in a fluid
6.12.8 Burst Load
After selecting the tubing weight and grade based on tubing string tension (air weight), the
burst strength of the tubing must be checked to ensure that the tube wall thickness (given by
the weight per foot) is adequate to prevent burst failure due to internal pressure. In some
areas, abnormal pressure zones may exist at shallow depths. While the wellbore may not be
considered deep (less 8000-10,000 ft), extremely high internal pressure may be possible.
Thus, some districts or divisions may require that maximum burst load be considered before
tension in the string design process. However, in most cases, tension will cause the greatest
load on a tubing string.
The differential pressure acting across the tubing wall due to an internal pressure greater
than the external pressure is known as the burst load. The maximum burst load will
normally occur at the depth at which there is no external pressure, or back up. This
normally occurs at the surface just below the wellhead where there is often little or no
annular surface pressure. This is illustrated in Figure 46.
The worst case tubing burst load will normally occur during shut-in or during stimulation
(injection) operations when high tubing surface pressure exists.
After determining the worst case burst load, the burst resistance of the tubing is checked.
The burst resistance rating is divided by the appropriate burst design factor to determine the
maximum allowable burst load for the tubing. If the allowable load is less than the
calculated maximum burst load, a higher weight tubing (greater wall thickness) or higher
steel grade (greater yield strength) is required.
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Figure 46. Plot tubing and annulus pressure with depth. The maximum differential pressure, the
burst load, occurs at the surface.
Example:
As a worst case, the production fluid is assumed to be gas (this may not be a bad
assumption as many wells which initially produce oil and gas may begin to produce more
gas at a later time). The maximum shut-in tubing pressure (SITP) for a 2.0 ppg gas is found
by equation (12.2).
SITP = 6000 psi - 0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal (2.0 ppg)(12,500 ft) = 4700 psi
The burst rating of 3-1/2-in. OD, 9.3 ppf, N-80 tubing is 10,160 psi (this value is found
from API Bul. 5C2 or the Halliburton Cementing Tables). Applying a 1.125 burst design
factor for a standard, non-critical well,
10,160 psi
1.125 = 9031 psi > 4700 psi
The tubing weight and grade is adequate under maximum burst load.
6.12.9 Collapse Load
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The differential pressure acting across the tubing wall due to external (annulus) pressure
greater than tubing pressure is the collapse load. In designing the string for maximum
structural integrity, the maximum collapse load is assumed to be the pressure differential
occurring when the tubing is empty and external pressure is a maximum. This can be an
actual wellbore occurrence when the tubing is swabbed to the packer depth or below.
Maximum external pressure occurs at the bottom of the tubing string just above the packer
where the pressure is equal to the surface pressure plus the hydrostatic head of the annular
fluid. This is illustrated in Figure 47.
Collapse resistance tables are checked to determine if the tubing wall thickness and grade
selected under the assumed maximum burst load condition is adequate to withstand the
maximum collapse load without failure. The collapse resistance rating is divided by the
appropriate collapse design factor. If the collapse load is less than the collapse resistance
value (with the collapse factor applied), then the tubing is sufficient. If not, a greater wall
thickness is required.
Figure 47. Plot of external (annulus) pressure versus depth witht the tubing assumed to be empty.
The maximum collapse load generally occurs at packer depth.
Example:
The maximum external pressure occurs at the packer depth due to the packer fluid
hydrostatic head with no tubing presure:
0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal (9.5 ppg) (12,000 ft) = 5928 psi
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The collapse rating of 3-1/2-in OD, 9.3 ppf, N-80 tubing is 10,530 psi. Applying the
collapse design factor of 1.125,
10,530 psi = 9360 psi > 5928 psi

1.125
The tubing is adequate to withstand external pressure.
6.12.10 Collapse Resistance Reduction Under Axial Tension
The collapse resistance of a tubular is reduced under the combined loading of external
pressure and axial tension. This concept is illustrated in Figure 48. In single OD (non-
tapered), tubing strings these effects are usually negligible since the maximum collapse
load generally occurs at the packer, but near the packer the tubing is in compression or very
little tension. Compression does not reduce collapse strength. However, the reduction in
collapse strength may be considerable in the bottom joints of the upper sections of a tapered
tubing string (just above a crossover) where tension may be large and a collapse pressure
differential may exists. Collapse derating is a more important consideration in casing
design where multitapered strings are frequently required.
Figure 48. Schematic showing changes in tubing dimensions when axial tension is applied.
The combined state of stress resulting from the tensions and pressures result in reducing
the collapse resistance of the tube.
A method for derating collapse resistance values is given in “API Bulletin 5C3: Formulas
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and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe Properties”. The method is based on
the Huber-von Mises-Hencky energy of distortion yield strength theory. The equation is
used to derate the yield strength of the tubular due to a triaxial state of stress. The reduced
yield strength is then used in the API collapse resistance formulas (given earlier) to
determine the derated collapse resistance. Additionally, tables of derated collapse
resistance for various axial tension loads for each API tubular grade are contained in the
most recent edition of “API Bulletin 5C2: Performance Properties of Casing Tubing and
Drill Pipe”.
6.12.11 Bending
Wellbore dog legs or tubing instability (buckling) cause bending stresses. Bending stress is
evaluated as a fiber stress (a compressive or tensile stress). The maximum tensile fiber
stress and maximum compressive fiber stress is then added to the pipe axial stress at the
corresponding inner and outer diameters. Bending stress is assumed to contribute to
tension stress.
Figure 49 is a schematic of a simple deviated wellbore. An approximate equation for the

bending load due to the rate of deviation angle, in degrees per 100 ft, is
BI ϕ 63 (OD) θ ‘ w (12.6)
where :
BI = maximum bending force in pipe, lb

OD = outside diameter of pipe, in.
θ‘ = rate of change of angle, degree per 100 ft
w = weight per foot of tubing or casing, ppf
Equation (12.9) is applicable to in-plane bending which takes place in kick-off points or
key-seats. The equation is not applicable to the evaluation of bending stress due to
helically buckled tubing strings (this is considered in the Tubing Stability Analysis subject).
Example:
The example well given earlier is not deviated. However, for illustration assume the well
has a 1.5°/100 ft dog leg at 2500 ft. The bending load would be
BI = 63(3.5 in) (1.5°/100 ft) (9.3 ppf) = 3076 lb
This is taken as an axial load and would be added to the total axial load to see if the joint
tensile load is too high.
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Figure 49. Simple deviated wellbore showing bending load at the kickoff point.
6.12.12 Deviated Wells
Wellbore deviation can appreciably effect wellbore loads. Aside from the bending effect
discussed immediately above, the following should be done in selecting tubulars or
designing tubing strings for a deviated well.
Tension - The measured depth (MD) of tubing should be used in equation (12.3). Also, the
effect of tubing-casing friction due to tubing laying on the low side of the hole or in contact
with casing in a dog leg may cause trouble in attempting to release from a packer and
pulling the tubing. Therefore, an additional tension, overpull, of between 15,000 lb to
25,000 lb may be added to the result of equation (12.3) to approximate friction effects.
Burst - The true vertical depth (TVD) is used to calculate wellbore pressures as hydrostatic
effects depend on gravity.
Collapse - Use TVD for the same reasons as addressed in burst.
In determining the effect of wellbore inclination on burst and collapse loads, the equation
for wellbore static pressure is modified as follows
p = psurf + 0.052 LTVD ρ (12.7)
where LTVD = true vertical depth, ft

6.13 TUBING MOVEMENT ANALYSIS
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This section presents the equations needed to calculate the length changes, or tubing
movements, due to changes in wellbore temperature and pressure during different well
operations. For instance, during the change from initial landing of the tubing in the packer
to bringing the well on production, the tubing temperature and pressure increase. The
tubing will elongate and the axial loads will change due to pressure changes. In this text,
elongation of a tubular is considered positive (+) and contraction of a tubular is negative (-).
Burst and collapse loads will also change due to pressure changes, but these loads were
already checked on a worst case basis.
All examples in this section are based on the example well data given previously. Example
calculations of each tubing movement will be given. Tubing movements will be based on
the well being stimulated to increase productivity. The tubing is assumed to be free to
move up or down within the packer, axial load changes for anchored tubing will not be
calculated.
6.13.1 Temperature Effects
Consider that the tubing string has initial wellhead and bottomhole temperatures of WHTi
and BHTi, respectively. Then, the tubing fluid is changed or the fluid heats or cools to the
final wellhead and bottomhole temperatures WHTf and BHTf, respectively. The change in
average tubing string temperature from the initial to final conditions is given by:
WHTf + BHTf WHTi + BHTi

∆Τ = − (13.1)
2 2
Hooke’s law is then used to derive the change in tubing string length due to the change in
average string temperature, or:
LT = αL ∆Τ (13.2)
where :
∆LT = change in tubing length, ft

α = 6.9 X 10-6/°F = coefficient of thermal expansion of tubing steel
L = length of tubing string, ft, and
∆Τ = change in average tubing temperature, °F
Equations (13.1) and (13.2) are only approximate. They are only truly valid if the
temperature gradient is linear. In reality, the temperature of the wellbore fluid varies
nonlinearly with depth. Therefore, equations (13.1) and (13.2) are usually applied over
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small segments (or increments) of tubing and the results of equation (13.2) summed to
provide the total tubing movement.
There are many computer programs available within PCSB which calculate temperature and
pressure gradients. It is important to note that gases (which are compressible) behave very
differently than liquids (incompressible) and care must be taken in generating reliable
temperature data from computer programs.
Example:
The well is to be stimulated by injecting a 9.5 ppg 28% HCl solution at 5 barrels per minute
under 3000 psi wellhead pressure. Using one of the many available thermal simulator
computer programs, it is found that the bottomhole temperature (BHT) after injecting the
acid is 107°F. The decrease in average tubing temperature is
80 + 107 80 + 235
∆Τ = − = − 64°F
2 2
The corresponding length change (contraction) is
∆LΤ = (6.9 X 10-6/°F) (12,000 ft) (-64°F) = -5.30 ft
If the tubing is latched at the packer, the tubing axial load is increased (tension) or
decreased (compression) according to the sign of ∆T. This change in load can be derived
from Hooke’s law as:
∆F = -207 As ∆T
where As is the tubing cross-sectional area.
6.13.2 Ballooning
Hooke’s law in the generalized, three-dimensional form implies that when a solid is subject
to tensile forces acting in two perpendicular directions, the contraction in the third
(perpendicular) direction will be proportional to the stresses. This is known as the Poisson
effect and when applied to long pipes is called ballooning or pipe squeeze. Figure 50
illustrates ballooning. Internal and external pressure applied to tubing causes radial and
hoop stresses in the tubing. These radial and hoop stresses are used in Hooke’s law to give
the following equation for change in the length of tubing due to ballooning or pipe squeeze:
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Figure 50. Increasing the internal pressure, pi, within the tubing causes an axial shorting of the
tubing called the ballooning effects.
0.052µL2 ∆ρi γ2 ∆ρo 2µL ∆ρi - γ2 ∆ρo

∆LP
γ2 – 1 γ2 – 1
=
E E
(13.4)
where :
∆LP = contraction or elongation, ft

µ = 0.3 = Poisson’s ratio for steel,
E = 30 x 106 psi = Young’s modulus for steel
γ = ratio of tubing OD to ID = OD/ID
∆ρo , ∆ρi = change in annulus and tubing fluid densities,
∆ρo , ∆ρi = change in annular and tubing surface pressures, psi
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
Example:
The wellhead pressure (WHP) during stimulation is 3000 psi. There is no surface pressure
applied on the annulus during this operation. First,
γ2 = (3.500 in/2.992 in)2 = 1.368
∆LP = −
(0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal) (0.3) (12,000 ft)2
(30 x 106 psi)
(9.5 ppg – 9.5 ppg) – 1.368 (9.5 ppg – 9.5 ppg)

X (1.368 – 1)
2(0.3) (12,000 ft) (3000 psi – 0) – 1.368(0-0)

−
(30 x 106 psi) (1.368 – 1)
= − 1.96 ft
The tubing shortens due to ballooning.
If the tubing is latched at the packer, Hooke’s law provides the change in axial load due to
tubing elongation or contraction as:
EAS∆LP
∆F = (13.5)
L
6.13.3 Piston Length Changes
When pressure changes in the wellbore, a change in length of the tubing string is also
caused by the pressure forces acting on the stinger-seal assembly and at the cross-over in a
tapered string. These changes in length are calculated by using Hooke’s law which relates
the change in force to the change in length:
∆L = L∆F (13.6)
ASE
where :
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MANUAL Issue 1
∆L = Change in length, ft
L = Length of tubing, ft
∆F = Change in force, lb
AS = Tubing cross-sectional area, in2
E = 30 X 106 = Young’s modulus
Piston Force on Stinger-Seal Assembly and Resulting Length Change - The change in
outside and inside tubing diameter at the packer due to the seal assembly that stings into the
packer bore results in a change in area on which internal and external pressure act. Such a
stinger-seal assembly arrangement is shown in Figure 51. It can be shown that the load in
the tubing string due to pressure is given by:
Figure 51. Pressure forces acting on the stinger-seal assembly which results in
piston type length changes.
FPIST = (Ap - Ao)po – (Ap – Ai)pi (13.7)
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MANUAL Issue 1
where :
Fp = load on stringer-seal assembly, lb

Ap = area of packer bore, in.2
Ao = area of tubing OD, in.2
Ai = area of tubing ID, in.2
po = pos + 0.052ρoL = annular pressure at packer depth, psi
pi = pis + 0.052ρiL = tubing pressure at packer depth, psi
Note that for flowing fluids, pi will be changed due to friction pressure drop.
A change in pressure occurs during a change in the operational phase of the well, for
instance, from shut-in to production. This change in pressure causes a change in the
pressure force. The change in force is called the piston force and is given by:
FPIST = (Ap - Ao)∆po – (Ap – Ai)∆pi (13.8)
where :
∆po = [pos + 0.052ρoL]f − [pos + 0.052ρoL]i

= change in annular pressure at the packer, psi
∆pi = [pis + 0.052ρiL]f − [pis + 0.052ρiL]i

= change in annular pressure at the packer, psi
Using equation (13.8) for ∆F, the piston length change at the packer due to the stinger-seal
assembly is:
L
∆LPIST = AsE (Ap− Ao)∆po − (Ap – Ai) ∆pi (13.9)
Example:
The packer bore diameter, IDp, is 3.25 in
Then
Ap = (π/4)(3.250 in)2 = 8.296 in2 .
Also,
As = Ao - Ai
= π (3.500 in) 2− π (2.992 in)2

4 4
= 2.59 in2
The change in hydrostatic pressure inside and outside the tubing is
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
∆pi = [3000 psi + (0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal) (9.5 ppg) (12,000 ft)]

- [0 + (0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal) (9.5 ppg) (12,000 ft)]
= 3000 psi
∆po = [0 + (0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal (9.5 ppg) (12,000 ft)]

- [0 + (0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal) (9.5 ppg) (12,000 ft)]
= 0 psi
So the piston length change at the packer is:
(12,000 ft)
∆LPIST = (8.296 in2 − 9.621 in2) (0 psi)
(2.59 in2) (30 X 102 psi)
− (8.296 in2 − 7.031 in2) (3000 psi)
= − 0.59 ft
Piston Force on a Taper and Resulting length Change - Similar to the pressure force on the
stinger-seal assembly at the packer, there is an exposed area at any crossover of a tapered
string. See Figure 52.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 52. Pressure forces acting on a crossover in a tapered string

result piston type tubing movements
The force at the crossover caused by fluid pressures acting on the shoulder is:
Fco = (Ai1 - Ai2)pi - (Ao1 - Ao2)po
(13.10)
where :
Ao1, Ai1 = areas computed with outer and inner diameters, respectively, of upper
tubing section, in.2
Ao2, Ai2 = areas computed with outer and inner diameters, respectively, of lower
tubing section, in.2
pi, po = tubing and annular pressures at crossover depth, respectively, psi
If a change in pressure occurs during a change in well operation, then the change in
pressure force at the crossover is:
∆Fco = (Ai1 - Ai2) ∆pi - (Ao1 - Ao2) ∆po
(13.11)
where : ∆pi = [pis + 0.052iLco]f - [pis + 0.052iLco]i

= change in tubing pressure, at crossover depth, psi
∆po = [pos + 0.052oLco]f - [pos + 0.052oLco]i
= change in tubing pressure, at crossover depth, psi
Lco = crossover depth, ft
Using equation (13.11) for F, the length change due to the tapered string crossover is:
L
∆Lco = AsE (Ai1 − Ai2)∆pi − (Ao1 – Ao2)∆po (13.12)
Latched Tubing - If the tubing is latched to the packer to restrict tubing movement, equation
(13.8) is used to determine the change in load at the packer. If there is a crossover in the
string, Hooke’s law is used to give the change in load at the crossover. However, when a
crossover is used, the load change due to temperature and ballooning can also become more
complicated than given by equation (13.10). Analysis of tapered tubing strings is best done
using a computer program.
6.13.4 Total Tubing Movement
The total movement of the end of the tubing string determines the required length of the
tubing-to-packer seal assembly. For this reason tubing movement calculations should be
made for all phases of the well since production generally causes elongation and
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
stimulation jobs will generally cause tubing contraction. The total tubing movement for a
certain phase of well operation is the sum of the individual tubing movements.
∆LTOT = ∆LT + ∆LP + ∆LPIST + ∆LCO + ∆LB
where: ∆LTOT = total tubing movement, ft

∆LT = temperature effect, ft
∆LP = ballooning effect, ft
∆LPIST = piston movement due to tubing-to-packer seal assembly, ft
∆LCO = tubing movement caused by crossover shoulder, ft
∆LB = buckling tubing movement (see the next subject), ft
Example :
Using the previously calculated tubing movements, the total length change when the well is
stimulated is:
∆LTOT = -5.30 ft - 1.96 ft - 0.59 ft - 0 ft - 0.053 ft
= -7.90 ft
The length change, ∆LB, due to buckling is calculated in the subject “Tubing Stability
Analysis”.
The effects of wellbore inclination on tubing movement can be significant. However,

friction caused by contact between the tubing and casing will alter the analysis.
Consideration of friction effects is beyond the scope of the text.
Hooke’s Law - Hooke’s Law relates stress in the tubing cross section to strain in the tubing.
These quantities are not affected by borehole inclination, only the force in the tubing may
be. Hence, Hooke’s law is given by
F = EAS ( ∆L ) (13.14)
LMD
Temperature effect - The wellbore temperature gradient depends upon the depth below the
earth’s surface so deviation should be considered when determining the wellbore
temperature profile. However, since Hooke’s law is used to calculate the change in length,
the total measured length of tubing is used. Equation (13.2) becomes
∆LT = α (LMD) (∆T) (13.15)
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MANUAL Issue 1
Ballooning - The ballooning or pipe squeeze equation (13.4) is the result of the generalized
Hooke’s law and wellbore pressure. Therefore, it can be shown that both measured depth
and true vertical depth terms are involved in the modified equation.
0.052µ (LMD) (LTVD) ∆ρi − γ2∆ρo

∆Lp = − E γ2 − 1
− 2µ (LMD) ∆ρi − γ2∆ρo

E γ2 − 1 (13.16)
Piston effects - Both the force on the stinger-seal assembly and on the crossover are the
results of pressure loads. Therefore, the pressure loads reflect wellbore deviation:
po = psurf + 0.052 ρo LTVD
and
pi = psurf + 0.052 ρi LTVD
However, when using Hooke’s law to determine the length change due to wellbore
inclination, LMD should be used in equations (13.9) and (13.13).
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
6.14 TUBING STABILITY ANALYSIS
6.14.1 General Concepts
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MANUAL Issue 1
A string of tubing is so long in comparison with its diameter that it lacks the rigidity to
withstand compressive loads. Hence, a very small compressive load will cause the tubing
to buckle as a column. Due to the fact that the tubing is constrained by the inside diameter
of the production casing, the tubing buckles into the shape of a helix. Although the tubing
is said to “buckle”, this does not always mean a failure. Actually, the tubing is in an
unstable equilibrium configuration and the instability can be obviated by increasing tubing
tension or decreasing tubing pressure. Figure 53 illustrates the concept of helically buckled
tubing. Helically buckled tubing can cause problems when logging a well or running other
wireline tools. Instability can become severe enough to cause the pipe steel to yield and the
tubing to become permanently cork-screwed. Therefore, tubing stability must be analyzed
as part of the tubing string design.
There are two ways in which a compressive load can be generated at the end of the tubing
string to cause instability: (1) a physically applied force such as slacking off tubing weight
on the packer and (2) an “effective” compressive force generated by internal and external
pressures acting on the tubing.
This section gives the equations necessary to calculate the stability of a tubing string based
on the analysis presented by A. Lubinski, W.S. Althouse, and J.L. Logan in their paper
“Buckling of Tubing Strings Sealed in Packers”.
Figure 53. Helically buckled tubing. Note that the helix is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
6.14.2 Buckling Load
The load that causes tubing instability is sometimes called the buckling load.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
Physically Applied Force - A tubing string is so long compared to its diameter that virtually
any compressive force acting on its end will cause it to buckle. Thus, any amount of tubing
weight slacked off during landing operations will cause some amount of instability. In
other words, the buckling load is taken to be any compressive load.
Internal Pressure - Internal pressure can cause helical buckling. This effect is caused by
the tubing being initially very slightly bent resulting in slightly different areas on the inside
and outside of the tubing bend. Internal pressure acts on the tubing internal surface area in
such a way that more bending results if the pressure is large enough. In a similar way,
external pressure tends to keep the tubing from bending.
The bending effect of internal and external pressure is equivalent to an effective force
acting on the end of the tubing string. This is illustrated in Figure 54. This effective force
due to tubing pressure causes the string to buckle (or bend) into a helix.
Figure 54. Internal pressure can result in bending moments applied to the tubing which
results in a helical configuration.
When any tubular (tubing, casing, drillpipe, or riser pipe) is immersed in fluid, pressure
acting on the inner and outer surfaces cause forces which affect the straightness or
curvature of the string. This is often referred to as a “buoyancy” effect, but it is actually the
effect of fluid pressure on the equilibrium configuration of the tubular. By carefully
analyzing the equilibrium of forces and moments acting on a submerged tubular string, it
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
can be seen that the geometry (i.e., the straightness or curvature) of the string is governed
by the effective tension:
Fe = Fa - (piAi - poAo) (14.1)
where : Fe = effective tension, lb

Fa = actual axial load in the tubing, lb
pi, po = hydrostatic internal and external pressure, respectively, psi
Since the effective tension controls the lateral defection of the string when submerged in a
fluid filled wellbore, it can be shown that it governs buckling. That is, the effective tension,
Fe, is the buckling load. It can be seen from equation (14.1) that since Fa, pi and po all vary
with wellbore depth, so does Fe. The effective tension is a maximum at the packer and
decreases with distance from packer to the surface.
In equation (14.1), the effective tension, Fe, is an effect of unequal internal and external
static pressure (i.e. different fluid densities or surface pressures). The actual axial force int
he string, Fa, is the axial load acting acting over cross section of the tubing. That is, Fa is
used to compute the axial stress, σa.
By substituting equation (13.7), the axial force acting on the stinger-seal assembly in the
packer bore,
FPIST = (Ap - Ao)po - (Ap - Ai)pi,
into equation (14.1) for Fa, the following equation results
(Fe)pkr = -Ap (pi - po) (14.2)
where: (Fe)pkr = effective buckling force at the packer, lb

pi = [pis + 0.052ρiL] = tubing static pressure at packer depth, psi
po = [pos + 0.052ρoL] = tubing-by-casing annulus static pressure at
packer depth, psi
Ap = π/4 (IDp)2 = area of the packer seal bore, in2
Equation (14.2) gives the maximum effective, or buckling, load in the tubing that occurs at
packer depth. The equation is valid only for a tubing string which is allowed to move up or
down within the packer. Restricted movement of the stinger-seal assembly is addressed
later in the text. If (Fe)pkr is negative (pi > po), the tubing will buckle.
Inspection of equation (14.1 shows that increasing annulus surface pressure or decreasing
tubing pressure will decrease (Fe)pkr and reduce or alleviate instability. It can also be seen
from the above equation that not only does buckling depend on tubing pressure, but
buckling severity also depends on packer seal bore diameter. As such, buckling can be
controlled by the packer bore size.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
Example:
Using the example well stimulation data, the tubing can be checked for stability during
stimulation. The tubing is assumed free to move up or down within the packer.
(Fe)pkr = - (8.296 in2){[3000 psi + .052 psi/ft/lbm/gal (9.5 ppg) (12,000 ft)]
- [0 + .052 psi/ft/lbm/gal (9.5 ppg) (12,000 ft)]}
= - (8.296 in2) (3000 psi) = - 24,888 lb
The tubing has buckled into a helix.
Tubing tension can alleviate buckling. The effect of tubing tension on buckling can be seen
if the effective force is written in the form of equation (14.1). Increasing tubing actual
tension, that is, making Fa (make Fe less compressive), and decrease the severity of
buckling. This is most commonly done by anchoring, or latching, the tubing to the packer
and pulling tension, generally known as landing in tension.
If the tubing is anchored tot he packer and tension is initially pulled, thermal elongation of
the string during production will cause increased compression (Fa < 0) at the packer which
can result in buckling of the string. This is one reason why it is important to consider
tubing movement calculations in the overall design procedure for tubing strings.
6.14.3 Stability Neutral Point
Static pressure and tubing axial load both vary will wellbore depth. Tension increases and
pressure decreases with distance from the packer tot he surface. Due to this fact, the
effective tension diminishes with distance from the packer until a depth is reached at which
the actual axial load, Fa, in the string equals the effect of pressure; that is, when Fa = piAi -
poAo, Fe = 0. The depth at which this occurs is called the stability neutral point. Above the
neutral point there is no buckling. Below the neutral point the tubing is buckled into a
helix. The equation for the stability neutral point is
(Fe)pkr
ns = − Wf (14.3)
where :
ns = = stability neutral point, ft

(Fe)pkr = effective tension at the packer
wf = ws + 0.052(ρiAi - Ao)
buoyed weight-per-foot of tubing, ppf
ws = weight-per-foot of tubing in air, ppf
ρi, ρo = tubing and annular fluid densities, ppg
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
Ai, Ao = inner and outer diameter areas of tubing cross section, in2
Example:
The buoyed weight-per-foot of the tubing when the 9.5 ppg stimulation fluid is flowing and
the 9.5 ppg packer fluid is used is
wf = 9.3 ppf + (0.052 psi/ft/lbm/gal) [(9.5 ppg) (7.031 in2)

-(99.5 ppg) (9.621 in2)]
= 8.02 ppf
From the previous example
ns = 24888 lb = 3103 ft
8.02 ppf
or, bottom 3105 ft of tubing is helically buckled.
6.14.4 Length Changes
The lateral (or radial) movement of the tubing as it buckles into a helix causes a
corresponding shortening of the tubing. The length change depends upon the position of
the buckling neutral point.
Tubing Free to Move Up or Down Within the Packer - The equations for length change are
given as follows, depending upon the neutral point position:
ns < 0 : ∆LB = 0 (14.4)
r2 Fe2
0 < ns < L : ∆LB = − (14.5)
8Elwf
2 2
ns ƒ L : ∆LB = _ r Fe Lwf (2 − Lw)f
8Elwf Fe Fe (14.6)
where:
∆LB = length change due to buckling, ft

Fe = effective tension at the packer, lb
r = (IDc - ODt)/2 = radial clearance between casing ID and tubing OD, in
IDc = inside diameter of casing, in
ODt = outside of tubing or coupling, in
E = 30 x 10 psi = modulus of elasticity of steel
l = π x (OD4 - ID4)/64 = moment of inertia of tubing, in4
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
wf = buoyed weight per foot of tubing ppf
Equation (14.4) is used if o buckling occurs; (14.5) is used if the neutral point is within the
tubing string; and (14.6) is used if the entire string is buckled.
Example:
For the stimulation example data ns 3103 ft and the string is 12000 ft long, so equation
(14.5) is used. Assuming that 7-in OD, 35 ppf (ID = 6.004) casing is used for the
production casing, the radial clearance between the casing and tubing coupling (for 3.5-in
OD, 9.3 ppf, ODC = 4.500 in) is
6.004 in − 4.500 in
r = 2 = 0.752 in
and
π
l = 64 (3.5 in)4 − (2.992 in)4 = 3.432 in4
So the tubing contraction due to helical buckling is:
∆LB = − (0.752 in)2 (24888 lb)2

8(30 X 106 psi) (3.432 in4) (8.02 ppf)
= − 0.053 ft
As is generally the case, the tubing contraction due to helical buckling is very small. Of
more concern is the curvature of the helix, for it affects the length of a tool which can pass
through the buckled tubing. This is discussed later.
Tubing Restricted From Moving - The above tubing movement equations are only
applicable to tubing which is free to move up or down within the packer seal bore. If the
tubing is anchored to the packer, the tubing actual load, Fa, and effective load, Fe, can
become nonlinearly related. Therefore, the solution for tubing loads and stability is more
complicated. With combination tubing strings (tapered strings or strings with more than
one packer) a numerical iteration technique may be required.
6.14.5 Helical Curvature
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
As shown in Figures (53) and (54), the radial constraint of the casing causes the tubing to
buckle into a helical shape. This helix has curvature which varies with depth (due to
hydrostatic pressure and axial loads). An approximate relation for the curvature at any
depth below the neutral point is
34,380 r Fe
Ct = El (14.13)
where :
Ct = helix curvature, deg. per 1000 ft

r = radial clearance between casing and tubing, in
Fe = effective tension, lb
E = 30 x 106 psi = modulus of elasticity
l = tubing cross-sectional moment of inertia, in
Equation (14.13) should not be confused with the rate of angle change at a kickoff point in
a deviated wellbore. It is entirely different. The helix curvature is related to the rate of
change of the tangent to the helix.
A maximum helical curvature due to tubing string instability (helical buckling) of 5°/100 ft
to 7°/100 ft is suggested if wireline operations are planned. However, the curvatures can be
higher if wireline operations are not planned. The design factor is based on experience.
Operational experience has indicated that if tubing strings are designed with the helical
curvature below 5° - 7°/100 ft, minimal problems in running wireline tools will result.
Example:
for the example production data
34380 (0.752 in) (24888 lb)

Ct = = 6.25°/100 ft
(30 X 106 psi) (3.432 in4)
During stimulation, the helical curve is great enough to cause some concern if logging tools
are to be run immediately following injection. However, since the buckling is due mostly
to the high pumping pressure, the curvature should decrease somewhat when pumping
ceases.
At present there is no generally accepted method of analysis of tubing or casing stability for
inclined boreholes. Although there are analytical methods available in the literature, these
have been rarely applied and are still under study.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
6.15 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
When operational requirements are considered, the advantages and disadvantages of a

particular tubing design will depend almost entirely on the producing characteristics of the
reservoir and the method of production that will be employed. For this reason, it is
impractical to establish rules governing tubing designs that would be applicable to all types
of operation. However, certain major considerations have sufficient impact on tubing and
casing programs to warrant a brief discussion of general guidelines. The guidelines
discussed below exemplify that the tubing string should be designed before a production
casing size is selected. Common to all of the operational considerations given below is the
fact that the annular space between the tubing and casing can be an important design
parameter.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
6.15.1 Radial Clearance
To avoid sticking a tubing string inside casing, a minimum radial clearance between the
tubing connection OD and casing ID of 5/8 in. is required. The dimensions of other means
of production.
6.15.2 Rod Pumping
Much larger pipe sizes will be required for a given production rate with rod pumping than
for any other means of production. When maximum producing rates using rod pumps are
required, provision for maximum tubing and casing sizes should be made. Generally
speaking, this would be 4½-inch tubing inside 7-inch casing and 2-7/8-inchtubing inside 5½-
inch casing. Deep lift of large volumes with a rod pump is generally impractical because of
excessive rod stretch and rod strength limitations although new developments in fiberglass
rods may change this. Rod sizes limitations will also seriously hamper pumping from great
depth (over 5000 feet) through small tubing.
6.15.3 Hydraulic Pumping
Hydraulic pumping installations will generally require larger casing sizes for a given
production rate than gas-lift or flowing wells because they usually need a parallel string for
power oil supply. However, this is not always the case, since in some instances the casing-
tubing annulus is used for production and the tubing serves as the power oil supply. These
casing-type installations are necessarily limited in application to low GOR reservoirs or
reservoirs in which the bottomhole pressure is above the bubble-point pressure because all
produced gas must pass through the pump.
6.15.4 Submersible Pumps
Submersible pumps can be run on 2-3/8-inch OD or 2-7/8-inch tubing and are particularly
applicable in deviated or very deep holes where rod pumping would be undersirable.
6.15.5 Sand Control
Modern advances in sand-control equipment and techniques have eliminated the

requirement for large pipe sizes in which to install sand control equipment. Successful
gravel packs are routinely made inside 51/2-inch casing, although these are more difficult to
place than in larger size casing. If the sand production rate is not great enough to damage
surface equipment, then smaller pipe size give the advantage of greater sand-carrying
capacity at lower producing rates which may eliminate or reduce the need for sand control
measures.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
6.15.6 Washover Operations
The ability to wash over a tubing string is also an important consideration, but it should not
be a limiting factor in casing design. Washover requirements will be based almost entirely
on local considerations such as sand production, available wash pipe, risk involved, and
local policy.
6.16 REFERENCES
1. Material Requirement : Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Material for

Oil Field Equipment, NACE Standard MR-01-75, National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, 1980 Revision.
2. Kane, R. D. (January 1983): High-Alloy Tubulars Hold Promise for Sour

Service Tolerance, Petroleum Engineer International, vol. 55, no. 1, p. 98-112.
3. Prengaman, R. D. (October 1981): Thread Compounds – How Do They Work,

Petroleum Engineer International, vol. 53, no. 12, p. 93-106.
4. Noerager, J. A., and Greer, J. B. (1977): An Investigation of Coupled Tubing

Joints for Sour Service, Materials Performance, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 37-45.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 6
MANUAL Issue 1
5. Weiner, P. D., and Sewell, F. D., Jr. (March 1967): New Technology for
Improved Tubular Connection Performance, Journal of Petroleum Technology,
vol. 19, no. 3, p. 337-342.
6. Salama, M. M and Ven Katesh, E. S. (1983): Evaluation of API RP 14E

Erosional Velocity Limitation for Offshore Gas Wells, Presented at 1983
Offshore Technology Conference and Exhibition, Houston, TX.
7. Lubinski, A., Althouse, W. S., and Logan, J. E. (June 1964): Helical Buckling
of Tubing Sealed in Packers, Journal of Petroleum Technology, vol. 16, no. 6,
p. 655-670.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 7
COMPLETION PACKERS Page 1 of 37
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 7
PACKERS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………...…... 3
7.1.1 Packer Definition ……………………………………………………. 3

7.1.2 Types Of Packers …………………………………………………… 3
7.2 PACKER FUNDAMENTALS ………………………………………………….….. 5
7.2.1 Basic Components ………………………………………………….. 5

7.2.2 Sealing Elements ……………………………………………………. 9
7.2.3 Seal Extrusion Prevention …………………………………………... 10
7.2.4 Slips …………………………………………………………………. 11
7.2.5 Setting And Releasing Elements ……………………………………. 11
7.2.6 Friction Devices …………………………………………………….. 12
7.2.7 Hydraulic Hold-Downs ……………………………………………... 13
7.3 PERMANENT PACKERS ……………………………………………………….. 15
7.3.1 Construction ………………………………………………………… 15

7.3.2 Applications ………………………………………………………… 15
7.3.3 Objections …………………………………………………………… 15
7.4 HOOK-WALL RETRIEVABLE PACKERS ………………………………...…. 17
7.4.1 Compression Packers ……………………………………………….. 17

7.4.2 Tension Packers …………………………………………………….. 18
7.4.3 Tension-Compression Packers ……………………………………… 19
7.5 SPECIAL PACKERS ……………………………………………………………... 20
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7.5.1 Polished Bore Receptacles ………………………………………….. 20

7.5.2 Cup Packers …………………………………………………………. 22
7.5.3 Inflatable Packers …………………………………………………… 22
7.5.4 Permanent-Retrievable Packers ……………………………………... 24
7.5.5 Thermal Packers …………………………………………………….. 25
7.5.6 Dual Packers ………………………………………………………… 27
7.5.7 Liner Hangers .................................................................................. 28
7.6 PACKER SELECTION ………………………………………………………..…. 34
7.6.1 Factors To Be Considered in Choosing A Packer ............................. 34

7.6.2 Setting Packers ……………………………………………………… 35
7.6.3 Retrieving Packers …………………………………………………... 35
7.7 SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………………..…. 37
7.1 INTRODUCTION
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7.1.1 Packer Definition
A production packer can be defined as a subsurface tool used to provide a seal between the
tubing and casing to prevent vertical movement of fluids past the sealing point. Packers
serve a vital role in well completions and have a marked effect on subsequent operations
performed in a well. As its major functions, a packer should :
• Protect casing from bursting under conditions of high production or injection pressures
• Protect casing from corrosive fluids
• Provide better well control
• Prevent fluid movement between productive zones
7.1.2 Types Of Packers
Production packers are generally classified as either retrievable or permanent. By

definition, a retrievable packer is one that can be removed from a well by tubing
manipulation or some other means not involving destruction of the packer. A permanent
packer, on the other hand, must be destroyed for removal. For this reason, permanent
packers are often referred to as drillable packers. A classification outline of production
packers is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Classification Outline of Production Packers
I. Permanent
II. Hook Wall Retrievable

a. Compression
1. Mechanically set
2. Hydraulically set
b. Tension-mechanically set
c. Tension and compression
III. Special Retrievable
a. Cup
b. Inflatable
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c. Permanent-retrievable
The primary function of any packer is to provide a seal - the crucial prerequisite to be met
in selecting any packer. All other considerations are of secondary importance, and quite
rightly so. The functions expected of the packer, the environmental conditions under which
it will be used, and its mechanical design must be known before selection is made for a
particular application.
7.2 PACKER FUNDAMENTALS
7.2.1 Basic Components
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As illustrated in Figure 1, there are certain basic components of construction that are
common to practically all makes of production packers. A permanent packer is shown in
Figure 2, and in Figure 3, a retrievable compression packer. They all have the following
components in common :
• seal assembly - usually of rubber, some with metal back-up rings
• slips to engage the casing wall and hold the packer against applied forces
• cone assembly to force the slips out to engage the casing
• friction element to allow motion of the inner mandrel relative to the packer body (not
on hydraulic or permanent packers)
• setting and releasing mechanism
• mandrel assembly to hold parts together
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Figure 1. Typical Production Packer
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Figure 2. Permanent Packer
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Figure 3. Mechanically Set Compression Packer
In addition, some offer the option of a hydraulic hold-town assembly (Figure 4) to facilitate
high-pressure work below the packer. In the following paragraphs, some of these basic
components are discussed in greater detail.
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Figure 4. Hydraulically Set Compression Packer (with hydraulic hold-down)
7.2.2 Sealing Elements
Sealing elements are normally constructed of nitrile-rubber, except in such special

applications as thermal-injection or sour-service operations. Nitrile-rubber seals have
proved superior for use in moderate temperatures under normal service conditions.
The compound characteristics required for a particular job can be achieved through control
of the constituents in the compound and the degree of vulcanization. When a packer is set,
the sealing elements is compressed to form a seal against the casing. During compression
the rubber element will normally extrude between the packer body and the casing wall.
This extrusion, along with the inability of the sealing element to return to its original shape
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when the compression forces are removed, can cause the packer to become stuck.
7.2.3 Seal Extrusion Prevention
Many techniques are used to lessen the unwanted extrusion. In some packers, back-up rings
are used to reduce the unsupported cross section of the rubber seal. In others, multiple
sealing elements of varying hardness are used to reduce the deformation of the rubber itself.
For example, in a three-element packer (Figure 5), the upper and lower elements are usually
harder than the middle one.
Figure 5. Three Element Packer
All three are compressed when the packer is set. The lower hardness center elements seals
off against imperfections in the casing wall. The higher hardness end elements, on the
other hand, aid in restricting extrusion and effecting a seal when high temperature and
pressure differentials are encountered. This degree of hardness is related to the seal
element’s ability to withstand deformation, and thus bears a general relationship to its
ability to hold pressure without failing.
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7.2.4 Slips
Slips can be of any of a variety of shapes, provided that they are sharp and have an adequate
surface for holding the packer in position under the anticipated pressure differentials and
tension/compression due to tubing movement.
Theoretically a packer can be seated and unseated a number of times without requiring the
replacement of slip elements. The cost, however, of slip replacement in comparison with
rig cost very insignificant. Complete service and repair of a packer should therefore be
performed whenever the packer is removed from the wellbore.
7.2.5 Setting And Releasing Elements
The setting mechanism on retrievable packers generally consists of a J-latch, a shear pin, or
some other clutch arrangement to allow the packer to be engaged. The various mechanisms
employed are actuated by a number of different methods, including upward or downward
movement, placing weight on the packer, pulling tension in the tubing, or rotating to the
right or left. Hydraulically actuated retrievable packers are set with pressure inside the
tubing using pump-out plugs, wireline plugs, or flow-out balls. The releasing mechanisms
on a retrievable packer involve another wide range of actuation methods - straight pickup,
rotating to the right or left, slacking off and then picking up, or picking up to shear pins. To
select a particular type of setting or releasing mechanism, it is necessary to know the
conditions existing in the particular wellbore when the packer is set and the operations
anticipated during its stay in the hole.
The simplest setting and releasing mechanism is the J-slot and pin arrangement (Figure 6),
which requires, for setting, only a slight rotation of the tubing at the packer, and can usually
be released by simply pulling on the packer. This rotational requirement is often difficult to
achieve in highly holes. A typical choice for deviated wellbores is therefore a hydraulically
set packer with straight pickup release mechanisms. As discussed in the Tubular Goods
Chapter, tubing effects - or the changes in tubing length with pressure and temperature
changes - must always be evaluated in order to make the proper selection for a setting or
releasing mechanism.
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Figure 6. Right-hand (a) and left hand (b) J-slot Mechanism
8.2.6 Friction Devices
Friction elements are an essential part of mechanically set packers, as seen on the packer in
Figure 7. Ordinarily, friction devices are either bow springs or friction blocks. If properly
designed, either one will provide the holding force needed to allow independent rotation of
the inner mandrel. Friction blocks are quite popular today, but packers with bow springs
are also prominent on the market. The preference for friction blocks is not strong enough to
bring about a redesign of the old packers in order to accommodate them.
8.2.7 Hydraulic Hold-Downs
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Hydraulic anchors, or hold-downs, provide a reasonably reliable method of preventing

upward movement of a packer when differential pressures are applied across the sealing
elements. A single-slip, weight-set packer, for example, may move up the hole when high
pressure is applied, unless the packer is equipped with some type of hydraulic hold-down.
This device extends to engage the casing wall and to firmly anchor the packer against
upward movement, as seen in Figure 7.
The hydraulic hold-down is a useful device, but it does have certain limitations and
disadvantages. For example, if the pressure differential across it reverses direction, as often
occurs during normal oilfield operations, the anchor will eventually fail because of repeated
releasing and resetting of the slip teeth into the casing. This situation can lead to anchor
failure, in which the packer may move up the hole; or it may cause the slips to wear a hole
in the casing. Furthermore, trash (e.g., sand or corrosion material) can collect behind the
anchor pistons, often preventing the retraction of the slips, thus perhaps requiring an
extensive fishing operation to remove the packer from the wellbore.
Modern lock-set-type packers with dual opposing slips, which hold in both an upward and
downward direction, have almost totally replaced hydraulic hold-downs. These new packer
designs are much more reliable in retrieving and, furthermore, do not allow slip movement
during normal production operations.
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Figure 7. Packer Components (Courtesy of Baker Packers)
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7.3 PERMANENT PACKERS
7.3.1 Construction
Permanent packers consist of opposed slips with a rubber sealing element located between
them. Figure 2 shows a simplified schematic of one type, a Baker Model D. This type
packer has a sealing element that is compressed between cones which are locked into
position by opposing slips to prevent packer movement in either direction. Expanding
metal rings help contain the sealing element and prevent extrusion of the rubber. A flapper
valve prevents flow from below the packer while the tubing and stinger are removed.
Permanent packers can be run on tubing, but most are set by wireline. If run on tubing,
setting is accomplished by seating a ball or plug and applying pressure. If run on wireline,
setting is accomplished by firing a small explosive charge to create the necessary pressure.
Wireline setting is a valuable asset when precise packer location is required. The opposed-
slip principle of this packer makes it highly useful in containing high-pressure differentials
or when large temperature variations are involved, such as during hydraulic fracturing
operations.
The seal between packer and tubing is accomplished by a packing on the tubing that seals
against the polished internal bore of the packer. These seals can be allowed to move within
the packer or a threaded connection can be included in the top of the packer to prevent
tubing movement.
7.3.2 Applications
The permanent packer finds application where high pressure differentials and/or large
tubing/load variations require a maximum reliability with a long sealing life. A permanent
packer can be used under these conditions where the expected loading would not cause
tubing yielding. However, in deep wells, especially when injection is planned, floating
seals must be used. These floating seals should be long enough to accommodate the
maximum tubing movement anticipated at the packer. Figure 8 shows a floating seal
assembly being used in conjunction with a permanent packer.
7.3.3 Objections
The primary objection to the permanent packer is the necessity of drilling or milling up the
packer for removal. A permanent packer can generally be removed in two or three hours if
the special “packer picker” fishing tool is used to retrieve it. This special retrieving tool
consists of a collect that extends through the packer mandrel and a mill that removes the top
slips.
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Once the top slips have been milled away, picking up on the tubing will engage the collect
in the bottom of the packer and retrieval can normally be achieved. Drilling up permanent
packers with a rock bit is not normally recommended, since field experience with this
technique has been poor.
Figure 8. Packer and Sliding Seal Assembly with Close-up of Tubing Seal Unit
(Courtesy of Baker Packers)
7.4 HOOK-WALL RETRIEVABLE PACKERS
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Many types and variations of retrievable packers are available, primarily because of the
latitude possible in the design of their activation and releasing mechanisms. Similarly,
there are many means of classifying retrievable packers. One of the simplest (and the one
used in this discussion) is to categorize them according to the manner in which force is
applied to activate the sealing element - namely, as compression packers, tension packers,
or combination tension and compression packers. Packers can further be classified by their
setting mechanism, whether mechanically or hydraulic.
7.4.1 Compression Packers
The compression or weight-set packer is one of the oldest and simplest packers available. It
is economical and is ideally suited to low-pressure situations, such as gas lift installations,
or circumstances in which pressure in the casing-tubing annulus at the packer always
exceeds the tubing pressure there. Compression packers are less satisfactory when squeeze
cementing or stimulation work is required, because they are not designed to hold pressure
differential from below, unless a hydraulic hold-down device is used or extra tubing weight
is set on the packer. As previously discussed, however, hydraulic hold-downs are not
completely reliable and generally have been replaced by the dual opposing slip-type
compression packers.
In a mechanically set compression packer (Figure 3) the packer sealing element is

compressed between the mandrel cone after the slips lock into the casing. After the desired
setting depth is reached, the slips are generally activated by rotational manipulation of the
tubing. As indicated before, pressure from above to seal the packer tighter whereas
pressure from below can cause it to lose its seal. To retrieve this type packer, tension is
pulled in the tubing to release the sealing element and retract the slips.
A hydraulically set compression packer is used when tubing manipulation is undesirable.

In this type packer (shown in Figure 4) the sealing element is compressed between the cone
and piston when tubing pressure is applied. Pressure applied in the setting chamber forces
the piston downward and slips outward, while the hydraulic slips hold the mandrel in place
and small slips lock the packer in a set position. Notice that no tubing manipulation is
required to set this packer, in contrast to the mechanically set packer. Hydraulically set
compression packers are retrieved either by straight pickup or by rotation and pickup.
7.4.2 Tension Packers
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These packers are essentially weight-set packers that are run upside down and are set by
pulling tension on the tubing. After a tension packer is set, differential pressure from the
bottom or formation side increases the setting force and holds it in place automatically.
Figure 9 shows a simplified schematic of a Baker Model A packer. As in the compression

packer, the sealing element is compressed between the mandrel and the cone after the slips
have hooked into the casing. The exception is that in this case the compressive force is
applied by pulling tension in the tubing. Pressure from below will cause the packer to seal
tighter, whereas pressure from above can cause it to lose its seal.
Tension packers are suitable for injection or stimulation, but are seldom used. The reason
is that for most wells, the weight of the packer fluid is such that the pressure differential
across the packer is downward. Tension packers are also unsuitable for use in deep wells
where high tubing strains are expected.
Figure 9. Mechanically Set Tension Packer
7.4.3 Tension-Compression Packers
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A more sophisticated packer now on the market utilizes a slip-and cone arrangement that
prevents packer movement in either direction, thus eliminating the need for hydraulic hold-
downs. These packers are designed to compete with permanent packers and can be used
when the tubing is in tension, compression, or neutral, or when pressure differentials from
either direction exist. Retrievable tension-compression packers are run in the hole on the
tubing string.
The mechanically set tension-compression packer, the Baker Lock Set, is shown in Figure
10. In this design, the packer sealing element is compressed between the mandrel and the
cone by a segmented nut moving upward and locking the left-hand directional threads.
Opposing slips lock the packer against movement from either tubing tension or
compression, and maintain the packer seal against pressure differential from either
direction. Setting and releasing the packer is accomplished by rotation.
Generally a packer of this type will also have secondary emergency release mechanism
which requires only straight pickup to release.
Figure 10. Mechanically Set Tension Compression Packer
7.5 SPECIAL PACKERS
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There are also designs available for packers other than the more common ones discussed
above. Six such packers are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Figure 11. PBR and Seal Assembly (Courtesy of Baker Packers)
7.5.1 Polished Bore Receptacles
A polished bore receptacle (PBR) is another type of packer system that can be used in place
of a permanent packer. The PBR accepts an inner seal assembly that seals off between the
tubing and the PBR (Figure 11). The PBR is commonly used in a liner completion, where it
is installed as an integral part of the liner hanger. When the completion string is run, the
seal assembly, similar to that used on a permanent packer, or left floating to allow tubing
movement (Figure 12).
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Figure 12. PBR Installed in Liner Completion

(Courtesy of Baker Packers)
Normally, the PBR diameter is larger than the diameter of the liner below it. Most
workover tools and procedures can be run through the PBR with ease.
In a PBR completion, the sealing characteristics and capabilities between the tubing and
PBR are the same as between the tubing and packer body of a permanent packer
completion.
The PBR has a disadvantage that the permanent packer does not. The position of the PBR
is fixed in the hole, generally in the liner hanger, which may be several thousand feet above
the zone of interest. As stated previously, one of the functions of the packer system is to
protect the casing string from the corrosiveness of wellbore fluids by sealing off the tubing
annulus.
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Since the PBR is set at the top of the liner, the entire length of the liner is exposed to
potentially corrosive fluids when the well is produced. For example, in a well with a 500 ft
liner and a producing interval 50 ft in length, the entire liner is exposed to the effect of the
production fluids, as opposed to a typical installation in which the packer would be located
just above the pay.
When the PBR completion method is selected, instructions for installing it must be included
in the drilling program, since it will be an integral part of the liner top and therefore part of
the casing program.
7.5.2 Cup Packers
This is a special-type packer that has no slips. In this case, a seal is effected by reinforcing
metal springs in the cups and by increases in pressure from the concave side of the cup.
Figure 13 illustrates a Guiberson-type GW cup packer. In this arrangement, the steel-
reinforced rubber cups attain a seal against the casing. Each cup holds pressure from only
one direction; increasing the pressure differential tends to increase the seal between the cup
and the casing. The rubber cups contact the casing during running and pulling and need no
manipulation for setting.
The cup packer finds application in moderate-depth wells where moderate pressure
differentials are expected and where pressure can be balanced and the tubing anchored
against movement. Its main advantage is that it is inexpensive and simple to use.
7.5.3 Inflatable Packers
This special retrievable production packer is manufactured by Lynes, Inc., or Tam

International, Inc. This packer may have slips, and the seal is effected by the injection of
fluid into an inflatable, balloon-type rubber sealing element. A schematic of this packer is
shown in Fig. 14. In operation, an expandable steel-reinforced sealing element is forced
against the casing or open hole by pressure applied to the tubing. A check valve prevents
backflow, thus keeping the packer inflated. To unseat the packer, a passage is opened by
tubing manipulation and the packer element is allowed to deflate.
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Figure 13. Guiberson-Type GW Cup Packer
Figure 14. Inflatable Packer
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The main application for the inflatable packer is in open-hole settings, especially when
irregular hole conditions have been encountered. Because of its balloon like nature, it can
be set in a large hole below restricted sections of casing.
In application, the packers are used for water and gas shut-off, selective stimulation, and
testing. In a very special application, specially treated elements are incorporated into the
packer’s exterior for taking impressions of fractures, open hole irregularities, or casing
failures.
7.5.4 Permanent Retrievable Packers
Permanent-retrievable packers combine all the production features of permanent packers in

one that is retrievable. They are designed to be run and set on electric wireline or on
tubing, with either hydraulic or rotation setting. Additionally, these packers are designed to
be retrieved by various means with a straight pull. As with the permanent-type is especially
useful in lieu of a permanent drillable type packer in those such as lost circulation.
A permanent-retrievable packer is especially useful for hydraulic fracturing treatments that

involve multiple stages utilizing packer movements and bridge plugs. One can often
successfully move the packer four or five times to distribute (divert) treatment stages
without removing it from the wellbore for service.
A wireline set permanent-retrievable packer, the Halliburton Perma-Trieve, is shown in Fig.

15. The wireline setting tool is attached at point C with the outer sleeves of the setting tool
over top portions of the packer mandrel. Movement of packer parts are as follows: setting
the tool shears screws at point A moving slip carrier (1) down-ward so upper slips contact
casing wall. Assembly (2) remains stationary as assemblies (3) and (4) are moved upward
to compress the sealing elements and set the lower slips. Shear screws C are sheared and
the setting tool is removed from the packer and the wellbore. This packer has mechanisms,
which allow for release with a straight upward pull.
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Figure 15. Wireline Set Permanent-Retrievable Packer

(Courtesy of Halliburton)
7.5.5 Thermal Packers
Special thermal packers must be used for high-temperature applications such as steam
injection. The use of thermal packers will reduce the wellbore heat losses and deliver more
heat to the interval of interest. Reduction of wellbore heat losses will also limit the
temperature-induced compressive stresses in the casing string. Thermal packers have
sealing elements made from materials designed to withstand very high temperatures. These
packers often have integral expansion joints to accommodate thermal expansion and
contraction of the tubing. These packers are available in both permanent and retrievable
models. Figure 16 shows a permanent thermal packer with expansion joint for use in steam
injection operations.
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Figure 16. Permanent Thermal Packer with Expansion Joint
7.5.6 Dual Packers
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A conventional dual completion is shown in Fig. 17. This type of completion requires a
special dual packer. The packer is made up and run in on the long string with the lower
retrievable packer or seal assembly attached to the tailpipe. Upon reaching setting depth,
the lower packer is set or the seal assembly is stung into the seal bore of the packer. The
short string is then run and landed into the dual packer, which is then set.
Figure 17. Conventional Dual Completion
7.5.7 Liner Hangers
A liner hanger is a device usually used to position and suspend, with or without packoff, a
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string of tubing or casing commonly known as a “liner”. The “liner” is placed within an
existing larger string of casing in an oil, gas or water well. The various types of liner
hangers can be used to accomplish a wide variety of production operations. Typical
applications may include :
• To shut off water and protect producing zones against water encroachment.
• To protect casing and seal off casing leaks for scabbing operations.
• To separate producing zones.
• To inject gas or water into secondary recovery programs.
• To reinforce casing in repressuring, recycling, pressure maintenance and underground

storage in single or multiple-zone completions.
• To eliminate the need for setting the full casing string when a well is deepened through
the bottom of the original completion string.
• To eliminate the need for setting a full string when a well is redrilled through a window
of the present string.
Plain type liner hangers (Figure 18) are used to suspend a liner but do not provide a means
of sealing the annulus between the liner and the casing in which it is suspended. Single or
dual cone hangers are available to suit liner weight needs.
Delayed action liners (Figure 19) with sealing units are designed so that the seals expand
after the slips on the hanger are set and cementing is complete. This gives the operator the
opportunity to perform such operations as cementing and casing repair. Also, delayed
action packers allow operators to perform other completion jobs that require circulating in
the casing/liner annulus before packing off and sealing the annulus. An example of this is a
completion job that uses a liner hanger as a production packer.
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Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Mechanical-set liner hangers will usually perform well in straight, shallow wells where pipe
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rotation is easily achieved. However, a hydraulic-set hanger (Figure 20) is more ideal for
down-hole conditions where rotating pipe is difficult. Such conditions include crooked
holes and deep directional wells from offshore platforms or floating vessels. Manufacturers
make the hydraulic-set hanger to adapt to H2S, CO2, and high temperature conditions.
Figure 20.
Hydraulic hangers are set by dropping a setting ball that seats on a latch collar (Figure 21-
A). The hanger is set by applying pump pressure that will vary from 1,500 psi to 2,000 psi.
Once the hanger is set, internal pressure shears pins to eject the setting ball and the seat
onto a ball catcher (Figure 21-B) located one joint below. Circulation can be established
after the setting ball and the seat are ejected. After circulation and cementing are
completed, the setting tool and work string are lifted to the surface. Figure 3.34 illustrates a
liner hanger installed and cemented in place.
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Figure 21.
Typical uses of liner hangers are to :
• suspend a liner from the well casing to protect against liner spiralling or shifting of its
own weight
• minimize the possibility that the liner could sink in soft formation at the bottom of the
well
• protect the liner from falling into a cavity and becoming misaligned with the hole
above.
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Figure 22 also shows the possibility of using a tapered string installation to reduce the size
of the production string and to reduce tubing cost. Liner hangers also have the versatility of
being used as production packers in extreme conditions such as H2S, CO2, high
temperatures, or where tubing string movement may be anticipated.
Figure 23 illustrates a liner hanger used in a production packer. The polished bore
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receptacle may be used where tubing elongation and an environment of H2S are
encountered. The nipples above the hanger are used to set subsurface flow control above
the hanger. The added length of the sealing bore from the polished bore receptacle will
contain the seal units. The sealing bore exposes only the lower seal to corrosive well
production. The production packer and tail pipe extension with nipple allow the well to be
plugged and the tubing pulled.
Figure 24 illustrates a liner hanger used as a production packer. The tail pipe and packer
used as a production packer. The tail pipe and packer bore extension are equipped with
landing of bottom hole pressure equipment. The polished bore receptacle is below the liner
hanger and allows the seals to keep H2S environment off of the liner hanger. In Figure 3.35
and 3.36, normal production is through the tubing. This allows movement of the tubing
within the polished bore receptacle as the tubing is affected by high temperatures.
7.6 PACKER SELECTION
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7.6.1 Factors To Be Considered In Choosing A Packer
Well pressure must be considered since a packer must be selected with the proper pressure
capabilities for that well. It is necessary to know if pressure differentials will be from the
top or the bottom of the packer and if the differential will change from one side to the other
during the life of the well. Some packers will withstand only a limited pressure from one
side.
Pressure change is also one of the factors involved in tubing movement, elongation, or
contraction. Temperature is a consideration since some packers can perform at higher
temperatures than others. Retrievable packers normally should be limited to temperatures
of 275°F maximum. Sealing compounds used on sealing units for permanent packers or on
packer bore receptacles should be selected for best performance in a given temperature
range.
Longevity of a producing zone is a prime consideration in the selection of packers. If a

zone is expected to produce for many years without remedial work, it may be desirable to
use a permanent type packer or hydraulic-set retrievable packer. However, if it is
anticipated that remedial work to the well will be necessary within a short period of time, it
may be more desirable to use mechanical set packers.
Corrosive agents in the well fluids must be considered. Usually retrievable packers perform
poorly in wells with high H2S concentration. Many times, alloy used in the manufacture of
a packer must be selected to withstand the corrosive agents that they may encounter.
If the well is to be treated with acid or fracturing materials or pumped into at high rates and
pressures for any reasons, the proper packer must be selected. Packer failures most often
occur in treating operations. Tubing contraction may be retrievable packers to release or
can cause the seal element to move out of the seal bore in a permanent packer or packer
bore receptacle.
Often packers are selected to be compatible with other downhole equipment. For example,
when hanger systems are used with surface controlled subsurface safety systems, it is
desirable to use hydraulic-set packers. Hydraulic-set packers allow the operator to install
and set the complete safety system and the tree before setting the packers. Well fluids may
then be displaced with lighter fluids while the well is under complete control. The packers
can be set after displacement of the fluids is complete.
If wireline equipment is to be serviced in the tubing or through tubing perforation is to be

accomplished, it is desirable to use packers that do not require tubing weight to keep them
set. Wireline operations can be more successfully completed if tubing is kept straight by
landing it in tension or neutral. This is increasingly important in deeper wells. In many
instances, packers are selected for use with gas lift valves to keep pressure off the
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producing formation and prevent gas from passing around the end of the tubing. If a packer
is to be used with a rod pumping unit, it usually is desirable that the tubing be placed in
tension. A tension-set retrievable packer must be selected to allow this.
Economics may become a factor in packer selection. In some instances, the operator must
complete the well as inexpensively as possible and will select a packer because of its low
cost.
Sometimes producing intervals are close together, making it necessary to place the packer
accurately in the hole. If a packer is set by electric conductor line, it is possible to place the
packer in the casing with a high degree of accuracy.
7.6.2 Setting Packers
Setting a packer is often considered an extremely simple job, one requiring little expertise.
The number of packer failures in the industry, however, is testimony that packer installation
instructions, it usually requires a person experienced with the particular equipment to
ensure a good job. Therefore, if the company representative on a job is not completely
familiar with the packer being run, it is advisable to have a manufacturer’s operator present
when the packer is set and tested.
Before running a packer, it may be wise to run either a gauge ring and junk basket on
wireline, or a rock bit and casing scraper on tubing. This precaution is particularly
important if earlier operations-such as fishing, milling, or packer removal-might reasonably
be expected to have left steel cuttings, packer rubber, or miscellaneous debris in the
wellbore. Normally it is not prudent to set a packer at the same point in the casing that
milling operations have taken place.
7.6.3 Retrieving Packers
Releasing a packer with a rotational release mechanism should normally be easy. In some
cases, however, the condition of the well may be such that torque cannot be transmitted to
the packer as easily as tension is (for example, a deviated well). In these cases, a straight
pickup release-type packer should be run. If a torque-release packer fails to release when
torque is applied with the tubing in the slips, then torque should be applied while the tubing
is worked up and down.
This action allows torque to be worked down the hole to the packer. By applying rotation
on the order of 1/2 turn/200 ft of tubing and jarring downward, a rotational release
mechanism may be operated if it has previously failed to function.
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This procedure is just one of several possible in pulling a packer that is reluctant to release.
The same technique can be used with latching mechanisms on permanent packers. When
pulling a packer with a hydraulic hold-down, it may be advisable to place pressure on the
casing annulus to pump in the buttons before getting rough with the packer. After releasing
and before pulling on a packer, it is good practice to allow several minutes to elapse so that
the seals may retract, thereby preventing them from tearing off.
The use of safety joints to minimize fishing time is sometimes justified. Safety joints
normally release with right-hand rotation of the tubing. They are usually installed
immediately above (or one joint above) the packer in single-string wells and between
packers in multiple-string wells. Safety joints merit consideration particularly in dual
completions and/or below a crossover gravel-pack packer.
7.7 SUMMARY
Overall packer cost, in the final analysis, is directly related to retrievability and failure rate.
Packer mechanics and the method by which the seal with the casing is maintained are major
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factors. Retrievability will be greatly enhanced when oil or saltwater, rather than mud, is
used for the packer fluid. Frequency of packer failures can be minimized by selecting the
proper packer for each set of well conditions. The permanent packer is by far the most
reliable. Compression and tension models of retrievable packers will perform satisfactorily
when the pressure is from one direction only and is not excessive. Fishing characteristics
must also be considered in packer selection. Although it is necessary to drill out a
permanent packer to remove it, the procedure is uncomplicated because all packer material
is drillable. Conversely, removal of stuck retrievable packers, which have hardened steel
components, usually results in extensive fishing operations.
In summary, the selection of packers is a complicated process which must be carefully

planned for optimum effectiveness and efficiency. Further, the selection must be made by
someone completely familiar not only with the packer mechanics, but also with the overall
completion and workover techniques used, including any future anticipated workovers.
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COMPLETION SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVES Page 1 of 35
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 8
SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………….. 3
8.1.1 Subsurface Safety Valve ……………………………………………. 3

8.1.2 Surface Safety Valve ………………………………………………... 3
8.1.3 Safety Valve Status …………………………………………………. 3
8.1.4 Government Regulations ……………………………………………. 4
8.1.5 Operator Responsibility …………………………………………….. 4
8.2 SUBSURFACE-CONTROLLED VALVES ……………………………………………… 5
8.2.1 Type Of Closure Mechanism ……………………………………….. 5

8.2.2 Poppet Closure ……………………………………………………… 5
8.2.3 Rotating Ball Closure ……………………………………………….. 6
8.2.4 Flapper Valves ………………………………………………………. 6
8.2.5 Pressure Differential Valves 7
8.2.6 ………………………………………… 8
8.2.7 Ambient Pressure Valves …………………………………………… 9
8.2.8 Limitations/Advantages …………………………………………….. 10
8.2.9 Installation ………………………………………………………….. 12
Manufacturers ……………………………………………………….
8.3 SURFACE-CONTROLLED VALVES ………………………………………………….. 13
8.3.1 Control Lines ……………………………………………………….. 13

8.3.2 Control Manifolds …………………………………………………... 14
8.3.3 Valve Operation …………………………………………………….. 18
8.3.4 Fail Safe Closure (Single Control Line) Valves ……………………. 18
8.3.5 Balanced Valves (Dual Control Lines) ……………………………... 19
8.3.6 Ratio Balanced Valves ……………………………………………… 20
8.3.7 Equalizing Feature ………………………………………………….. 21
8.3.8 Control Line Fluid ………………………………………………….. 22
8.3.9 Control Pressure Characteristics ……………………………………. 22
8.3.10 Manufacturers ………………………………………………………. 24
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8.4 SURFACE SAFETY VALVES …………………………………………………………... 25
8.4.1 Intended Function …………………………………………………… 25

8.4.2 Control Line ………………………………………………………… 25
8.4.3 Monitor Pilots ………………………………………………………. 26
8.4.4 Three Way Block And Bleed Valves ……………………………….. 27
8.4.5 Gate Valve And Cylinder Assembly ……………………………….. 29
8.4.6 Other Types Of Valves ……………………………………………… 32
8.5 SAFETY VALVE SELECTION …………………………………………………………. 34
8.5.1 Tubing Information …………………………………………………. 34

8.5.2 Valve Model Or Type ………………………………………………. 34
8.5.3 Service Class Or Working Environment ……………………………. 34
8.5.4 Size And Working Pressure ………………………………………… 34
8.5.5 Setting Depth ……………………………………………………….. 35
8.1 INTRODUCTION
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8.1.1 Subsurface Safety Valve
A subsurface safety valve is a device installed in a well below the wellhead that can be
actuated to prevent uncontrolled well flow. This device can be installed and retrieved by
either wireline (wireline retrievable) or pump down methods, or can be an integral part of
the tubing string (tubing retrievable).
8.1.2 Surface Safety Valve
The surface safety valve is an integral part of the wellhead. It is an automatic wellhead
valve that will close during loss of power supply. The valve actually consists of three parts:
the surface safety valve, an actuator, and a lock open device.
8.1.3 Safety Valve Status
The surface safety valve is geared to trip when a production facility malfunction or well
condition is sensed and indicates a problem at or down-stream of the wellhead such as high
separator level, high or low flow-line pressure, or fire. Table 1 depicts the status of either
valve under various conditions.
Table 1
Safety Valve Status
Surface Subsurface
Alarm Safety Valve Safety Valve
High Flow-line Pressure Closed Open

Low Flow-line Pressure Closed Open
High Separator Level Closed Open
Low Separator Level Closed Open
Fire Closed Open
Wellead Damage Inoperable Closed
Emergency Shutdown Closed Closed
8.1.4 Government Regulations
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Government regulations require the use of safety valves. The United States Geological
Survey has primary responsibility for enforcing regulations offshore. On inland waters and
land, responsibility is vested in the environmental protection agency. Sometimes the state’s
petroleum industry regulatory body, such as the Texas Railroad Commission, also exercises
controls and regulations.
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) orders are published by the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) and are regulations which producing companies must follow concerning the use
and testing of safety valves. The regulation pertaining to subsurface safety valves is OCS
Order 5. It requires that a subsurface controlled subsurface safety valve be installed at least
30 meters (98 feet) below the ocean floor 2 days after production has stabilized. It also
requires that the valves be tested at intervals not exceeding 6 months for tubing retrievable
and 12 months for wireline retrievable valves. Valve leak-age rates of 400 cc/min liquid or
15 ft3/min gas are permitted.
The OCS orders reference several American Petroleum Institute (API) standards. Those
referenced in OCS-5 are: API-14A which covers the design and performance requirements,
certification and documentation requirements for downhole valves (pertains mainly to
manufacturers); API-RP-14B which covers the use of the valves described in 14A. API-RP-
14C covers the subsurface safety valves. API-14D is the counterpart of 14A for surface
safety valves.
8.1.5 Operator Responsibility
Section 2 of OCS Order 5 states that the operator must use valves that are manufactured
under the quality assurance standards of ANSI/ASME-SPPE-1. In addition, all valves
employed shall conform to the design and performance requirements of API-14A and 14D.
Regulations also require that the operator maintains records for period of five years, two of
which have to be retained in the nearest offshore field office, while the remaining three
years can be retained in an onshore field office. These records must contain verification of
compliance to the various API specifications and the ANSI/ASME-SPPE-1, all valve data,
setting requirements, and the identity of personnel qualified to install and remove the
valves.
8.2 SUBSURFACE CONTROLLED VALVES
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8.2.1 Type Of Closure Mechanism
Subsurface safety valves can have three different closing mechanisms, poppet, ball or
flapper. The ball and flapper mechanisms are the most popular.
8.2.2 Poppet Closure
Probably, the oldest design in use today, the poppet valve, is one of the most reliable
valves. It simply pops up to seat against a metal seat. A spring holds the valve open during
normal flow. When the flow reaches a specified rate, the tension in a retention spring is
overcome and the valve closes. The poppet closure is shown on Figure 1.
Figure 1. Poppet Closure
8.2.3 Rotating Ball Closure
This closure mechanism uses a spring and piston to keep the valve normally open. When a
pressure differential exists across the ball, a piston moves up, causing the ball to rotate
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about a mechanical linkage to the closed position (Figure 2). Since the sealing surfaces are
not exposed to moving well fluids, flow cutting is negligible, making this valve very
reliable.
Figure 2. Ball Type Closure
8.2.4 Flapper Valves
The closing mechanism of the flapper operates similarly to the ball and poppet. The valve
closes when the piston is forced upward as a result of excessive fluid flow. A flapper
closure is shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. Flapper Type Closure
8.2.5 Pressure Differential Valves
Pressure differential valves have an orifice that causes a pressure differential across it as a
result of fluid flow. All these valves are normally open (Figure. 1, 2, and 3) by the spring
force that keeps the piston in the down position, holding the flapper, ball, or poppet open.
However, when the flow rate through the valve exceeds a critical rate and corresponding
pressure differential, the valve is forced to close. An example of events which might result
in excessive flow rates could be the destruction of the wellhead or flowline.
8.2.6 Ambient Pressure Valves
These valves have a deliberately charged preset pressure chamber that is opposed by the
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surrounding pressure in the wellbore. The charged pressure in these valves is just as
important as the size of the orifice in a differential valve. Although the charged pressure
holds the valve in the normally closed position, the well pressure at the installed valve will
be greater than the charged pressure inside the valve, and therefore the valve will open.
Assume that a wellhead catastrophe has occurred and as a result wellbore fluid is being
vented to the atmosphere. If the decrease in wellbore pressure is reflected at the valve and
is less than the pressure in the chamber of the valve, the valve will close (Figure. 4 and 5).
Figure 4. Ambient Valve-Open
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Figure 5. Ambient Valve-Closed
8.2.7 Limitations / Advantages
Ambient pressure valves are used primarily on low-velocity wells with flow rates incapable
of closing a differential valve. Ambient valves have a larger unrestricted flow area, which
makes them ideal for low-pressure wells. Leakage of the charged pressure would cause the
ambient valve to close. Leakage from the tubing to the charged chamber will equalize
pressure working on the valve and cause it to malfunction in the open position. Because of
this possibility, the ambient valve includes a spring to assist in closing. Just as paraffin
buildup or sand cutting could adversely affect the closing action of differently operated
valves, the same holds true with ambient valves.
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Therefore, a good well maintenance program is important. It should be noted that both
ambient and pressure differential valves are available only in wireline retrievable form. An
important limitation on closing the differential pressure valves is that the differential must
exist at the setting depth in tubing. Also, as well conditions change, the setting of the safety
valve must be monitored so that function properly.
8.2.8 Installation
A basic requirement for installing wire-line retrievable subsurface controlled safety valves
is the initial installation of landing nipples as part of the tubing string, Landing nipples
should be located as shallow as possible below the depth at which paraffin begins to form
for the following reasons.
• If the valve closes in a well producing significant quantities of sand, less sand is
available to fall back on the valve.
• If a catastrophe occurs, less well fluid will be lost.
• A shallow valve is easier to service.
The safety valve is attached to a locking mandrel selected to set in the nipple that has been
installed. Also attached to this assembly is an equalizing sub installed between the locking
mandrel and the safety valve. Equalizing subs are important because they provide a way to
equalize differential pressures across the safety valve before the valve is reopened or
retrieved from the tubing string. The safety valve assembly is then run in the well by wire-
line or pump down techniques and is locked in the appropriate nipple. Figure 6 shows a
safety valve assembly.
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Figure 6. Safety Valve Assembly
The valve can be opened in two ways. The first is by the application of
pressure to the tubing above the valve, and the second is by wire-line
methods with the equalizing sub. When pressure applied to the tubing
above the safety valve becomes equal to the pressure below the valve, the
mechanical force of the spring will reopen the valve. When wire-line
methods to reopen the safety valve are used, an equalizing prong is run on
wire-line tools until it makes contact with the equalizing sub. When
contact is made, the prong pushes the equalizing valve off its seat, allowing
the pressure from below to move through the equalizing valve and into the
tubing above. After pressure has been equalized across the safety valve,
the mechanical force of the spring will cause it to reopen. Figure 7 shows
an example of this procedure.
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Figure 7. Wireline Methods
8.2.9 Manufacturers
There are only three API/OCS certified manufacturers of subsurface controlled subsurface
safety valves, and these are :
Halliburton Center
5151 San Felipe
Houston, Texas 77056
Macco/Schlumberger
100 Macco Blvd.
Sugar Land, Texas 77478
Baker Packers
P.O. Box 3048
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8.3 SURFACE CONTROLLED VALVES
8.3.1 Control Lines
Surface-controlled subsurface safety valves (SCSSV) are normally closed and are held open
by an externally applied pressure source. Most offshore regulations require these remotely
controlled valves due to their higher reliability and safety records as opposed to subsurface
controlled safety valves. Upon loss of this control pressure, the valve closes due to the
force of the spring acting on the closure mechanism. Opposing this force is the hydrostatic
pressure of the control fluid. Consequently, there is a depth limit to which these valves can
be set since at some point the spring force is balanced by the hydrostatic pressure.
Commands are sent down to SCSSVs by either hydraulic pressure, wire line, or acoustic
signal, but by far the most common is hydraulic pressure. The control conduit is usually
0.25-inch (6.2-mm) outside diameter (OD) tubing that is run from the wellhead to the valve.
However, an annular flow path or a separate tubing string can also be used as a conduit.
The surface controlled safety valves are usually set shallow so that the control line does not
have to be long.
Figure 8. Surface-downhole control line schematic

The most popular control line is the continuous type. It has no threaded joints and comes
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already filled with hydraulic fluid. The control line is usually banded to the tubing and
connected to a lug on the landing nipple. The control line and tubing are then run in the
hole together. The control line at the surface is connected to a hydraulic control manifold
(Figure 8).
Figure 9. Single Well Control Manifold-valve open
8.3.2 Control Manifolds
On a single well system, hydraulic manifolds are small and pneumatic/hydraulic. On

multiwell systems, the manifolds are often electrohydraulic and can be the size of a small
room. Figure 9 shows how a single well manifold functions. Supply gas is fed to the
control manifold and operates a hydraulic pump. This gas is also regulated down to feed
fusible plugs (plugs that melt when heated), manual shutdown stations, or other controls
used to monitor the system. The hydraulic pressure created by the pump is applied
downhole to the safety valve and keeps it open. If for any reason the control pressure is
released, the hydraulic pump in the manifold is by passed by a control valve. At this point
hydraulic pressure is released back into the reservoir, allowing the safety valve downhole to
close (Figure 10). If gas pressure is lost or unavailable, the safety valve can be operated
manually by a hand pump on the control manifold.
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Figure 10. Single Well Control Manifold-valve closed
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Figure 11. Wireline Retrievable Ball Valve
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Figure 12. Wireline Retrievable Flapper Valve
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8.3.3 Valve Operation
The operational characteristics of a surface controlled safety valve (SCSSV) are similar to
the mechanics of a subsurface controlled safety valve (SSCSSV). The two main types of
closure mechanisms are the ball and the flapper. The main difference is that the spring
keeps the SSCSSV valve open, while the spring force in the SCSSV causes it to close in the
absence of control line pressure. Figure 11 illustrates these functions. At the top right,
hydraulic fluid enters the valve and forces the piston down against the spring. As stated
earlier, surface-controlled valves are normally closed. The action of the piston moving
down mechanically moves the ball off its seat and rotates it to the open position. When
hydraulic pressure is released, the large closing spring forces the piston back up and closes
the valve. Well pressure at the valve also assists the closing. The flapper closure performs
in a similar manner. The piston physically pushes the flapper back out of the flow path to
open (Figure 12).
8.3.4 Fail Safe Closure (Single Control Line Valves)
As mentioned previously, an inherent limitation to single control line SCSSVs is the depth
to which these valves may be set before the hydrostatic head of the control line fluid
overrides the counteracting spring force of the closure mechanism. This maximum setting
depth is called the fail-safe depth and the valve will not close at greater depths. For a
particular SCSSV, the piston area and the spring force are constant. The pressure gradient
of the control line fluid is then the determining factor for the fail-safe depth. Although not
an all- inclusive number, the fail-safe depth should be determined for each particular
installation.
The fail safe depth of a single line surface controlled subsurface safety valve is defined as
the maximum setting depth at which the valve will close while opposing the hydrostatic
pressure in the control line. This theoretical fail-safe depth may be calculated by dividing
the force of the spring when the valve is closed by the piston area and the gradient of the
control line fluid.
This relationship is shown in the following equation :
F
D =
Ap Ge
where :
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D = fail safe closure depth, ft
F = spring force with valve closed, lb

2
Ap = piston area of valve, in
Ge = effective fluid gradient, psi/ft
Ge = Gc or Gw , whichever is greater
where :
Gc = gradient of control line fluid, psi/ft
Gw = gradient of wellbore fluid, psi/ft
It is usually assumed that there is no wellfluid above the valve or well pressure below the
piston. In actual well conditions, an effective gradient, Ge ,would be determined at the
piston of the valve. This theoretical depth may be modified by a safety factor of 1.2 to 1.5
to compensate for mechanical and seal friction in order to arrive at a working fail safe
depth.
8.3.5 Balanced Valves (Dual Control Lines)
In a balanced valve, a second control line is run to the valve and filled with the same
control line fluid. The hydrostatic pressure applied to the underside of the piston balances
the hydrostatic pressure on top of the piston regardless of the valve setting depth. A
balanced valve is shown in Figure 13.
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Figure 13. Dual Control Line-balanced valve
Theoretically, a balanced valve has an unlimited setting depth; however, the closing times
required to displace the control line fluid to the surface limit the depths to which the valve
should be set. An advantage (besides extreme setting depths) to a balanced valve is that the
control pressure required to hold the valve open need not be greater than well pressure. The
control pressure is required simply to compress the spring to hold the valve open, although
for fail-safe considerations control pressure should be higher than well pressure.
8.3.6 Ratio Balanced Valves
Ratio-balanced surface controlled subsurface safety valves are those where the balance area
is less than the piston area (Figure 14). Consequently the valve has a particular fail-safe
depth.
Because of the difference in areas, the valve is assisted in closing by the well pressure
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acting on the balance piston. This feature helps decrease the closure time when the valve is
set at extreme depths.
Figure 14. Ratio Balanced Dual Control Line Valve
8.3.7 Equalizing Feature
Many surface controlled valves have an equalizing feature in which the shut-in well
pressure is equalized across the valve by the application of control line pressure to the
piston. This pressure causes an equalizing seat to open so that the pressures above and
below the valve are equalized before the primary valve mechanism is opened fully. Low-
pressure wells are not usually equipped with an equalizing feature. In all cases, the
pressure differential across a closed valve should be equalized to prevent damage to the
closure mechanism during opening.
8.3.8 Control Line Fluid
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The two basic factors to be considered in the selection of a liquid for controlling subsurface
safety valves are density and viscosity. Density is important because of the effect of the
hydrostatic head pressure exerted at the valve. Viscosity is important because of the
increase in bleed down time of most systems as ambient temperature falls. Diesel is
commonly used as a control fluid because of its low density. Treated water, that is, fresh
water with miscible oils and possibly glycol, is also used. For viscosity control, light oils,
for example, SAE 10 weight or lighter, can be used in systems when the minimum
operating temperature is 50° F (10° C) or greater. Below that temperature, viscosity
increases to an unacceptable level. In arctic service this factor is critical. In this application
a mixture of two parts light diesel and one part isopropanol by volume often is used to
maintain a low viscosity at temperatures from 20° F (-7° C) to 180° F (82° C) at the
downhole. Note that the alcohol tends to vaporize at producing temperatures with this latter
control fluid.
8.3.9 Control Pressure
Safety valve problems vary with each individual application and valve. However, since
these valves are linked to the surface by the control line, the operation and condition of the
valve can be determined by observation of the control pressure characteristics (Figure 15).
To determine if the valve piston is moving down, hand pump the control manifold at a
constant rate. By observing the control line pressure, an increase in opening pressure (A)
should be noticed as illustrated in Figure 15. The pressure should then increase more
slowly than before, indicating that the piston is traveling. At time B (Figure 15) the
pressure should increase sharply, indicating that the valve is fully open.
Figure 15. Control Pressure Characteristics-opening cycle
To determine if the valve is closing (the valve piston is moving up), exhaust the control line
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fluid at a constant rate and observe the pressure. It should decrease to pressure A (Figure
16), after which the rate of pressure decrease is much less than before. At this point the
valve spring pressure exceeds the control line hydraulic pressure and initiates upward
piston motion. The lower rate of pressure decline in control line pressure will continue
until the pistonn bottoms out or ceases motion (pressure B on Figure 16). The decrease in
pressure should continue at the same rate as when the fluid was first bled to the atmosphere.
Figure 16. Control Pressure Characteristics-closing cycle
8.3.10 Manufacturers
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There are several API/OCS certified manufacturers of surface controlled subsurface safety
valves. These include :
Halliburton Center
5151 San Felipe
Macco/Schlumberger
100 Macco Blvd.
Sugar Land, Texas 77478
Baker Packers
P.O. Box 3048
Hydrill Downhole Tool Division

16770 Imperial Valley Drive
Suite 149
Camco Incorporated
7010 Ardmore Blvd.
Flopetrol
Americana Building
Room 1433
811 Dallas Street
8.4 SURFACE SAFETY VALVES
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8.4.1 Intended Function
The surface safety valves are an integral part of the Christmas tree and are designed to shut
in the well when a problem occurs downstream of the wellhead itself. This design
eliminates the repeated use of the subsurface safety valve, and improves its reliability
should an emergency occur at the wellhead.
8.4.2 Control Line
The automatic SSVs close upon loss of pressure. The pressure source is either pressurized
air or gas (Fig. 17) and is used to hold the valve in the open position. Control line pressure
is normally about 100 psi, but the pressure required to hold the valve open may vary,
depending on the size of the safety valve, the operating ratio of the valve piston, and the
wellhead pressure. In some cases pressures as low as 30 psi is sufficient.
Figure 17. Surface Safety Valve Control Line
8.4.3 Monitor Pilots
The control line is routed to monitor pilots at strategic points downstream of the well head
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choke (Figure 18). These pilots sense decreases or increases in pressure along the flow
line at the heater, the separator, or any point where critical pressure changes should be
monitored. Each pilot is adjustable in the field and can be set within operating limits.
Figure 19 demonstrates how this monitor functions. On the right, control pressure is
brought into a toggle valve. The sensing plunger runs vertically through the center of the
pilot and is free to move up with an increase or decrease in flow-line pressure. The toggle
valve fits in a groove around the sensing plunger. Any motion of the plunger will trip the
toggle valve. If the toggle valve is tripped off seat, the control pressure can exhaust
through the port on the left.
Figure 18. Surface Control Line Type ‘P’ Pilot
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Figure 19. High/low Flowline Pressure Monitor
8.4.4 Three-Way Block And Bleed Valves
Routed through monitor pilots, control line pressure is also channeled to a three-way valve.
This valve shifts and blocks incoming control pressure and bleeds pressure from the safety
valve cylinder. This action allows the safety valve cylinder to close. In service, the handle
is up (Figure 20). Control line pressure feeds in from the left and completely fills the
valve. The pressure is routed out the top right to the safety valve and out the lower right
outlet to the monitor pilot.
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Figure 20. Three-Way Block and Bleed Valve-in service
Figure 21 shows the actuated condition of the same three-way valve. At step 1, the
monitor pilot has been actuated, and control line pressure has been bled off the lower side
of the diagram. At step 2, the stem and handle have moved down and are blocking
incoming control pressure. Step 3 shows where the control pressure that was holding the
safety valve open is now bleeding out the top of the three-way valve by the stem, allowing
the safety valve to close.
The handle must be pulled up and held momentarily until the safety valve is completely
open to place the three-way valve back in service and to reopen the safety valve after the
problem is solved.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 21. Three-Way Block and Bleed Valve-activated
8.4.5 Gate Valve And Cylinder Assembly
The SSV comprises the gate valve and a cylinder assembly. The cylinder assembly may be
installed by the manufacturer on almost any reverse-acting gate valve or may be installed in
the field on existing gate valves. Figure 22 shows a cutaway of a complete surface safety
valve. Figure 23 shows the actuated valve. Control pressure entering the valve cylinder
forces the piston, stem, and gate down to the open position. Notice that the stem is almost
flush with the top of the cylinder, indicating the position of the gate. The valve may be
mechanically locked open by a screw-on lockout cap. Fusible caps are available that will
melt in the event of a fire and will allow the valve to close if the valve inadvertently is left
locked open. This is a fail-close valve since in the absence of control line pressure, the
valve will close. The valve body pressure is the closing force. Pressure acting on the area
of the stem (Figure 24) forces the piston, stem, and gate to the closed position.
The closing spring comes into effect only if a 100-psi pressure or less is in the gate valve
body (Figure 25). This condition could occur if the flow line ruptures near the valve on the
downstream side.
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Figure 22. Sectional View of Surface Safety Valve
Figure 23. Activated Surface Safety Valve
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Figure 24. Surface Safety Valve-pressure on stem
Figure 25. Surface Safety Valve-closing spring
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MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 26. Flowline Pressure Activated Surface Safety Valve
8.4.6 Other Types Of Valves
Some SSV valves do not require external control pressure. These operate by flow-line
pressure (Figure 26) diverted into the valve cylinder. A monitor actuator pilot adapts
directly into the cylinder, which senses high or low pressure only or a combination of both.
The valve operates similar to those illustrated in Figures 22 through 25, and can be adapted
to any reverse-acting gate valve.
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Another surface safety valve is the hydraulic type (Figure 27). It also is adaptable to any
reverse-acting gate valve. Because of its small size, it is ideal for close quarters on
offshore platforms. Also, because it is hydraulically operated, it is often tied into the
control system for surface-controlled subsurface safety valves.
Figure 27. Hydraulically Operated Surface Safety Valve
8.5 SAFETY VALVE SELECTION
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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8.5.1 Tubing Information
One of the most important items necessary when ordering a subsurface safety valve is the
tubing size, weight and grade so that the proper landing nipples, tubing connections,
material specs, etc. are the same. This is true whether the valve is actuated remotely from
the surface or from downhole.
8.5.2 Valve Model Or Type
Valve model refers to the method employed to shut off the flow of hydrocarbons to the
surface. These are either flapper, ball or poppet. Flapper and ball is used on both surface
and subsurface controlled valves, whereas the poppet is used strictly on the latter.
The type refers mainly to the remote control feature of surface controlled valves, i.e., dual
control lines or single control lines. As mentioned earlier, the dual control line type
usually selected when extreme setting depths are anticipated.
8.5.3 Service Class Or Working Environment
There are three types of service class environments as defined by the American Petroleum
Institute (API), and these are Class 1 - Standard Service; Class 2 - Sandy Service; Class 3 -
Stress Corrosion Cracking Service. Within this last class there are two sub-classes : 3S -
for sulfide stress cracking and 3C - for chloride stress cracking service. Details concerning
the working environment and material specs can be found in API Spec 14A “Specification
for Subsurface Safety Valves”.
8.5.4 Size And Working Pressure
Although size is important from a standpoint of tubing compatibility, it is also necessary

information regarding any special accessories such as pup joints, flow couplings or
equalizing valves that may be desired. OCS Order 5 requires that flow couplings be
installed immediately before and after the subsurface safety valve in order to protect
against erosion from turbulence in the flow stream.
When dealing with subsurface controlled valves, the two most important parameters to be
specified are the orifice size and the working pressure. The orifice size dictates the amount
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
of pressure drop that will be available to close the valve during a catastrophe. The working
pressure establishes the amount of dome charge that is necessary to close the valve if an
ambient pressure valve is used.
If a remote-controlled valve is used, the working pressure is necessary in order to size up

the surface hydraulic system.
8.5.5 Setting Depth
Setting depths are especially important when surface controlled (remote) valves are
employed because of the importance of the hydraulic control line fluid’s hydrostatic head.
If the valve is set too deep, the closing springs acting on the valve mandrel may be
incapable of exerting sufficient force to counteract the control line’s fluid pressure. This
situation would result in a permanently open valve. The fail-safe depth must therefore be
calculated for each installation.
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COMPLETION COMPLETION FLUIDS Page 1 of 112
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 9
COMPLETION FLUIDS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.1 INTRODUCTION …………………….……………………………………………. 5
9.1.1 Definitions ……………..……………………………………………. 5

9.1.2 Fluid Functions ……………..……...……………………………….. 5
9.1.3 Fluid Types …………………….……………………………………. 7
9.2 FLUID PROPERTIES ………………...…………………………………………… 8
9.2.1 Fluid Density ..………..……………………………………………... 8

9.2.2 Subsurface Density ………………………………………………….. 10
9.2.3 Density of Blends ...…………………………………………………. 12
9.2.4 Viscosity …………………………………………………………….. 12
9.2.5 Gel Strength …………………………………………………………. 15
9.2.6 Corrosivity …………………………………………………………... 15
9.2.7 Solids Content ………………………………………………………. 16
9.2.8 Formation Compatibility ……………………………………………. 16
9.2.9 Fluid Loss …………………………………………………………… 17
9.2.10 Cost …………………………………………………………………. 17
9.3 WATER-BASE FLUIDS ……………………….……….………………………… 18
9.3.1 Source of Water …..……………..……………………………….….. 18

9.3.2 Formation Damage ……...…..…….......................….....……….….. 18
9.3.3 Fluid Loss Agents ……………...…...............………………………. 19
9.3.4 Polymer Viscosifiers ………………………………………………... 20
9.3.5 Polymer Applications ……...............……………………………….. 21
9.3.6 Mixing Polymers ……...............……………………………………. 21
9.3.7 Polymer Breakers ……...............……………………………………. 22
9.3.8 Polymer Degradation ……...............………………………………... 23
9.3.9 Polymer Residue ……………………………………………………. 23
9.4 CLEAR BRINES ……………..…………………………………………………… 24
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9.4.1 Density Ranges ….…...……………………………………………… 24

9.4.2 Freezing and Crystallization …….…………..……………………… 24
9.4.3 Potassium Chloride ……...………………………..………………… 24
9.4.4 Sodium Chloride …………………………………………….……… 25
9.4.5 Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride ………………………………… 25
9.4.6 Calcium Chloride …………………………………………………… 26
9.4.7 Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide ……………………………….. 26
9.4.8 Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide ………………... 27
9.4.9 Sodium Bromide ……………………………………………………. 27
9.4.10 Brines To Avoid …………………………………………………….. 28
9.5 EXAMPLE : BRINE COMPOSITION …………………………......….……….. 29
9.5.1 Problem 1 ………….…….…..…….……………….……………..… 29

9.5.2 Average Fluid Density ……………….…………………...………… 29
9.5.3 Fluid Type ………..………………..………………………………... 30
9.5.4 Required Surface Density …………………………………………… 30
9.5.5 Problem 2 …………………………………………………………… 30
9.5.6 Freezing and Crystallization ………………………………………... 30
9.6 WEIGHTENED BRINES ……………………………………..……..….………... 31

9.6.1 Weighting Agents …….…..…….……………….……………..…… 31
9.6.2 Amount of Weighting Agents ……………………………….……… 31
9.6.3 Application ……….………………..………………………………... 32
9.7 WATER-BASE MUD …...……………………………………………....….......… 33

9.7.1 Composition ……….…….…..…….……………….……………..… 33
9.7.2 Economics ………………………………………………...………… 33
9.7.3 Damage …………..………………..………………………………... 33
9.7.4 Stability ……………………………………………………………... 34
9.7.5 Corrosion ……………………………………………………………. 35
9.7.6 Applications ………………………………………………………… 36
9.8 HYDROCARBON FLUIDS ……………….....………………………………...… 37
9.8.1 Applications …….…....................................................................… 37

9.8.2 Density …...……………..……………………..............................… 37
9.8.3 Viscosity ..….….………..……………………..............................… 37
9.8.4 Crude Oil ………….……………………………………………….... 37
9.8.5 Diesel ……..…………………………………………………………. 38
9.9 OIL-BASE AND INVERT-EMULSION MUDS ……………………………...… 39
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9.9.1 Composition …….…….................................................................... 39

9.9.2 Economics ….……….….……………………..............................…. 39
9.9.3 Damage…………….……………….………..................................… 39
9.9.4 Stability ……..……………………………………………………..... 40
9.9.5 Corrosion ……………………………………………………………. 40
9.9.6 Applications ………………………………………………………… 40
9.10 NITROGEN ……………………..……………………....…………….……….….. 41
9.10.1 Applications …….….…...............................................................… 41

9.10.2 Equipment .……………...…………………................................… 41
9.11 FOAM …………………………………….....…………....……………………...… 42
9.11.1 Definition ……….….…...............................................................… 42

9.11.2 Advantages/Uses ……………...…..…………...............................… 42
9.11.3 Properties …….…….………………….........................................… 42
9.11.4 Foam Generation …….…..………………..………………………… 42
9.12 CIRCULATING FLUIDS …………….....……………....……………………..…. 44

9.12.1 Solids Transport …....…...............................................................… 44
9.12.2 Solids Suspension ……...…………………….................................. 46
9.12.3 Breaking Circulation ..…..………………..…………………………. 47
9.12.4 Fluid Loss Control ………………………………………………….. 47
9.12.5 Treatment Displacement ……………………………………………. 50
9.12.6 Selecting A Circulating Fluid ………………………………………. 50
9.13 PACKER FLUIDS ……………....……………………....…………………….…... 51
9.13.1 Functions ………..….…...............................................................… 51

9.13.2 Hydrostatic Head ………..………………..………………………… 51
9.13.3 Solids Settling ………………………………………………………. 51
9.13.4 Corrosion ……………………………………………………………. 52
9.13.5 Corrosion Inhibitor ………………………………………………….. 53
9.13.6 Biocides ……………………………………………………………... 53
9.13.7 Packer Fluid Selection ……………………………………………… 53
9.13.8 Insulating Fluids ……………………………………………………. 55
9.14 PERFORATING FLUIDS ……………….……………………...……………...… 57

9.14.1 Perforation Plugging ...….............................................................… 57
9.14.2 Salt Water and Oil ….……...………...………..............................… 57
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9.14.3 Acids ……………..…….………………......................................…. 57

9.14.4 Nitrogen ….……….…..………………..…………………………… 58
9.15 FIELD HANDLING OF FLUIDS ………...……………………....…….………... 59

9.15.1 Mixing Brines …..….…...............................................................… 59
9.15.2 Safety ……….…………..………………..…………………………. 60
9.15.3 Properties Control …………………………………………………... 60
9.15.4 Freezing and Crystallization ………………………………………… 61
9.15.5 Corrosion ……………………………………………………………. 61
9.15.6 Environmental ………………………………………………………. 63
9.15.7 Resale ……………………………………………………………….. 63
9.15.8 Surface Equipment ………………………………………………….. 64
9.15.9 Solids Control ………………………………………………………. 64
9.15.10 Allowable Solids ……………………………………………………. 66
9.15.11 Filtration …………………………………………………………….. 68
9.16 APPENDIX A – BRINE DATA …………………………...…………………...… 72
9.17 APPENDIX B – HYDROCARBON DATA …………....……………………...… 113
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.1 Definitions
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Following the drilling of a well with drilling fluids, various other fluids are used in the well
during the well completion steps and subsequent workover operations. We will call these
other fluids completion or workover fluids interchangeably since no useful distinction can
be made between these terms from the point of view of fluid requirements.
Completion fluids may be subdivided according to function into working fluids, packer
fluids, and treating fluids.
Working fluids are the general purpose fluids which serve to control the well while it is
open, transport solids out of and into the well, displace well treatments, bring the well in,
augment perforating, and protect the producing formation during perforating and
subsequent exposure. Circulating fluids and perforating fluids are important subclasses of
working fluids.
Packer fluids are fluids which are left in the tubing-casing annulus when the annulus is
isolated from the tubing with a packer. They must meet many of the same requirements as
working fluids and are often the same fluid. Packer fluids serve to reduce differential
pressure across the packer, protect annular steel surfaces from corrosion, help control the
well while the packer is being set or retrieved, make up part of the kill fluid should a packer
failure occur, and may thermally insulate the tubing during production or injection.
Treating fluids are fluids used to actively treat the formation or wellbore to solve a specific
problem. Treating fluids comprise formation matrix acidizing fluids, wellbore cleanout
acids and solvents, formation matrix solvent and surfactant treatments, paraffin and asphalt
removal and inhibiting fluids, fracturing fluids, cements, and sand consolidation fluids.
These fluids and their use are highly specialized. Treating fluids will not be covered in this
chapter.
9.1.2 Fluid Functions
The various workover and completion operations require fluids which will serve one or
more of the following basic functions :
1. Well control
2. Solids transport
3. Treatment displacement
4. Formation protection
5. Corrosion protection
6. Solids suspension
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Well control is a primary function of completion and workover fluids. In a conventional

completion or workover, the fluid must be able to kill a flowing well; that is, the fluid must
be heavy enough to produce a hydrostatic pressure sufficient to stop the well from flowing.
The fluid properties that are important for the well control function are density, viscosity,
and fluid loss characteristics. The fluid density determines whether the hydrostatic head
will be sufficient to control the well. Fluid viscosity determines the rate at which fluid is
lost to the formation in the absence of fluid loss additives. Fluid loss may be reduced by
the incorporation of filter cake forming fluid loss agents.
Solids transport is another major function of workover/completion fluid. Often clay fines,
sand, and larger debris must be removed from the well. The effectiveness of any fluid in
well cleanout operations depends on its carrying capacity, which is largely a function of
fluid viscosity.
Treatment displacement is a fluid function which is often taken for granted. When a
treating fluid is used in a well, a workover/completion fluid is usually employed to displace
the treatment through the well and into the formation. It may also be used to establish
injectivity into the wellbore to cool down the zone, and/or breakdown the initial resistance
of the formation to fluid entry. The most important property required of a treatment
displacement fluid is that it be chemically compatible with the treating fluid. It should also
be non-damaging to the formation.
Formation protection is an important function of any fluid that will come into contact with
the productive formation. The fluid allowed to leak off to the formation should not contain
damaging solids, such as clays, silt, barite, paraffins, asphalt, and insoluble corrosion by-
products. Surfactants used in the fluid should be compatible with the formation and
formation fluids.
Corrosion protection is an easily important function of a fluid which will remain in the well
for an extended period of time. Fluids which are inherently corrosive must sometimes be
used in the well. The time duration of their use should be minimized and corrosion
inhibitors should be added to control corrosion damage to acceptable levels.
Solids suspension is a function primarily desired in fluids where suspended solids are
necessary to impart a required fluid property. Most commonly, suspended solids are
required to increase fluid density or to provide fluid loss control.
9.1.3 Fluid Types
Many kinds of fluids are used in completions and workovers. The most common fluid is a
clear brine of kill weight or slightly greater. Common fluid types are muds, treated fresh
water, field saltwater, clear dense brines, solids-weighted brines, hydrocarbons, oil-base
muds, nitrogen, and foams.
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In the following sections we will examine each of these. Table 1 lists the various workover
fluids, their practical density ranges and typical applications.
Table 1 : Fluid Types and Applications
Type of Fluid Density Range Applications
Fresh water 8.33 ppg 1) base for brines & slurries

2) spacer for treatments or sluries
3) solids transport (when gelled)
Saltwater/weighted brines 8.3-18.0 ppg 1) well control

2) perforating
3) sand control
4) treatment displacement
5) solids transport (when gelled)
6) packer fluid
Conventional water-based muds 8.3-19.0 ppg 1) well control

2) solids transport
Oils & oil-base muds 7.0-8.3 ppg 1) perforating (oils only)

2) treatment displacement
3) packer fluids
4) well control (when gelled &weighted)
5) solids transport (when gelled & weighted)
Foam 0.2 ppg 1) washing out sand, small cuttings,and

wellbore liquids (usually in low pressure
reservoirs
Nitrogen gas 0.1 ppg 1) treatment displacement

2) well unloading
3) circulating out sand or small cuttings
(usually in low pressure reservoirs)
9.2 FLUID PROPERTIES
The fluid properties that most often must be considered when selecting a fluid are density,
viscosity, corrosivity, solids content, compatibility with the formation, fluid-loss
characteristics, mechanical requirements, and cost. The importance of these properties in
the choice of fluids will be discussed in this section.
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9.2.1 Fluid Density
Fluid density is defined as the weight per unit volume of fluid. Fluid gradient is defined as
the pressure exerted by a column of fluid of unit depth. Table 2 shows the relation between
fluid gradient and fluid density for a variety of common units. The fluid gradient, FG, in
psi/foot is related to the average fluid density, ρ, in pounds per gallon by:
FG(psi/ft) = 0.052ρ(ppg) (1)
Thus, the pressure exerted by a column of fluid at a particular depth can be calculated as
follows:
Pressure(psi)= 0.052ρ (ppg) Depth(ft) (2)
where ρ is the average fluid density in ppg, and depth is the true vertical depth of the fluid
column.
Fluid density is used to control a well that must be open during a period of work. Fluid
density should be no higher than needed to control formation pressure in order to minimize
potentially damaging fluid loss, extended unloading times, and avoid formation fracturing.
With reasonable precautions a hydrostatic bottom hole pressure (BHP) of 100 to 400 psi
over formation pressure should be adequate. The excess of the hydrostatic BHP exerted by
the workover fluid over the formation BHP (pore pressure) is called overbalance. This
overbalance is chosen by the engineer to provide a safety margin intended to insure well
control throughout the workover. If the hydrostatic BHP is less than the formation BHP,
then the well is said to be underbalanced.
Table 2
Density and FluidGradient
∆P (psi/ft) = 0.051948 ρ (ppg)

L
∆P (psi/ft) = 0.433527 ρ (g/cm3)

L
∆P (MPa/m) = 1.175096 x 10-3 ρ (ppg)

DRILLING
L DEPARTMENT
∆P
(ppg) 3)
0.011751 ρ (g/cm
(bar/m) = 0.098067
∆P
L (Mpa/m) = 9.80665 x 10-3 ρ (g/cm3)
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MANUAL Issue 1
The average fluid density required to control a well can be calculated using the following
equation :
BHP + Overbalance (psi)

ρ (ppg) = (3)
0.052 Depth (ft)
The formation bottomhole pressure (BHP) or formation pore pressure can be estimated
from the reservoir data, or by adding the shut-in surface pressure and the hydrostatic head
of the fluid in the wellbore (if the liquid is known), or measured in other ways.
It must be emphasized that the required density calculated using the above relation is the
average density of fluid in the well not the surface density. Fluid density is a function of
temperature and pressure. In general, fluid density decreases with increasing temperature
and increases with increasing pressure so that to some extent the effects of temperature and
pressure tend to compensate each other. In general, the temperature effect is the greater of
the two.
9.2.2 Subsurface Density
Table 3 illustrates how subsurface temperatures and pressures affect the density of a CaBr2
workover fluid with a 14.2 ppg surface density. This 9000 foot well has a 250°F static
bottomhole temperature and a 6532 psig static bottomhole pressure. In this example the
fluid column exactly balances the well. Using Eqn. (3) we can calculate the average fluid
density required to balance this well as
6531.7 + 0
ρ AV = = 13.970 ppg
(0.05195) (9000)
Column 4 shows how the fluid density changes with depth. Notice that the average value of
the fluid densities in column 4 is also 13.970 ppg. Computation of fluid densities at various
temperature-pressure combinations, as was done to generate column 4, requires detailed
knowledge of the PVT properties of each brine concentration. Since this is not usually
available and since great precision is not necessary, a simpler yet adequate method is
desirable.
If we neglect the effects of both temperature and pressure, thus assuming that the fluid has
the same density at all depths, then the resulting actual distribution of densities with depth
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
is as illustrated in column 5. In column 5 we see that a fluid with a surface density of

13.970 ppg will have an actual average density of 13.744 ppg. This is 0.226 ppg less than
the required average density and will result in the well being underbalanced by 105.6 psi.
The usual prescription of adding 200 to 400 psi “overbalance” to the required fluid head
would prevent an underbalanced well in this case. The poor accuracy of this method of
fluid head estimation is compensated for by the application of what has historically
appeared to be an arbitrary “overbalance” requirement.
A more accurate, yet still simple, method of estimating the required fluid density is the
temperature compensated mid-depth method. It is based upon (1) the assumption that the
mid-depth geothermal temperature is a suitable average well temperature and (2) the simple
observation that the effect of temperature on fluid density is generally (at typical well
depths) greater than the effect of pressure. Until accurate P-V-T-composition data for
workover fluid is developed, this method is the most suitable method available. The
method is applied as follows :
(1) Accurately determine the mid-depth geothermal temperature.
(2) Determine the required average fluid density from formation pore pressure and the
desired overbalance using Eqn. (3).
(3) Select a fluid type.
(4) Set the chosen fluid’s density at the mid-depth temperature equal to the required
average fluid density.
(5) Locate the required surface density using density versus temperature charts such as
those in Appendix A. enter the chart at the required average density and mid-depth
temperature. Then, follow a line of constant composition back to the surface
temperature.
Column 6 of Table 3 illustrates this process for the case where the desired overbalance is
zero. Column 7 shows the actual density distribution of the chosen fluid. Notice that the
actual mid-depth density is 14.080 ppg not 13.970 ppg and that the actual average density
of the fluid is 14.089 ppg not 13.970 ppg. Thus, use of the temperature compensated mid-
depth method results in overbalance pressure. Note, that in this case, temperature effect
accounts for 161.2 psi bottomhole pressure difference and pressure effect accounts for a
55.4 psi bottomhole pressure difference.
Table 3
Wellbore Fluid Density
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Depth Temp. Pressure ρ (T, P) ρ (T, P) ρ (T) ρ (T, P)
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MANUAL Issue 1
ft °F psig ppg ppg ppg ppg
0 70 0 14.200 13.970 14.320 14.320

900 88 653.2 14.125 13.896 14.245
1800 106 1306.3 14.084 13.856 14.204
2700 124 1959.5 14.043 13.815 14.162
3600 142 2612.7 14.002 13.775 14.120
4500 160 3265.8 13.961 13.735 13.970 14.080
5400 178 3919.0 13.922 13.697 14.040
6300 196 4572.2 13.884 13.660 14.002
7200 214 5225.4 13.849 13.624 13.966
8100 232 5878.5 13.815 13.592 13.933
9000 250 6531.7 13.785 13.561 13.902
ρ av = 13.970 13.744 14.089
9.2.3 Density of Blends
Sometimes it is necessary or desirable to blend two miscible fluids to obtain a fluid of

intermediate density. The following relationship may be used to calculate the proportions
of light and heavy fluid which should be combined to produce a desired density :
ρH - ρF
a = (4)
ρH - ρL
where : ρF = final density
ρL = density of lighter fluid
ρH = density of heavy fluid
a = volume fraction of lighter fluid
1-a = volume fraction of heavy fluid
Example : To obtain 100 bbl of 10.3 ppg CaCl2 brine by diluting 11.5 ppg CaCl2 brine with
brine weighing 8.5 ppg :
11.5 – 10.3
a = = 0.4
11.5 – 8.5
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
Thus 40 bbl (0.4 x 100) of 8.5 ppg brine plus 60 bbl (0.6 x 100) of 11.5 ppg brine will
provide 100 bbl of 10.3 brine.
9.2.4 Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the drag force that a fluid exerts upon a surface past which it
flows. More precisely, viscosity is the viscosity coefficient, which is the ratio of the
tangential frictional force per unit area to the velocity gradient perpendicular to the
direction of fluid flow. The velocity gradient perpendicular to the fluid flow direction is
called the rate of shear strain, or more commonly, simply the shear rate. When the
tangential force is porportional to the fluid velocity, the fluid is said to be Newtonian and
when it is not the fluid is said to be non-Newtonian.
Viscosity is strongly dependent upon the temperature of a fluid, its composition variables,
and to a lesser extent upon surrounding pressure. When the fluid is non-Newtonian its
viscosity is also dependent upon the velocity and the shape of the conduit through which
the fluid is flowing. The flow behavior of completion fluids is often not simple. Non-
Newtonian flow behavior is exhibited by polymer solutions, emulsions, foams, and muds.
Brines without gel, and hydrocarbons are Newtonian.
The viscosity of a workover fluid decreases exponentially with increasing well temperature
and well temperature normally increases with depth. Therefore, the viscosity of a fluid at
the bottom of the well may be substantially less than at the surface. The graphs of
Appendix A and Appendix B show the effect of temperature on the viscosity for common
workover fluids. A rough estimate of the effect of temperature for any fluid may be
sufficient.
Pressure can also have an effect on fluid viscosity. Directionally, viscosity increases with
increasing pressure. The viscosity increase is proportional to pressure. For brines the
effect is small, on the order of 0.5%/1000 psi. For hydrocarbons it is on the order of
13%/1000 psi.
Viscosity is commonly measured in the oil field using one of two devices. The viscosity of
a fluid may be measured by using either a Marsh funnel or a Fann viscometer.
The Marsh funnel consists of cone terminating in short tube. For an indication of fluid
viscosity, one measures the time it takes for 1500 ml of fluid to drain through the tube at the
bottom (Figure 1). Fresh water will drain in 26 seconds. More viscous fluids will take a
longer time. The Marsh funnel measure of viscosity is only approximate for a number of
reasons. First, the efflux time is also dependent on the fluid density since the fluid head
provides the driving force for efflux. Second, since the head changes over the measurement
time, the flow rate and hence the shear rate also change uncontrollably during the
measurement. Since all polymer containing fluids are non-Newtonian (muds are too), the
viscosity indicated by the Marsh funnel efflux time is some kind of an average “viscosity”
over the shear rate range of the measurement which may or may not be in the shear rate
range of the application. Because of its simplicity, the Marsh funnel nevertheless provides
a useful index of relative fluid viscosity.
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Figure 1. Marsh Funnel. NL Baroid, Manual of Drilling Fluids Technology,

“Mud Testing”, p.5
Figure 2. Fann Rheometer. NL Baroid, manual of Drilling Fluids Technology,
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“Mud Testing,” p.5
The Fann viscometer (Figure 2) provides a more precise measure of fluid viscosity. It
consists of a motor or hand-crank driven pair of concentric cylinders. The outer cylinder
rotates at various constant speeds around the stationary inner cylinder. The space between
the two cylinders is filled with the workover fluid. The torque applied to the inner cylinder
is measured at various speeds and thus at various known rates of shear. From the torques
and speeds with a given gap one may calculate and plot viscosity in centipoise (cp) as a
function of shear rate. Thus, the Fann viscometer not only gives viscosity in accepted units
of viscosity, but also provides the fluid’s viscosity response to shear. The shear rates in
tubing and annuli may be estimated for expected flow rates and then the Fann viscometer
generated plots may be used to provide more precise estimation of the fluid’s effective
viscosity in the downhole application.
9.2.5 Gel Strength
Sometimes a fluid will have a true yield stress which must be exceeded in order for the
fluid to flow. A true yield stress will often be called a gel strength to distinguish it from the
yield point of the Bingham rheological model. Gel strength is properly measured by
applying shear stress infinitely slowly until the rigid structure of the gelled fluid fails. The
shear stress at which the failure occurs is a gel strength or true yield stress. Ideally the
failure occurs at a shearing rate of zero. In practice, gel strengths are only approximated by
observing the peak stress occurring on the sudden application of shear strain at low shear
rates using a Fann viscometer. Muds are the most common oilfield fluids which develop
gel strength on standing. Some high concentration or cross-linked polymer fluids also
develop gel strength.
Gel strength is important for three reasons. First, gel strength must be present if solids are
required to remain suspended in a fluid that is not flowing. High viscosity alone will
simple delay the settling process, but will not prevent it. Second, gel strength determines
the pressure required to reinitiate flow following a no-flow period. Thirdly, gel strength is
desirable if a fluid is intended to thermally insulate an annulus.
A gel strength of 2 to 4 lbgf/100 ft2 is necessary to prevent settling of the barite added to
weight drilling fluids. More gel strength may be required to suspend larger or denser
particles. A gel strength of about 25 lbf/100 ft2 at the application temperature will suppress
thermal convection in packer fluids designed to thermally insulate the tubing-casing annular
space in the most difficult producing or injection situation. Gel strengths of 20 to 40
lbf/100 ft2 are common in muds. In general, a fluid should be chosen to have the minimum
gel strength necessary to solve any given problem requiring gel strength.
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9.2.6 Corrosivity
A completion fluid should not be unduly corrosive to the tubular goods. Corrosion
inhibitors are used to control the corrosion rate. A suitable upper limit of allowable
corrosivity for a completion or workover fluid is 0.05 lb/ft2 (~ 1 mil) per workover.
Preferably, corrosivity should be less than 0.02 lb/ft2 (~ 0.5 mil) per workover. A suitable
upper limit of corrosivity for a packer fluid is 5 mil/yr, but 1 mil/yr is the preferred target.
Corrosivity generally increases with increasing temperature. Corrosion destroys well
tubular goods and insoluble corrosion reaction products can damage the producing
formation if corrosive fluids are allowed to enter the formation.
9.2.7 Solids Content
To avoid formation and perforation plugging, workover fluids ideally should contain no
solids. However, even with the best efforts at cleanliness, fine particles often appear in the
fluids that enter the formation. Particles larger than 5 microns in diameter will bridge on
the “typical” producing formation. Particles up to 5 microns in diameter may cause
plugging deep within the formation’s pore channels. Significantly less plugging results
from particles of less than 1 micron diameter. The use of filters to remove avoidable solids
is encouraged where practical. Perforation damage by solid particles during perforating can
be avoided by perforating with the pressure differential into the wellbore.
9.2.8 Formation Compatibility
Characteristics of the fluid should be tailored to minimize formation damage. Formation

damage may result from interaction or chemical reaction with the formation or connate
fluids. When possible, brine concentrations should be balanced to prevent swelling or
dispersion of clay minerals. Surfactants and other chemicals that can permanently and
adversely change formation wettability should be avoided. Thus, for example, anionic
surfactants should not be used in carbonate formations and cationic surfactants should not
be used in sandstone formations.
A workover fluid should not cause scale precipitation when mixed with formation brine.
Formation of stable emulsions of the fluid and resident crude can be prevented by proper
choice of pH, brine concentration, mutual solvent, or emulsion preventing surfactant.
Chemical additives should be used when required for these purposes. However, one should
attempt to hold the use of additives to a minimum. Indiscriminate use of additives can
cause more problems than they solve.
9.2.9 Fluid Loss
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Fluid-loss additives may be required to prevent loss of excessive quantities of fluid to the
formation. One method of preventing excessive fluid loss to the formation is to include
properly sized acid-soluble particles such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the workover
fluid. These particles bridge at the formation face and form a filter cake that prevents
damaging particles from entering the formation. An acid wash can thereafter dissolve the
filter cake. In many cases oil-soluble resin particles may be substituted for CaCO3. In
either case, polymer viscosifiers are usually also required for an effective fluid-loss control.
9.2.10 Cost
The most economical fluid consistent with the workover objectives and formation
protection should be used. Cost should not, however, outweigh the goals set in a given
workover or completion. For very high-density fluids, which tend to be expensive, fluid
recovery and re-use is an additional consideration.
9.3 WATER-BASE FLUIDS
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9.3.1 Source Of Water
When water-base fluids are to be used, the first consideration is the source of water. Two
factors are important when selecting a source of water. The water must contain a minimum
of particulate matter and its chemistry must be compatible with that of the formation and
connate water. It must have a high enough salinity to prevent clay swelling and dispersion.
And, precipitates should not form when the water mixes with formation water. The most
common sources of water are field or lease saltwater, seawater, bay water, or fresh water
(such as from a municipal water supply).
Field or lease saltwater is the most common workover fluid in use today owing to its low
cost, availability, and solids-free nature. If it is clean, formation saltwater is ideal from the
standpoint of minimizing formation damage caused by swelling or dispersion of clays in
sandstone formations.
Although saltwater from settling tanks or heater treaters is frequently considered to be

natural water from the formation, it often contains treating chemicals and fine particles of
oil, clay, silt, paraffin, asphalt, or scale. Filtered formation saltwater may still contain oil-
treating surfactants (emulsion breakers), which can cause wettability or emulsion problems.
Seawater or bay water is often used in coastal areas because it is readily available. But it
frequently contains clays, other fines, and marine microorganisms that cause plugging.
Water from such a source should therefore always be filtered before use. If used as a
packer fluid, an appropriate biocide should be added. Depending on the salinity of bay
water, it may be necessary to add NaCl or KCl to prevent clay disturbance.
Fresh water is often desirable as a basic fluid because of the difficulty of obtaining
sufficiently clean sea or formation water. However, it is not sufficient that the fresh water
be clean at its source. Care must also be taken to ensure that the tanks transporting and
storing it are clean as well. Salt can be added to obtain the required density and clay
stabilization. When clean brine is available at low cost, purchasing it prepared may be
preferable to mixing it on location.
9.3.2 Formation Damage
One concern with water-base fluids is the formation damage that can result from contact
with swelling clays, such as montmorillonite. Laboratory investigations have shown that
contacting these clays with water fresher than connate can severely reduce formation
permeability. This damage is especially severe when the water is very fresh. Laboratory
tests have also demonstrated that this type of formation damage can generally be prevented
by adding 1% by weight of calcium chloride (CaCl2), 3-5% by weight of sodium chloride
(NaCl), or 2-3% of potassium chloride (KCl) to the water.
Emulsion and formation wettability problems may result either from activation of natural
surfactants in the crude by pH changes or particular cations (e.g., calcium), or from
contamination of the workover fluid by surfactants from another source. When the water
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comes from a field source, the contaminating surfactants are usually treating chemicals
such as surfactants, corrosion inhibitors, and emulsion breakers (frequently formation oil
wetters). It is far better to prevent emulsion and wettability problems than to correct them
after the fact. An unsatisfactory emulsifying or wettability situation can usually be
corrected by the addition of a small amount (0.1%) of the proper surfactant.
9.3.3 Fluid Loss Agent
Fluid loss agents are often necessary to prevent excessive loss of an expensive or difficult-
to-unload fluid to the formation. They may also serve to prevent formation damage by
particulate debris, polymer viscosifiers, and salts that may be present in the workover fluid.
The rate of fluid loss to a formation is usually controlled by the fluid’s viscosity and by a
filter cake of solid additives in perforation tunnels or on the formation face. Reliance on
viscosifiers alone is usually not preferred since the effectiveness of this measure relies upon
relatively deep invasion of the formation by the polymer. Permeability damage can result.
Although this damage can be reduced by back-flowing and the use of breakers, polymer
removal is often incomplete so that some formation damage remains.
Ideally, fluid loss should be controlled at the formation face. This can be accomplished by
adding particulate matter of the proper size, shape, concentration, and particle-size
distribution to the workover fluid. Properly chosen solids will form an effective filter cake
on the formation face without invading the pore space. Polymers can be used to plug the
filter cake and obtain a thin, impermeable filter cake on the formation face.
A filter cake should form quickly so that the movement of fluids and polymer into the pore
space is minimized. A filter cake so formed should be removable primarily by back-
flowing. The particulate matter chosen should be degradable by acid or solvent, and the
polymer should likewise be degradable by an incorporated breaker or overflush.
A technique often used effectively to control lost circulation or to kill a well is the
circulation of a pill. A pill is a slug of 10 to 15 bbl of fluid containing a high concentration
of polymer and fluid loss solids. Successively coarser grades of fluid loss solids are added
until fluid loss ceases. This establishes an initial bridge. The polymer and particle
concentrations and fluid loss particle size can then be reduced. When and if additional
cleaning or chip lifting capacity is needed, another pill can be circulated.
Fluid-loss solids are available individually and as various packages supplied by service
companies. They are usually composed of calcium carbonate, which is decomposed by
acids. Various oil-soluble resin particulates are also common in present-day operations.
Calcium carbonate is available in several size ranges designated as Micro (400 mesh), Fine
(200 fresh) and Medium (70 mesh). For most formation pore sizes, the 200-mesh particle
size should be used. CaCO3 is completely soluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl). When used
in conjunction with HEC to provide carrying capacity and to further reduce the
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permeability of the bridge, excellent fluid-loss control is provided. Almost perfect

permeability recovery then occurs following contact with HCl. In a field situation,
however, acid contact with the bridged CaCO3 cannot always be assured and some
permeability loss may remain.
A satisfactory CaCO3 fluid can be prepared by adding 5 to 15 lb/bbl of 200 mesh CaCO3 to
a solids-free salt solution containing 0.25 to 0.50 lb/bbl biopolymer. This mixture should
provide effective fluid loss control and sufficient viscosity to circulate out sand or silt.
Higher concentrations of polymer may be required to lift large cuttings or shale if
circulating capacity is limited.
Oil-soluble resins are available in the graded sizes most often needed for effective bridging
action. Although quite effective brines, they are quickly removed by low concentrations
(2%) of oil if they can be effectively contacted by it. If difficulty is encountered in
recovering permeability after the use of resins, a wash or overflush of an aromatic solvent
(such as xylene or toluene) can be used rather than diesel or crude, since the dissolution rate
in these solvents is many times faster. Temperature stability is of concern because some
resins tend to soften and melt even at relatively low temperature. Softening and melting
temperatures are sometimes drastically lowered by the presence of small amounts of
hydrocarbon, corrosion inhibitor, surfactants, and solvents. If the softening and melting
temperatures are reduced below the treating temperature, the oil-soluble solids will not
effectively control fluid loss.
9.3.4 Polymer Viscosifiers
A number if additives are available to provide viscosity, thereby increasing the lifting,
carrying, and suspending capacity of water-base workover fluids. Some also function to
help reduce fluid loss. Both natural and synthetic polymer additives have been used in
completion fluid formulations. Among them are : guar gum, starch, XC-biopolymer
(Xanthan gum), hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC), and
polyacrylamides. The appropriate concentration of any of these depends on the desired
viscosity, the type and concentration of the salts present, and the temperature. The
possibilities are numerous, and service company and vendor literature should be consulted
for details. Each type of polymer may be made with different molecular weights, different
derivatization, different degrees of substitution, and different types and degrees of
crosslinking. No standards exist and the properties of polymer of the same generic type
vary considerably depending on their source. Nevertheless, generalizations are possible.
Table 4 compares typical properties of polymer viscosifiers which have been used in
completion fluid formulations. Not all of them are currently recommended.
Table 4
Characteristics of Water Soluble Polymers used in Completion Fluids
Polymer Type Viscosity Filtration Low Shear Acid Temp. Brine General Use
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Development Control Suspension Solubility Stab. Tolerance Recommendation

Properties
HEC Nonionic Excellent Poor Poor Excellent 250°F Excellent Yes
XC-Polymer Anionic Fair Poor Excellent Good 250°F Fair Yes
Guar Nonionic Excellent Poor Poor Fair 250°F Good Some
CMC Anionic Good Good Fair Poor 250°F Poor No
Starch Nonionic Poor Good Poor Poor 250°F Good No
9.3.5 Polymer Applications
In most applications, polymer solutions are prepared to provide viscosity in some desirable
range at certain shear and temperature conditions dependent upon the particular application.
The polymer solution must retain the required viscosity for the working time of the
application. Thereafter, it is often desirable that the polymer degrade so that the solution
viscosity breaks back to the brine viscosity at some time after the work is finished. Thus,
considerations of concern to the engineer are (1) estimation of the viscosity required for the
application, (2) estimation of the shear conditions prevailing in the application, (3)
estimation of temperatures relevant to the application, (4) selection of the polymer, (5)
specification of the polymer concentration to be used accounting for the effects of
temperature, shear rate, brine type and brine density, (6) estimation of the working time,
and (7) providing breaker chemical at a concentration which will allow sufficient working
time and still break the polymer in a reasonable length of time at time at well conditions.
9.3.6 Mixing Polymers
A consideration of operational importance is the rate at which polymer can be put into
solution. When solid polymer particles are added to a solution they first imbibe water,
swell, and finally disperse into molecular solution. In high density brines this process can
take many hours. This process proceeds most quickly if the solid particles are quite fine
and remain dispersed without agglomerating while dissolution proceeds. If agglomeration
occurs, the “fish eyes” or “gel balls” that result may not dissolve at all and may pose a real
threat to the perforations.
There are a number of product and handling tricks that can be used to avoid this problem.
First, some polymers are prepared with surface treatments that prevent the perimeter of
individual polymer particles from rapidly swelling and becoming tacky until the whole
particle has imbibed water to its core. These preparations are a distinct improvement over
plain polymers.
Second, increasingly polymers are being supplied in highly concentrated, prehydrated

solutions emulsified into a thin oil to make them manageable. These dispersions hydrate
rapidly when added to brines under high shear conditions. Of course, they cost a little more
in this form.
Third, solid polymer may be first dispersed into and wet with a water soluble solvent in
which it is not soluble. The slurry formed in this way may then be added continuously to
brine tanks as they are rolled without fish eye formation. A good solvent for this purpose is
often ethylene glycol (antifreeze). It is sufficiently viscous to suspend polymer particles
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well and wets most polymers without dissolving them. Use of ethylene glycol slurries has
been observed to reduce hydration times from several hours to fifteen minutes in some
instances. The small quantity of ethylene glycol has very little effect on other solution
properties.
Fourth, in field operation, it has been found that slow addition of the polymer with
simultaneous vigorous agitation of the water will greatly increase the surface area per
pound of polymer exposed to water and eliminate fish eye formation in many cases.
Fifth, regardless of the surface preparation and handling, most polymer solutions hydrate
more rapidly at elevated temperature (starch is a notable exception). The use of applied
heat or utilization of the heat of mixing of the salt solutions can accelerate polymer
hydration. Heating is most often required when polymers are added to heavy brines.
Solids salts should be added to polymer solutions. If this is done, polymer will come out of
the solution and coat the salt particles thus halting their dissolution. The resulting mess can
be extremely difficult to handle.
One way of avoiding critical polymer mixing problems during operations is to use and stock
prepared polymer/brine concentrates. The required completion brine is then prepared by
simply diluting the concentrate to the required concentration with clean completion brine.
The mixing is instantaneous and there is no hydration time to delay operations. The
polymer/brine concentrate stock can be purchased prepared or can be made up and
maintained separate from other operations.
9.3.7 Polymer Breakers
Another consideration is the working time and breakback characteristics of the workover
polymer system. Generally, these characteristics will be determined by the type and
amount of breaker chemical added to the polymer solution. However, most polymers in
common use will degrade by hydrolysis at some finite rate of their own accord. The
degradation rate is, of course, greater at higher temperatures.
Chemicals added to destroy completion fluid polymers in a timely fashion are acids,
enzymes, peroxides, or other oxidizing agents. When an acid is used, it is most frequently
hydrochloric acid although other acids may be used.
Small amounts of various enzymes may be used to accelerate hydrolysis also. Enzyme
breakers are effective for many natural polymers up to temperatures of about 140°F.
Peroxides, very typically ammonium persulfate, are effective in degrading a variety of

polymers.
When all else fails strong oxidizing agents can be added to degrade most polymers.
Common oxidizing agents used to degrade completion fluid polymers include hydrogen
peroxide, ammonium persulfate, and sodium hypochlorite (bleach).
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Finally, when it is necessary to prepare polymer solutions in high density brines, it is often
necessary to heat the solutions to get the polymer to hydrate in a reasonable length of time.
When heat must be applied or when the solution is still hot from preparing the original
brine, the addition of breaker chemicals should be delayed until the solution has cooled to
prevent premature break-back of the polymer.
9.3.8 Polymer Degradation
Many of the natural polymers are susceptible to degradation by microorganisms with which
they may inadvertently become inoculated. Sources of degrading bacteria may be polymer
processing, make up waters, tanks, transport tankage, and the air. When solutions of
natural polymers must be held for more than 24 hours prior to use, biocides should be
added to prevent bacterial growth which may cause loss of viscosity and generate formation
plugging by-products.
Atmospheric oxygen can significantly degrade polymer solutions. When polymer solutions
must be rolled for a long time to dissolve the polymer, a large quantity of air becomes
entrained in the solution. The entrained air rapidly replaces dissolved oxygen allowing
further degradation of the polymer.
Polymer solution viscosity can be significantly reduced by this air oxidation process.
Oxidation inhibitors are beneficial when mixing times of surface times are long. When
oxidation inhibitors are used, their presence must be taken into account when the type and
amount of breaker chemical is selected.
9.3.4 Polymer Residue
It has been frequently observed that some insoluble residue remains in brines following the
break-back of the common polymers. The amount of residue left is somewhat dependent
upon the break mechanism and the chemicals used, but it is mainly dependent upon the type
of polymer used. Guar polymer has the most residue and HEC has the least.
9.4 CLEAR BRINES
9.4.1 Density Ranges
It is often necessary to prepare a brine of increased density to contain formation pressures.

Table 5 shows the operational density range of salts that may be used to increase the
density of water and can also be adequately inhibited. Appendix A contains data on
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material requirements and physical properties relative to the solutions shown in Table 5.
The upper limits of solution density for each salt listed in Table 5 are established either by
the solution saturation properties for the minimum operating temperature or by the freezing
point.
Table 5
Density Range of Salt Solutions
Density (ppg) Salt Solutions
8.3 – 9.7 Potassium chloride
8.3 – 9.8 Sodium chloride
9.8 – 11.0 Sodium chloride/calcium chloride
8.3 – 11.7 Calcium chloride
11.7 – 15.1 Calcium chloride/calcium bromide
15.2 – 19.2 Calcium chloride/calcium bromide/zinc bromide
9.4.2 Freezing And Crystallization
Figure 3 (also Figure-A-1) shows the freezing points and crystallization points of common
brine solutions as a function of solution density. As Figure 3 illustrates, brine solutions are
characterized by a minimum freezing composition called the eutectic composition (or here
perhaps “eutectic density”). The minimum obtainable temperature is called the eutectic
temperature. Solutions less dense than the eutectic density freeze to an ice structure on
cooling. Solutions more dense than the eutectic density crystallize on cooling. As
crystallization proceeds salt crystals form and separate from the solution. In Figure 3 note
that CaCl2 solutions crystallize at temperatures above 60°F if their weight exceeds about
11.7 ppg. When operations are conducted at less than 60°F, the upper weight shown in
Table 5 may be unattainable.
9.4.3 Potassium Chloride
Potassium chloride can be mixed to provide densities up to about 9.7 ppg at 85°F. Figures
A-2, A-3, A-4, and Table A-1 of Appendix A give material requirements, physical
properties, density vs. temperature, and viscosity vs. temperature for KCl solutions.
9.4.4 Sodium Chloride
Sodium chloride can be mixed to provide densities up to about 9.8 ppg. Figures A-5, A-6,
A-7, and Table A-II of Appendix A give material requirements, physical properties, density
vs. temperature, and viscosity vs. temperature for NaCl solutions.
9.4.5 Sodium Chloride/CalciumChloride
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A combination of sodium chloride and calcium chloride can be utilized for weights ranging
from 9.8 to 11.0 ppg. Although CaCl2 might be used alone, the use of less expensive NaCl
as a companion weight additive reduces the cost of the fluid.
Figure A-8 shows material requirements for preparing NaCl/CaCl2 compositions. It should
be realized that further addition of either salt reduces the solubility of the other, so that the
addition of CaCl2 to a saturated NaCl water mixture will cause NaCl to precipitate out of
solution. Figure A-8 gives the actual composition of all mixtures of sodium chloride and
calcium chloride that freeze at 60°F. In this way the maximum amount of NaCl has been
used at minimum cost. Table A-III and Figure A-9 of Appendix A show the various
physical properties and density vs. temperature for NaCl/ CaCl2 solutions.
Figure 3. Freezing and crystallization of brines

9.4.6 Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride solutions can be prepared with densities as high as 11.7 ppg. Figures A-
10, A-11, A-12, and Table A-IV show material requirements, physical properties of interest,
density vs. temperature, and viscosity vs temperature for CaCl2 brines. The brine can be
made up on location using dry CaCl2 mixed with fresh water; or previously prepared brines
can be obtained. Dry CaCl2 is available in two grades, 77% minimum and 94% minimum
CaCl2. The substances to be added must be based on the grade being used. The 94%
minimum grade is preferred, since fewer unidentified solid particles are thereby added to
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the fluid. Previously prepared brines are usually less expensive, with a possible saving in
rig time.
Some solutions of CaCl2 have extremely low freezing points (e.g., -60°F at 10.7 ppg). But
at very high densities the crystallization point is quite high (e.g., +52°F at 11.7 ppg).
Lowering the temperature below the saturation temperature for the particular weight of
saltwater being used will cause CaCl2 to precipitate out of solution. This problem can be
eliminated by never exceeding the density limit for the minimum temperature to be
encountered.
When CaCl2 brine is prepared, precautions should be taken to keep the dry chemical dust
out of eyes and lungs. Rubber protective clothing should be worn to prevent skin damage.
When mixing high concentrations of CaCl2 considerable heat is generated, and precautions
should be taken to prevent burns from hot equipment.
9.4.7 Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide
Calcium chloride/calcium bromide (CaCl2/CaBr2) solutions can be prepared to give

solution densities between 11.7 and 15.1 ppg. These are solids-free fluids and have low
corrosion rates, which can be inhibited even lower. The toxicity is low enough to allow use
of these solutions in marine waters. Tables A-V and A-VI, together with Figures A-13
through A-16, show material requirements, density vs. temperature, and viscosity vs.
temperature for CaCl2/CaBr2 solutions at minimum cost. The compositions given contain
the maximum amount of CaCl2 consistent with the density required.
One limitation in the use of these various combinations, as Figure 3 illustrates, is their high
crystallization points. The crystallization point can be reduces below the current ambient
temperature by increasing the CaBr2 concentration and also the cost. These solutions are
very expensive. A 15.1-ppg CaCl2/CaBr2 brine costs about 25 times more than 10.0 ppg
CaCl2 brine does. If such brines are used, provision for their recovery and release is a
consideration.
When CaCl2/CaBr2 brine is prepared, precautions should be taken to keep dry chemical dust
out of eyes and lungs. Rubber protective clothing should be worn to prevent skin damage.
Because mixing high concentrations of CaCl2/CaBr2 generates considerable heat,
precautions should also be taken to prevent burns from hot equipment.
9.4.7 Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide
Calcium chloride/calcium bromide/zinc bromide (CaCl2/CaBr2Znbr2) brines with densities

between 15.2 and 19.2 ppg can be prepared. Mixing requirements for CaBr2/ZnBr2 brine
mixtures having low freezing temperatures are given in Tables A-VII and A-VIII. Mixing
requirements for minimum cost, nearly constant-freezing brine mixtures containing
CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 are given in Tables A-IX and A-X. These mixtures crystallize between
16°F and 64°F. Density dependence on temperature is given in Figure A-17. Solution
viscosities are presented in Figure A-18. Corrosion behavior is illustrated in Figure A-19.
The engineer must tailor the solutions to the individual well given due consideration to
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environmental conditions, economy, density, crystallization point, and corrosivity.
Crystallization point is lowered by increasing concentrations ZnBr2 and CaBr2, so that the
highest crystallization point of a maximum-density composition is about 16°F. Conversely,
increasing the percentage of CaCl2 to achieve lower densities with the most economical
composition raises the crystallization point toward the 65°F limit.
Previously, there was considerable concern for the corrosivity of zinc containing brines
based on the behavior of zinc chloride solutions which are quite acidic. The fear of high
corrosiveness was subsequently found to be exaggerated. As the data of Figure A-19
demonstrates CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 brines are not unacceptably corrosive at temperatures
below 250°F. The fluid is slightly acidic and requires inhibition to control corrosion at
elevated temperatures and high ZnBr2 loadings. The corrosion rate dramatically increases
when the brine density exceeds 18 ppg. However, these fluids are significantly less
corrosive than CaCl2/ZnCl2 brines, and effective corrosion inhibitors are available to
control corrosion rates for most applications. Nevertheless, zinc-rich brines should not be
used as packer fluids.
The major drawback to the use of these fluids is their cost. An 18-ppg CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2
brine is about 81 times the cost of a 10-ppg CaCl2 brine. However, these solutions provide
the only known way of obtaining solids-free fluid densities of the aforementioned
magnitudes while simultaneously holding corrosion rate, economics, and crystallization
point at low values. Fluid recovery, reuse, and resale should certainly be considered.
These fluids can be toxic to fish and certain shellfish. Prolonged exposure of human skin to
them can cause irritation or chemical burns. Eye contact can cause serious damage and loss
of sight. Protective rubber clothing, chemical goggles, and other precautions for keeping
dry chemical dust out of eyes and lungs are necessary.
9.4.8 Sodium Bromide
In some cases it is found that a brine containing divalent cations such as Ca++ or Zn ++ can
react with formation water anions such as bicarbonate to produce a precipitate when
workover fluid and formation water mix. When this occurs the workover fluid may damage
the well. This is characterized by an abnormal production decline curve following the
workover. Sodium bromide solutions can be prepared with densities up to 12.4 ppg to
produce clear brine solutions that avoid this problem. Table A-XI gives the material
requirements and freezing data for sodium bromide solutions. The freezing temperature of
sodium bromide solutions can be depressed to as low as – 40°F for arctic service by the
addition of ethylene glycol. Composition and properties of crush a low freezing mixture is
given in Table A-XII. When ethylene glycol is added, it is advantageous to use a ratio of
sodium chloride of 3:1 ore greater in order to avoid sodium chloride solubility problems.
Figure A-20 gives the density versus temperature relationship for NaBr brines. NaBr brines
of all densities are characterized by low corrosivity comparable with NaCl brines at the
same temperature. These brines are quite expensive and winterizing with ethylene glycol
makes them even more so. The cost of their use must be justified by prolific production
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and a lack of viable non-damaging alternatives.
9.4.9 Brines To Avoid
Calcium nitrate (Ca (NO3) 2) and calcium chloride/zinc chloride brines are two additional
solutions worthy of mention, although their use is not recommended.
(Ca (NO3)2)/CaCl2 solutions can be prepared with densities as high as 14.3 ppg. However,
Ca (NO3)2 is expensive, corrosive, and a potentially dangerous oxidizing agent. If Ca
(NO3)2 is used in a workover fluid, it should be thoroughly rinsed from the tubular goods
after use, and any spilled salt solution should be thoroughly rinsed away from the surface
facilities. Contact of petroleum liquids with the dry salt can produce a fire. It should
certainly not be used in packer fluid formulations.
Calcium chloride/zinc chloride solutions can provide fluid densities as high as 17 ppg.
However, these solutions are expensive, unacceptably corrosive, and sometimes
unacceptably toxic as well. Solutions containing ZnCl2 are inherently acidic at higher
densities. This pH cannot be lowered by the addition of caustic, without precipitating zinc
hydroxide. Currently there are no corrosion inhibitors capable of satisfactorily inhibiting
these solutions. Under no circumstances should CaCl2/ZnCl2 brines be used as packer
fluids. If they are used at all, they should be completely circulated out of the wellbore prior
to final completion.
9.5 EXAMPLE : BRINE COMPOSITION
9.5.1 Problem 1
A workover is planned with the following objectives :
(1) pull a failed packer,
(2) wash large formation and cement debris from wellbore,
(3) replace failed packer
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Choose a brine workover fluid and specify the required surface density.
Relevant well data is as follows:

Depth = 10,000 ft
Geothermal Surface Temperature = 80°F
Static Bottom Hole Temperature = 270°F
Measured Static Bottom Hole Temperature = 5635 psi
Fracture Gradient = 0.72 psi/ft
The supervisor likes 300 psi overbalance.
9.5.2 Average Fluid Density
Part A. Calculate the average fluid density required to balance the formation with 300 psi
overbalance.
Using Equation 3,
BHP + Overbalance (psi)

ρ (ppg) =
0.052 Depth (ft)
find the average fluid density required.
5635 + 300
ρ = = 11.4 ppg
(0.052)(10,000)
9.5.3 Fluid Type
Part B. Select the fluid type.
Examination of Table 5 and Figure A-1 leads to the conclusion that calcium chloride brine
can be prepared with densities in the 11.4 ppg range.
9.5.4 Required Surface Density
Part C. Find the surface density of the chosen brine that gives the required average
density.
Using the mid-depth method, estimate the fluid surface density required to provide an
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average density sufficient to overbalance the well by a design value of 300 psi.
To correct the 11.4 ppg required average density back to surface conditions, enter Figure
A-11 for CaCl2 brines with the mid depth well temperature of 175°F and interpolate using a
ruler o estimate the required 60°Fdensity. Doing so, find that the required surface density is
about 11.7 ppg. To the nearest 0.1 ppg one may now chosen to use an 11.7 ppg CaCl2 brine
for the workover.
Since the small correction for the compression of the brine under well pressures has been
neglected, the choice is conservative.
9.5.5 Problem 2
If in the above problem the ambient temperature is a cool 35°F, what brine should be
chosen?
Referring to Figure A-1, note that 35°F is well below the crystallization temperature of an
11.7 ppg CaCl2 brine. It is clear that either a CaBr2 brine or a less costly CaCl2/CaBr2 brine
mixture can be prepared which will not crystallize at 35°F. Referring to Figure A-13
CaCl2/CaBr2 brines we can confirm that our required average density of 11.41 ppg will be
provided by an 11.7 ppg CaCl2/CaBr2 brine also.
9.6 WEIGHTED BRINES
Sometimes economics precludes the use of expensive clear brines when fluid density in
excess of 11 lb/gal is required. One approach to overcoming this problem is to suspend
particulate solids (inherently high density) in a liquid of relatively low density to produce a
net high-density fluid. With proper fluid-loss control measures these fluids may sometimes
be used without severe formation damage. Any solids used must be removable by an
inexpensive treatment following the use of such a fluid.
9.6.1 Weighting Agents
Typically, 200-mesh calcium carbonate, iron carbonate, barium carbonate, or ferric oxide
(all acid soluble) is used as weighting solids. Viscosifiers of the types discussed earlier
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provide the suspending power. The most common system used is CaCO3 with HEC or
biopolymer.
9.6.2 Amount Of Weighting Agents
The following equations estimate the weight of solids needed to obtain a certain fluid
density and the resulting increase in fluid volume.
The amount of weighting material required is given by Equation (5).
ρf - ρj
W = K
C - ρf (5)
The increase in volume is given by Equation (6)
V = W/K (6)
In these equations
W = weighting material needed, lb/bbl of initial fluid
ρf = fluid density desired, lb/gal
ρj = density of available brine, lb/gal
∆V = volume increase, bbl/bbl initial fluid
K, C = constants for weighting material from Table 6. They are the

density of the weighting material in bbl/and lb/gal respectively.
Table 6
Density Increase Equation Constants

Weighting Specific
Obtainable
Material Gravity K C
(ppg)
Calcium carbonate 2.7 3.5 945 22.5
Iron carbonate 3.85 65 1348 32.1
Barium carbonate 4.43 8.0 1551 37.0
Ferric oxide 5.24 10.0 1834 43.7
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9.6.3 Application
Based on the above relations, 11.5 ppg CaCl2 brine would require 150 lb/bbl of CaCO3 to
prepare a 13.0 ppg fluid. The volume increase would be 16 bbl/100 bbl of initial brine.
Adequate suspension qualities would probably require 0.5 to 1.0 lb/bbl of XC-biopolymer.
Settling should be checked before putting the fluid in the hole. If settling occurs, more
polymer is required.
For effective fluid-loss control, some of the CaCO3 should be larger than 200 mesh.
Suspension improves, however, as particulate size decreases. In the preferred approach,
initial fluid-loss control should be established with a pill of graded CaCO3 , after which 200
mesh particles can be used for density requirements.
9.7 WATER-BASE MUD
Economics and availability sometimes suggest the use of conventional water-base mud
rather than weighted brines when completion fluid weights greater than 11.0 ppg are
required. Indeed, until fairly recently water-base muds were used extensively as completion
and workover fluids. The use of mud is not recommended, however. Clear fluids are
always preferred to mud if at all possible. Mud filtrate contains clay thinners and
dispersants, plus a high concentration of fine solids known to cause irreparable formation
damage, both within and on the face of the formation. Mud solids form tough filter cakes
within perforation tunnels which are difficult to remove. Long time exposure to well
conditions often results in chemical and colloidal decomposition of the mud, and corrosion
of well tubulars. Nevertheless, occasions arise when a water-base mud must be used in a
completion or workover operation. Some consideration of the likely consequences is
desirable.
9.7.1 Composition
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Workover and completion muds have basically the same composition as drilling muds.
Water-base muds can be formulated with densities ranging from 9.0 to 21.0 ppg. There are
many kinds of water-base muds, but all water-base muds are composed of aqueous fluids
and weighting solids, with clays as the major suspension material. The clays function to
increase viscosity and in forming impermeable filter cakes on exposed formations. When
densities under 10.0 ppg are required, bentonite clay is used to provide both viscosity and
weight. Bentonite is sodium montmorillonite. It gives higher viscosities than other clays
when mixed with fresh water. When higher densities are required, barite, a commercial
grade of barium sulfate, is usually the solid weighting material chosen. Bentonite can
provide the gel strength to suspend the barite in fresh waters and the clay attapulgite may be
chosen to provide viscosity and gel strength when salt waters are used in the mud. Mud
formulations contain thinners and dispersants to control mud properties, as working
conditions require.
9.7.2 Economics
From strictly an economic standpoint water-base mud would appear to be an ideal

completion/workover and packer fluid. They are much less costly than high density clear
brines and they are nearly always present at completion time. For example, the cost of a
14.0 ppg calcium bromide brine is about five times the cost of a 14.0 ppg barite mud.
9.7.3 Damage
Plugged perforations and formation damage are two reasons for the fall of water-base muds
from favor as completion fluids. Muds are designed to have low fluid loss. This is
accomplished by the mud solids which form tough filter cakes. The fluid loss properties of
mud that are desirable during drilling have been shown to be most undesirable following
perforating. Mud solids are not entirely acid soluble and often cannot be backflowed from
perforation tunnels. Considerable pressure drop is required to remove mud from
perforation tunnels and all mud is not removed even then. In some lab tests thousands of
pounds per square inch of reverse pressure differential is unable to remove tough
dehydrated mud plugs. When one or two perforations in a completion do break down, the
pressure drop required to break down remaining plugged perforations is frequently no
longer attainable.
If muds or potentially damaging fluids must be used as the completion fluid, an effort
should be made to hold exposure times and filtration pressure to a minimum. Perforating
should be done in brine or oil if possible. If muds must be used, perforating should be done
through tubing with differential pressure into the wellbore.
In new wells contact of mud with newly exposed formation can be avoided by pumping the
primary cement plug down with saltwater, oil, or acid. Mud residue can be circulated out
of the casing with the production tubing string before perforating. Through tubing
perforating with differential pressure into the wellbore can then be done in a cleaner fluid.
However, once mud solids are inside the production casing, complete removal may be
difficult.
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If the well is already perforated and mud has been used as a workover fluid, the mud may
be removed by circulating out with a light oil while the production string is in place. The
light oil serves to reduce the hydrostatic head inducing the well to flow and thereby
hastening the removal of mud from plugged perforations. The main objectives of this
procedure are to avoid the use of mud as a packer fluid and to initiate production without
the necessity of swabbing. If some perforations remain plugged following light oil
circulation, then swabbing, surging, or a nitrogen blow down may be used to increase the
perforation pressure differential to dislodge the perforation plugs. Hydrofluoric acid can
dissolve mud components in plugged perforations. A hydrofluoric acid wash or injected
volume can be used to unplug perforations.
One should keep in mind that when mud is used as a packer fluid, future contact of mud
with productive perforations has been built into the well. If the packer is unseated or a
tubing leak occurs at a future time, perforations will be damaged and a stimulation
treatment will be required.
9.7.4 Stability
The long term stability of a mud is important when the mud will be used as a packer fluid or
as an external casing pack above the top of cement. When long term installation is planned,
the mud should be cleaned up and conditioned. Adjusting the pH to a 48-hour stabilized
value between 10.5 and 11.5 will increase the chance of long term stability. Unconditioned
mud pH tends to drop below the protective level of 9.5 fairly rapidly. As temperature rises
above about 200°F, the pH change becomes quite rapid. The pH change causes loss of mud
properties and increased incidence of corrosion phenomena. Reactions of the free alkali
with clay and other siliceous minerals in the mud tend to cause excessive gelation or may
cause the solids to settle. Excessive gelation may prevent future circulation of the fluid rom
the tubing-casing annulus or even prevent future movement of the tubing and packer.
Settled solids prevent unseating of the packer at a future time.
9.7.5 Corrosion
Water-base muds are highly conductive and contain components that can be decomposed to
corrosive agents. Many drilling mud additives thermally degrade upon prolonged exposure
to high temperatures to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are
corrosive. Bacterial activity in water-base mud can cause breakdown of organic additives
to form corrosive organic acids, carbon dioxide, and soluble sulfide. Lignosulfonate, and
sulfate containing solutions can react electrochemically at metal surfaces to form sulfide
even at moderate temperatures. Corrosion is a special concern when water-base mud is to
be used as a packer fluid. The same acid/base reactions that tend to destabilize water-base
mud with time and temperature also tend to enhance the rate of corrosion. Even when an
effort is made to remove mud from the well some portion of the mud will remain in contact
with tubular components. Some will commingle with subsequent packer fluids. Unless
corrosion inhibition is 100% effective, corrosion reactions will proceed.
Serious thermal degradation of drilling mud chemicals will normally not occur at
temperatures below 300°F. Earlier recommendations for packer fluids were based on
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avoiding these conditions. Drilling mud chemicals known to degrade at low temperatures
should not be used in packer fluids.
Certain mud additives are susceptible to attack by sulfate reducing bacteria.

Lignosulfonates, soluble sulfates, and even barite can be reduced by the bacteria under the
proper conditions to form hydrogen sulfide. The acidity formed by the bacterial action
increases the corrosion rate and causes gelation and settling. Metal sulfides are formed by
the combination of the reaction of hydrogen ion with exposed metal and the reaction of
sulfide ion with the metal ions released during the corrosion reaction. The hydrogen
molecules formed enter the metal matrix causing hydrogen embrittlement in high strength
steels. Hydrogen embrittlement in combination with sulfide scale formation is also known
as sulfide stress cracking.
Laboratory evidence shows that sulfide can be formed electrochemically when small
amounts of sulfur containing organic additives are present. Serious corrosion and
embrittlement of high strength tubulars can result. If a corrosion cell can form on tubing or
casing walls with enough potential to release hydrogen (about 0.4 volt), then sulfur
containing organic mud additives can be reduced to sulfide even at room temperature.
These conditions can exist downhole, since the potential between mill scale and pipe wall is
reported to be on the order of 0.5 volt. Electrochemical reaction is the suspected cause for
failures of N-80 and higher strength casing strings.
Corrosion inhibitors are sometimes used with water-base muds. However, their
effectiveness is doubtful because the corrosion inhibitor tends to adsorb on the very great
surface area of the mud solids making it unavailable for adsorbtion on tubular goods.
9.7.6 Applications
Water-base mud can be used to advantage in certain working fluid applications. Mud can
be used as an emergency well kill fluid. A wide range of densities are possible and mud has
excellent fluid loss characteristics. Its fine viscosity characteristics make mud an excellent
choice for removing large cuttings and debris from the well during well clean-out, milling,
drilling in, and other completion and recompletion operations. Needless to say, mud is the
cheapest and most satisfactory fluid to use in a well that will be abandoned following the
workover.
The use of a water-base mud as a packer fluid, while not recommended, is acceptable in
shallow wells with normal pressures and low temperatures. No high strength steel should
be involved and formation temperature should not exceed 300°F. The mud should be
sterilized by treatment with biocide and a stabilized pH between 10.5 and 11.0 should be
attained. The mud should be tested to determine that it contains no significant amount of
sulfide at the same time of placement. Water-base mud is not acceptable as a packer fluid
elsewhere. Water-base muds cannot be relied upon for protection of external casing
because corrosive formation waters may be miscible with the casing pack. A water-base
casing pack cannot be expected to remain sterile or highly alkaline.
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Water-base muds are not recommended as perforating fluids.
9.8 HYDROCARBON FLUIDS
9.8.1 Applications
Hydrocarbon fluids are non-corrosive, do not damage clay-bearing formations, have a low
density, and carry sand as well as brines do. The low density of hydrocarbon fluids restricts
their use to low-pressure reservoirs. They are used to advantage as packer fluids and as
working fluids in low pressure horizons where the use of brines cause high fluid loss and
result in reduced productivity and extended swabbing times. Hydrocarbons may be placed
in the workstring annulus during concentric workovers to isolate the upper tubing and
casing strings from treating fluids (on which they float) being injected into the formation.
This is commonly done in sand consolidation treatments. The hydrocarbon fluid used may
be crude oil or a refined oil. A clean hydrocarbon fluid is always preferred.
9.8.2 Density
Appendix B contains the information necessary to estimate the density and viscosity of
common hydrocarbon fluids as a function of temperature and pressure. Figures B-1, B-2,
and B-3 may be used to estimate the density of petroleum products at various temperatures
and pressures.
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9.8.3 Viscosity
The viscosity of petroleum fractions or hydrocarbon products may be estimated at any

temperature and pressure with the aid of Figures B-4, B-5, B-6, B-7, and B-8 of
Appendix B.
9.8.4 Crude Oil
Availability makes crude oil a logical choice when its density meets the need at hand.
Lease crude obtained from a tank battery has usually weathered sufficiently to minimize
(but not eliminate) the hazard of fire. Its low density makes it particularly desirable for
low-pressure formations. A low-viscosity crude has limited carrying capacity and no gel
strength. Thus, it should drop out non hydrocarbon solids in surface pits. Crude oil is an
excellent packer fluid from the standpoint of minimizing corrosion, and gel strength can be
provided to limit the settling of solids if required.
Loss of crude oil to the formation is usually not harmful from the standpoint of clay
disturbance or saturation effects, as might be the case with saltwater in a low-pressure
formation. Fluid loss may be great, however. Thus, any entrained fine solids might be
carried into the formation pore structure.
Crude oil should always be checked for the presence of asphaltenes or paraffins that could
plug the formation. This check can be made in the field with API fluid-loss test equipment
to observe the quantity of solids collected on the filter paper.
Crude oil should also be checked for any tendency to form an emulsion with the formation
water. Techniques of the API RP 42 tests are suitable for field use. If stable emulsions are
formed, a suitable surfactant should be added.
9.8.5 Diesel
Diesel oil is often ideal when an especially clean fluid is required for operations such as
sand consolidation. Its use may even be advantageous for work under pressure at the
surface where its density is insufficient to overcome formation pressure.
Diesel oil is a particularly clean, solids-free material when proper handling and hauling
practices are employed. It may contain motor-fuel additives when obtained from some
sources. These can cause emulsions. These additives can cause formation problems.
Lease crudes and refined oils are petroleum products, as such, will burn under the right
conditions. Caution must be exercised in the use of any of the oil-based fluids.
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9.9 OIL-BASE AND INVERT-EMULSION MUDS
Oil-base and invert-emulsion muds can be formulated with densities over the range of 7.8 to
22.0 ppg. They are particularly useful where high densities are required at high
temperatures. They are suitable for use at temperatures in excess of 400°F. Because they
are non-conductive, they are generally non corrosive. These muds typically have extremely
low filtration rates so that fluid loss during their use should not be a problem. Because oil-
base are non-aqueous, they can prevent clay hydration. Reactions between formation solids
and mud additives are generally thought to be minimal.
9.9.1 Composition
Oil-base and invert-emulsion muds are the two common forms of oil-base muds in use. In a
strict sense, oil-base muds are those that incorporate a minimum amount of water (usually
less than 5%) along with certain alkali metal soaps, other salts, and asphalt materials as the
main continuous phase. On the other hand, invert-emulsion muds (water-in-oil) consist of
relatively large percentages of water (over 40%). For fluid loss control these muds depend
on a high degree of emulsification and certain suspended solids. In both cases, the
continuous phase is oil.
9.9.2 Economics
Oil-base and invert-emulsion muds are somewhat more expensive than water-base muds,
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but they are less expensive than many high density brines.
9.9.3 Damage
Oil-base and invert-emulsion muds have been generally considered to be less damaging
than conventional water-base muds because the filtrate is oil rather than water. However,
most oil-base systems contain strong emulsifiers, which may oil-wet the formation, and
blown asphalt, which can plug perforations and the formation.
Laboratory tests and recent field experience have shown that some invert-emulsion muds
can damage formation rock severely. The damage mechanism was not determined, but
severe shallow damage was demonstrated. Since the problem occurred in formations with
very fresh connate water, invert-emulsion muds should not be used against formations
bearing very fresh water if such use is avoidable.
Laboratory tests have shown that perforating in weighted oil muds can result in the
formation of mud plugs that cannot be removed by back-flowing. Mud plugs reduce
productivity, restrict the uniform production of the reservoir, and reduce the success of
subsequent squeeze cementing and sand consolidation procedures. Thus, oil-base or invert-
emulsion muds are less desirable than solids-free fluids, such as brines or oil.
9.9.4 Stability
Oil-base and invert-emulsion muds do not solidify due to internal reactions at high
temperatures like some water-base muds do. However, there are some instances where gel
strength fails with time and temperature and mud solids settle out. This is a concern in
packer fluid applications. Mud solids settled on top of a packer can prevent subsequent
movement of the packer. The separated fluid no longer has the required density. If these
muds are to be used as packer fluids, extra effort must be taken to condition them and to
add the appropriate oil dispersible clays to obtain sufficient long term gel strength.
9.9.5 Corrosion
Oil-base and invert-emulsion muds provide corrosion protection by their lack of

conductivity, their tendency to oil-wet tubulars, and also by the ability of the surfactants in
them to emulsify any water that they contact. When properly formulated and conditioned
the quantity of water in the mud is not so important. Corrosion protection is provided by oil
mud containing 5 to 10% water and by invert emulsion muds containing 20 to 30% water.
Corrosion inhibitors are generally not required.
9.9.6 Applications
During drilling operations the uses of oil muds include (1) protecting the producing
formation, (2) drilling water soluble formations, (3) drilling deep/hot holes, (4) preventing
differential pressure sticking, (5) coring, (6) mitigating severe drill string corrosion, and (7)
drilling troublesome shale.
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Completions fluid applications of oil-base and invert-emulsion muds include use as (1) a
packer fluid, (2) a casing packer fluid, and as (3) a working fluid against sensitive
formations and in high temperature, high pressure oil wells.
The use of oil-base and invert-emulsion muds is justified in cases where a mud must be
used and formation clays would be seriously damaged by conventional water-base mud.
Oil-base or invert-emulsion muds are better packer fluids than water-base muds from the
standpoint of both corrosion and the settling of solids. Temperature stability is very good.
Solids do tend to settle over long periods of time unless the mud is properly treated with
extra gelling agent.
9.10 NITROGEN
9.10.1 Applications
In areas in which bottomhole pressures are low and a local source of nitrogen is available,
N2 can be used as a workover fluid. A typical density in a well application is about 0.1 ppg.
Nitrogen requires a fairly high injection rate and its lifting power is limited. However, the
dangers inherent in using air are eliminated by the use of inert N2, and lost circulation
problems in low-pressure zones are avoided by using a low density fluid. Nitrogen can also
be used for perforating. It will not cause formation damage and is especially suitable for
gas wells.
Nitrogen may be used in conjunction with coiled tubing units for workover and service
jobs. It can be used as a temporary gas-lift system to unload water-logged gas wells and to
bring in wells after workover or completion. It has been used to form foam to clean out
sand and to drill cement with a downhole motor.
Well-stimulation jobs may be performed by using the N2 to form a foam carrier for either
sand or acids. Nitrogen may be used to charge the fluid of a stimulation treatment. The use
of N2 in these jobs permits cleanup when the well is placed on production.
9.10.2 Equipment
One draw back to N2 is the extra equipment and space requirements its use entails.
Nitrogen is usually delivered to the well site in a liquid form. Typically the service
company supplies equipment to gasify the nitrogen on a skid or truck along with the liquid
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nitrogen.
9.11 FOAM
9.11.1 Definition
Foam is a mechanical mixture of air or gas dispersed in water or brine containing a small
amount of surfactant. Surfactant type and concentration should be selected to develop a
stable foam with the specific well fluids encountered. These fluids have been applied
widely in shallow, low-pressure, reservoirs. In wells with low fluid levels in which
circulation of solids-free oil or water-base fluids is not possible, foams have used for
workover operations such as washing out sand, gravel packing, drilling in, liner removal,
tool recovery, and deepening.
9.11.2 Advantages/Uses
The advantages of a stable-foam circulating fluid include :
• Low hydrostatic head to minimize formation damage by lost circulation
• Excellent carrying capacity for sand and cuttings removal or gravel packing
• Rapid identification of formation fluids in returns
• Low circulation pressures
The greatest advantage of foam is the combination of low density and high lifting capacity
at moderate flow velocities. Bottom-hole pressures as low as 50 psi have been measured at
2900 ft while circulating foam.
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9.11.3 Properties
Depending on the ratio of air to foam water circulated, foams can be prepared with
densities as low as 0.3 ppg (2 lb/ft3). The gas-to-liquid ratio ranges from 3-50 ft3/gal,
depending on downhole requirements. Viscosity can be varied to provide high lifting
capacity at the 300 + ft/min annular rising velocity. BHP measurements have indicated
actual pressures of 15 psi at 1000 ft, and 50 psi at 2900 ft while circulating.
9.11.4 Foam Generation
The foam is prepared at the surface to a consistency similar to that of aerosal shaving
cream. It then is circulated only once so that materials recovered from the well are not
reinjected. The water-detergent solution that is mixed with gas to form the foam can
employ a wide range of organic foaming agents. Surface injection pressures have ranged
from 5 to 200 psi above BHP. Pressures to 2000 psi can be attained, and foam has been
circulated through macaroni strings at 600 to 800 psi.
Foam generated with natural gas or nitrogen has been used in connection with small-
diameter reelable tubing or snubbing equipment to clean out higher pressure wells without
killing them. Foam returns in these cases are directed through the normal flowline system
to production separation facilities.
Equipment requirements include an air compressor or source of measured gas, mixing tanks
for foamer solution, a liquid pump, metering facilities for air and liquid volumes, and a
foam generator to provide good dispersion of air in the foam solution. The equipment
needed to handle foam returns includes a tubing rotating head or stripper assembly at the
wellhead to divert the foam returns into a blooey line and to a disposal pit. At the pit, a
water spray system may be required to break the foam. Aluminum stearate is a good
defoamer.
Typical air compressor requirements are 500 to 1000 ft3/min at a pressure of about 500 psi.
Water and foaming agents are mixed and injected into the air stream at a rate of 10 to 20
gal/min. Foaming agent concentrations of 0.5 to 1.0% are typical. Bentonite or polymers
are added to the water to produce a stiff foam with greater carrying capacity.
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9.12 CIRCULATING FLUIDS
Circulating fluids are those working fluids used to move things around within a well. These
fluids may be required to transport solids into or, more typically, out of the well. They may
be required to suspend solids for various lengths of time when circulation ceases. They
may also be required to displace treating fluids to the formation and in some cases to
overdisplace the treatment fluids out into the formation. Excessive loss of the circulating
fluid to the formation often can not be tolerated.
9.12.1 Solids Transport
In a workover involving a solids transport or washing operation, the workover fluid should
be able to carry solids to the surface. In this application, viscosity is the most important
fluid property. As the viscosity of the fluid increases, the carrying capacity increases.
Brines with viscosifiers added, muds, foam, and gas are the most common fluids used for
these clean-up operations. Foam or gas may be used to provide lifting capability for
workover or completion fluids, sand, and small cuttings.
There are three main factors which determine the magnitude of effective viscosity required
for solids transport in washing operations. These factors are well temperature, the size and
weight of solids to be transported, and the shear conditions (flow rates and tubular
dimensions) in the tubing or annulus in which the solids are to be transported.
The first factor, well temperature, has been discussed previously. As noted, viscosity
decreases more-or-less exponentially as temperature increases. To be conservative it is
appropriate to design using the maximum expected circulating temperature thereby
providing more than sufficient viscosity for transport at all other temperatures. The fluid
temperature profile in a well depends upon wellbore geometry, flow rate, flow direction,
elapsed time and geothermal gradient. Accurate estimation of the flowing temperature
profile requires a computer simulator. On the basis of such simulations we can generalize
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as follows. During circulation the maximum temperature occurs somewhere between 2/3
TD and TD. The maximum temperature is lower at high flow rates and higher at low flow
rates approaching the geothermal profile as flow ceases. The maximum temperature is
lower at high flow rates and higher at low flow rates approaching the geothermal profile as
flow ceases. The maximum temperature is always less than the static bottomhole
temperature and always greater than the return fluid temperature. Most conservatively, one
may use the static bottomhole temperature for design.
The second factor affecting the desired viscosity of a fluid is the nature of the solids to be
transported. As a rule, a higher viscosity is required to transport larger and heavier
particles. For example, removing cuttings from milling out a packer will require a viscosity
greater than that required to wash sand from the well.
The third factor effecting the desired viscosity is the shear conditions to which the fluid is
exposed. The shear rate is determined by the fluid flow rate and wellbore geometry at the
point of interest.
Shear conditions have an effect similar to the effect of temperature on the fluid viscosity.
Most polymer viscosifiers, which are added to brines to increase viscosity, are shear
thinning; that is, their viscosity drops as shear increases. The shear rate through the tubing
is significantly greater than shear rate through the tubing casing annulus. Depending on the
type of operation, method of fluid circulation, and other well conditions, the shear rate may
be lesser or greater. Typical shear rate ranges are given in Table 7.
Table 7
Typical Shear Rates
Tanks, Pit 0 – 5 sec-1

Annulus 10 – 500 sec-1
Tubing, Wokstring 100 – 3000 sec-1
The relationship between these three factors will determine the range of viscosities that may
be achieved with a particular fluid, and the desired concentration of polymer required to
achieve a particular viscosity.
The effect of particle size on required viscosity is illustrated in Table 8. Forty mesh sand
may be circulated or reverse circulated using a fluid with a viscosity of 0.7 cps or 0.2 cps
respectively. This viscosity is less than equal to the viscosity of water at well temperatures.
On the other hand, viscosity somewhat greater than the viscosity of water at well
temperatures is required to wash twenty mesh sand. Typically, in this case the viscosity
would be raised to 10 cps as a safety margin to compensate for temperature effects and
possible shut downs. Ten mesh sand requires still greater viscosity and large cuttings
require a substantial increase in viscosity.
The effect of flow rate on the required viscosity is illustrated in Table 9. Larger sand
articles (10 mesh = 2 mm) may be reverse circulated from the well at 1 BPM with a 20 cps
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fluid than circulated from the well with an 80 cps fluid. At the same flow rate particles of 5
times the diameter require 750 cps and 2000 cps viscosity fluids to be removed by reverse
and direct circulation respectively. Increasing the circulation rate decreases the required
viscosity proportionately.
In practice, the completion/workover engineer may indicate in the program that a viscosifier
will be required. If the operation involves washing out sand or small cuttings, field
personnel who are familiar with local well conditions and field practices will use a common
starting point. If local experience is lacking, the engineer must provide an estimate of the
required viscosity given the conditions and procedure requirements. In general a viscosity
of approximately 40 Marsh-seconds (approx. 20 cp) may be used to begin washing out
small debris, cuttings, or sand. If necessary, the field personnel will increase the viscosity
of the fluid using the viscosifier specified in the program.
Table 8
Required Viscosity Effect of Particle Size
For Tubing and Annular Transport
Particle Circul. Rate Fluid Density Tubing Casing Viscosity

Size (BPM) (ppg) (in) (in) Required (cps)
40 mesh 5 9 3.5 - 0.25

40 mesh 5 9 3.5 7 0.7
20 mesh 5 9 3.5 - 1.0
20 mesh 5 9 3.5 7 2.8
10 mesh 5 9 3.5 - 5.8
10 mesh 5 9 3.5 7 16
1 cm 5 9 3.5 - 150
1 cm 5 9 3.5 7 400
Table 9
Required Viscosity Effect of Flow Rate
For Tubing and Annular Transport
Particle Circul. Rate Fluid Density Tubing Casing Viscosity

Size (BPM) (ppg) (in) (in) Required (cps)
10 mesh 1 9 3.5 - 29
(2 mm)
10 mesh 1 9 3.5 7.0 80
(2 mm)
1 cm 1 9 3.5 - 750
1 cm 1 9 3.5 7.0 2000
1 cm 5 9 3.5 - 150
1 cm 5 9 3.5 7.0 400
1 cm 10 9 3.5 - 75
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1 cm 10 9 3.5 7.0 200
9.12.2 Solids Suspension
Often it is necessary to assure that solids entrained or suspended in a fluid do not rapidly
separate from the fluid when circulation is stopped. Or, we may desire that suspended
solids remain suspended in surface tankage for some period of time. If the solids are fine
enough they may be suspended with surface active dispersing agents indefinitely.
Generally, for dispersing agents to work the solids must be of colloid dimensions, i.e., less
than 0.1 micron. Indefinite suspension of typical well solids is usually accomplished by
imparting gel strength to the well fluid.
In drilling fluids, gel strength is derived from the interaction of clay particles. In workover
fluids gel strength is usually provided by polymer gels. Polymer solutions may be gelled
with various crosslinkers or labile bridging agents. A gel strength of only 2 to 4 lbf/100 ft2
is sufficient to suspend the barite weighting solids used in drilling muds. More gel strength
is required to suspend larger particles or denser particles. Excessive gel strengths should
generally be avoided in order to facilitate fluid movement.
If the suspending fluid has no gel strength and suspended particles are above colloid
dimensions, then the particles will settle out with time. Particle settling can be drastically
slowed, but not eliminated by providing the fluid with increased viscosity. This is usually
accomplished in well fluids by adding polymers to the fluid. The rate of particle settling in
a viscous fluid may be estimated using standard engineering methods.
9.12.3 Breaking Circulation
When gel strength is used to give particle suspending properties to a fluid, one must be
concerned not only with the ability of the resulting gel to suspend solids, but also with the
pressure required to reinitiate fluid flow. Depending on the location of gelled fluid within
the tubulars, undersirable pressure may develop at the surface or bottomhole before the gel
breaks and flow is reinitiated. The gel strength determines the pressure required to break
circulation.
For example, consider the removal of a gelled packer fluid from an annulus. A concern in
this case might be whether or not exposed formation will be fractured before circulation is
broken and packer fluid removal begun. In this case, if a 0.57 psi/ft packer fluid with a gel
strength of 50 lbf/100ft2 were to be circulated from a 3½ inch x 7 inch annulus with a 0.54
psi/ft workover fluid in a 10,000 ft well, the pressure required to break circulation would be
840 psi.
The 840 psi increase in the surface pressure will be reflected by a similar increase in the
overbalance at the perforations. Such an increase may not be tolerable.
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9.12.4 Fluid Loss Control
Frequently, it is necessary to reduce fluid loss during the use of a circulating fluid.
Normally this is accomplished by spotting a viscous fluid loss pill as required. Fluid loss
pills typically are dispersions of fine degradable solids in highly viscous solutions of
polymer in a workover brine. The dispersed solids/polymer combination is designed to
form a relatively impermeable filter cake in perforations or on the formation face. This
fluid loss control mechanism is preferred in order to reduce intrusion of potentially
damaging additives and fluid into the formation matrix.
It is, however, possible to control fluid loss in some instances with very high fluid viscosity
alone. Increased viscosity alone cannot stop fluid loss completely. If fractures and
channels are absent and fluid loss is into permeable formation matrix only, it is possible to
increase fluid viscosity at formation temperature sufficiently to reduce fluid loss to an
almost undetectable amount. The upper limit on allowable viscosity is determined by the
ability to place the viscous fluid across the perforations. The effective use of this “viscosity
pill” technique requires invasion of the formation matrix to some radius with viscous
polymer solution. In this case, the solution must contain breaker chemicals if the pill is to
be removed later since post treatment contact of the polymer solution with breaker
chemicals may become essentially impossible.
The rate of the fluid loss to a formation when a viscous volume of fluid is spotted is a
function of time. Initially, as polymer solution invades the formation the fluid loss rate
drops. Thereafter, it will approach a constant rate which continues as long as viscous
solution fills the wellbore at the perforations. After the whole pill is lost to the formation,
the fluid loss rate will again rise towards the original rate as low viscosity fluid displaces
polymer solution outwards.
Figure 4 illustrates the fall of relative injectivity (or fluid loss) with invasion radius as a pill
of viscous Newtonian fluid invades the formation around a wellbore for various ratios of
pill to formation fluid viscosity.
Figure 4 shows that fluid loss will quickly fall to 10 times the ratio of formation fluid
viscosity to pill viscosity after about one foot of pill penetration and thereafter will change
only slowly with further penetration. This means that for a 0.25 porosity formation J/J0 <
10 µf/µp after about 11 gal/ft of pill is lost to the formation. Thus, for example, the fluid
loss rate will be reduced to <0.01% of the original fluid loss rate after 11 gal/ft of 100,000
cps pill fluid is lost to the formation (µf = 1 cps). If the original loss rate was 1 BPD/ft,
then after pill placement the fluid loss rate would fall to 0.0042 gal/day/ft. For a hundred-
foot interval, 100 BPD of fluid loss would be reduced to 0.42 gal/day. If the pill viscosity
were 10,000 cps, fluid loss would be reduced to 4.2 gal/day, etc.
In general, viscosity pills should be designed for about 0.5 bbl/ft of loss using a fluid with
10,000 cps, to 100,000 cps viscosity at 1 sec-1 shear rate at formation temperatures. This
will require 100 lb/1000 gal to 120 lb/1000 gal of HEC. For 100 ft of interval this will
amount to 50 bbl of pill containing 210 lb to 252 lb of HEC.
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A viscosity pill absolutely must contain a breaker chemical. Breaker chemicals are
ordinarily acids or oxidizing agents added in a concentration that is dependent upon the
formation temperature and the desired working time.
Figure 4. Relative injectivity of a viscous pill
Solids fluid loss agents are usually used in a fluid loss pill in place of the high viscosifier
loadings used in viscosity pills. The filter cake formed by the solids is designed to have a
very low permeability which becomes the major flow restriction in series with the
formation permeability. Thus, lower viscosity fluids are able to exhibit low fluid loss.
Fluid loss solids may also be required if fluid loss is into fractures, channels, or vugular
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porosity. In this case the normally fine grade fluid loss solids will have to be augmented
with the addition of progressively coarser grinds of solids until a filter cake is able to form
and fluid loss is reduced. Fluid loss solids should not be used if it appears that they will
end up in locations that cannot be subsequently contacted with acid or solvent as needed by
the particular type of solid for removal. This might be the case in some gravel packing
applications for example. When solids removal is a concern then viscosity pills are
indicated. Be aware that certain fluid loss solids, e.g., siderite react with acids 30 times
slower than calcium carbonate. Because of this low reaction rate, acid breakthrough in
some perforations may prevent all solids from being dissolved in other perforations.
9.12.5 Treatment Displacement
Circulating fluids are invariably used to displace well treatments to the formation. In some
instances they may be required to overdisplace the treatments to some distance out into the
formation. Fluids used for this purpose must be compatible with the fluids they are
displacing. In the case of overdisplacement they must also be compatible with solutions of
the reaction by-products from the treatment being displaced. For example, it would be
inappropriate to overdisplace mud acid with a sodium or potassium containing brine since
the reaction by-products, fluosilicates, will react with these cations to form damaging
precipitates. Diesel, ammonium chloride solution, or hydrochloric acid are more
appropriate in this case. Secondly, fluids used for displacement should be clean and solids
free since they will contact the formation and pass through perforations either by design or
by error. Thirdly, effective displacement of one fluid from a portion of formation by
another depends on a favorably high mobility ratio. Viscosity ratio is the most easily
influenced component of the mobility ratio. Thus, effective overdisplacement is effected by
assuring that the viscosity of the displacing fluid is greater than that of the fluid being
displaced.
9.12.6 Selecting A Circulating Fluid
Selection of the type of fluid required for a particular application is basically a five step
process. These steps are as follows.
1. Calculate the fluid density required to counteract the expected bottomhole pressure.
2. If well control is an important criterion, select fluids that have a density range slightly
greater than the required fluid density. Use the mid-depth method.
3. If viscosity is an important criterion (e.g., washing operation), select those types of

fluids that are sufficiently viscous, or whose viscosity can be increased by the addition
of viscosifiers.
4. Review the workover fluids that meet the criteria above, and eliminate those fluids that
are unacceptable due to the potential of formation damage resulting from their use.
Avoid drastic drops (e.g., 50%) in the salinity as compared to the connate (native)
brine. Among the most significant considerations, the corrosiveness of the fluids and
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their compatibility with other fluids are the most important.
5. Choose the fluid which meets all of the above criteria, and is the most economical.
If the fluid selected in step five is very expensive, it may be necessary to review the
selection process and reconsider some of the fluid that were eliminated along the way.
9.13 PACKER FLUIDS
9.13.1 Functions
In a conventional completion, the primary function of a packer is to seal off the tubing-
casing annulus, and allow production from below the packer, through the tubing. The
primary function of a packer fluid, in turn, is to prevent packer/tubular failures that would
allow communication to develop between the annulus and the formation or produced fluids.
The packer fluid performs these functions mainly by protecting the steel in the tubing-
casing annulus from corrosion. Since the packer may remain in the annulus for an extended
period of time, it is necessary to properly inhibit the fluid to prevent or minimize annular
corrosion.
In addition to performing the above functions, the packer fluid may provide the benefits of
backing up the packer functions by reducing the tubing burst load, and reducing the
differential pressure across the packer. In some situations, the packer fluid may help to
prevent tubing buckling or burst by providing additional pressure on the tubing annulus.
When differential pressure across the packer approaches or exceeds the packer rating, the
packer fluid may reduce the differential pressure, thereby increasing the safe operating
limits of the packer.
The fluid properties which are necessary to provide the packer fluid functions are described
below.
9.13.2 Hydrostatic Head
It is accepted practice to use a packer fluid with kill weight density. The packer fluid must
contribute to well control during the seating and unseating of the packer.
9.13.3 Solids Settling
A packer fluid should ideally be solids-free. If a packer fluid must be weighted with solid
materials, they should not settle out over the period of fluid use. Solids weighted packer
fluids must have gel strength to prevent the solids from settling. The gel strength should
not be so great as to prevent initiation of circulation or tubing movement should a workover
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become necessary. If solids do segregate out and fall to the bottom, a retrievable packer or
the tubing may get stuck, resulting in a long and expensive fishing job.
Water/clay based muds with a high solids content are not desirable packer fluids. Mud
properties usually deteriorate in one of two ways when left quiet at well conditions for a
long period of time. The gel strength may become too high or mud solids may settle out
around the packer. However, it has often been found that the clear brine required by a high
pressure well is not available at sufficient low cost and low corrosivity so that mud must,
nevertheless, be used.
9.13.4 Corrosion
In contrast to a fluid that is strictly for a workover/completion operation, a packer fluid is

typically in place for a long period of time. The packer fluid must, therefore, be non-
corrosive to both tubing and casing. Corrosion is the most important problem to be solved
in packer fluid selection. Corrosion in wells may result from the generation of corrosive
chemicals as a fluid or its additives deteriorate, from electrochemical cells of spontaneous
origin in various parts of the well, and from bacterial action. The overall corrosion rate
should be kept low, pitting corrosion should be minimized, and embrittlement must be
completely avoided.
Three methods are commonly used to control corrosion. Fluids of inherently low
corrosivity may be used. Or, corrosion may be minimized in more corrosive fluids by
controlling pH and the use of corrosion inhibitors.
Fluids of low inherent corrosivity are generally hydrocarbon based. The low electrical
conductivity of these fluids suppresses corrosion currents. In low pressure wells the
hydrocarbon may be diesel or lease crude. Oil-base or invert-emulsion mud may be used in
higher pressure wells. The clay dispersants and emulsifiers in oil muds keep water
emulsified and metal surfaces oil wetted, thus, further minimizing conductivity and
corrosivity. Both oil soluble and brine dispersible corrosion inhibitors are sometimes added
to hydrocarbons to insure corrosion protection when inefficient displacement of water-base
mud or brine anticipated.
Corrosion inhibitors may be added to electrically conductive fluids to reduce the corrosion
rate. Typically, corrosion inhibiting agents function by scavenging oxygen, electrostatically
passivating the metal surface, or, more commonly by forming a hydrophobic film on the
metal surface that prevents the entrance of corrosion currents into the surface. Corrosion
inhibitors function well in brines. Film forming corrosion inhibitors do not provide much
protection in water-base muds since they tend to adsorb strongly on the mud solids.
Bactericides act as corrosion inhibitors by killing bacteria that generate corrosive by-
products.
Control of pH is the primary method of reducing corrosion in water-base muds. When a

brine can tolerate a high pH, elevated pH can also control corrosion in brines. High pH
controls sweet and sour corrosion by preventing the oxidation of iron by hydrogen ions and
by preventing the growth of sulfate reducing bacteria. A pH greater than 9.5 significantly
reduces corrosion of iron. Water-base mud pH should be adjusted to a stable value between
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10.5 and 11.5 prior to installation of the mud as a packer fluid. The pH of the mud should
remain unchanged following circulation for 48 hours before it is considered stabilized.
This is necessary because mud components tend to reduce the mud pH with time.
9.13.5 Corrosion Inhibitor
A water soluble corrosion inhibitor, such as Conqor 303 or Conqor 404, can provide
excellent protection under subsurface conditions. A concentration of 5000 ppm (20 gal/100
bbl) is generally recommended when saltwater is used as a packer fluid or will be left in the
wellbore for extended periods of time. Corrosion inhibitor is not usually necessary for
saltwaters that will be circulated out of the well after completion or workover operations
are finished. Most corrosion failures attributable to packer fluids are observed to occur
below circulating valves and between packers in multiple completions and in other areas
from which mud and fluids are not removed by normal circulating methods. When such
possibilities exist, only inhibited fluids should be used.
Contamination of a clear liquid to be used or left in a well can be lessened by displacing the
drilling fluid with clear untreated fluid, discarding the returned interface between the fluids,
and then circulating the clear fluid again after the addition of required corrosion inhibitor
and biocide additives. Wastage of corrosion inhibiting chemicals is avoided by delaying
their addition until after the first purge of the well with clear fluid.
9.13.6 Biocides
Packer fluids which contain water can support the growth of bacteria. Bacterial life
processes often generate corrosive by-products and bacterial bodies can plug and damage
formation rock. A bactericide should be added to packer fluids to prevent the growth of
bacteria. Two common bactericides used for packer fluid systems are Xcide 102 and 207.
Bacteria can cause sulfide corrosion in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions).
Anaerobic bacteria are able to use hydrogen formed by electrochemical corrosion to reduce
sulfate ions, forming hydrogen sulfide. This anaerobic process accelerates the
electrochemical corrosion, and the resulting hydrogen sulfide also attacks the steel, forming
black iron sulfide scale and pitting corrosion. Iron sulfide scale has caused plugging in
injection wells. The hydrogen sulfide formed can cause tubular goods to fail through
sulfide-stress-cracking/hydrogen-embrittlement under certain conditions.
If untreated packer fluids come in contact with the formation, the bacteria may damage the
formation. This can occur following a period of bacterial colony growth if the packer fluid
is subsequently used as a workover fluid, or if the packer fails and the fluid leaks into the
producing zone.
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9.13.7 Packer Fluid Selection
Various guidelines for selecting packer fluids have been published from time to time. They
are generally similar. The following conditions and recommendations pertinent to them are
a modification of those suggested by Baroid.
Condition A
No high-strength pipe involved in the completion (N-80 is borderline case). Packer fluid
density of less than 11.5 ppg is required.
Recommendation :
• Use diesel oil or sweet crude treated with an inhibitor if density requirements permit.
• Use clear water or brine with an inhibitor and a biocide. Inhibitor and biocide must be
compatible.
Condition B
No high-strength pipe involved in the completion. Fluid density greater than 11.5 ppg
required. Bottomhole temperature does not exceed 300°F.
• Economics of the workover must be considered. Where workovers are inexpensive, a

water-base mud treated with a biocide might be practical. Tests should be made to
ascertain that mud does not contain soluble sulfide. The pH should be maintained at
11.5 for a few days prior to completion, if possible. Solids should be kept to a
minimum to avoid gelation with high pH.
• In remote locations where workovers are expensive, or where workover frequency has
been high with water-base muds, use a properly formulated oil mud.
• Use CaCl2/CaBr2 brine with an inhibitor.
Condition C
No high-strength pipe involved in the completion. Density of more than 11.5 ppg required.
Bottomhole temperature exceeds 300°F.
• Use properly formulated oil mud.
Condition D
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High-strength pipe to be used under any condition of fluid density or bottomhole

temperature.
• Where fluid density requirements permit, use oil treated with both an oil-soluble and a
brine-dispersable corrosion inhibitor.
• Use oil mud formulated to meet density and temperature requirements.
9.13.8 Insulating Fluids
Sometimes it is desirable to thermally insulate the tubing string. This might be necessary in
arctic completions in order to prevent permafrost melting during production. It might be
necessary in order to bring asphalt and paraffin in the tubing. In thermal completions,
insulation increases the efficiency of the steam injection process. The use of an insulating
packer fluid can be the most economic way of installing insulation around the tubing.
Generally, this means that the insulating fluid must have a low thermal conductivity. The
thermal conductivity of the insulating medium will control the heat transfer if transport by
fluid convection and radiation are suppressed. It is most important to suppress the free
convection of fluid that tends to occur in the annular temperature gradient. Free convection
is suppressed if a packer fluid has sufficient gel strength. A gel strength of 25 lbf/100 ft2 at
well conditions is sufficient to eliminate heat transfer by convection in almost all well
situations.
Table 10
Packer Fluid Thermal Insulation
Depth = 17,250 ft
GTG = 1.75°F/100 ft
SBHT = 372°F
31/2 inch tubing, 7 inch casing
Annular Fluid Properties Flowing Tubing Head Temp.
C k Gel °F
Btu/lb/ Btu/ft/ Strength @ @ @
°F Day/°F lbf/100ft2 1000 BPD 2000 BPD 3000 BPD
Brine 1.00 3.99 0 128 177 213

Diesel 0.49 1.51 0 137 190 225
Water-Base Mud 0.83 14.02 30.0 143 199 235
Oil-Base Mud 0.50 3.36 25.0 192 253 284
Gelled Diesel 0.49 1.51 25.0 237 290 313
HEATSAVER Tubing 0.50 3.36 25.0 319 344 353
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and Oil Base Mud
Table 10 compares the effectiveness of packer fluids in a well with asphaltene deposition
problems. It was desirable in this well to bring the produced fluids to the surface at a
temperature greater than 185°F in order to prevent the deposition of asphaltenes in the
tubing string. Note that without gel strength the packer fluid cannot accomplish its
insulating objective as the flow rate drops below around 1500 BPD. For comparison
HEATSAVER brand insulated tubing is also included in the table. In thermal completions
where high temperatures occur, the expense of running this very effective insulated tubing
may be justified. It costs more than twice the cost of a normal tubing string. Gelled oil
packer “fluids” are clearly more economic where they are applicable. Wellbore thermal
computer simulators can be used to gauge the effectiveness of an insulating fluid in a given
situation.
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9.14 PERFORATING FLUIDS
Although perforating fluids are not necessarily a distinct type of workover fluid, they are
distinguished here to emphasize again the importance of using a fluid that does not contain
suspended solids and is otherwise nondamaging to newly exposed formation.
Until recent years, mud was extensively used as a well-completion fluid. A well was
usually perforated with the wellbore full of mud; tubing was then installed, the mud
displaced from the tubing with water or oil, and production initiated. This method of
completion was considered satisfactory until laboratory tests, conducted under simulated
well conditions with cores, showed that perforations are filled with mud solids and charge
debris when mud is used as a perforating fluid. Back-flowing of the cores also revealed that
mud plugs are not easily removed by production.
9.14.1 Perforation Plugging
Plugged perforations have several undersirable effects. Mud plugged perforations may
require appreciable pressure differentials to initiate production. Flow through those
perforations that break down first can be expected to restrict, or prevent the higher pressure
differentials required to initiate flow across the more tightly plugged perforations, thus
impairing complete reservoir drainage. Mud plugged perforations can also increase like
likelihood of coning water or gas into a completion interval. Coning can happen if the top
perforations only are open in an interval near the gas-oil contact, or if the bottom
perforations only are open in an interval close to the water-oil contact.
Plugged perforations also hinder subsequent squeeze cementing or plastic consolidation

treatments. Mud plugs prohibit cement from reaching all perforations and result in
repetitious squeeze cementing to seal all holes. Mud plugs prevent placement of
consolidating plastics through each individual perforation increasing the likelihood of a
sand control failure.
9.14.2 Salt Water and Oil
Mud plugged perforations may be eliminated by using a clean fluid such as saltwater or oil
during completion and perforating operations. However, when perforating in water or oil,
formation damage can be expected if the perforating is done with a differential pressure
into the formation. The degree of near wellbore formation permeability reduction that
occurs is largely dependent upon the length of time that the well fluid is allowed to flow
into the formation after perforating and upon the formation’s clay content. Saltwater has a
high filtration rate and may carry entrained fine particles and charge debris short distance
into the formation. Back-flowing does not completely remove these materials.
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9.14.3 Acids
Acetic acid merits special mention because of its application as a perforating fluid and its
wide use. In the absence of hydrogen sulfide, acetic acid can be effectively inhibited
against almost all types of corrosion at elevated temperatures for extended periods of time.
Hydrochloric acid has a tendency to pit-corrode. This pitting becomes more pronounced
with increasing temperatures. Film forming acid corrosion inhibitors which must be used
with hydrochloric acids may oil wet newly exposed formation rock. Acetic acid, on the
other hand, causes only modest, uniform corrosion of the pipe.
Without the pronounced pitting corrosion, serious damage will not occur even if the acid is
allowed to become completely spent. This characteristic renders acetic acid particularly
suited for use in perforating operations in which the acid often must remain in contact with
the steel tubulars for a considerable period of time. However, acetic acid in combination
with hydrogen sulfide is very difficult to inhibit against embrittlement.
Acetic acid is normally available from service companies in a 10% by weight solution in
water. Acetic acid can be weighted with various salt mixtures to about 16 ppg. When
perforating in an acid medium, it is reasonable to assume that acid enters each perforation
as the formation is penetrated. On contact, acid reacts with carbonates, cement fines,
hydrated clays (such as those found in drilling muds), and formation components that have
been hydrated by filtrate from either the drilling mud or the cement slurry.
In tubingless completions, the usual procedure is to pump down the plug with acetic acid.
In conventional wells, acetic acid is spotted in place with the production tubing before the
Christmas tree is installed. In either case, the well may be perforated with differential
pressure into the wellbore and the perforations may be immediately unloaded if the well
flows. If it does not flow, acid is already in place with which to wash the perforations
without first displacing large volumes of wellbore fluids into the formation.
9.14.4 Nitrogen
A recent technique involves perforating with little or no liquid in the wellbore and using
nitrogen under pressure to control formation fluids. Welex, the foremost advocate of this
technique, claims gas-well productivities are higher when perforating is done in a gaseous
medium than when it is done in oil or saltwater. It is claimed that this is true even with
differentials into the wellbore. Results indicate that consideration should be given to this
technique when :
• Very low pressure exists in the formation.
• It is not desirable to contaminate formation fluids with workover fluids during special
testing programs.
• Extended periods of rig time would be required to initiate flow by swabbing in high-
cost locales, such as offshore platforms.
Nitrogen is more expensive than over typical perforating fluids, however, and the added
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cost must be warranted.
9.15 FIELD HANDLING OF FLUIDS
In the foregoing we have considered the properties of completion fluids and how they relate
to the various applications of the fluids. Here we consider the operations and factors
involved in handling completion fluids. Because they are the most common, and for
simplicity, the focus is on brine completion fluids.
They handling of brines entails the mixing and maintaining of a fluid composed of water,
salts, polymers, and other additives in quantities and at rates compatible with ongoing well
operations. Since a major objective in using a fluid other than drilling fluid for completing
the well is the protection of the productive formation, a major consideration is maintaining
the cleanliness of the completion brine. When high brine densities are required and more
expensive brines must be used, the handling of a completion brine can become considerably
more complicated. High density brines may cost hundreds of dollars per barrel. Thus,
minimizing fluid loss, reconditioning, and resale become important. Not only the expense,
but also certain physical properties of the higher density brines necessitate handling
considerations that are unnecessary for low density brines. In the following we will survey
the operations of mixing and maintaining completion brines, their safe handling and
disposal, and the equipment their use entails.
9.15.1 Mixing Brines
For the sake of cleanliness and accuracy of mixing, dense brines should be mixed initially
to the engineer’s specification in service company mixing facilities whenever possible. The
dense brines are normally supplied to a specific density at 70°F in 0.1 ppg increments.
Service company facilities will not be contaminated with well fluids and experienced
personnel ought to be in control of the mixing process. Care should be taken that tankage
in which the brine is transported is clean. It should be inspected before fill-out to insure
this. Hoses and lines used to transfer the fluid should be inspected and cleaned.
Segregated tankage and pumps should be provided at the well for brine make-up and brine
altering operations. Sealed storage for hydroscopic solids salts may be required. Although
mixing is sometimes done with compressed air jets, this is to be discouraged since the
extensive aeration accelerates oxygen corrosion of all equipment and generates ferric iron
by-products that complicate filtration and can plug the formation and perforations if
generated downstream of the filters. Mixing with mechanical mixers and by rolling tanks
with the pumps is preferred.
Service company data or the composition tables of Appendix A can be used to figure the
quantities required to readjust the density of a returned fluid. Accurate density
measurements and any composition tests required to assure that no adverse precipitation
reactions will occur should be made. Blending of brines was discussed under the subject of
Clear Brines. As a general rule of thumb, for dense brines based on CaBr2, when a required
density increase is greater than 0.2-0.3 ppg, the addition of a denser liquid is more
economical than the addition of solid salts to achieve additional weight. When using a
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brine mixture it is best to make density adjustments with the basic system rather than with a
solution of one of the single salts. It is possible to saturate a brine system with a higher
concentration of one of the single salts then the combined system can tolerate thus possibly
causing unexpected crystallization and corrosion. Using the same basic system will also
help assure that costs are minimized.
As noted1 previously considerable heat is often generated during the mixing of dense
brines. This can be a hazard. The generated heat can also be used to advantage during
subsequent polymer addition to speed the rate of polymer hydration.
Remember, polymer should be added to already prepared brines either in dry form or as a
previously prepared concentrate. Solid salts should never be added to a brine already
containing dissolved polymer. Polymer will come out of solution on the salt crystals if this
is done causing the loss of useful fluid and various plugging and fluid separation problems.
Higher density liquid brines may be blended with already prepared polymer solutions
without problems.
9.15.2 Safety
The handling of concentrated high density brines poses some safety problems. First, when
brines are mixed there is often a great amount of heat generated. There is considerable
potential for scalds and burns from contact with solution or equipment. Second, high
density brines are severely irritating to the skin. Contact with the solutions should be
minimized and work in the dust of the solid salts should be avoided. Third, eye contact
especially with bromide and zinc containing brines can be extremely serious. Permanent
loss of sight is possible. Eyes should be continuously flushed with fresh water for 15
minutes following such contact and medical examination should follow immediately. Rig
personnel should be equipped with steel toe rubber boots, slicker suits, full gauntlet rubber
gloves, and chemical goggles when working close to these brines. Leather articles are
destroyed by brine contact.
9.15.3 Properties Control
Various factors may cause the loss of expensive fluid or loss of the properties of that fluid.
First, fluid may be lost by a number of mechanisms. Fluid may be lost to the formation as a
result of excessive overbalance, inadequate fluid viscosity, or inadequate fluid loss
additives. Fluid may be lost due to spillage and contamination. Formation losses may be
minimized by reducing the density, adding polymer, and/or adding fluid loss solids.
Spillage and contamination can be minimized by properly instructing the rig personnel in
the value of the fluid and proper handling. Second, the fluid may lose some of its
properties with use, notably density. The density of concentrated brine fluids may decrease
with time for a number of reasons. The brine may be diluted with formation fluids. Or,
because of the very hygroscopic nature of dense brines, dilution may result from the
adsorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Rain may dilute the brine. Attention to the
amount of overbalance and minimization of swabbing actions will prevent dilution with
formation water. Covered tankage will prevent adsorption of atmospheric humidity and the
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influx of rain into the fluid. Covered tankage is recommended when using expensive high
density brines. Third, density may be reduced by mixing the completion fluid with
immiscible fluids such as air (from mixing perhaps with polymers present), gas, or liquid
hydrocarbons. Emulsions with oil products and crude oil seems to form easily with high
density zinc containing brines. If mixing with immiscible fluids is a problem or is expected
to be, gas and oil-water separation facilities may be required in the working fluid handling
circuit. Air entrainment can be minimized by proper mixing equipment. Gas entrainment
can be minimized by proper attention to the overbalance requirements and minimization of
swabbing actions.
As noted previously, high density brines have a tendency to freeze or crystallize at

relatively high temperatures. Figure A-1 gives these data for the various brines. In the
summer months or in areas where daily temperature variations are slight this might not be a
problem. However, when daily temperature variations are large and during winter, freezing
and crystallization can cause difficulties. The heavy brines do not expand on freezing, so
broken pipes will not result if freezing occurs. However, solid salts in hard to reach places
are difficult to redissolve. Loss of flow area can increase circulating pressures. And
settling of solids from the fluid during a temperature cycle can significantly reduce the
circulating brine density. Completely frozen brines require heat to be refluidized. The use
of heaters and heated tankage during the winter months will allow the use of the less
expensive, higher freezing brines.
9.15.5 Corrosion
Brines are strong electrolytes and as such tend to be corrosive to steel. Corrosion is the
result of electrochemical reactions and the high conductivity of brines allow those
reactions to proceed. If allowed to occur, corrosion can be severe in the surface equipment
used to handle brines. This corrosion not only destroys the equipment, but also adds
damaging corrosion by-products to their circulating brine. If not controlled, corrodents
carried downhole destroy downhole tubular goods as well.
Corrosion occurs due to the reaction of oxygen with the steel or by the reaction of salt
generated acid with the steel. For nonzinc-containing brines the primary corrodent is
oxygen. Corrosion by these brines can be controlled to acceptable levels by excluding
oxygen and using film forming corrosion inhibitors. Oxygen is excluded by eliminating
aeration and using oxygen scavengers.
Zinc containing brines generate additional corrosion because the zinc ions produce acidity
in reaction with water. Acid corrosion predominates over oxygen corrosion in high density
zinc brines because very little oxygen can dissolve in fluids containing such large amounts
of dissolved salts. Heavy aeration, however, can maintain oxygen corrosion in these brines
in addition to the acid type corrosion. Zinc bromide brines are somewhat acidic and must
be maintained acidic in order to prevent precipitation of zinc hydroxide. Zinc bromide
solution corrosivity is controlled to acceptable levels in most applications by the use of
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proprietary corrosion inhibitors supplied by service company and brine vendors. As

illustrated in Figure 5, corrosion in zinc bromide brines is unacceptably high in the absence
of corrosion inhibitors. When the brine density exceeds 18 ppg the corrosion rate increases
dramatically. Figure 6 shows the typically observed behavior of corrosion rate with time.
As Figure 6 illustrates corrosion appears to mitigate with time. The correct interpretation
of test results must take into consideration the time duration of the test and the shape of this
curve.
Zinc bromide containing brines have been observed to be “corrosive” in another sense. The
high density solutions are sometimes good solvents for certain plastics. In one report, zinc
bromide solutions dissolved the Orlon fabric and components of a filter system.
Figure 5. Brine corrosion rates on N-80 steel as a function of temperature. Curves 1-5 are 30-day
tests. Curves A and B are 14-day tests with and without a new water soluble
inhibitor (data from Dowell).
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Figure 6. Dependence of measured corrosion rate on length of test for N-80 steel,
15.0 lb/gal CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2, 400°F, 1000 psi, unhibited.
9.15.6 Environmental
The salts of most completion brines are common in nature and as such are not especially
toxic. However, high brine concentrations are destructive to various life forms. The less
commonly occurring salts, such as those containing bromide and zinc, are considerably
more toxic. Hydrocarbon contamination is a concern. And, additives such as corrosion
inhibitors and biocides are often very toxic. Thus, care should be taken to avoid spillage
and to dispose of completion brines in strict compliance with local laws. In general, these
laws are designed to protect drinking water supplies, water which may be used in
agriculture, the environment of aqua-culture, and wildlife.
9.15.7 Resale
High density brines have some value at the end of workover or completion operations. The
value of the fluid should be determined and steps taken to recover as much of that value as
possible. One should keep in mind upcoming projects which may require a similar fluid. If
the fluid has a density greater than 12 ppg, resale or storage and reuse should be considered.
Most service companies offer a 50% buy-back policy less cost if fluid losses are minimized.
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If future operations will require use of the fluid within the coming 12 months then very
likely storage and reuse will be a more economical option.
9.15.8 Surface Equipment
For efficient fluid processing and especially when high density brines are to be handled,
provision should be made for dual circuit fluid containment and handling. One circuit, the
working system, should be designed to handle fluid cleanup during the performance of well
operations. Another circuit should be provided for storing and filtering contaminated well
fluids separately from the working system. Fresh, clean fluid reserve storage be available
also.
The working system may contain, as required, a shale shaker with a 120 to 325 mesh
screen, a combination cyclone/shaker unit, cyclones, a settling tank, two filter units in
series, and another settling tank. The upstream filter unit will be designed to remove
intermediate fine particles and it should have a fairly large capacity. This unit might be a
pair of dual pot filters in series using 5 to 50 micron elements. The downstream filter unit
will be a polishing filter designed to remove the fine particles discharged from the upstream
filter unit.
This unit might be a large single pot unit using 2 to 10 micron elements. While the finer
filters are desirable from a particle removal point of view, frequently the viscosity of the
heavy brine fluids forces the use of coarser filters. A schematic of such a filtration system
is provided in Figure 7. A well trained filter operator is a necessity if the filters are
expected to function correctly for any length of time.
The contaminated fluids circuit will have similar fine filtration equipment, but need not
have the coarse solids removal components or be designed for high volume through-put.
More emphasis can be placed on settling as a separation mechanism for this inactive fluid.
Thus, appropriate tankage with baffles may replace the shakers and cyclones in this circuit.
9.15.9 Solids Control
There are a number of considerations relevant to keeping a brine clean and serviceable.
The fluid should be prepared with components of good purity and transported and stored in
clean tanks. Continuing attention should be given to maintaining cleanliness throughout the
useful life of the fluid. There are a many sources of the damaging debris that often collects
in a workover fluid during its use. Dirty mixing tanks and storage tanks, and dirty vacuum
trucks are common sources of contamination to a clean workover fluid system. Tanks
should be thoroughly cleaned before use. Workover rig tanks should be equipped with
sumps and bottom baffles to contain settlings. Suction should be taken about 18 in. off
bottom. Tanks should have easily accessible clean-out plates. Rounded corners aid
cleaning.
Settlings in workover tanks should be checked hourly and cleaned as needed. Samples
from the pump discharge are helpful in checking for undersirable solids. Dirty tubing
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strings and transfer piping are often sources of rust, scale, and pipe dope. Tubing strings
can be cleaned in the well by setting a wireline plug at the bottom, running a string of 1 in.,
and circulating HCl, isoproply alcohol, or simply water with about 1 ppg frac sand for
scouring. In new completions a diligent effort should be made to purge the well of drilling
fluid and drilling fluid residue prior to the introduction of the completion fluid.
Devices in the fluid cleaning circuit are used to maintain fluid cleanliness. Settling tanks
can remove the larger and more dense solids. A-4 in. cone desilter can take out a high
percentage of solids down to the 10 to 20 micron range. When it is necessary to remove
still finer particles, filters must be used. They key to effective filtration is filter operator
training and supervision.
Surface filtration alone may not be enough to ensure a no-solids fluid at the bottom of the
hole. This was demonstrated in a well experiment. Fluid previously filtered to 2 microns
was circulated through a tubing string having filters at the top and bottom. The top tubing
filter remained clean, but the bottom filter consistently plugged with solution formed iron
oxide, pipe dope, scale, and rust. Iron oxide is formed by the action of dissolve oxygen on
ferrous iron, which comes from the pipe wall as corrosion proceeds. When first formed,
iron oxide exists as gelatinous ferric hydroxide which readily plugs formation pores. The
reaction between oxygen and iron can be prevented by using an oxygen scavenger such as
sodium sulfite and cobalt sulfate catalyst. Ferric iron in solution can be deactivated by
sequestering with EDTA or sodium citrate.
There are two basic strategies for minimizing formation damage due to solids entrained in a
completion fluid. Solids can be prevented from reaching the completion interval altogether,
or they can be prevented from invading the formation pore space, even though they arrive at
the formation face. In either case the objective is to minimize the quantity of undersirable
solids which enter the formation pore structure or filter out on the formation face. Both
approaches can be used simultaneously.
Damage may be minimized by thorough removal of solids from the circulating fluid. Fluid
in contact with the formation should ideally not contain any solids larger than 2 micron.
This goal is usually not entirely realizable. One can attempt to eliminate all solids through
use of surface filters and take steps to minimize the pickup of solids downstream from the
filters. Nevertheless, some fluid loss will occur and some small fines will be lost to the
formation. The use of polymers must be minimized in order to maximize filterability.
Carrying capacity must be sacrificed to achieve filterability. In many, instances velocity
can be substituted for viscosity in lifting particles.
Damage may also be minimized by efficient fluid-loss-control. The quantity of fines lost to
the formation may be reduced by minimizing differential pressure into the formation. The
removal of fines from the pore system may be returning the well to production gradually.
Temporary fluid-loss additives can be used to control fluid loss and form a filter on the
formation face. The filter cake prevents particles from moving past the face of the
formation into the pore system and the quantity of undersirable solids deposited on the
formation face is minimized by the reduction in fluid volume filtered into the formation.
The best method of minimizing formation damage by workover fluids will vary from well
to well. It may involve the use of one of these strategies or the other, or some combination
of the two. In any case, the base workover fluid should be thoroughly cleaned initially by
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settling, filtering, etc., while circulating. Fluid loss material might then be used in pills in
order to avoid general distribution of them in the fluid thereby leaving the bulk of the fluid
filterable. In this way work can be done in a clean fluid that is further filtered at the sand
face. Other schemes employing these principles are possible.
Figure 7. Filtration system layout
9.15.10 Allowable Solids
We normally say a fluid is clean if it contains no undissolved solids. Cleanliness is

characterized by the size distribution and the total volume of undissolved solids dispersed
in the fluid. When the particles present are large enough, a sieve analysis of the solids may
be used to determine the size distribution. When significant amounts of the total solids
present are too small to be collected on sieves, more sophisticated particle counters may be
required to determine the size distribution. An operational measure of cleanliness is
provided by the process of filtration. One needs only (1) the total undissolved solids
(usually on a volume basis stated in parts per million or ppm) and (2) the total undissolved
solids (similar units) that pass through a filter designed to remove all solids above a certain
size. For example, a fluid might be characterized as containing 130 ppm of suspended
solids with 4% greater than 2 micron. An allowable suspended solids specification might
be similarly stated.
The specification of allowable solids for a given application and filter performance are
somewhat entertwined. A filtration ratio, β, is often defined using filter performance data
as
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Influent Concentration
Effluent Concentration = β (Βετα) (7)
Figure 8. Beta curves for two absolute rated filters.

The A curve represents 2 µm absolute and the B curve 10 µm absolute.
The value of β depends on filter medium characteristics and suspended particle size. The
concentrations and size distributions of influent and effluent particles may be analyzed to
generate values of β over a range of particle sizes. The value of β plotted against particle
size can be used to characterize the filter’s performance. When these plots are continued
until a β of 10,000 is reached, the corresponding particle size can be used as a statement of
the filter’s absolute rating. Essentially, no particles above an absolute rating are allowed to
pass.
This procedure is illustrated in Figure 8 for two different filters. Percent removal efficiency
is simply computed from β as
β-1
X 100 = Percent Removal Efficiency (8)
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The test conditions are chosen to be similar to the conditions that the filter will be subjected
to in service. However, low solids loadings are used to insure that the filter medium is
characterized rather then the solids filter cake.
There is considerable dispute over what level of undissolved solids is allowable in a given
situation. What is allowable is often determined by economic and operational criteria
rather than by physical laws. For example, a 5 micron filter will allow particles smaller
than 5 micron to enter or deposit on the formation, and these particles may cause a
reduction in permeability. But frequently, 10 microns is used as a minimum allowable
particle size because it is more certain that this level of filtration can actually be
maintained, it is less expensive, it allows higher filtration rates, and because it is judged
that the risk of plugging the formation with the reduced volume of remaining smaller
particles is “acceptable”. Note that the 10 micron filter of Figure 8 still has a filtration ratio
around 20 (95% efficient) for particles on the order of 1 micron diameter. In applications,
filter efficiency increases with time as filtered solids form a filter cake that is more
effective than the filter media. Filter performance curves should be examined for each
application in order to gauge the risks of using larger size filters.
9.15.11 Filtration
There are various types of filters and filter systems available. Table 11 presents
comparative data on the different types of filters. Four types of filtration systems are
ordinarily seen in the oilfield for use with workover and completion fluids. They are
cartridge filters, bag filters, multimedia filters, and diatomaceous earth filters.
Cartridge filters are metal or plastic tubes that are perforated and wrapped with filament or
layered with a permeable material to form a permeable matrix. The permeable matrix may
be made from materials such as cotton, paper, fiberglass, polyester fiber, and rayon. Large
particles are blocked at the outer surface of the cartridge. The smaller particles are trapped
within the permeable matrix.
The cartridges are normally enclosed in a stainless steel pressure vessel called a pod. Pods
may contain as few as 6 or as many as 110 cartridges. Filter pods are commonly operated
in pairs. Valving allows the filters to be replaced in one pod while the other is in operation.
Figure 9 is a schematic of such a filter. When the pressure drop across a pod rises to a
predetermined level, such as 25 to 40 psi, the operating filter pod must be shut down and
the cartridge elements changed. If the fluid is very dirty and the pod contains only a few
cartridges, this may happen in minutes. Many such devices have by-pass valves which
activate if the pressure drop becomes too high. When the by-pass valve is activated, dirty
fluid is allowed to pass the filter and may enter the well.
Cartridge filters can be cleaned and reused with 80-85% of capacity performance.
Cartridge life can be extended significantly by using settling tanks to remove the bulk of the
solids upstream of the cartridge filters.
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Obtainable flow rates range from 1 to 6 bbl/min, depending on the system. Higher flow
rates may be obtained by using multiple systems, operated in parallel.
Cartridge filters are either absolute or normally rated. An absolute cartridge will obtain a
sharp cutoff of solids at its rated size. A nominally rates cartridge may allow some particles
larger than its rating to pass through. Generally, cartridge filters are available in 1, 2, 5, 10,
and 25 micron ratings.
Figure 9. Dual pod filter
Table 11
Filtration Methods **
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Micron Size Flow Operating

Filter Type Comments
Limitation Capability Cost *
Cartridge 1 (nominal) 1-2 bbl/min $5-10/bbl Cartridges may last less than 15 min.
(nominal) cartridge bank Cartridges must be discarded. Time-
consuming to change cartridges.
Requires large inventory.
Cartridge 1 (absolute) 1-2 bbl/min $15-50/bbl Cartridges may last a short time if
(absolute) cartridge bank pretreatment is not done. Bypassing
can occur if pressure is not watched
closely.
Bag 2 (nominal) 1-2 bbl/min pod $7-16/bbl Can develop leaks and tears. Quicker
to change than cartridges. Short life.
Multimedia 1 (nominal) As high as 25 5 /bbl Requires significant amounts of clean

High-Rate bbl/min fluid for filling and backwashing.
Filter Large vessel. Used with injection
wells.
Tubular filter 1-3 0.25-1 bbl/min - Requires backwash recovery unit.

(Back- (nominal) tube Valves can wear quickly.
washable)
Plate and <1 6-10 bbl/min 20 /bbl Needs guard filter to protect against
frame press accidental D.E. discharge. Large
with D.E. physical system.
Vertical <1 1-6 bbl/min 20 /bbl Needs guard filter. Vibration can
pressure leaf cause loss of precoat. Over
filter with pressurization can damage leaves.
D.E. Small size.
Tubular filter <1 1-3 bbl/min 20 /bbl Needs guard filter. Short cycle length.
with D.E.
* Expendable materials only.

** Arthur E.Hall, “How to Filter Workover and Completion Fluids-Part 2 : Tubular and Press Filters,”
Petroleum Engineering International, August, 1982, p. 130.
Bag filters, often called sock-type filters, are mesh fabric bags of controlled sizes mounted
in a filter housing. Fluids are injected at the center of the bag from above. Fluid flows
through the bags and into the housing, trapping the solids in the bag. The pressure will rise
as the bag fills with solids. At a predetermined pressure drop, flow is stopped and the bag
is removed from the filter housing for cleaning.
Filter bags can be made of wool, silk, rayon, polytetrapropylene, polyester, felt, and
polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE). Some bags may be washed and reused, depending on the
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type of material. Some types of material are most resistant to tears than others. Bag filter
life may be extended by using prefiltering methods, such as settling tanks.
Bag filters are available over the full range of ratings, down to 2 microns. Flow rates
ranging from 1 to 2 bbl/min, per pod, may be obtained. As with the cartridge systems, this
rate may be increased by operating several pods in parallel.
Multimedia filters consist of layers of granular materials of reasonably uniform sizes. The
most commonly used materials are sand, gravel, walnut hulls, and garnet. Normally,
several of these media are used in a single system. The media layers are packed into a
pressure vessel in one of several configurations. The layers may be horizontal, vertical, or
radial. Finer media bridges on successively coarser media in the direction of fluid flow.
In principal, the filter operation is similar to a gravel pack. The fluid flows through the
filter, trapping particles which are larger than a specified diameter. When the filter begins
to plug up, the differential pressure across the filter will build rapidly. The system will then
need to be periodically backwashed. Backwashing is accomplished by simply switching
valves. The length of time between backwashings can be increased by using a precleaning
method, before filtering, to remove larger solids.
Multimedia filters, in general, can provide higher flow rates than cartridge or bag-type
filters. These filters are available in vertical, horizontal, and radial configurations. Vertical
filters are more often used for workover and completion operations. A vertical filter can
provide a flow rate as high as 25 bbl/min. Normally, a system consists of two filters
operated in tandem, so that one filter may be used to backwash the other. An important
advantage of multimedia system over the cartridge and bag type filters is that it may be
operated unattended, except for periodic maintenance. Multimedia filters are used in large
volume operations, such as in injection water preparation.
Diatomaceous earth is the fossil-like remains of microscopic water plants, called diatoms.
Packed diatoms are highly permeable and virtually insoluble. They are often used as a filter
media. Diatomaceous earth is used frequently as a filter aid with many types of filtration
systems.
Filtration systems which use D.E. as a filter aid are: tubular filters, plate and frame press
filters, and vertical pressure and leaf filters. These filters are designed for large filtering
capacities and long-term operations. The median pore size of diatomaceous earth ranges
from 1.5 micron to 22 micron. D.E. filtration methods are as effective as cartridge, bag, and
multimedia filters. D.E. filters can filter at high flow rates and they are more economical
than cartridge or bag filters.
9.16 APPENDIX A – BRINE DATA
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Figure A-1. Freezing and crystallization of brines
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Figure A-2. Material requirements for preparing potassium chloride solutions
Table A - I
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Physical Properties of Potassium Chloride Solutions.

Data at 68°F
Potassium
Specific Weight Chloride Freezing Hydrostatic
Chloride
Gravity (lb/gal) λ)
(mg/λ Point (°F) Head (psi/100ft)
(% by weight)
0.0 0.9982 8.33 0 32.0 43.28

1.0 1.0046 8.38 4,756 31.2 43.55
2.0 1.0110 8.44 9,606 30.3 43.83
3.0 1.0174 8.49 14,505 29.5 44.11
4.0 1.0239 8.54 19,498 28.7 44.39
5.0 1.0304 8.60 24,491 27.8 44.67
6.0 1.0369 8.65 29,580 26.9 44.95
7.0 1.0434 8.71 34,716 26.1 45.23
8.0 1.0500 8.76 39,947 25.2 45.52
9.0 1.0566 8.82 45,226 24.3 45.81
10.0 1.0633 8.87 50,552 23.4 46.10
11.0 1.0700 8.93 55,973 22.4 46.39
12.0 1.0768 8.99 61,442 21.4 46.68
13.0 1.0836 9.04 67,006 20.4 46.98
14.0 1.0905 9.10 72,618 47.28
15.0 1.0974 9.16 78,277 47.58
16.0 1.1043 9.22 84,031 47.87
17.0 1.1114 9.28 89,833 48.18
18.0 1.1185 9.33 95,730 48.49
19.0 1.1256 9.39 101,722 48.80
20.0 1.1328 9.45 107,762 49.11
22.0 1.1474 9.58 120,031 49.74
24.0 1.1623 9.70 132,634 50.39
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Figure A-3. Decrease in density of potassium chloride brines with increasing temperature
Figure A-4. Potassium chloride solution viscosities
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Figure A-5. Material requirements for preparing sodium chloride solutions
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Table A - II
Physical Properties of Sodium Chloride Solutions.

Data at 60°F
% Sodium mg/l* Hydrostatic

Specific Weight Lbs. mg/l* Freezing
Chloride By Sodium Head PSI per
Gravity Per Gal Chloride point °F
Weight Chloride 100 ft.
1.0 1.007 8.40 10,070 6,110 31.0 43.68
2.0 1.014 8.46 20,280 12,300 30.0 43.99
3.0 1.021 8.52 30,630 18,580 28.9 44.30
4.0 1.029 8.59 41,160 24,970 27.8 44.67
5.0 1.036 8.65 51,800 31,420 26.7 44.98
6.0 1.043 8.70 62,580 37,960 25.5 45.24
7.0 1.051 8.77 73,570 44,630 24.2 45.60
8.0 1.059 8.84 84,720 51,390 22.9 45.97
9.0 1.067 8.90 96,030 58,250 21.6 46.28
10.0 1.074 8.96 107,400 65,150 20.2 46.59
11.0 1.082 9.03 119,020 72,200 18.8 46.96
12.0 1.089 9.09 130,680 79,270 17.3 47.27
13.0 1.097 9.15 142,610 86,510 15.7 47.58
14.0 1.104 9.21 154,560 93,760 14.1 47.89
15.0 1.112 9.28 166,800 101,180 12.4 48.26
16.0 1.119 9.34 179,040 108,610 10.6 48.57
17.0 1.127 9.41 191,590 116,220 8.7 48.93
18.0 1.135 9.47 204,300 123,930 6.7 49.24
19.0 1.143 9.54 217,170 131,740 4.6 49.61
20.0 1.151 9.61 230,200 139,640 2.4 49.97
21.0 1.159 9.67 243,390 147,650 0.0 50.28
22.0 1.168 9.75 256,960 155,880 -2.5 50.70
23.0 1.176 9.81 270,480 164,080 -5.2 51.01
24.0 1.184 9.88 284,160 172,380 +1.4 51.38
25.0 1.193 9.96 298,250 180,920 +13.3 51.79
26.0 1.201 10.02 312,260 189,420 +27.9 52.10
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-6. Decrease in densities of sodium chloride brines with increasing temperature
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-7. Sodium chloride solution viscosities
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-8. Material requirements for preparing calcium chloride/sodium chloride solutions
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Table A - III
Physical Properties of Constant – Freezing

Calcium Chloride – Sodium Chloride Brines.
Data at 60°F
Hydrostatic
Sodium Calcium Chloride Specific Weight Chloride
Head
Chloride (95%) Gravity (lb/gal) λ)
(mg/λ
(psi/100 ft.
(% by weight (% by weight)
26.7 0.0 1.1983 10.0 194,111 51.95

21.2 6.1 1.2102 10.1 189,482 52.47
16.3 12.4 1.2222 10.2 190,307 52.99
12.7 16.8 1.2342 10.3 190,102 53.51
9.7 20.8 1.2462 10.4 192,109 54.03
7.5 23.7 1.2582 10.5 193,883 54.55
5.6 26.3 1.2702 10.6 196,223 55.07
4.4 28.5 1.2821 10.7 201,651 55.58
3.4 30.3 1.2941 10.8 206,360 56.10
2.6 32.1 1.3061 10.9 212,707 56.62
2.1 33.5 1.3181 11.0 219,118 57.14
1.6 35.0 1.3301 11.1 226,220 57.66
1.3 36.6 1.3421 11.2 235,657 58.18
0.9 37.7 1.3540 11.3 241,285 58.70
0.6 39.1 1.3660 11.4 249,700 59.22
0.5 40.2 1.3780 11.5 258,003 59.74
0.4 41.4 1.3900 11.6 267,049 60.26
0.3 42.3 1.4020 11.7 274,285 60.78
All of these mixtures freeze very slightly below 60°F
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-9. Decrease in densities of calcium chloride/sodium chloride brines with increasing temperatures
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-10. Material requirements for preparing calcium chloride solutions
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Table A - IV
Physical Properties of Calcium Chloride Solutions

All Data Based on Readings at 60°F
Weight of Solution Freezing Data Lbs. Calcium Chloride Type 1 Lbs. Calcium Chloride Type 2
(77% min.) (94% min.)
Specific ‘Baume at Lbs. per Lbs. per Per Cent Crystallisa Apparent Per Gal. ≅ Per Α Final Per Gal. ≅ Per Α Final
Gravity 60°F gallon Cu.Ft CaCl2 tion Starts Solidificat Solut Gal. Vol. Solut Gal. Vol.
(Am. Std) Actual °F ion °F ion Water Gals. ion Water Gals.
1.000 0.0 8.34 62.37 0 +32.0 +32.0 …. …. 1.000 …. …. 1.000

1.010 1.4 8.42 62.99 1.2 +31.0 +29.5 0.13 0.13 1.006 0.11 0.11 1.004
1.020 2.8 8.50 63.61 2.3 +30.2 +26.6 0.25 0.25 1.011 0.21 0.21 1.006
1.030 4.2 8.59 64.24 3.5 +29.1 +22.8 0.39 0.40 1.017 0.32 0.32 1.008
1.040 5.6 8.67 64.86 4.6 +28.0 +19.0 0.51 0.52 1.022 0.42 0.42 1.011
1.050 6.9 8.75 65.48 5.9 +27.0 +14.3 0.66 0.68 1.030 0.54 0.55 1.016
1.060 8.2 8.84 66.11 7.0 +25.9 +10.3 0.79 0.82 1.036 0.65 0.66 1.019
1.070 9.5 8.92 66.73 8.1 +24.5 + 6.0 0.92 0.96 1.043 0.76 0.77 1.022
1.080 10.7 9.00 67.36 9.2 +23.2 + 1.7 1.06 1.11 1.050 0.87 0.89 1.026
1.090 12.0 9.09 67.98 10.3 +21.9 - 2.7 1.20 1.28 1.058 0.99 1.01 1.029
1.100 13.2 9.17 68.60 11.4 +20.3 - 7.2 1.34 1.43 1.065 1.10 1.13 1.033
1.110 14.3 9.25 69.23 12.4 +18.7 - 11.5 1.47 1.57 1.071 1.21 1.24 1.036
1.120 15.5 9.34 69.85 13.5 +16.5 - 16.2 1.62 1.75 1.080 1.33 1.37 1.040
1.130 16.7 9.42 70.47 14.5 +14.5 - 20.7 1.75 1.90 1.087 1.44 1.49 1.044
1.140 17.8 9.50 71.10 15.6 +12.2 - 25.7 1.90 2.08 1.096 1.56 1.62 1.049
1.150 18.9 9.59 71.72 16.6 + 9.7 - 30.2 2.04 2.25 1.104 1.68 1.75 1.052
1.160 20.0 9.67 72.35 17.6 + 7.0 - 34.4 2.19 2.44 1.113 1.79 1.88 1.057
1.170 21.1 9.75 72.97 18.6 + 4.1 - 38.4 2.33 2.02 1.122 1.91 2.01 1.062
1.180 22.1 9.84 73.59 19.5 + 1.2 - 41.7 2.46 2.78 1.131 2.02 2.13 1.064
1.190 23.2 9.92 74.22 20.6 - 2.0 - 45.2 2.62 2.99 1.142 2.15 2.28 1.071
1.200 24.2 10.00 74.84 21.5 - 5.8 - 47.9 2.76 3.18 1.152 2.26 2.40 1.075
1.210 25.2 10.09 75.46 22.4 - 9.4 - 50.2 2.90 3.36 1.160 2.38 2.53 1.078
1.220 26.2 10.17 76.09 23.3 - 13.2 - 52.4 3.03 3.54 1.170 2.49 2.67 1.083
1.230 27.1 10.25 76.71 24.2 - 17.1 - 54.4 3.18 3.75 1.180 2.61 2.80 1.088
1.240 28.1 10.34 77.33 25.1 - 21.5 - 56.2 3.33 3.96 1.190 2.73 2.94 1.092
1.250 29.0 10.42 77.96 26.0 - 25.8 - 57.8 3.48 4.18 1.202 2.85 3.08 1.097
1.260 29.9 10.50 78.58 27.0 - 31.2 - 59.5 3.64 4.42 1.215 2.98 3.25 1.104
1.270 30.8 10.59 79.21 27.8 - 37.1 - 60.6 3.79 4.65 1.227 3.10 3.38 1.107
1.280 31.7 10.67 79.83 28.7 - 44.3 - 61.8 3.93 4.86 1.237 3.22 3.53 1.113
1.290 32.6 10.75 80.45 29.6 - 59.8 …. 4.08 5.10 1.250 3.35 3.69 1.120
1.300 33.5 10.84 81.08 30.5 - 41.8 …. 4.24 5.36 1.264 3.48 3.85 1.125
1.310 34.3 10.92 81.70 31.3 - 29.2 …. 4.38 5.58 1.278 3.60 4.00 1.130
1.320 35.1 11.01 82.32 32.2 - 17.0 …. 4.54 5.86 1.293 3.73 4.17 1.137
1.330 36.0 11.09 82.95 33.2 - 4.7 …. 4.72 6.18 1.309 3.88 4.36 1.146
1.340 36.8 11.17 83.57 34.0 - 4.3 …. 4.87 6.45 1.324 4.00 4.52 1.152
1.350 37.6 11.26 84.19 34.9 +14.3 …. 5.04 6.76 1.341 4.14 4.71 1.159
1.360 38.4 11.34 84.82 35.8 +21.7 …. 5.20 7.07 1.359 4.27 4.90 1.168
1.370 39.0 11.42 85.44 36.4 +30.0 …. 5.33 7.30 1.375 4.38 5.02 1.171
1.380 39.9 11.51 86.07 37.4 +37.0 …. 5.52 7.69 1.393 4.53 5.24 1.181
1.390 40.7 11.59 86.69 38.3 +44.4 …. 5.69 8.05 1.414 4.67 5.45 1.190
1.400 41.4 11.67 87.31 39.2 +50.9 …. 5.86 8.41 1.435 4.82 5.66 1.200
1.410 42.2 11.76 87.94 40.0 +55.9 …. 6.03 8.79 1.457 4.95 5.85 1.207
≅ Pounds of calcium chloride per cubic foot of water at 60°F may be obtained by multiplying the quantity in pounds per gallon by 7.481
Α Final volume in gallons at 60°F when quantity of calcium chloride shown in previous column is added to one gallon of water.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-11. Decrease in densities of calcium chloride brines with increasing temperature
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-12. Calcium chloride solution viscosities
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Table A - V
Minimum Cost Calcium Chloride – Calcium Bromide Brines

Mixing Tables
CaCl2 – CaBr2 Barrels 14.2 lb/gal Barrels 11.6 lb/gal Pounds 94-97%
Density Desired CaBr2 CaCl2 Calcium Chloride
Flake or Pellet
11.7 .0254 .9714 2.86

11.8 .0507 .9429 6.06
11.9 .0762 .9143 9.09
12.0 .1016 .8857 12.13
12.1 .1269 .8572 15.15
12.2 .1524 .8286 18.18
12.3 .1778 .8000 21.22
12.4 .2032 .7715 24.24
12.5 .2285 .7429 27.28
12.6 .2540 .7143 30.31
12.7 .2794 .6857 33.34
12.8 .3048 .6572 36.37
12.9 .3302 .6286 39.41
13.0 .3556 .6000 42.44
13.1 .3810 .5714 45.47
13.2 .4084 .5429 48.49
13.3 .4318 .5143 51.53
13.4 .4572 .4857 54.56
13.5 .4826 .4572 57.59
13.6 .5080 .4286 60.62
13.7 .5334 .4000 63.65
13.8 .5589 .3714 66.69
13.9 .5842 .3429 69.72
14.0 .6069 .3143 72.75
14.1 .6351 .2857 75.78
14.2 .6604 .2572 78.81
14.3 .6858 .2286 81.84
14.4 .7113 .2000 84.88
14.5 .7366 .1715 87.90
14.6 .7620 .1429 90.94
14.7 .7875 .1143 93.97
14.8 .8128 .0858 96.99
14.9 .8382 .0572 100.03
15.0 .8637 .0286 103.06
15.1 .8891 .0000 106.10
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Table A - VI
Minimum - Cost Calcium Chloride – Calcium Bromide Brines

Table of Chemicals for the Preparation of 1 bbl of
DENSITY BARRELS POUNDS POUNDS

DESIRED WATER CaCl2 CaBr2 (91%)
11.7 .8493 195.39 6.24

11.8 .8421 193.09 14.96
11.9 .8349 190.79 23.68
12.0 .8277 188.49 32.40
12.1 .8205 186.10 41.12
12.2 .8133 183.89 49.84
12.3 .8061 181.59 58.56
12.4 .7989 179.29 67.28
12.5 .7917 176.99 76.00
12.6 .7845 174.69 84.72
12.7 .7773 172.39 93.44
12.8 .7701 170.09 102.16
12.9 .7629 167.79 110.88
13.0 .7557 165.49 119.60
13.1 .7485 163.19 128.32
13.2 .7415 160.89 137.04
13.3 .7343 158.59 145.76
13.4 .7271 156.29 154.48
13.5 .7199 153.99 163.20
13.6 .7127 151.69 171.92
13.7 .7055 149.39 180.64
13.8 .6983 147.09 189.36
13.9 .6911 144.80 198.08
14.0 .6839 142.51 206.81
14.1 .6767 140.21 215.53
14.2 .6695 137.91 224.25
14.3 .6623 135.61 232.97
14.4 .6551 133.31 241.69
14.5 .6479 131.01 250.41
14.6 .6407 128.71 259.13
14.7 .6335 126.41 267.85
14.8 .6263 124.11 276.57
14.9 .6191 121.81 285.29
15.0 .6119 119.51 294.01
15.1 .6047 117.21 302.73
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-13. Decrease in density of minimum-cost calcium chloride/

calcium bromide brines with increased temperature
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-14. Minimum-cost calcium chloride/calcium bromide brines : Temperature vs. apparent viscosity
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-15. Apparent viscosity of minimum-cost calcium chloride/

calcium bromide solutions containing HEC
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-16. Viscosities of calcium bromide solutions
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Table A - VII
Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Solution Requirements Using

14.2 lb/gal ZnBr2/CaBr2 Brine and 19.2 lb/gal ZnBr2/CaBr2 Brine
To Make 1 bbl (42 gal)
Brine density at 14.2 lb/gal 19.2 lb/gal Crystallization Point

60°F lb/gal CaBr2 bbl CaBr2/ZnBr2 bbl 60°F
15.0 .840 .160 - 22

15.1 .820 .180 - 25
15.2 .800 .200 - 27
15.3 .780 .220 - 29
15.4 .760 .240 - 32
15.5 740 .260 - 34
15.6 .720 .280 - 35
15.7 .700 .300 - 38
15.8 .680 .320 - 40
15.9 .660 .340 - 37
16.0 .640 .360 - 33
16.1 .620 .380 - 30
16.2 .600 .400 - 26
16.3 .580 .420 - 23
16.4 .560 .440 - 20
16.5 .540 .460 - 16
16.6 .520 .480 - 11
16.7 .500 .500 - 8
16.8 .480 .520 - 6
16.9 .460 .540 - 4
17.0 .440 .560 - 4
17.1 .420 .580 - 2
17.2 .400 .600 0
17.3 .380 .620 + 2
17.4 .360 .640 + 4
17.5 .340 .660 + 5
17.6 .320 .680 + 5
17.7 .300 .700 + 6
17.8 .280 .720 + 7
17.9 .260 .740 + 7
18.0 .240 .760 + 9
18.1 .220 .780 + 10
18.2 .200 .800 + 11
18.3 .180 .820 + 13
18.4 .160 .840 + 15
18.5 .140 .860 + 17
18.6 .120 .880 + 19
18.7 .100 .900 + 21
18.8 .080 .920 + 23
18.9 .060 .940 + 20
19.0 .040 .960 + 21
19.1 .020 .980 + 18
19.2 .000 1.000 + 16
Table A - VIII
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Solution Requirements Using

14.2 lb/gal CaBr2 Brine, 14.5 lb/gal ZnBr2 Brine, and Dry 91% Pure CaBr2
Brine density at 14.2 lb/gal 14.5 lb/gal 91%

60°F lb/gal CaBr2 bbl ZnBr2 bbl CaBr2 lb
14.5 .8833 .0900 27.41

14.6 .8565 .1067 37.41
14.7 .8223 .1318 58.65
14.8 .7859 .1531 59.67
14.9 .7555 .1788 66.33
15.0 .7109 .2079 73.08
15.1 .6859 .2322 83.71
15.2 .6530 .2547 93.84
15.3 .6239 .2722 104.74
15.4 .5921 .2995 111.25
15.5 .5632 .3228 118.48
15.6 .5287 .3413 132.43
15.7 .4964 .3627 142.43
15.8 .4651 .3912 147.98
15.9 .4268 .4233 156.27
16.0 .3944 .4513 161.95
16.1 .3515 .4852 171.08
16.2 3205 .5083 179.63
16.3 .2893 .5250 192.37
16.4 .2610 .5496 198.37
16.5 .2254 .5690 212.06
16.6 .2034 .5862 218.92
16.7 .1776 .6058 226.56
16.8 .1467 .6372 230.03
16.9 .0928 .6842 238.49
17.0 .0587 .7093 247.04
17.1 .0229 .7241 263.58
17.2 .0060 .7449 265.12
17.3 .0000 .7552 266.66
17.4 - .7548 271.13
17.5 - .7447 281.51
17.6 - .7356 291.24
17.7 - .7263 301.08
17.8 - .7181 310.25
17.9 - .7098 319.52
18.0 - .6890 336.42
Blending Procedure: Add 14.2 lb/gal Calcium bromide and 14.5 lb/gal zinc bromide, followed by the
91% calcium bromide. The desired density should be measured at 60°F.
Table A - IX
Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Solution Requirements Using

15.0 lb/gal CaCl2/CaBr2 Brine, 19.2 lb/gal ZnBr2/CaBr2
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Brine Density at 15.0 lb/gal 19.2 lb/gal Crystallization Point

60°F lb/gal CaCl2/ CaBr2 bbl CaBr2/ZnBr2 bbl °F
15.0 1.000 .000 + 64

15.1 .976 .024 62
15.2 .952 .048 61
15.3 .929 .071 59
15.4 .905 .095 59
15.5 .881 .119 59
15.6 .857 .143 58
15.7 .833 .167 57
15.8 .810 .190 55
15.9 .786 .214 54
16.0 .762 .238 53
16.1 .738 .262 52
16.2 .714 .286 50
16.3 690 .310 50
16.4 .667 .333 49
16.5 .643 .357 47
16.6 .619 .381 46
16.7 .592 .405 43
16.8 .571 .429 40
16.9 .548 .452 36
17.0 .524 .476 32
17.1 .500 .500 28
17.2 .476 .524 31
17.3 .452 .548 35
17.4 .429 .571 37
17.5 .405 .592 41
17.6 .381 .619 45
17.7 .357 .643 44
17.8 .333 .667 44
17.9 .310 .690 43
18.0 .286 .714 43
18.1 .262 .738 42
18.2 .238 .762 41
18.3 .214 .786 37
18.4 .190 .810 35
18.5 .167 .833 32
18.6 .143 .857 28
18.7 .119 .881 25
18.8 .095 .905 23
18.9 .071 .929 18
19.0 .048 .952 18
19.1 .024 .976 17
19.2 .000 1.000 16
Table A - X
Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Solution Requirements Using

14.2 lb/gal CaBr2 Brine, 14.5 lb/gal ZnBr2 Brine, Dry 94% Pure CaCl2 ,
and Dry 91% Pure CaBr2
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Brine Density 14.2 lb/gal 14.5 lb/gal 94% 91%

at 60°F lb/gal CaBr2 bbl ZnBr2 bbl CaCl2 lb CaBr2 lb
15.1 .8647 .0000 113.40 5.13

15.2 .8348 .0226 111.13 15.60
15.3 .8050 .0452 108.86 26.08
15.4 .7752 .0678 106.59 36.55
15.5 .7454 .904 104.32 47.02
15.6 .7156 .1130 102.05 57.50
15.7 .6858 .1357 99.78 67.97
15.8 .6560 .1583 97.51 78.44
15.9 .6261 .1809 95.24 88.91
16.0 .5963 .2035 92.97 99.12
16.1 .5665 .2261 90.70 109.86
16.2 .5367 .2487 88.43 120.33
16.3 .5069 .2713 86.16 130.81
16.4 .4770 .2939 83.89 141.28
16.5 .4472 .3166 81.62 151.75
16.6 .4174 .3392 79.35 162.23
16.7 .3876 .3618 77.08 172.70
16.8 .3578 .3844 74.81 183.17
16.9 .3280 .4070 72.54 193.65
17.0 .2982 .4296 70.27 204.12
17.1 .2683 .4522 68.00 214.59
17.2 .2385 .4748 65.73 225.07
17.3 .2087 .4974 63.46 235.54
17.4 .1789 .5200 61.19 246.01
17.5 .1491 .5427 58.92 256.48
17.6 .1193 .5653 56.65 266.96
17.7 .0895 .5879 54.38 277.43
17.8 .0596 .6105 52.11 287.90
17.9 .0298 .6331 49.84 298.38
18.0 .0000 .6559 47.57 308.97
Blending Procedure : Add 14.2 lb/gal calcium bromide and 14.5 lb/gal zinc bromide followed by the
94% calcium chloride. Allow about thirty minutes for the majority of the chloride to dissolve.
Then add the 91% calcium bromide. The desired density should be measured at 60°F.
The crystallization point for each of these fluids is between 45 and 50°F.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-17. Decrease in density of minimum cost calcium chloride/

calcium bromide/zinc bromide brines with increasing temperature
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-18. Viscosity of CaBr2-ZnBr2 at various temperatures
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-19. Corrosivity of CaCl2/CaBr2/ZnBr2 brines at 250°F
Table A - XI
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Sodium Bromide Solution Requirements Using Sacked NaBr (95%)
Brine Density at Water bbl 95% Crystallization

70°F lb/gal NaBr bbl Point, °F
9.5 .950 66.4 20

9.6 .946 72.0 19
9.7 .941 77.9 18
9.8 .937 83.6 16
9.9 .933 89.2 15
10.0 .927 95.4 14
10.1 .923 101.1 12
10.2 .918 107.1 11
10.3 .914 112.6 10
10.4 .910 118.2 8
10.5 .905 124.1 6
10.6 .900 130.2 5
10.7 .895 136.0 4
10.8 .891 141.7 2
10.9 .886 147.6 0
11.0 .882 153.3 -2
11.1 .877 159.2 -3
11.2 .872 165.1 -5
11.3 .867 171.1 -7
11.4 .862 177.0 -9
11.5 .857 183.0 -11
11.6 .853 188.6 -14
11.7 .847 194.8 -16
11.8 .844 200.2 -19
11.9 .839 206.0 -10
12.0 .834 212.0 6
12.1 .831 217.3 14
12.2 .825 223.6 27
12.3 .823 228.5 34
12.4 .816 235.1 43
12.5 .812 240.7 50
12.6 .807 246.7 57
12.7 .804 252.0 63
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure A-20. Decrease in density of sodium chloride/sodium bromide brines with increasing temperature
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Table A - XII
Low Freezing Point Workover Fluids

(10.4 and 10.6 lb/gal)
Ethylene Glycol-Water
1 2 3 4 5 6
Ratio H2O : Et(OH) 2, v:v 80:20 80:20 80:20 80:20 70:30 70:30
Ratio NaBr:NaCl2, w:w 50:50 50:50 75:25 75:25 75:25 75:25
Total Solids, wt% 27 29 25 27.5 24 26.5
Ingredients to make 1 barrel:

- H2O, gal 29.8 29.5 30.6 30.4 26:8 26.6
- Et(OH) 2, gal 7.6 7.5 7.7 7.7 11.5 11.5
- NaBr, lb 59.1 64.7 81.8 91.9 78.7 88.6
- NaCl, lb 59.1 64.7 27.2 30.6 26.2 29.5
Density at 72°F, lb/gal 10.4 10.6 10.4 10.6 10.4 10.6

Density at Freeze Pt., lb/gal 10.3 10.4 10.4 10.6 10.4 10.6
Freeze Point, °F - 29 - 30 - 25 - 32 - 39 - 40
Flash Point (Closed Cup), °F > 250 > 250 > 250 >250 > 250 > 250
Raw Material Cost, $/bbl 37 39 43 46 51 54
9.17 APPENDIX B – HYDROCARBON DATA
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
MANUAL Issue 1
Table B - I
Typical Compositions of Petroleum Products
Summary of Product Types Produced From Petroleum
Number of Carbon Atoms C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 C19 C20 >
Boiling Point of Normal -161 - 89 -42 -0.5 +36 69 98 126 151 174 196 216 235 253 270 287 302 316 329 343 C20
°C -259 -127 -44 +31 97 156 209 258 303 345 384 421 456 488 519 548 575 601 625 649
Paraffin at 760 mm
°F
Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Precipitation Naphtha
VM&P Naphtha
Mineral Spirits
Reformate
Gasoline
Kerosene, Diesel Fuel
Aviation Turbine Fuel
Gas Oil, Fuel Oil
Transformer Oil
Lubricating Oil
Asphalt, Pitch
Wax
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 9
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Figure B-1. Approximate specific gravity of petroleum fractions: Effect of temperature
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Figure B-2. Effect of pressure on hydrocarbon fluid densities
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Figure B-3. Specific gravity of petroleum fractions
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Figure B-4. Viscosity of petroleum fractions and hydrocarbon liquids
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Figure B-5. Viscosity of gas-free crude oil at oil-field temperature
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Figure B-6. Effect of pressure on viscosity of gas-saturated crude oils
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Figure B-7. Viscosity of gas-saturated crude oil at reservoir temperature and pressure.
Dead oil viscosity from laboratory data after Chew and Connally.
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Figure B-8. Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity of diesel oil
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COMPLETION PERFORATING Page 1 of 59
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CHAPTER 10
PERFORATING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………...... 4
10.1.1 Purpose …………………………………………………………….. 4

10.1.2 The Objective of Perforating………………………………………... 4
10.1.3
10.1.4
10.2 SHAPED CHARGE FUNDAMENTALS...………………………………………. 5
10.2.1 Shaped Charge Components ……………………………………….. 5

10.2.2 Detonation …………………………………………………………. 6
10.2.3 Jet-Impingement Pressure ………………………………………….. 7
10.2.4 Penetration …………………………………………………………. 8
10.3 GUN DESIGN AND TESTING…………………………………………………… 9
10.3.1 Gun Size …………………………………………………………… 9

10.3.2 Explosive Load …………………………………………………….. 9
10.3.3 Gun Clearance 9
10.3.4 ……………………………………………………… 11
10.3.5 API RP 43 …………………………………………………………. 12
10.3.6 Surface Test ………………………………………………………... 12
Laboratory Flow Test ………………………………………………
10.4 CASING DEFORMATION/DAMAGE………………………………........…….. 15
10.4.1 Gun Type …………………………………………………………... 15

10.4.2 Casing Support …………………………………………………….. 16
10.4.3 Explosive Load …………………………………………………….. 18
10.4.4 Hydrostatic Pressure ……………………………………………….. 18
10.4.5 Guidelines ………………………………………………………….. 19
10.5 PERFORATION PRODUCTIVITY…….……………………………………….. 19
10.5.1 Clean-Up Characteristics …..………………………………………. 19

10.5.2 Core Flow Efficiency ………………………………………………. 21
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10.5.3 Differential Pressure ……………………………………………….. 23

10.5.4 Type Of Wellbore Fluid …………………………………………… 24
10.5.5 Depth Of Penetration ……………………………….……..…….…. 24
10.5.6 Diameter Of Perforation …………………………….….….…….… 25
10.5.7 Type And Quality Of Charge ..……………………..…..……...…... 25
10.5.8 Shot Density And Pattern ………………………..………………… 26
10.5.9 Type And Size Of Gun …………………………..………………... 28
10.6 RETRIEVABLE HOLLOW-CARRIER GUNS………………………………… 29
10.6.1 Description …………………………………………………………. 29

10.6.2 Operations ………………………………………………………….. 29
10.6.3 Applications ………………………………………………………... 29
10.7EXPENDABLE GUNS………………………………………………..…………… 32
10.7.1 Description …………………………………………………………. 32

10.7.2 Operations ………………………………………………………….. 32
10.7.3 Applications ………………………………………………………... 33
10.7.4 Pirot Guns ......................................................................................
10.8TUBING CONVEYED GUNS…………………………………………………….. 34
10.8.1 Description …………………………………………………………. 34

10.8.2 Operations ………………………………………………………….. 34
10.8.3 Applications …………………………………………………….….. 34
10.9PERFORATION DESIGN………………………………………………………… 36
10.9.1 Matrix Acidizing …………………………………………………… 36

10.9.2 Diversion …………………………………………………………… 36
10.9.3 Gravel Packing …………………………………………………….. 36
10.9.4 Fracturing …………………………………………….…….………. 37
10.10 PERFORATING OPERATIONS………………………………………………... 39
10.10.1 Selecting Firing ……………………………………………………. 39

10.10.2 Depth Correlation ………………………………………………….. 40
10.10.3 Gun Orientation ……………………………………………………. 40
10.10.4 Perforating Fluid …………………………………………………… 42
10.10.5 Overbalanced Perforating ………………………………………….. 42
10.10.6 Underbalanced Perforating ………………………………………… 44
10.10.7 TCP Firing Systems ...................................................................... 45
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10.10.8 High-Temperature Perforating …………………………………….. 52

10.10.9 Wellhead Pressure Control ...………………………………………. 53
10.10.10 Safety .............................................................................................
10.11 SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS…………………………... 54
10.11.1 Limited Penetration Devices ………………………………………. 54

10.11.2 Tubing-Casing Cutters …………………………………………….. 55
10.11.3 Hydraulic Jet Perforator ……………………………………………. 56
10.11.4 Well Cleaning Before Perforating ................................................... 56
10.12 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….………. 58
10.1 INTRODUCTION
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10.1.1 Purpose
Perforating is one of the most important and widely applied of the various cased-hole
operations. Perforating provides a path for flow communication between the wellbore and
reservoir.
The efficient completion of production and injection wells plays a crucial role in the
profitable development of oil and gas accumulations. The perforation operation is clearly a
critical activity in the completion process, as the first requirement of any perforated
completion is unimpaired communication through the production casing, cement sheath and
zone damaged by drilling operations.
Perforating is a complex process greatly influenced by many geological and mechanical

uncertainties such as reservoir characteristics and explosive charge performance. Although
perforating technology is viewed as being relatively mature, our inadequate understanding
of perforating fundamentals and our intrinsic inability to assess perforator performance
(perforation geometry, effective shot density) downhole make it virtually impossible to
offer definitive recommendations. Rather than attempt to provide a list of ‘rules of thumb’,
this chapter discusses the principles of perforating and the likely effect various parameters
have on performance. Local field tests under controlled conditions may assist in
substantiating the often conflicting, and at times unclear conclusions drawn by different
sources within the industry. Nevertheless, there are a number of principle design criteria
which should always be considered when designing a perforated completion: depth of
penetration, shot density, shot phasing, entrance hole diameter and clean up requirements.
The relative importance of each is clearly related to the completion type. However,
regardless of completion type, penetration and effective shot density are normally important
design parameters as they also directly relate to other perforating and completion
considerations (formation damage, inflow performance and reservoir heterogeneity).
Perhaps the single most important factor is perforation clean up - perforating underbalance
and producing the well is recommended.
10.1.2 The Objective of Perforating
The objective of perforating a well is to provide a flow path between the productive
formation and the wellbore. This is achieved by the creation of passages which penetrate
the casing, cement and formation to a depth which bypasses formation damage and
permeability impairment caused by the drilling and cementing processes. The cross-
sectional area, wall area and permeability of the passages created must allow the production
or injection of the required fluid volumes.
10.1.3 The History of Perforating
Explosives were first invented by the Chinese in the 10th Century, and later by the Arabs,
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in the 13th century. These were low explosives made from mixtures of sodium or
potassium nitrate, powdered charcoal and sulphur, and are referred to as black powder.
These explosives have a relatively slow reaction rate of about 500-1500 m/s and the
combustion pressures generated are low. Detonation of low explosives does not occur
unless the combustion products are confined, generating high pressures.
The first high explosive was discovered by an Italian, Ascano Sobreto, in 1846, who found
that reacting nitric acid with glycerol produced an oily liquid. Small quantities of this oily
liquid, nitroglycerine, exploded violently even when unconfined. Due to the sensitivity to
shock of nitroglycerine, it was of little commercial use until Alfred Nobel combined it with
kieselguhr, a clay soil, to make dynamite, which was the first commercial high explosive.
Nobel developed and patented the detonator which initiated detonation by “percussion or
sudden pressure”. High explosives detonate at rates of 5000-9000 m/s generating very high
combustion pressures.
The use of explosives to increase the productivity of wells was first reported in the United
States in 1866, when a dry well was stimulated by lowering two torpedoes of gunpowder
into the well. The torpedoes were detonated opposite the formation with a drop bar, and the
well produced at a rate of 80 barrels of oil per day.
Within the industry today low explosives are used in core guns, bullet guns, and as power
charges in pressure setting assemblies. High explosives are used as a signal source in
seismic work, and in shaped-charge perforating guns. They are also present in the igniters
used to initiate the power charge in pressure setting assemblies, and are used for cutting and
severing of tubulars.
10.1.4 Shaped Charge Development
The first observation of the effects of a shaped explosive charge was reported by Charles E.
Monroe in Scribner’s Magazine in May 1888. Monroe observed that the explosion of gun
cotton indented with the letters USN 1884 left an impression when detonated on a steel
plate. Although the indentations were not lined, an impression approximately half the
diameter of the indentation was made in the steel plate. In the late 1930’s, a Swiss, H.
Mohaupt, and an American, Dr. R. W. Wood observed that a large increase in penetration
could be obtained if the cavity in the explosive was lined with metal. This technique was
then developed and used in anti-tank weapons such as the bazooka. The effects of lined
unlined cavities when detonated on a steel target are compared with the effect of bulk
explosive in Figure 1 [16].
In 1948 the shaped charge technique was applied commercially for the first time in the
perforation of oil wells by the Welex Jet Perforating Company, which is now a subsidiary
of Halliburton Industries. Although the performance of the shaped charge was superior to
the bullet gun in terms of hole size and penetration, the productivity of the perforations was
in some cases found to be inferior to those of bullet guns. Investigation of the operation of
shaped charges indicated that the perforation could get plugged by the material used to line
the shaped charge, and that the crushing and compaction of the formation around the
formation around the perforation tunnel created a localised reduction in permeability.
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Plugging has been reduced by the use of powdered metal liners, and the permeability
reduction is now measured and used to assess and compare charges. Many improvements
have been made in the design and operation of perforating guns, and a variety of methods is
available by which they can be positioned and fired.
Figure 1. The effects of lined and unlined cavities compared with bulk explosive
10.2 METHODS OF PERFORATING
10.2.1 Bullets Perforators
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With the advent of completions lined with cemented casing, mechanical cutters were
employed to cut through the casing and cement to allow production to take place. The first
patent for perforating with a bullet gun was granted in 1926, but was not tested until 1932,
when the Lane-Wells Company (later acquired by Dresser Industries) began offering bullet
perforating services to the oil industry. The bullet gun was similar in operation to the guns
used today for sample taking. Hardened steel bullets were fired from a short barrel using a
black powder charge to penetrate the casing, cement sheath, and formation.
Penetration in harder rocks was poor, and it was not uncommon to recover bullets from the
well after perforating, implying that the casing had not been penetrated. Bullet perforators
continued to be used until the 1960’s but from the mid-1950’s were increasingly replaced
by the use of explosive shaped charges. The use of bullet perforators is now confined to
special applications, such as the perforation of certain soft formations, the placing of radio-
active marker bullets for compaction monitoring or where circular, burr free holes are
needed.
10.2.2 Shaped Charge Perforators
The first shaped charge guns consisted of large diameter tubular steel carriers in which the
charges were mounted. These guns were run on wireline and fired electrically in a manner
similar to that employed today. The large diameter and heavy weight of the guns combined
with the problems of pressure control generally precluded their use in completed wells, or
with significant underbalance pressures in the borehole. These guns were normally run in
overbalanced, mud filled holes, and the casing was perforated prior to running the
completion. These guns were followed by the development of smaller diameter,
lightweight guns which could be run on a 4.76 mm (3/16”) or 5.56 mm (7/32”) diameter
cable. These guns were small enough to be run through the completion, and the use of a
small diameter cable with pressure control equipment allowed the well to be perforated
safely underbalanced. The performance of these guns was however limited by the size of
the charges which could be accommodated in the small diameter carriers. During the past
decade the advantages of both large diameter carriers and underbalanced perforating have
been realised with tubing conveyed perforating, in which the gun is run into the well
suspended from the completion.
10.2.3 Hydraulic Jet Perforating
This technique uses a jet of fluid at high pressure containing abrasive particles to erode the
casing and formation. In the past it was carried out using a conventional workstring, which
required the use of hoist and was therefore prohibitively expensive due to the time required.
The process is slower than jet perforating, requiring 5-10 minutes per perforation, and is
therefore not widely used. Renewed interest has been expressed in the technique in recent
years taking advantage of the possibilities of reduced cost using coiled tubing, and it is
currently a subject of research. Recent abrasive jetting experiments have demonstrated that
jetted holes are far more stable and clean than perforated holes. After gravel packing, the
jetted perforations also showed no impairment while tunnel plugging was observed for the
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gravel packed perforated tunnel.
The theoretical well inflow performance of a gravel packed cased hole perforated and a
gravel packed cased hole slot cut well have been compared [67]. It has been calculated that
replacement of the actual perforation configuration by a multiple slot configuration would
lead to a large increase in productivity of the well. This is based on the presumption that a
perforated well has a reduced inflow area due to tunnel plugging and, as suggested from the
PI data analysis from the actual wells, a reduced gravel permeability possible caused by
invasion of fines created during the perforation process. The slotting technique using
abrasives is thought to be sufficiently mature for implementation in the field.
10.2.4 Chemical Perforators
These devices employ a jet of corrosive fluid to etch a hole in the casing. They are used
primarily to establish communication between the wellbore and the annulus, in a similar
manner to a tubing punch, but are not used for production perforating. The holes produced
are clean and burr-free, and multiple perforations can be made at the same depth.
10.2.5 Cutting and Severing
Shaped charges can be designed to penetrate a specific thickness of steel, and can be used
to cut the inner of two tubular strings without causing damage to the outer string. These
cutters have an outside diameter only slightly smaller than the size of tubular that they are
designed to cut, and can not be used below restrictions.
Cutters and severing tools for drillpipe and drill collars must only be used in open hole or
damage to the casing will result. When using shaped charge cutters the pipe to be cut
should be placed under tension and the cutter fired in the body of the pipe where the
thickness of steel to be cut is least.
Severing tools are not shaped charges but are tubes filled with up to 4 kg of explosive
segments which produce an unfocussed blast. When using a severing tool the pipe to be cut
is placed under tension and the shot positioned inside a tool joint. The blast deforms and
spilts the tool joint allowing the string to part. Severing tools are available for tool joints
and drill collars up to 12” in diameter.
10.2.6 Mechanical Punches
Wireline conveyed mechanical perforating tools (punches) are presently available from a
number of industry service companies including J. C. Kinley and Otis Engineering. These
tools are primarily intended for punching holes in both standard and heavy-weight tubing.
Typically, mechanical punches are lowered (on wire or slick line) into the well and set on
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depth. Jars in the tool are used to set off a power charge, this forces a piston downwards
which forces a wedge to drive an orifice insert through the tubing.
The main benefits of mechanical punches are :
• the risk of inadvertently perforating the production casing is negligible;
• they are less costly compared to shaped charge punches although, as with other
techniques which use explosive charges, radio silence is required during mechanical
punch operations.
Mechanical tubing punches have been employed by a number of Opcos to:
• provide access to the tubing/casing annulus to facilitate well kill operations;
• avoid pulling a wet string;
• lower the gas injection point in a gaslift well. Check valves, and pack off gaslift can
also be installed;
• permit production through a completion tailpipe that has become plugged.
When consulting service companies for additional information, engineers are advised to
specify the following: application, grade of steel, tubing size, weight, and ID restrictions.
10.3 GUN DESIGN AND TESTING
Many design parameters govern charge performance. Charge configuration is of

significance, including standoff and distance from liner apex to primer. Explosive
distribution and density (which determine detonation velocity) may be more important than
the overall amount of explosive.
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10.3.1 Gun Size
If penetration and entrance-hole data are compared with gun diameter, as is done in Figure
2, it becomes evident that the physical parameters of interest increase with gun size.
Penetration and entrance-hole size increase because charge liners are larger and contain
more material to be converted to the jet.
10.3.2 Explosive Load
Some charges with less explosive load outperform others with much more load. It is further
evident that a large gun does not necessarily require a large explosive load. The size of
charge components is the important factor, given equal design features and production
quality. As will be discussed in a later section, explosive load is an important factor in the
degree of casing deformation produced when expendable-type perforators are fired.
10.3.3 Gun Clearance
Considering other conditions in the well, gun clearance can have an important effect.
Clearance is defined as the distance from gun to casing along the axis of the jet (Figure 3).
Varying clearances are common, since most guns tend to become eccentric in casing
because of well deviation. Further, most guns are designed to fire in several directions
(multiphased). Penetration and entrance-hole values vary, the optimum ones occurring at
lower clearances. Variations can be expected among perforators of the same type and size.
The problem of gun clearance becomes more acute when small-diameter guns must go
through tubing and then perforate large casing. Consider a 1-11/16 in., 90° phased gun
firing in 7-in. casing. Note in Figure 4 the significant change in penetration and entrance-
hole values.
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GUN DIAMETER (INCHES)
Figure 2. Effect of gun diameter on penetration and entrance-hole size
3-3/8"
Figure 3. Gun clearance effects
Centralizing the gun has often been suggested as a solution to variable clearance. Although
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this approach is sometimes practical for large-diameter guns, it is considered impractical for
small ones, with which the problem is quite severe. Centralizing the gun shown in Figure 7
would result in high clearance on all shots fired. Also, the incidence of poor-quality
perforations, such as irregularly shaped or “keyed” holes, increases at higher clearances in
comparison with those of lower values.
A better solution to the severe clearance problem presented by through-tubing guns is that
of gun positioning. The gun is held against the wall of the casing by means of a magnetic
or mechanical device. Shaped charges are arranged so that jets will fire at a fixed low
clearance value (usually 0-in.). Since clearance is constant, penetration and entrance-hole
size size should prove reasonably constant as well.
Figure 4. Perforating pattern – conventional 1-11/16”, 90° phased gun
10.3.4 API RP 43
Standard industry test procedures for evaluating well perforators are set forth in API
Recommended Practice 43 (2nd Ed.), and test specifications are fully detailed. API RP 43,
included in the addendum, consists of two different types of tests, referred to as Section I
(Surface Test) and Section II (Laboratory Flow Test).
10.3.5 Surface Test
Section I test data are developed in the simple concrete drum-type target shown
schematically in Figure 5. A regular field gun containing six to eight shots is placed in the
casing and eccentrically placed to check clearance effects. Several shots are fired to assure
that charges being fired in close proximity do not interfere with one another. Before firing
commences, the concrete target must be cured for a minimum of 28 days and must have a
minimum tensile strength of 400 psi, which corresponds to about 4000 psi compressive
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strength.
The Section I test provides data on penetration and entrance-hole size. Burr height (or the
lip of metal around the periphery of the perforated hole) is also included. This test is not
intended to throw light on cleanliness aspects of the perforation. That is left to the Section
II Flow Test.
The API RP 43 tests are conducted by a service or manufacturing company. The data are
certified to be representative of the charges being fired in the field.
Figure 5. Test target of API RP 43 Section 1
10.3.6 Laboratory Flow Test
The flow test is a laboratory measurement of flow from a perforation in a Berea sandstone
target after shooting under specified pressure conditions at a temperature of 180°F. It is
intended to show whether the perforation will liberate debris resulting from the penetration
process and then clean up under the stimulus of fluid flow. The method of testing is shown
schematically in Figure 6 and 7. Here it will be seen that perforators can be tested under
simulated positive and reverse pressure conditions.
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Figure 6. Positive-pressure flow test procedure
Figure 7. Reverse-pressure flow test procedure
The flow test utilizes a 3-9/16-in.-OD Berea sandstone core target cemented into a special
steel canister. The core must have a porosity of between 17% and 22%, and its effective
permeability must fall within the range of 150 to 300 millidarcys. Compressive strength of
the target will average approximately 6000 psi. Test specifications require that the target
must be of such length that 5-in. of unpenetrated stone remains beyond the farthest extent of
the penetration.
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After the test target is perforated, it is flowed with kerosene at a differential pressure of 200
psi until a stable flow rate is achieved. Following the procedures outlined in the API RP 43
(2nd Ed.), core flow efficiency (CFE) is then calculated, as is shown in Figure 8. CFE is a
measure of the perforation’ s flow capability compared with that of an ideal hole of the
same diameter and depth in an identical sample.
Because of the liner character of flow in this target system, the CFE value would apply not
to downhole radial flow conditions but to this specific laboratory regime only. CFE
nevertheless represents an improvement over older testing procedures. CFE is a valuable
parameter for measuring the relative performance of several guns.
Since CFE is a ration of actual-to-ideal perforations, the depth sensitivity problem is

avoided. Further, the modified API procedure requires that the target length vary so that a
minimum of 5-in. of unpenetrated stone remains, regardless of penetration depth. Thus the
possible influence of depth of penetration on perforation cleanup characteristics is
minimized. Short and long shooting charges should show approximately the same CFE if
equally clean – about 0.70 to 0.80.
Figure 8. Core flow efficiency (CFE) vs. permeability
10.4 CASING DEFORMATION/DAMAGE
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As mentioned before, the pressure attending detonation of a shaped charge can be several
million psi. One might imagine such pressure destroying the casing each time a well is
perforated. Fortunately, the explosive reaction is so highly transient that the peak pressures
generated last only a short time (20 microseconds). Thus, the inertia of the casing can
provide a significant amount of protection, that is, detonation pressures decay before the
casing can fully respond.
What is meant by casing damage? Character of damage produced by the expendable

shaped charge is shown in Figure 9. It consists of actual splits or casing rupture. Hairline
cracks extending vertically above and below the perforation are also considered to be
damage, since they may adversely affect ball sealer operations in treating or fracturing
procedures.
Figure 9. Typical casing deformation caused by expandable shaped charge
10.4.1 Gun Type
Damage or deformation of casing relates closely to the type used and well conditions.
Damage or deformation can be caused by the expandable-type guns, but none is produced
by the retrievable hollow-carrier guns. Explosive energy from the expandable gun is borne
by the casing. That from the hollow-carrier version is absorbed by the carrier, protecting
the casing.
10.4.2 Casing Support
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Figure 10 shows casing deformation as measured in the lab with a common 20.5-g, 2-1/8-in.
–capsule aluminum charge. The test sample was placed in a well with water pressure inside
and outside the pipe equalized. Semi-supported refers to 0.75-in. of 3500 psi cement
behind the pipe retained by a thin-walled metal sheath. Well supported is the same, except
that a heavy thick-walled steel cylinder is used to support the cement.
Deformation is plotted against a strength factor that is the product of the tensile strength of
the casing and its wall thickness. Note the significant influence of support behind the pipe,
and how deformation increases in the lighter weight and/or lower tensile strength casings.
With this charge there will always be a minimum of about 0.1-in. deformation, even with
infinite support. Finally, a 4-in. hollow-carrier gun of about the same 20.5-g explosive load
produces no deformation.
Figure 10. Effect of casing strength and support on casing

damage with expendable and hollow-carrier guns
Cement strength apparently has little effect on casing deformation (Figure 11). However,
waiting for the cement to attain a compressive strength of 2000 psi before perforating is still
recommended to prevent damage to the cement sheath. The curve shown applies to the
semi-supported target described earlier, perforated with the 20.5-g expendable charge inside
5-1/2-in. casing. As shown in Figure 12, however, thickness of cement behind the casing is
indeed significant, with deformation decreasing as sheath thickness increases.
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Figure 11. Casing deformation vs. cement compressive strength
Figure 12. Casing deformation vs. cement thickness
10.4.3 Explosive Load
Expendable-charge explosive load is an important consideration in casing deformation.

Figure 13 shows that as explosive load increases, danger of splitting occurs at about 25 g
with non-supported J-55, 5-1/2-in., 17-lb/ft pipe and at about 28 g with semi-supported
pipe. These data, along with other data concerning casing deformation, apply only to pipe
in new condition.
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Figure 13. Casing deformation vs. explosive load (at 1000 psi and 180°F)
10.4.4 Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure tends to minimize deformation, as shown in Figure 14. The difference
between 1000 psi and 5000 psi about 30%. Splitting was experienced at atmosphere
pressure but did not occur above a few hundred psi. Consequently, observations of splitting
in surface target tests may not be significant in terms of response in the well.
Figure 14. Casing deformation vs. pressure

(Semi-supported 5.5-in. 17-lb/ft J-55 casing)
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10.4.5 Guidelines
Regarding the significance of the data on casing damage, as it relates to proper choice of a
gun for a field operation, the following considerations are suggested :
• To avoid casing deformation or damage, use a retrievable hollow-carrier gun
• In the use of expendable versions, keep explosive load as low as possible consistent
with performance required.
• Avoid use of expendable guns in older wells in which casing may have been weakened
by corrosion.
10.5 PERFORATION PRODUCTIVITY
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Flow properties of the perforation are fully as important as penetration depth, entrance-hole
size, and other mechanical aspects previously discussed.
The capability of the perforation to flow depends on two things :
• Flow properties of the perforation
• Well completion conditions under which the perforator is fired
For the best results, both of these factors must be considered in completing a well.
Indeed, it must be recognized that the perforator needs “assistance” if it is to produce a
perforation of optimum effectiveness-assistance in the form of a suitable completion
fluid and/or the proper level and direction of differential pressure during firing.
10.5.1 Clean-up Characteristics
As the high-velocity jet penetrates or punches its way through the target, formation material
is forced laterally or radially outward from the axis of the perforation. The X-rays shown in
Figure 15 demonstrate the process. A sandstone material is in the process of being
penetrated, after 30-and 40-microsecond time intervals. The light region around the jet
suggests that formation material has been forced away from the jet. The darker adjacent
region indicates increased density, resulting from passage of the shock waves from the jet.
Much of this zone will be permanently compacted.
Figure 15. X-rays of jet penetrating composite target
Although the photographs indicate that the formation material is being displaced and
compressed lateral to the jet, the perforation is found to be largely filled with debris
immediately after penetration. This is shown schematically in Figure 16, which represents
a typical Berea sandstone target fired when well pressure is greater than core pressure.
Debris in the perforation is largely pulverized formation material.
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Figure16. Character of perforated hole made in Berea sandstone
The energy stored in the compressed or compacted zone causes material to “spring back”
into the perforation once jet pressures have subsided. At this point, the perforation is a very
poor conductor of fluid. It is only after a certain amount of fluid has been flowed from the
perforation that it will liberate its debris and appear clean, as shown in Figure 16B.
Even when clean, a damaged or compacted zone remains as illustrated. It is characterized

by substantially reduced permeability in comparison with the undamaged Berea. Estimates
based on flow calculations suggest that the permeability of the compacted zone is about
20% of the original target permeability. The lateral extent of the zone varies from about
0.5-in at the tip of the perforation to 1.5-in at the face plate for a typically large hollow-
carrier gun charge. Zones are smaller for smaller, shallow penetrating charges.
10.5.2 Core Flow Efficiency
The compacted zone reduces the flow efficiency of the perforation in comparison to, for
example, an ideal hole of the same depth and diameter. As shown by the typical CFE build-
up curve of Figure 17, the stabilized CFE of a Berea perforation is about 75% when
subjected to a differential pressure of 200 psi in the API RP 43 system.
The CFE of a typical perforation is initially very low. The first impression is that the debris
shown in Figure 16A is being flushed out. Most of the crushed solids are expelled in the
first 300-500 cc of flow in an API RP 43 test, leaving the perforation open but not yet
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cleaned. Substantial additional flow is required to reach the stabilized flow level shown.
During this period, permeability is being partially restored in the compacted zone.
The flow of a certain quantity of fluid is apparently required to effect maximum restoration
of permeability.
Clearly, the perforation must be flowed and cleaned for maximum flow capacity. Consider
the more dramatic case of response to injection with kerosene (before any back flow or
cleanup) in Figure 18. Note the trend toward reduced flow and/or permeability with
increasing injection. It is assumed that the finely pulverized particles present are further
plugging the interstices in the attempted. Once cleaned, they should be subjected only to
injection with clean fluids.
Figure 17. Influence of differential pressure on CFE (or WF) values

(3-3/8-in. retrievable hollow-carrier charge)
Figure 18. Response of perforation to injection flow at 200 psi differential pressure
The type of formation being penetrated will undoubtedly have a strong bearing on
perforation response to cleanup and flow. Materials other than Berea sandstone have not
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been extensively evaluated in the flow lab. Many test firings have been made into other
sandstones and limestones, which show physical variations in the character of the
perforated hole. Though not conclusive, this finding would support the contention that
formation materials might very well respond differently than Berea.
10.5.3 Differential Pressure
Differential pressure level sharply affects degree of perforation cleanup and efficiency.
Perforations respond better to higher differential P’s, as shown in Figure 19. Apparently
the higher driving force is more effective in expelling debris and in restoring permeability
of the compacted zone. The data shown apply only to liquid flow in the API RP 43 target.
However, the same general remarks apply to gas flow, except that even higher differential
P’s may be required to effect good cleanup.13
One possible observation is that perforations tend to respond more quickly to flow when
liquid is not injected into the perforation before the flow phase. Injection liquids apparently
tend to consolidate debris in the perforation, perhaps conveying fine particles deeper into
the compacted zone, making cleanup somewhat more difficult. Injection also presents the
risk of producing blocks or emulsions that may prove difficult to flow back.
According to White et al. , 13 invasions of even clean liquid into a gas core greatly increase
the probability of plugging problems, even when the formation is subjected to high
differential pressures during flow.
It is for these reasons that the use of through-tubing perforators in a solids-free fluid has
increased. Perforating with a differential pressure of 500-1000 psi into the wellbore
produces perforations that are relatively free of compaction debris.
10.5.4 Type of Wellbore Fluid
Type of fluid in the wellbore was also singled out by Allen and Worzel2 as being highly
influential in perforation cleanup. Fluids with high counts of particulates, such as drilling
muds, and fluids which may cause clay swelling, such as fresh water, should not be used. A
severe reduction in effective permeability of the core because of particulate plugging can
occur. Also, high differential P’s are required to initiate flow – another measure of the
plugging capability of these fluids. Clean brine is the best-recommended perforating fluid.
In essence, experimental data strongly suggest that maximum perforation effectiveness can
be accomplished only when fluids are not permitted to invade the perforation. It would
seem logical, therefore, to perforate in clean fluid and with a pressure differential toward
the wellbore. This topic will be discussed in greater detail later in this section.
10.5.5 Depth of Penetration
Depth of penetration has received inordinate emphasis over the years as the most important
factor in well deliverability. Yet field results often contradict this contention; reports
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indicate that small through-tubing guns promote better production than large ones when the
small guns (shooting one-third to one-half as deep) are fired with differential pressure
toward the wellbore. These observations suggest that well completion conditions, as
discussed in the foregoing paragraphs, are of equal or even greater importance than
penetration in terms of achieving best well deliverability.
In terms of a well’s capacity to produce, shot density would appear to be of greater

importance than penetration depth. Note in Figure 22 that four perforations/ft, 2-in. deep,
offer a productivity ratio significantly greater than one perforation/ft with a perforation
depth of 12 in!14.
Notice also that the productivity ratio, which is the ratio of flow through perforations to
ideal flow, can be greater than 1.0 at higher shot densities. A deep perforation of 8-in. or
more acts as a small fracture. This alters the flow geometry from radial to linear, and thus
improves flow capabilities. In actual practice, the deeper perforation will also penetrate the
damaged zone surrounding the wellbore.
10.5.6 Diameter of Penetration
Diameter of perforation along its length has an insignificant effect on flow capacity, except
where penetration is very shallow.15
As shown in the example of Figure 23, the difference in flow rates between ideal 14-in.
perforations of 0.25-in. and 0.75-in. diameter is only about 20% - yet the ratio of hole size
to surface area is 3 to 1. The flow is shown to be fairly uniform along the length of the
perforation.16,17
10.5.7 Type and Quality of Charge
Type and quality of charge will also influence cleanup and flow. There appears to be no
specific relation between charge cleanup characteristics and depth of penetration. A charge
can shoot very deeply and have poor cleanup quality. Perforation cleanup seems to be
related more to the character of the jet than to depth of penetration (assuming, of course,
that plugging does not stem from slug or charge-case debris).
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Figure 22. Productivity ratio vs. penetration depth for various shot densities
Figure 23. Flow rates for linear and downhole models

– ideal perforations (CFE=1.0)
Although much work remains to be done, there have been some laboratory indications that
charges with higher quality jets produce perforations that release their debris more easily
and cleanup more quickly. Here, higher quality jet refers to one having greater coherency,
uniform mass, and velocity distribution. The difference between the jets appears to stem
from aspects of charge design, conditions of loading, and quality control.
10.5.8 Shot Density and Pattern
Perforating guns are usually designed with up to four shots/ft (SPF), perforating with shots
phased at 0°, 60°, 90°, 120°, or 180°. Note in Figure 24 that phase angle does not
significantly affect the productivity ratio. Perforating guns can be loaded at any shot
density desired and are manufactured in various lengths, from those containing only a few
shots to those containing hundreds of shots.
Typically, wells without sand control problems are shot with 2-4 SPF or more and wells
with sand control problems are shot with 8-12 SPF. Research indicates that increases in
productivity can be achieved by increasing the shot density. However, there are potential
disadvantages to higher shot densities also :
• Additional holes make diversion more difficult.
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• Higher SPF makes squeeze cementing in later workover operations more difficult.
• Costs are higher.
Figure 24. Effect of phase angle on productivity
A very low number of shots are placed in wells with scheduled limited-entry well
stimulation treatments. With this technique the shot density varies based upon diversion
requirements but can range from 0.1 to SPF.
10.5.9 Type and Size of Gun
To achieve maximum performance, the largest gun size that can be safely run is usually
employed. Table 1 may be used as a guideline for selecting a perforating gun size based on
the size of the tubing. A detailed discussion of the various types of perforating guns
available for different situations follows.
Table 1
Tubing Size (OD) Maximum Gun OD*
2-3/8″ 1-11/16″
2-7/8″ 2-1/8″
4-1/2″ 3-5/8″
5-1/2″ 4″
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* After-detonation OD
10.6 RETRIEVABLE HOLLOW-CARRIER GUNS
The myriad of shaped-charge guns and charges commercially available today can
generally be classified into three categories relative to their operational characteristics and
applications :
• Retrievable hollow-carrier gun
• Non-retrievable or expandable gun
• Tubing conveyed gun
10.6.1 Description
As indicated by Figure 25, the retrievable hollow-carrier gun of (A) consists of a steel tube
into which the explosive shaped charge is suitably secured. The gun tube is sealed against
hydrostatic pressure. When the charge fires, the explosive forces slightly expand the carrier
wall, but the gun and debris within are fully retrieved from the well.
10.6.2 Operations
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The retrievable hollow-carrier type gun is lowered into the wellbore and positioned by
wireline. Guns are provided in diameters ranging from 3-1/8-in. up to 5-in. for general
casing operations. However, hollow-carrier guns are made in correspondingly smaller
diameter versions for through-tubing (or slim casing) operations.18 Guns are available in
diameters that will permit easy passage through tubing seating nipples after the gun has
been fired and has swelled – for example, 1-9/16-in. guns for passage through 1-25/32-in.
nipples and 2-in. guns for 2-1/4-in. nipples.
10.6.3 Applications
Today the retrievable hollow-carrier (steel) shaped charge guns perform more than 70% of
all perforating done throughout the world, for those reasons :
• High reliability; minimum misfires since blasting cap, detonating cord, and charge are
protected within gun.
• Mechanical strength and ruggedness; adaptable to rough treatment, including

movement through wellbore debris. These factors, combined with greater gun weight,
make getting to perforating depth easier.
• Fast running for minimum rig time.
• High pressure and temperature resistance. Standard guns and charges are rated to 340°
at 15,000 to 20,000 psi; high-temperature guns are rated for 25,000 psi at 470°F,
although their performance is decreased.
• Easy adaptability to desired shot density.
• Minimal casing deformation upon firing.
• High charge performance.
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Figure 25. Guns used in general casing operations
Basically the same remarks as those above apply to the through-tubing retrievable guns,
except that on occasion they will fail to go down because of doglegged production tubing.
In these cases, expendable guns should be used because they are generally quite flexible.
Also, the expendable versions have larger charge components (e.g., liner); they therefore
permit somewhat more penetration than a comparable retrievable steel gun. A major
disadvantage of the retrievable steel gun is its rigidity and/or weight, which limits the
length of assembly that can be run.
10.7 EXPENDABLE GUNS
10.7.1 Description
The non-retrievable or expendable gun and the semi-expendable gun consist of individual
pressure-sealed cases, usually made of aluminum, ceramic, glass, or cast iron. A charge is
contained within each case and, when detonated, blasts the case into small pieces. There is
no carrier to contain the blast. Case debris remains in the well.
Fully expendable guns (Figure 25B), usually made of aluminum, can claim none of the
advantages for the retrievable models cited above. Their remain feature is that they are
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more economical and can be easily loaded or assembled at the well. Another significant
advantage is that they can be loaded or “hooked together” in much greater lengths than steel
guns. They are lightweight and flexible (usually they have a bending radius of about 5 ft),
which facilitates feeding a long gun into the well. Guns of 200 ft have reportedly been shot
on a single trip into the well.
Semi-expendable guns (Figure 25C), although equipped with a retrievable carrier strip, wire
and better cases, also fall short of the steel retrievable guns in terms of desirable operational
specifications and features. But they represent improvements over the fully expendable
guns in some respects.
10.7.2 Operations
Important factors to be considered in the use of fully expendable guns are:
• Their flexibility permits handling long lengths and facilitates feed-in at wellhead.
• They leave debris in the well, which can produce bridging in the casing particularly
when shooting in mud or smaller diameter casing) or which can be blown up the well
on certain reverse-pressure operations, thus causing tool sticking and fishing.
• Aluminum cases are not adequately resistant to commonly used HCl acid. Cases can
be operated in acid for a few minutes at lower temperatures without failure. However,
this is not recommended. HCl acid is often used to dissolve debris left in the well.
• Aluminum cases are prone to excessive casing or production tubing wear if run too
fast into the well. Speed should not exceed 10,000 ft/hr or 168 ft/min. Particular
attention should be paid to these specifications when operating in deep wells.
• Occasionally an operator is uncertain whether all charges in the gun have been fired.
There is no telltale feature as in the case of the retrievable or semi-retrievable
versions.
• Size for size, these guns usually offer more penetration than corresponding steel
hollow-carrier guns. The difference ranges from 10% to 25%, the higher value being
noted in guns of very small diameter.
Semi-expendable guns provide the following advantages over the fully expendable type :
• Minimize amounts of debris, particularly on reduced shot-density operations, by

elimination of expendable extension members through use of steel strips or wires that
are retrievable.
• Improve character of debris; that is, use of ceramic or glass cases produces debris that
is more nearly like sand or gravel and that is less likely to cause bridging.
• Improve pressure capability, wear resistance, ruggedness, gas integrity, and chemical
resistance through use of ceramic cases.
• Facilitate 0° phasing for the positioned guns used on through-tubing operations.
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10.7.3 Applications
Some important factors concerning the applications of expendable guns are :
• Pressure and temperature ratings are usually substantially less than those of steel guns.
Some are rated as high as 15,000 psi at 300°F and others at 5000 psi at 200°F.
• Because of their design, expendable guns are not as mechanically competent as

retrievable steel ones. No attempt should be made to push an expendable gun through
a wellbore which is blocked by debris. This can cause gun breakage and separation,
which in turn usually results in a fishing operation.
• They can deform or damage casing when fired, depending on explosive load and well
conditions (to be discussed subsequently). Consequently, they are not recommended
for use in wells in which casing is old or has been exposed to excessive corrosion.
In summary, the use of fully expendable guns should ordinarily be confined to shallower
holes in which conditions do not tax their mechanical and operational capability. Semi-
expendable guns, like the fully expendable versions, are generally confined to shallower
operations. With ceramic cases, however, they are often used in deeper wells on through-
tubing operations when gas is a problem.
10.7.4 Pivot Guns
At the end of 1992, Schlumberger introduced a new though tubing perforating system called
the Pivot Gun. The system has a performance comparable to casing guns and can pass
restrictions with diameters as small as 45 mm (17/8”) by using large charges that are
assembled in the gun parallel to its axis. When the gun is on depth, the charges are rotated
90° and then fired (Figure 30).
The increased performance of this fully expendable 43 mm (111/16”) gun makes it

applicable for certain through tubing applications where the inside diameter of the
production tubing is considerably less than that of the production casing and where
effective shot perforation is an important design criterion.
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Figure 30. The Schlumberger Pivot Gun
10.8 TUBING CONVEYED GUNS
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10.8.1 Description
The tubing conveyed gun consists of a large casing gun attached to the end of the tubing
string, as seen in Figure 26. This is a relatively new type of perforating gun which has been
gaining popularity in recent years.
10.8.2 Operations
Tubing conveyed guns are run in the well on the end of the tubing string and are positioned
through the use of a locator collar. The collar is radioactively tagged and can be easily
distinguished on a collar log. The locator collar is a premeasured distance above the gun.
A collar log is then used for depth control, plotting tubing collars against natural formation
gamma ray radiation. The gun is usually fired mechanically with a sinker bar through
tubing. It can also be fired by sufficiently high differential pressure across the packer or by
wireline. After firing, the gun can be left on the tubing string, retrieved by pulling the
string, or simply released into the rathole.
10.8.3 Applications
The advantages of tubing conveyed guns include :
• Maximum formation energy can be utilized to expel debris from the perforation. Also,
the differential pressure attained may be sufficient to increase the permeability
through the compacted zone around the perforation. Simultaneously, the potential
hazard of the gun blowing uphole, sometimes associated with reverse differential
pressure wireline perforating, is eliminated.
• Formation contact with completion fluids is minimized.
• The larger perforating capacity of a casing gun is utilized.
• Does not require a lubricator.
However, the tubing-conveyed gun also has these disadvantages :
• The only way to confirm that all the charges have fired is to pull the gun (and tubing)
out of the hole.
• In deviated, mud-filled, or debris-filled tubing, the detonation bar may have difficulty
detonating the gun.
• Once the perforation step is completed, the gun assembly becomes extraneous
material, and may hinder future workover operations.
• Higher cost – cost may exceed through-tubing costs by 40%.
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Figure 26.
10.9 PERFORATION DESIGN
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The foregoing discussion suggests that certain specific considerations are involved in
achieving maximum deliverability from perforations. First of all, steps should be taken to
avoid wellbore damage from completion fluids. Secondly, perforators should be used that
not only produce good penetration but also provide good cleanup characteristics.
During the completion operation, attention should be directed toward establishing

conditions conducive to rendering the entire perforated system effective. Basically, the
objective is to maximize well deliverability and achieve more efficient reservoir drainage
without jeopardizing subsequent operations.
10.9.1 Matrix Acidizing
The only major consideration in designing a perforation job for matrix acidizing is to limit
the number of holes per foot so that effective diversion can be carried out.
10.9.2 Diversion
For proper diversion, in general 2-4 shots per foot should be used with perforation
diameters of approximately 0.2-0.4 inches.
Another consideration of special importance is reperforation. Extensive reperforation,

especially when the gun has lain repeatedly on the same side of the hole (in deviated holes,
for example), can lead to overlapping or interfering perforations that cannot be sealed by
balls. For example, it is virtually impossible for a spherical ball to seal a hole of figure-
eight shape formed by two adjacent, overlapping perforations. Diversion away from such
intervals will be difficult once injectivity is established.
10.9.3 Gravel Packing
Special attention must be paid to perforation design when gravel packing is planned. First,
large diameter (0.5 inches) perforations should be used to avoid bridging. Second, high
shot densities should be used since the gravel blocks approximately 60% of the flow area of
the perforations. Also, higher shot density lowers the pressure drop across each perforation
during both injection and production, thus increasing the stability of the gravel pack. In
general, 8-12 shots per foot should be used, with the lower density for longer intervals.
10.9.4 Fracturing
An interval of 200-250 feet or less can usually be perforated and fractured with a single
stage. Larger intervals, which will require fracturing, should be perforated in multiple
stages with the same number of holes in each stage for uniform injection. In a multi-stage
job, each perforated interval should be less than 250 feet with 100-200 foor gaps between
the perforated zones to allow for fracture height growth without establishing
communication between zones.
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Zones to be hydraulically fractured or treated should not be “blanket” – perforated, as

illustrated in Figure 27A. In too many cases only a single zone is fractured with this
technique, leaving other reservoirs unexploited. The emphasis is currently on selectivity in
fracturing and treating. It is desirable to have all potential zones fractured or treated, as
shown schematically in Figure 27B.
Several techniques are used to achieve the fracturing or treating selectivity illustrated. A
wellbore with broader perforating requirements is handled as follows :
• A calculated number of shots of given hole size are placed in the zones of interest.
• Typically, one of the zones will break down when pressure is applied. It will be
treated and ball sealers injected into the fluid stream. The balls will seal off the zone
taking fluid, permitting pressure to be applied to the other zones. The process is
repeated with the objective of fracturing all zones.
Figure 27. Perforating methods for fracturing and treating
10.10 PERFORATING OPERATIONS
Clearly the operation can be performed by perforating each zone in turn with conventional
perforating equipment, packers, etc. More time would be required, and the cost would be
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significantly higher.
10.10.1 Selective Firing
Perforators provided for limited entry and treating operations frequently require selective
firing provisions and a specific entrance-hole size in the casing. They are also required to
cause only minimum damage to casing or cement.
Selectivity in the gun perforator is required for reasons of economy. The ability to
selectively fire many shots from the same gun assembly on a single trip in the well saves rig
time. Entrance holes must usually be controlled to a specific range of sizes, which involves
gun positioning to control clearance.
In Figure 28 are shown some of the selective guns operating in the field today. A switching
system between the retrievable carrier in (A) permits any number of gun carriers in the
common sizes to be run, positioned or non-positioned. The number of shots per carrier may
be varied. Length of assembly that can be run into the well depends on surface handling
facilities. Firing is carrier-by-carrier from the bottom upward.
Figure 28. Selective firing perforators
Shot-by-shot selective equipment capable of firing up to 48 individual shots on a single trip

is depicted in Figure 28B. Note the spring positioner for clearance and thus entrance-hole
size control.
The expendable selective version shown in Figure 28C are used very little. Although
considerably more economical than other approaches, they lack the mechanical ruggedness
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needed to withstand shock from firing of an adjacent bank of charges. Furthermore, oil
operators have become increasingly concerned over potential casing-cement damage from
the expendable charges.
10.10.2 Depth Correlation
There are several methods available for locating the perforating gun at the proper depth in
the well. One way is to attach a density logging tool to the gun assembly to detect casing
connections downhole. Greater accuracy can be obtained if several short lengths of casing
are used in the area of interest. Another way of detecting proper depth is to put radioactive
tape in the casing connections at the key points and use a radioactive tracer logging tool in
conjunction with the perforating gun assembly.
10.10.3 Gun Orientation
Sometimes it becomes necessary to perforate the upper zone of a dual completed well, as
shown in Figure 29. In these cases it is not considered desirable to pull tubing strings and
packer, either because of anticipated mechanical problems or reluctance to kill the lower
zone.
As set out in Fig. 29, the requirement is to perforate the upper reservoir without damaging
or deforming the adjacent string, and without leaving debris on top of the lower packer.
This is accomplished by means of the simple mechanical orienting device18 shown in Figure
30. In operation, the arm is released mechanically or electrically on arriving at perforating
depth. Movement of the arm is mechanically interlocked with an electrical switch so that if
the arm moves through distance d1, or more, the tool can be fired by the operator and the
jets should not damage the adjacent string. If the arm has not moved through distance d1,
the gun cannot be fired.19 The arm simultaneously serves the function of clearance control
and gun positioning for optimum charge performance. Again, a retrievable hollow-carrier
gun is used to assure that no shock damages the adjacent string and no debris is left on the
lower packer. Gun length is usually limited to 10 ft to avoid shooting into “drifting” tubing.
In this operation, the gun and cable sometimes wrap around the adjacent string and cannot
be recovered. There is about a five percent chance that this problem will occur, and it is
aggravated by tool designs that do not provide for release of the arm at perforating depth.
(Cable torque is thereby allowed to build up going in the well). Also, fishing jobs occur
more frequently when the perforated interval is located a great distance beneath the upper
packer.
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Figure 29. Between-packer perforating of conventional dual completion
Figure 30. Mechanical orienting device for perforating dual completions
10.10.4 Perforating Fluid
Perforating fluids can have a very significant effect on the performance of a well. Until
recently, mud was used extensively as a perforating fluid. Mud was considered satisfactory
until laboratory tests, conducted under simulated well conditions with cores, showed that
perforations are filled with mud solids and charge debris when mud is used as a perforating
fluid. Back-flowing of the cores also showed that mud plugs are nor easily removed by
production. Mud plugging of perforations may be eliminated by using a clean fluid such as
saltwater or oil during perforating operations.
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A downhole choke or trigger technique is sometimes used with fluid sensitive formations
and in other applications. With this technique a selectively-fired, through-tubing gun first
shoots one or two holes at the base of the completion interval. The gun is then lowered
below the perforations and the well allowed to produce. The wellbore completion fluids
are unloaded as the well flows, leaving a compatible formation fluid opposite the remainder
of the interval. To perforate the remaining interval, the differential pressure can be
controlled by varying the surface flow rate and formation drawdown. The selective-firing
gun still in the hole can then be raised to perforate the remaining interval.
10.10.5 Overbalanced Perforating
Wells are basically completed in one of two ways, as illustrated in Figure 31. Perforating is
done with a casing perforator under overbalanced conditions or through tubing under
underbalanced conditions. Casing perforation is done under positive pressure because there
is no easy way to control wellhead pressure.
Perforating in drilling mud overbalanced, that is, with higher pressure in the wellbore than
the formation, results in the plugging of some of the perforations, as illustrated in Figure
32.
Figure 31. Comparison between standard and through-tubing completion methods
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Figure 32. Adverse effects of perforating in mud
10.10.6 Underbalanced Perforating
As discussed above, perforating in oil or saltwater rather than mud is generally less
damaging to perforations.
Perforating underbalanced, that is, with lower pressure in the wellbore than in the
formation, 20 is most conducive to obtaining an effective perforated system. Perforations
are not exposed to foreign fluids. The initial surge results in production from a maximum
number of perforations, as depicted in Figure 33.
Recently, a ∆P of 500 psi has been considered standard. The optimum value will
undoubtedly depend on the particular reservoir being completed.
Even higher differential pressures are established for some gas well completions : ∆P’s as
high as 4000 psi have been reported. The reason is that perforations made into gas
reservoirs are more difficult to clean up. Sometimes operators are reluctant to perforate
under very high ∆P’s because they fear blowing the gun up the well and causing a fishing
job. However, the judicious use of weights or tubing-conveyed guns obviates the problem.
Most underbalanced perforating is conducted through tubing with small-diameter

perforators. Positioned guns are recommended to assure optimum performance. Such guns
are usually designed for inline firing, which sometimes evokes a question regarding the
effect on productivity ratio. As reported by Harris14, the productivity ratio is reduced by
about 10%, as shown in Figure 34. However, in view of the strikingly good field results
obtained when reperforating behind the larger casing guns, one can assume that the
reduction is often more than balanced by the higher effective shot density being achieved.
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Figure 33. Underbalanced perforating
A variation of the downhole choke technique can provide an underbalanced perforating

condition in wells with extended intervals that require more than on e perforating run.
After the first interval is perforated, the shut-in BHP will approach the reservoir pressure;
however, additional reverse pressure perforating may be achieved by flowing the well
(keeping the BHP low) concurrent with the perforating operation. Local management
approval is always required when perforating a flowing well.
Figure 34. Productivity ratio vs. perforation pattern
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10.10.7 TCP Firing Systems
Various methods for firing the detonator of a TCP gun have been developed to enable
reliable firing of guns in wells with differing geometry, mechanical configuration, and
borehole conditions. These can be grouped into four main types, which are
• drop bar actuated systems, in which a metal bar is dropped from surface and free falls
under gravity to mechanically initiate the firing head;
• hydraulically fired systems, in which fluid pressure is applied from surface to the
tubing or annulus to fire the gun;
• electrically actuated systems, in which current is sent from surface via an electrical
cable to fire the gun;
• electrically actuated systems, in which a detonator and shaped charge are lowered
from surface on wireline to fire the gun
The operation of mechanically or electrically actuated systems is dependent on well

geometry and mechanical restrictions in the completion, whereas the use of hydraulically
fired systems requires a detailed analysis of the operating pressures or pressure ratings of
other completion items.
Although Figure 35 indicates the use of lead azide, it should be stressed that lead azide
boosters are almost obsolete within the industry due to its intrinsic sensitivity to thermal
and shock loading.
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Figure 35. Mechanical initiator (detonator)
10.10.7.1 Drop Bar Systems
Drop bar systems can be employed in wells with deviation up to 65°. In dry
tubing the rate of descent may be controlled by running the bar on slickline or
providing a fluid cushion to reduce the velocity through tubing accessories and
the packer. The presence of scale or debris in the well may prevent a drop bar
from initiating the firing head. The bar can be fished using slickline if the guns
fail to fire, reducing the risk of unintentional firing if a misfire occurs and a gun
must be recovered. Overall reliability of drop systems is estimated to be in
excess of 99%.
10.10.7.2 Hydraulically Fired Systems
In an hydraulically fired system the firing pin is actuated by a piston driven by

hydraulic pressure. The piston is mechanically restrained while the gun is run
into the hole, and is released to fire the gun. The piston may be released by
applying excess pressure from surface to the tubing or annulus or by the use of
a drop bar. Hydraulically actuated systems can be used in highly deviated
wells, and can be less susceptible to problems caused by scale or debris than
electrical or mechanical systems. Overall system reliability is estimated to be
greater than 95%.
The presence in the string of setting tools or pressure actuated valves or shear
disks must be considered when designing an hydraulically fired system. To
operate each item of equipment sequentially while allowing for operating
pressure tolerances, the burst and collapse pressures of the tubing and casing
must be considered. The range of differential pressures between annulus and
tubing to which the assembly will be subjected while running in the hole or
creating drawdown must be calculated to prevent unintentional firing of the
gun. Pressure differentials created by a failure to maintain the fluid level in the
tubing while running in may be sufficient to actuate the firing head.
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Figure 36. Electrical initiation of TCP gun using a wet connector
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10.10.7.3 Electrically Fired Systems
Electrically fired systems are similar to those used in wireline guns. A wet
connector is fitted above the gun allowing an electrical connection to be made
with a wireline cable run through the completion (Figure 36). Current sent
down the cable actuates the detonator initiating the gun. Alternatively a shaped
charge may be run through the completion on wireline and fired into a booster
to trigger the gun (Figure 37). Production logging sensors can be run on the
wireline cable to allow pressure, temperature and flow to be monitored as the
gun is fired. Limited information is available on the reliability of electrical
firing systems for TCP applications.
10.10.7.4 Shot Indicators
When the guns are fired there is no way of knowing whether all charges in the
string have fired correctly until the guns are removed from the hole. Service
companies offering TCP have developed tools which trigger a delayed second
detonation when the detonation reaches the bottom of the gun string (‘Bottom
Shot Indicator’), but low order detonation of sections of the gun may remain
undetected. A ‘bottom shot indicator’ is illustrated schematically in Figure 38.
The detonation can generally be monitored from surface using a microphone
attached to the wellhead. In some cases, particularly in deep wells or with high
ambient noise levels, indications of firing at surface are inconclusive, and if the
well fails to produce as expected re-perforation with wireline guns may be
attempted. This will require dropping the TCP guns from the completion string
into the well.
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Figure 37. Initiation of TCP gun using a wireline conveyed detonator
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Figure 38. Bottom shot indicator
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10.10.8 High-Temperature Perforating
Most shaped-charge perforating equipment today uses an RDX (Cyclonite) explosive that is
rated at 340°F. When the temperature of the wellbore exceeds that level, special equipment
should be used23. Failure to do so may result in premature gun detonation, with perforation
or damage to the well. Existing expendable-type guns should never be operated at
temperature exceeding 300 °F.
Special versions of the retrievable-type perforators are rated at 25,000 psi and 470°-500° F
for one hour. They contain special explosive for the charge, special detonating cord, and
blasting cap. The system is essentially fail-safe. The blasting cap rating is higher than that
of the cord and charge. If temperature limits are inadvertently exceeded, the explosive in
the charge will usually sublimate without detonation.
The blasting cap is the weak link in standard RDX packages today. It will spontaneously
detonate at 360°F to 365°F. When it does, there is a fifty percent chance that the cord will
ignite and the charge detonate, producing holes in the casing (usually off depth!).
Accordingly, operating-temperature ratings of equipment should never be exceeded. This

implies that bottom-hole temperature should be known within reasonable accuracy. If in
doubt, make measurements!.
Remember that thermal gradients vary widely from one area to another. The operator
should not use calculated temperature values unless he is reasonably certain of the validity
of the gradient.
In perforating high-temperature wells, consideration must be given to accessory equipment.

Radiation tools, casing collar locators, heads, seals, electric cable, and downhole
electronics must be adequately rated for the job.
Because of the air cushion in the gun’s steel hollow carrier, operators will sometimes
attempt to take advantage of a thermal lag within the carrier by running into the well very
rapidly. Their idea is to operate standard equipment at levels in excess of the temperature
rating. This is not recommended because the gain is insignificant, as shown in Figure 39.
Running into the well at about 20,000 ft/hr, or at a 340°F/hr rate of temperature increase,
temperature inside the gun lags only about 1.6°F for five minutes – scarcely enough time to
assure proper depth control before firing.
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Figure 39. Thermal lag – well to carrier
10.10.9 Wellhead Pressure Control
In order to run a wireline tool into a live well pressure control equipment is used to provide
a pressure tight seal around the logging cable, while leaving the cable free to move. The
equipment used for this is illustrated in Figure 56. The pressure control equipment consists
of two ‘flow tubes’ or ‘grease tubes’ 1 m in length with an inside diameter approximately
0.1 mm larger than the outside diameter of the cable, connected together by a coupling.
The cable enters the well through the flow tubes. Viscous grease is injected into a port in
the coupling between the flow tubes at a higher pressure than the well pressure and flows
very slowly downwards around the cable into the well, and upwards to atmosphere pressure
at the to of the upper flow tube. For high pressure work a second flow tube can be added
above the grease injection point to further reduce the flow of grease.
A seal must be established by filling the space between the cable and the flow tubes with
grease prior to applying well pressure to the system. If the grease seal is lost for any reason
the space will be filled with non-viscous gas or oil from the well which will flow rapidly
past the cable and may prevent the reestablishment of the seal. Two sets of blow out
preventer (BOP) rams provide an alternative means of sealing around the cable. The lower
BOP rams are inverted and cannot be used to seal against well pressure: the upper BOP
rams have a limited capacity to seal against the cable but may leak if exposed to gas at high
pressures. To achieve a seal both sets of rams must be closed and grease injected between
the two BOPs at a pressure higher than that present in the well.
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Figure 56. Wireline Pressure Control Equipment
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• The riser, flow tubes and wireline blow out preventers should be tested to their
maximum test pressure is generally either 150% or 200% of the maximum safe
working pressure. A metal band indicating the test date, safe working pressure,
and the service (H2S or not H2S) should be attached to each item of pressure
control equipment and should be checked by the wellsite supervisor.
• Only twin ram BOPs equipped with a grease injection manifold between the rams
should be used on gas wells.
• Sufficient riser must be available for the longest gun to be run together with the
required ancillary equipment such as the cable head, collar locator and
positioning device and sufficient weights to prevent the tool being blown from
the hole by the well pressure or fluid flow after perforating.
• The pressure control equipment should be tested to the maximum expected

pressure before commencing operations on a well. Retesting should only be
carried out if the equipment is disassembled. Pressure testing should be carried
out using glycol. This avoids filling the flow tubes with water which can prevent
the grease from sealing, and reduces the risk of hydrate formation.
• Pressure testing should never be carried out with an armed gun in the lubricator.
Sufficient weights should be used to prevent the cable head being forced into the
tool catcher by the well pressure.
10.10.10 Safety
There are several additional safety considerations for perforating operations. Rig floor
personnel should be extremely cautious when removing a perforating gun from the well
since some or all of the charges may not have fired downhole. Before overbalanced
perforating, the engineer should check to ensure that the density of the perforating fluid is
adequate to maintain control of the well. Before underbalanced perforating, the engineer
should check to ensure that the packer has been properly set and all well control equipment
has been installed and tested. Also, before loading or running a perforating gun, temporary
signs should be placed on roads entering the location prohibiting operation of radio
transmitters.
10.11 SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS
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Apart from the broader applications discussed in the foregoing section, perforators have
been designed for special types of operations or to solve specific problems. They are
classified here as specialized because they are not widely used as yet or are not frequently
required.
10.11.1 Limited Penetration Devices
To perforate a string of tubing or drill pipe without damaging the casing, or to perforate an
inner string of casing without damaging an outer one, limited penetration shaped charges
are employed (Figure 40). These are usually used to establish circulation or to squeeze
cement between strings.
Figure 40. Tubing and casing punchers
Those used to perforate the relatively thin wall of tubings are sometimes referred to as
tubing punchers and those used to perforate drill pipe or casing, casing punchers. They
differ only in terms of depth of penetration in steel and should be selected according to the
penetrating requirements.
Guns are usually of small diameter (1-3/8-in. or 1-11/16-in.) and of the retrievable hollow-
carrier type, positioned to assure clearance/performance control.
10.11.2 Tubing-Casing Cutters
Circular shaped-charge devices such as those shown in Figure 41 are designed to cut or
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sever tubing and casing to permit retrieval from the well. Note the characteristics flare at
the cut, which is usually not objectionable. Various sizes are available to match the
common sizes of tubing and casing. The major portion of a tubing cutter is retrieved after
shooting, whereas casing cutters are fully expendable. The devices perform best at low
clearances; the proper size should be chosen for the tubing/casing. Best results are
achieved when centralizers are used. Another commonly used wireline device for cutting
tubing is the chemical cutter. It produces no flare at the cut, in contrast to the shaped-
charge cutter.
Figure 41. Shaped-charge cutters
10.11.3 Hydraulic Jet Perforator
The hydraulic perforator, introduced in 1960, operates on tubing instead of wireline.

Penetration is effected by pumping sand-laden fluid down the tubing and horizontally out
through a jet nozzle26. Early reports claimed outstanding performances by the hydraulic
perforator. As pointed out by Thompson,27 however, penetration into the API Berea
sandstone target is less than that made by most 4-in. shaped-charge guns when testing under
more simulative pressure conditions. He further reported that it took 10 minutes to
penetrate 3.7-in of Berea with a typical 3-19-in. diameter nozzle and 2500 psi differential
pressure across the nozzle. Jetting an additional 20 minutes extended the perforation to
only 5.2-in.
Configuration of the perforation made differs from that made by jet or bullet perforators.
Holes were reported to be larger in diameter and more bulbous in shape. Flow capability
was reported to be good.
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Very little perforating is done in the industry today with the hydraulic perforator because of
the time and cost involved. Compared with the wireline shaped charge, it has the
disadvantage of less positive depth control (unless, of course, an electric line and
instrument are used to position the nozzle).
10.11.4 Well Cleaning Before Perforating
Wellbore cleaning before completion fluids can contact the formation is a critical aspect to
minimise formation damage. Any source of damage that can be avoided should be
avoided.
Wellbore cleaning is usually carried out by displacement of the drilling mud in the well by
seawater or clean completion fluid and using a variety of pills in between. The casing
should be scraped prior to perforating or underreaming. A suitable wellbore cleaning
procedure is given:
Cleaning the wellbore is often difficult and because all wellbores seem to be unique in this
respect, it is difficult to programme a set procedure. Decisions have to be made at the
wellsite to obtain the desired degree of cleanliness in the shortest time.
1. M/U bit and Rotavert Scraper, P/U 31/2” DP and RIH to float collar. Use thread
compound sparingly.
2. With bit at float collar circulate well to drillwater and observe well stable.
3. Scrape three times casing from float collar to 50m above top packer setting depth
while circulating viscous pills. Repeat scraping until returns are clean (refer to sec.)
4. With bit at float collar pump the following cleaning pills:
• 20 bbl viscous pill, 20 bbl sand pill and 20 bbl viscous pill. Chase at maximum
rate with drillwater using rig pumps.
• 20 bbls viscous pill, 25 pill citric acid pill and 20 bbl viscous pill. Circulate
slowly to give ten minutes contact time with the casing.
• Circulate with clean brine at maximum rate until the turbidity of the returns is
some 25 NTU. Plot turbidity as function of circulating time.
5. Displace well to completion brine with density to give 50 psi overbalance at top
packer setting depth. Observe well stable. POOH
NOTE : Cleaning recipe may be required to be changed depending on the fluid in the hole.
10.12 WELLSITE OPERATIONS
10.12.1 Achieving Drawdown
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To lower the pressure in the wellbore before perforating, a number of techniques have been
developed. Selection of the appropriate technique will depend on the underbalance
pressure to be used and the well configuration, and should be considered in the completion
design.
All techniques for lowering the wellbore pressure involve filling the well with a fluid or
combination of fluids whose hydrostatic head is lower by a specified amount than the
reservoir pore pressure. The means by which this is achieved will depend on the well and
completion design, which may allow the use of a sliding side door or side pocket mandrel to
provide a means of circulating a low density fluid or gas. For the high drawdown pressures,
required for low permeability formations, the well may need to be partially or completely
gas filled. Commonly a coiled tubing unit is used to replace part of the tubing contents with
a low density fluid such as nitrogen.
If the well is perforated for the first time, the underbalance can be established by running
the tubing into the well empty or partially empty with a plug or valve preventing the entry
of well fluid, although this preclude internal pressure testing of the completion assembly
and may restrict the choice of other completion accessories.
If the well has already been perforated, the required underbalance cannot be achieved using
an air cushion unless flow into the tubing is prevented until immediately before the guns are
fired. This can be achieved using TCP equipment run with a glass disk or production valve
just above the gun. The valve is opened or the disk shattered by the drop bar immediately
before the gun is fired, causing fluid to surge into the tubing. This creates the required
reduction in wellbore pressure as the gun is fired.
When considering through tubing perforating techniques, drawdown can also be achieved
by perforating so called ‘trigger’ intervals. This principally applies to gas wells, and
involves firstly perforating (through tubing) a trigger interval to allow the well to be
evacuated to gas. This enables subsequent perforation runs to be carried out underbalance
in a gas filled wellbore. This method can also be used to perforate zones exhibiting
significant permeability contrasts. Low permeability (trigger) intervals are perforated first
to ensure effective clean-up, followed by the more prolific higher permeability zones.
Where operationally possible, perforating underbalanced using a partially evacuated string

is recommended.
10.12.2 Through Tubing Underbalance Perforating
With through tubing underbalance perforating the level of drawdown may have to be
limited as the resulting inflow of fluids creates a friction force on the wireline and tool.
This can cause the tool to be lifted up the well causing cable tangle which can result in
costly retrieval operations.
To avoid this the drawdown applied when perforating must be limited so that :
Fg > Ff + Fp
where:
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Fg = weight of logging tool and cable;
Ff = friction forces due to flow;
Fp = force due to bottom pressure acting on the cross sectional area of the cable.
The above equation can be expanded to:
πDL
MG cos α b > fρv2 + PAc
2
where :
M = mass of tool and cable (kg)

G = gravitational constant (9.81 ms-2)
α = average hole angle (°)
b = buoyancy factor
f = friction factor
ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)
v = fluid velocity (ms)
d = diameter of the cable (m)
l = length of cable (m)
P = flowing bottom hole pressure (Pa)
Ac = cross-sectional area of cable (m2)
In single-phase flowing wells it is possible, using the equation mentioned above, to predict,
with some accuracy, the total upward force. By matching predicted and observed forces,
friction coefficient can be found. Clearly, if the predicted force approaches the weight of
the cable and tool either extra weights have to be added, or the well should be beaned back
to reduce the risk of the tool being forced up the hole. The SIPM Production Handbook,
Volume 5, should be consulted for more detailed information. It should be noted that above
treatment is only valid for a flowing well.
The weight required to overcome well pressure can be calculated by multiplying the cross
section area of the cable by the maximum tubing head pressure expected after perforating,
or by using the chart shown in Figure 52. The chart also makes allowance for friction
between cable and flow tubes.
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Figure 52. Chart for calculating tool weight required to overcome well pressure
Extreme care must be exercised when establishing drawdown levels for through tubing
operations in high rate gas wells which are not flowing, as the system friction and inflow
performance are major sources of uncertainty. Morever, in such cases it is vital to know
whether a liquid level is above or below the zone to be perforated. If a liquid slug is forced
up the wellbore it will create significantly higher forces. Attempts [29, 79] have been made
to quantify lifting forces in such cases, but no simple correlations are available. In view of
the inherent doubt it is recommended to restrict drawdown levels. One Opco has
successfully operated with the following guidelines :
• maximum drawdown 50 bar (700 psi)
• the total tool weight should be at least twice that required to overcome well
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pressure acting on the cross sectional area of the cable.
• the top of the tool should be at least 10 m (30 feet) below the packer tail.
• largest guns sizes are 21/8” and 111/16” for 7” and 41/2” casing respectively.
The major wireline companies offering perforation services have computer based tools
which can also be used to help establish area specific guidelines.
10.12.3 Operational Aspects
Underbalanced perforating implies that the hydrostatic head of the well fluid prior to
perforating is insufficient to control the flow of fluid from the formation into the well, and
should therefore only be conducted with surface pressure control equipment, even if the
well is not expected to produce fluid to surface. The underbalanced perforation of
reservoirs containing H2S may require additional precautions to ensure that the completion
is adequately internally pressure tested prior to perforating.
10.13 REFERENCES
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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1. Allen, T.O., and Attebury, J.H., Jr. :Effectiveness of Gun Perforating, Trans.,
AIME (1954) 201, 8-14.
2. Allen, T.O., and Worzel, H.C. : Productivity Method of Evaluating Gun
Perforating, Drilling and Production Practice (1956) 112-125.
3. Birkhoff, G., MacDougal, D.P., Pugh, E.M., and Taylor, G. : Exxplosive with
Lined Cavities, J. Appl. Phys. (1948) 563.
4. Pugh, E.M., Eichelberger, R.J., and Rostaker, N.: Theory of Jet Formation by
Charges with Lined Conical Cavities, J. Appl. Phys. (1952) 537.
5. Delacour, J., Lebourg, M.P., and Bell, W.T.: A New Approach Toward
Elimination of Slug in Shaped Charge Perforating, J. Pet. Tech. (March, 1958)
15-18.
6. Robinson, R.L. : Temperature Effect on Formations during Jet Perforating, SPE

681-G (Oct., 1956).
7. Bell, W.T., Lebourg, M.P., and Bricaud, J.: Perforating Today – A Science,
Drilling and Production Practice (1959) 249-260.
8. Wade, R.T., Pohoriles, E.M., and Bell, W.T. : Well Tests Indicate New
Perforating Devices Improved Efficiency in Casing Completion Operation, J. Pet.
Tech. (Oct., 1962) 1069-1073.
9. API Recommended Practice Standard Procedure for Evaluation of Well

Perforators, API RP 43, 2nd Ed. (July, 1971).
10. Bell, W.T., and Shore, J.B., Casing Damage with Gun Perforators, Drilling and
Production Practice (1964) 7-14.
11. Godfrey, W.K. : Effect of Jet Perforating on Bond Strength of Cement, SPE
2300, presented at 43rd Annual SPE Fall Meeting, Houston (1968).
12. Rike, J.L. : Review of Sand Consolidation Field Experience in South Louisiana,
J. Pet. Tech. (May, 1966) 545-550.
13. White, W., Walker, T., and Diebold, J. : A Proven Gas Well Completion
Technique for Higher Deliverability, J. Pet. Tech. (June, 1965) 647-656.
14. Harris, M.H. : The Effect of Perforating on Well Productivity, J. Pet. Tech.
(April, 1966) 518-528.
15. McDowell, J.M., and Muskat, M. : The Effect on Well Productivity of Formation
Penetration Beyond Perforated Casing, Trans. AIME (1950) 189, 309-312.
16. Klotz, J.A., Krueger, R.F., and Pye, D.S. : Effect of Perforation Damage on Well
Productivity, SPE 4654, presented at 48th Annual Fall Meeting, Las Vegas,
Nevada (1973), J. Pet. Tech., November 1974.
17. Bell, W.T., Brieger, E.F., and Harrigan, J.W., Jr. : Laboratory Flow
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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Characteristics of Gun Perforations, SPE 3043, presented at 46th Annual Fall

Meeting, New Orleans (1971).
18. Bell, W.T. : Recent Developments in Gun Perforating Techniques, Proceedings,

Seventh World Petroleum Congress (1967).
19. Lebourg, M.P., and Bell, W.T. : Perforating of Multiple Tubingless Completions,
J. Pet. Tech. (May, 1960) 88-93.
20. Tausch, G.H., and Kenneday, J.W. : Permanent-Type Dual Completions, Pet.
Engr. (March, 1956) 24-31.
21. Huber, T.A., and Tausch, G.H. : Permanent-Type Well Completions, Trans.,
AIME (1953) 198, 11-16.
22. Lebourg, M.P., and Hodgson, G.R. : A Method of Perforating Casing Below
Tubing, trans., AIME (1952) 195, 303-310.
23. Bell, W.T., and Auberlinder, G.A., Perforating High Temperature Wells, J. Pet.
Tech. (march, 1961) 211-216.
24. McEntree, J.R., Greer, R.L., and Collipp, P.B. : Underwater Drilling and
Completion Methods, Proceedings, Sixth World Petroleum Congress (June,
1963), Sec. 2, Paper 31, 39-59.
25. Rigg, W.A., Childress, T.W., Jr., and Corley, C.B., Jr. : A Subsea Completion
System for Deep Water, SPE 1404, presented at the Symposium on Offshore
Technology and Operations (May 23-24, 1966).
26. Huitt, J.L. : Hydraulic Fracturing with the Single Point Entry Technique, J. Pet.
Tech. (March, 1960) 11-13.
27. Thompson, G.D. : Effects of Formation Compressive Strength on Perforator
Performance, Drilling and Production Practice (1962) 191-197.
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COMPLETION SAND CONTROL Page 1 of 107
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 11
SAND CONTROL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………...... 5
11.1.1 Sand Problems ………………………………………………………. 5

11.1.2 Causes Of Sand Production …………………………………………. 6
11.1.3 Consequences Of Sand Production …………………………………. 7
11.1.4 Sand Detection ………………………………………………….…... 8
11.1.5 Sand Production Predictions ………………………………………... 10
11.2 SAND CONTROL METHODS ……………………………………………….….. 12
11.2.1 Production Practices ………………………………………………… 12

11.2.2 Completion Practices ……………………………………………….. 13
11.2.3 Mechanical Retention ……………………………………………….. 13
11.2.4 Chemical Consolidation …………………………………………….. 15
11.3 MECHANICAL SAND CONTROL ……………………………………………... 16
11.3.1 Background …………………………………………………………. 16

11.3.2 Formation Sampling ………………………………………………… 16
11.3.3 Sieving ………………………………………………………………. 17
11.3.4 Liner/Screen Completion …………………………………………… 20
11.3.5 Open-Hole Gravel Packs ……………………………………………. 21
11.3.6 Cased-Hole Gravel Packs …………………………………………… 22
11.3.7 Gravel Pack Screens ………………………………………………… 22
11.4 GRAVEL PACK DESIGN ……………………………………………………….. 25
11.4.1 Formation Sand Characterization …………………………………… 25

11.4.2 Design Point ………………………………………………………… 27
11.4.3 Gravel-Sand Ratio …………………………………………………... 27
11.4.4 Screen Slot Width …………………………………………………… 28
11.4.5 Example Design …………………………………………………….. 29
11.4.6 Gravel Pack Thickness ……………………………………………… 29
11.4.7 Summary ……………………………………………………………. 30
11.5 GRAVEL PACK PRODUCTIVITY ……………………………………........….. 31
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11.5.1 Open-Hole Gravel Packs ……………………………………………. 31

11.5.2 Cased-Hole Gravel Packs …………………………………………… 32
11.5.3 Prepacking …………………………………………………………... 33
11.5.4 Producing Rate ……………………………………………………… 34
11.5.5 Summary ……………………………………………………………. 36
11.6 GRAVEL PACK PREPARATION ………………………………………….…... 37
11.6.1 Cleaning The Casing ………………………………………………... 37

11.6.2 Workover Fluids ……………………………………………………. 37
11.6.3 Underreaming ……………………………………………………….. 38
11.6.4 Perforating …………………………………………………………... 38
11.6.5 Perforation Washing ………………………………………………… 39
11.6.6 Perforation Surging …………………………………………………. 41
11.6.7 Acidizing ……………………………………………………………. 42
11.7 GRAVEL PLACEMENT – PREPACKING …………………………........……. 44
11.7.1 Advantages ………………………………………………………….. 44

11.7.2 Transport Through Perforations …………………………………….. 44
11.7.3 Bridging In Perforations ……………………………………………. 45
11.7.4 Wellbore Angle ……………………………………………………... 46
11.7.5 Fluid Viscosity And Rate …………………………………………… 48
11.7.6 Recommendations …………………………………………………... 49
11.8 GRAVEL PLACEMENT …………………………………………...……............. 51
11.8.1 Choice Of Fluids ……………………………………………………. 51

11.8.2 Slurry Packing ………………………………………………………. 51
11.8.3 Circulation Packing …………………………………………………. 53
11.8.4 Deviated Wells ……………………………………………………… 55
11.8.5 Wash Down …………………………………………………………. 57
11.8.6 Reverse Circulation …………………………………………………. 58
11.8.7 Crossover ……………………………………………………………. 59
11.8.8 Filtration …………………………………………………………….. 62
11.8.9 Sand Injection ………………………………………………………. 64
11.8.10 Summary ……………………………………………………………. 65
11.9 PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION PRINCIPLES …………………………………... 66
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11.9.1 Macroscopic Objectives …………………………………………….. 66

11.9.2 Microscopic Objectives ……………………………………………... 68
11.9.3 Sand Coating Methods ……………………………………………… 68
11.10 PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION CHEMICALS ……………………………......... 71
11.10.1 Preflush ……………………………………………………………… 71

11.10.2 Resin ………………………………………………………………… 72
11.10.3 Diluent ………………………………………………………………. 74
11.10.4 Coupling Agent ……………………………………………………... 74
11.10.5 Overflush ……………………………………………………………. 75
11.11 WELL PREPARATION FOR PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION ……………...... 76
11.11.1 Wellbore Equipment ………………………………………………… 76

11.11.2 Perforating …………………………………………………………... 77
11.11.3 Prepacking …………………………………………………………... 78
11.11.4 Injectivity Testing ………………………………………………….. 79
11.11.5 Acidizing ……………………………………………………………. 79
11.11.6 Neutralizer ………………………………………………………….. 79
11.12 PLASTIC PLACEMENT ……………………………………………………….… 81
11.12.1 Objective ……………………………………………………………. 81

11.12.2 Rathole Fluid ………………………………………………………... 81
11.12.3 Annulus Fluid ……………………………………………………….. 82
11.12.4 Concentric Workstring ……………………………………………… 82
11.12.5 Conventional Workstring …………………………………………… 84
11.12.6 Bullhead …………………………………………………………….. 84
11.12.7 Restoring Production ……………………………………………….. 85
11.13 COMMERCIAL PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION SYSTEMS …………………... 86
11.13.1 Evaluation Criteria ………………………………………………….. 86

11.13.2 Data Sources ………………………………………………………… 86
11.13.3 Evaluation Summary ………………………………………………... 88
11.13.4 Epoxy II ……………………………………………………………... 89
11.13.5 Sanfix ……………………………………………………………….. 92
11.13.6 Field Results ………………………………………………………… 93
11.14 RESIN-COATED SAND …………………………………………………………... 95
11.14.1 Objective ……………………………………………………………. 95

11.14.2 Sand Coating Methods ……………………………………………… 95
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11.14.3 Placement Procedures ………………………………………………. 96

11.14.4 Commercial Systems ……………………………………………….. 97
11.14.5 Field Results ………………………………………………………… 98
11.15 SELECTING A SAND CONTROL METHOD ……………………………….… 100

11.15.1 Plastic Consolidation ……………………………………………….. 100
11.15.2 Resin-Coated Sand ………………………………………………….. 101
11.15.3 Gravel Packing ……………………………………………………… 101
11.15.4 Conventional Completions ………………………………………….. 102
11.15.5 Tubingless Completions …………………………………………….. 103
11.15.6 Well Deviation ……………………………………………………… 104
11.15.7 Interval Length ……………………………………………………… 104
11.15.8 Sand Quality ………………………………………………………… 105
11.15.9 Reservoir Conditions ……………………………………………….. 106
11.16 WELL BEAN-UP PROCEDURE .....................……………………………….… 107
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.1.1 Sand Problems
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The production of formation sand into a well is one of the problems in the oil and gas
industry. Not only does formations sand plug wells, but it also can erode equipment and
settle in surface vessels. It is estimated that PCSB spends millions of dollars each year to
prevent the production of formation sand and to deal with other sand-related problems.
In considering sand control, or formation solids control, it is necessary to differentiate

between load-bearing solids and the fine particles. Fines are not usually considered to be a
part of the mechanical structure of the formation. Sand control actually refers to the control
of the load-bearing particles - those that support the overburden. The problem then lies in
deciding what is excessive sand production. As a practical limit, any sand production
higher than 0.1% (volumetric) can usually be considered excessive.
Sand production has been experienced in essentially every area in the world where oil or
gas production occurs from sandstone reservoirs (see Figure 1). Sand production is the
most common in Tertiary age sand reservoirs. Since these reservoirs are geologically
young and are usually located at relatively shallow depths, they are no more than
moderately consolidated (~ 1000 psi compressive strength).
Figure 1. Sand problem areas worldwide
11.1.2 Causes Of Sand Production
When fluids are produced from sandstone reservoirs, stresses are imposed on the sand
grains that tend to move them into the wellbore along with the produced fluids (Figure 2).
These stresses are caused by pressure differences in the formation, fluid frictional forces,
and the weight of the overburden. When the combined magnitude of these stresses exceeds
the strength of the formation, sand will be produced. The implication is that for many
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wells, there is a critical production rate below which sand will not be produced and above
which the formation will fail. Unfortunately, this critical rate is often below the economical
producing rate. Some means of sand control must therefore be employed as an initial or
remedial part of the well completion.
Figure 2. Movement of sand grains caused by fluid flow stress
Opposing fluid forces are the restraining forces that act to hold sand grains in place. These
forces arise from intergranular bonds (natural consolidation), intergranular friction, gravity
forces, and capillary forces. Internal pore pressure (reservoir pressure) helps support the
weight of the overburden, thereby acting to relieve some of the stress on the sand grains.
Of these forces, the intergranular bonds are the most important factor in preventing sand
production. The compressive strength of a formation sand is measure of the intergranular
bond. Provided that good completion and production practices are followed, formations
with a compressive strength greater than 1000 psi will generally produce sand-free. The
exception is the instance in which the pressure drawdown around the well is high.
Predicting the sand-producing tendency of a formation is complicated, not only because

data on the various factors to be considered are limited, but also because many of these
factors change with time. Some examples of time-related changes follow:
• Decreasing reservoir pressure increases the overburden stress on the sand grains.
• Water production may dissolve natural cementing materials and weaken intergranular
bonds.
• Permeability reductions resulting form water production, fines invasion, and the like
increase the stresses induced on the sand grains by fluid flow.
Because the problem is complex, the most meaningful prediction of potential sand problems
is usually a correlation based on the performance of offset wells producing from the same
reservoir.
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11.1.3 Consequences Of Sand Production
Removal of sand from surface equipment, such as manifolds and separators, is a common
occurrence in sand-producing regions. Perhaps only troublesome in land-based operations,
sand disposal can become an acute problem offshore. Special treating facilities are required
to remove the oil from the sand prior to offshore disposal. The problems arising from
produced sand become more severe when the entrained sand is carried at high enough
velocities to erode surface equipment, such as valves and chokes, necessitating periodic
replacement of these items. By far the worst complication growing out of sand production
is the erosion of surface equipment to the point that it fails, allowing high-pressure gas
and/or oil to escape. This situation obviously constitutes a severe safety and pollution
hazard.
Productivity loss occurs when a sand bridge forms in the production tubulars. This sanded-
up condition occurs when the fluid velocity is not sufficient to suspend the produced sand
completely and flow it from the well. In settling out of the produced fluids, sand can then
fill the production tubing and block the flow. The amount of sand fill sufficient to plug the
tubing can range from a few to several hundred feet. These bridges must be removed either
by bailing or washing before production can be restored.
Casing failure may accompany the production of formation sand in the producing interval,
meaning the loss of a well. As sand is produced, slumping of the overlying casing-bearing
formations can subject the entire casing string to abnormal loads. Such loads can lead to
severe buckling when the lateral restraint provided by the surrounding sand is lost during
sand production. In an example from offshore Louisiana, 7-in. casing was deflected 8 in.
within a vertical distance of 5 to 10 ft (see Figure 3).
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Figure 3. Casing buckling caused by sand production in well in offshore Louisiana.

The 7-in. casing was deflected 8-in. within vertical distance of from 5to 10 ft.
11.1.4 Sand Detection
Devices to detect the presence of sand in produced fluids can substantially improve the
safety and productivity of wells in sand- producing areas. Two currently available devices
detect sand produced to the surface - the Exxon sand probe and the Mobil sonic sand probe
(marketed by OIC). These devices enable the engineer to take remedial action in advance
of sand damage to tubular goods thus lowering workover costs. They can also be used to
establish the maximum sand-free production rate for each well.
The Exxon sand probe (Figure 4) is a hollow stainless steel cylinder, plugged at one end,
which is inserted into a flow stream with the open end protruding from the wall of the pipe.
The probe was developed by Exxon and is manufactured by AMCO Equipment Co. and
Otis Engineering Co. When produced sand erodes the wall of the probe, flow stream
pressure is transmitted to a pilot valve, which closes the surface safety valve and shuts in
the well.
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Figure 4. Exxon’s sand probe installed in a flow stream
The sand probe has been extensively tested by Exxon USA and is currently in use on all of
their offshore Louisiana wells. It has three principal applications. It serves as a safety
device, as an aid in optimizing production rates, and as a tool in the selection of workover
candidates. By using sand probes, one USA Offshore operator was able to reduce by 78%
the number of production units eroded and to reduce costs associated with equipment
failure related to sand erosion by more than 75%. Fire and pollution hazards were also
reduced. Production increased, furthermore, because the number of sand-ups had
decreased.
The sonic sand probe detects the impact of sand as an acoustical signal. It was developed
and field-tested by Mobil Oil Corporation, and a commercial unit is currently marketed by
Oceanography International and by the Johnston Division of Schlumberger. Reports have it
that there are over 200 of these units currently in service in the industry. The principal
advantage is that the probe provides an immediate indication of sand production. Its
disadvantages lie in the expense involved and the fact that the signal is not currently related
to the erosiveness of the sand being produced. Figure 5 is a photograph of the sonic sand
probe and instrument package.
Figure 5. Sonic Sand Probe
The probe is mounted in a surface flow line. Acoustical “pinging” of impinging sand is
converted in the probe to an electrical signal. The signal can be calibrated to determine the
concentration of solids in terms of pounds per day, or grams per second, as a function of
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fluid velocity. Both the mass concentration of solids in the flow stream and the rate of sand
production are provided. If fluid or gas production rates are known, the rate of sand
production and solids concentration can be determined within a factor of two.
11.1.5 Sand Production Predictions
Research has shown that sand production is proportional to the pressure drop and flow rate
across the formation sand. An investigation, designed to determine the magnitude of the
pressure drops that core samples can withstand without producing sand, demonstrated the
following relationship :
Onset of ∆P at sand production ~ 1.7 x sand compressive strength, psi
This correlation indicates that even though compressive strength is exceeded, sand
production does not occur until a rock’s compressive strength is substantially exceeded.
The relationship applies only to consolidated sands; no correlation exists for unconsolidated
sands. Here it should be assumed that in most cases sand production will occur when fluid
is produced.
Schlumberger’s Mechanical Properties Prediction is claimed to be a method of determining

if a formation will produce sand. The technique is based on calculations made from data
taken from sonic, density, and neutron logs. Although such predictions probably can point
out those zones that are more (or less) consolidated than others, no information exists to
show that the technique has been used successfully to predict sand production in PCSB
wells. It may, however, be an effective tool in those circumstances in which its results can
be correlated with field observations.
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11.2 SAND CONTROL METHODS
Several techniques can be used to combat sand problems, and they can be grouped into four
general categories :
• Production practices
• Completion practices
• Mechanical retention
• Chemical consolidation
Each of these methods, using singly or in combination, has been used to alleviate and/or
control sand-production problems. No one technique, however, can be used to control sand
effectively under all circumstances. Thus, it is important that the advantages and
limitations of each technique be recognized so that the best procedure can be followed.
11.2.1 Production Practices
Sand production is the natural consequences of the flow of fluids into a well; therefore,
reducing the production rate will normally diminish sand production as well. The flow of
formation sand into a well is proportional to the velocity-viscosity product (V x µ), which is
related to the drag force created by the flowing fluid. Laboratory and field tests have
shown that sand production can be reduced by lowering the production rate (drag force) to
the point that the natural cohesive forces within the sand hold it in place. Sand control
therefore becomes possible through a step-by-step reduction in the production rate to a level
at which the sand cut is acceptable. If the flow rate is sufficiently high, no further sand
control may be necessary.
Since sand production occurs when the stresses associated with fluid withdrawal exceed
some critical value, the probability of formation failure in any given well can be reduced by
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minimizing such stresses. Recognizing this fact, the oil industry in its early history
controlled sand almost exclusively by limiting fluid production rates. Today the production
from many wells is still held below some assumed “critical rate” thought to cause formation
failure. Unfortunately, the critical rate is difficult to predict accurately and to associate
with incipient failure.
Unless the critical rate for a particular well remains high, any voluntary restriction on flow
rate to prevent sanding represents a lost opportunity for maximizing revenue. Often in the
past, production from sand-prone wells has been curtailed without a loss of profit. But the
current surge in demand for energy means that reduced production rates are equivalent to
smaller profits. Engineers in many areas that in the past have required no means of sand
exclusion other than a reduction in rate should now consider new techniques.
11.2.2 Completion Practices
If a well is to be completed in an unconsolidated formation without a sand-control

treatment, several completion practices should be followed to minimize the possibility of
formation failure and subsequent loss of production. In general, these practices are
intended to reduce the stresses caused per unit of production by enhancing the ability of the
formation to produce fluid. They include the use of :
• Clean completion fluids
• High perforation densities
• Perforation of long intervals
• Perforation of clean sands
The desirability of clean workover and completion fluids has long been recognized by the
oil industry. Fluids that are free of solids and compatible with formation material are
essential to successful sand control. Partially plugged perforations and/or formation
damage caused by incompatible or solids-laden wellbore fluids can require excessive
pressure drawdowns in order to produce desired fluid rates.
In 1969 a study of the effect of perforation density on consolidated formation failure was
undertaken. This study, and others that followed, revealed that sand problems in untreated
intervals could be minimized by increasing perforation density. Also, the frequency of sand
problems in wells completed without sand-control measures decreased significantly with
increasing length of perforated interval.
It has long been noted that sand problems are more severe in dirty, fine-grained formations
than in relatively clean, well-developed sands. The success of producing the more
permeable segments reflects the effect of limiting wellbore stresses by reducing drawdown.
Also aiding production success is the fact that segments containing a high percentage of
non-silica particles (indicated by a poorly developed SP curve) generally exhibit low
permeability and poor natural cohesion. If possible, these intervals should be avoided.
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11.2.3 Mechanical Retention
One obvious method of preventing formation sand from being produced is to physically
restrain its entry into the wellbore flow stream. To accomplish this goal, many types of
mechanical devices have been used in both the water-well and oil industries. Spherical
particles will not flow continuously through rectangular slots even twice as wide as the
diameter of the particles, or through circular holes three times their size.
The particles tend to “bridge” across such openings, thereby preventing further particle
movement. If the size of the particles varies, retention of the larger particles causes the
smaller particles to bridge behind them.
All methods of mechanical retention are based upon the principle of retaining a certain
portion of the formation material to prevent the rest of it from entering the well. Devices
used by themselves to restrict sand movement are usually referred to as screens or slotted
liners. The placement of large clean sand (actually referred to as gravel, because it is much
larger than formation sand) between the screening device and the formation is referred to as
gravel packing. Figure 6 shows a gravel packed completion.
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Figure 6. Gravel Pack Schematic
11.2.4 Chemical Consolidation
Chemical consolidation has primarily involved the use of plastics to artificially cement the
formation sand grains together so that formation fluids can be produced sand free. To be
effective, the plastics must (1) wet the sand surfaces and adhere to the sand grains, (2) yield
a high compressive strength upon curing, and (3) maintain high well productivity. Figure 7
indicates the region surrounding the wellbore that is cemented by plastic consolidation.
Another chemical sand control method involves a resin- coated sand, which is mixed at the
surface and pumped into the well. The gravel-plastic slurry is then allowed to settle and
cure. After curing, the residue is drilled out of the well, which is then placed on
production. Figure 7 illustrates a resin-coated sand treatment.
Figure 7. Chemical Consolidation Methods
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11.3 MECHANICAL SAND CONTROL
11.3.1 Background
Mechanical sand control in wells originated with the water-well industry, because early
water-well completions in shallow formations commonly produced sand. A mechanical
device inserted in these wells excluded sand but allowed fluids to enter the well. In these
early completions the mechanical devices included torch-cut slots, perforated casing,
louvre-type screen, and machine-slotted pipe. More recently, several varieties of wire-
wrapped screen have been used.
Mechanical sand-control methods are based on bridging theory. That is, the formation sand
bridges against some sort of filtering medium, which allows the passage of fluid but
prevents the production of formation sand. Water wells were normally completed by
developing, which involved the alternate surging and producing of the formation. The finer
particles were thereby produced from the well, leaving the uniformly graded sand or gravel
with higher porosity and permeability surrounding the screen or slotted liner.
Figure 8. Schematic of a natural gravel pack after developing
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11.3.2 Formation Sampling
The size and distribution of the formation sand, as determined from a sieved sample, is
important to the optimal design of gravel packs. Rubber sleeve cores are the preferred
formation material. If none are available, produced sand or sidewall cores can be
substituted. It should be remembered, however, that produced solids may be too fine and
bailed solids too coarse to be representative. Also, sidewall cores may contain crushed
grains or significant amounts of drilling mud contamination.
11.3.3 Sieving
In practice, sieving is simple. The disaggregated material to be sized is placed in a sieve

and shaken until those particles smaller than the sieve openings fall through. Separation
into any number of size groups is possible if a progression of sieve sizes is used, from
larger to smaller, downward from the top screen. Shaking should be done on an automatic
machine for about 20 minutes. This length of time represents a compromise between the
provision of complete separation of grain sizes and the avoidance of sediment-particle and
screen erosion. After shaking, the material retained on each sieve and that which fell
through the finest sieve into the pan are weighed and recorded.
The theory of sieving is not quite as simple as the practice. Most grains are not spherical,
hence separation is not based solely on grain diameter - grain shape also plays a part. A
long, lath-shaped grain theoretically could pass a given sieve if its two smaller dimensions
are less than those of the sieve opening. Despite these shortcomings, sieving is an
established technique in the mechanical analysis of sediments.
The Tyler Standard Screen Series, as well as the U.S. Mesh Series, is commonly used in
sieving. The openings of each successively larger screen are increased by a factor of two.
The diameter of grains retained on these openings thus increases geometrically be a factor
of √2, or 1.414. Closer grading can be achieved by including screens with openings with a
progression of 4√2, or 1.189. By themselves they provide an offset scale also increasing by
the √2 progression. Table I compares the Tyler and U.S. Mesh series.
The weight data from a sieve analysis are arranged according to the weight percent retained
on a given screen. The cumulative weight percent retained is obtained by summing the
percentages on successive screens. The tubular classification of data does not lend itself to
visual comparison of grain-size distributions. Comparisons are easier when a graph of
grain size (horizontal scale) is used.
Comparison and interpretation of the cumulative size-frequency distribution are fairly

simple. If a curve maintains its form, a translation along the abscissa reflects a change in
grain size (Figure 9). A change in slope or stepness in the cumulative curve represents a
change in the sorting of grain sizes (Figure 10). Skewed distributions are asymmetrical, as
shown in Figure 11.
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Figure 9. Sand grain distribution showing grain size change
Figure 10. Sand train distribution showing changes in sorting
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Table I
Sand Sieve Sizes
Standard Sieve Openings (1) Standard Sieve Openings (1)

Mesh Sieve Opening Mesh Sieve Opening
U.S. (2) Tyler Inches Millimeters U.S. (2) Tyler Inches Millimeters
Series Series Series Series
21/2 0.315 8.00 25 0.0280 0.71

21/2 0.312 7.925 24 0.0276 0.701
3 0.265 6.73 30 28 0.0232 0.589
3 0.263 6.68 35 0.0197 0.50
31/2 0.223 5.66 32 0.0195 0.495
31/2 0.221 5.613 40 0.0165 0.42
4 0.187 4.76 35 0.0164 0.417
4 0.185 4.699 45 42 0.0138 0.351
5 0.157 4.00 50 0.0117 0.297
5 0.156 3.962 48 0.0116 0.295
6 0.132 3.36 60 0.0098 0.250
6 0.131 3.327 60 0.0097 0.246
7 0.111 2.83 70 0.0083 0.210
7 0.110 2.794 65 0.0082 0.208
8 0.0937 2.38 80 0.0070 0.177
8 0.093 2.362 80 0.0069 0.175
10 0.0787 2.00 100 0.0059 0.149
9 0.0078 1.981 100 0.0058 0.147
12 0.0061 1.68 120 115 0.0049 0.124
10 0.065 1.651 140 150 0.0041 0.104
14 0.0555 1.41 170 170 0.0035 0.088
12 0.05 1.397 200 200 0.0029 0.074
16 0.0469 1.19 230 250 0.0024 0.062
14 0.046 1.168 270 270 0.0021 0.053
18 0.0394 1.00 325 325 0.0017 0.044
16 0.0390 0.991 400 400 0.0015 0.037
20 0.0331 0.84
20 0.0328 0.833
(1) Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill.

(2) Hydraulic Fracturing Proppant screens used in U.S.
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Figure 11. Sand grain distribution showing skewing
11.3.4 Liner/Screen Completions
A screen or slotted liner can be simply run into position and the produced sand allowed to
bridge around it. Since no back-surging or pump-in treatments are normally used, the finer
particles are not removed effectively from the near-wellbore sand mass, and lower
productivity is usually the result. Completions in which only a screen or slotted liner is run
in a well have been unsuccessful in controlling sand and/or maintaining a well’s
productivity for long periods of time.
Probably the reason this technique is less successful in oil and gas wells than in water wells
is that most hydrocarbon-bearing rock formations are more consolidated than are shallow
aquifers. The liner/screen-only completion typically decreases in productivity with time
because of plugging around the screen/slot openings. For this reason, the technique is not
preferred.
11.3.5 Open-Hole Gravel Packs
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Gravel packing is the recommended method for mechanically controlling formation sand
production in oil and gas wells. This technique, as noted earlier, entails using accurately
sized gravel to exclude formation sand. A screen or slotted liner retains the gravel, but
allows the entry of fluids into the well.
Open-hole gravel packs are completions in which there is no perforated casing between the
gravel pack and the screen or slotted liner (see Figure 12). This completion has the highest
productivity of all gravel packed completions. As far as well completions in general are
concerned, its productivity is surpassed only by an open-hole completion.
Figure 12. Schematic of gravel packing techniques
The primary disadvantage of the open-hole gravel pack is the inability to isolate extraneous
fluids, such as gas or water at the sand face.
A second limitation is that not all sand formations are physically structured to
accommodate this type of completion because of hole instability. In these cases the sand
formations are usually cased off prior to completion.
Other than these two limitations, the open-hole gravel pack is the preferred mechanical
sand-control technique when there is no contraindication to its use. As a general statement,
it is used to greatest effectiveness in long-life completions in which the production of water
and/or gas will not present a problem.
11.3.6 Cased-Hole Gravel Packs
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The cased-hole gravel pack consists of a screen or slotted liner that is gravel packed inside a
perforated casing (see Figure 12). This completion is the most widely used gravel pack
today in oil and gas wells. It is chosen primarily because, upon the initial completion, it is
not always certain if wells will produce formation sand. Consequently, many wells are
perforated and then produced. If no sand appears, a gravel pack is not necessary; but a
cased-hole gravel pack can be performed later if sand control becomes necessary.
Furthermore, this completion is better adapted to exclude water and/or gas if the need
arises.
The primary disadvantages of the cased-hole gravel are that (1) they are not as well suited
as the open-hole packs for high flow rates, and (2) they are much more difficult to perform
correctly. Both of these limitations arise from the greatly limited cross-sectional area of
flow in the sand-filled perforations of cased-hole packs compared with that of the open
hole. It is therefore extremely important that all perforations, as well as the region outside
them, contain gravel of the highest permeability able to control formation sand production
effectively.
To perform cased-hole packing properly requires that all perforations be open and free of
formation sand when the well is completed. If at all possible, the region outside the
perforation should be prepacked with gravel - that is, filled with gravel of the highest
permeability able to control sand production. The procedure usually includes washing or
surging the perforations to ensure that they are open to accept the gravel.
11.3.7 Gravel Pack Screens
Gravel packing entails the use of accurately sized gravel as the filtering medium. The
gravel is retained in an annular region around the well by some mechanical device that also
allows the entry of fluids into the well. In most present-day oil and gas well completions
requiring gravel packing, either a slotted liner or a wire-wrapped screen is used.
A slotted liner usually consists of vertical slots spaced uniform about the pipe. The width
of the slots can vary from 0.020 in. to as large as desired, depending on the gravel size.
Figure 13 illustrates the various combinations of slots for slotted liners. The liners are
much less expensive than the wire-wrapped screens, but they are not as effective. Their use
is confined to those situations in which wire-wrapped screens cannot be used economically.
In wire-wrapped screens the wire is wrapped directly on the pipe base, which may be
drilled, slotted, or slotted and grooved. Longitudinal rods are also used between the screen
and the pipe in some cases. The screen-slot openings are controlled by lugs, which are
crimped into the wire during screen fabrication. After the wire is wrapped on the pipe base,
it is welded at each end of the screen joint and is held in place by two longitudinal welds
that extend the length of the screen. Figure 14a is a photograph of a wire-wrapped screen.
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Figure 13. Slotted-liner slot geometry
Figure 14. Wire Screens
Rod-base screens are similar to the jackets on all-welded construction screens, but they
contain no pipe base. In their manufacture the wire is resistance-welded to longitudinal
rods. The final step in their construction is to weld connections on the ends of each screen.
Figure 14c is an example of a rod-base screen.
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Wire-wrapped and all-welded screens have the advantage of offering much more open area
per liner foot than slotted liners. Consequently, they are less susceptible to plugging. They
are used in most completions instead of slotted liners if the additional cost can be justified.
The wire on all-welded, wire-wrapped, and rod-base screens is keystone in shape, that is, it
tapers toward the center. This design avoids the liability of plugging as particulates pass
through the screen slots. The keystone-shaped wire can be seen in Figure 14. Unless
otherwise specified, all wire is grade 304 stainless steel.
Tests were made of the wire screens available to the industry in order to determine their
strength and flow characteristics. The results of the study were compared with the results
of the same tests performed with slotted pipe.
Tensile Strength
• Pipe-base screens are about twice as strong as rod-base screens under tensile loading
conditions.
Collapse Strength
• Collapse failures of all-welded screens is related primarily to the excessive standoff of

the screen from the pipe base. To avoid low collapse resistance, close tolerance
should be observed by manufactures.
Flow Capacity
• The flow capacity of screens, slotted liners, and gravel packs does not pose a
significant restriction to flow unless they become plugged.
• Rod-base screens offer no significant advantage over pipe-base screens in flow

capacity.
11.4 GRAVEL PACK DESIGN
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The basic problem is how to control formation sand without an excessive reduction in well
productivity. To achieve effective control implies a good gravel pack design, the essential
elements of which include :
• Analysis of formation grain-size distribution
• Selection of an optimum gravel size in relation to formation sand size in order to

control formation sand movement
• Use of the optimum screen slot width to retain the gravel
11.4.1 Formation Sand Characterization
The first step in the design process is to obtain representative samples of the specific
formation’s sand. The distribution of grain size often varies through a particular sand body,
and certainly from one zone to another. To assure representative measurements, therefore,
a number of samples are needed.
In gravel packing, formation sand is controlled by properly sized gravel. For correct gravel
sizing, the producing formation’s grain size must be determined accurately. The most
widely used methods for assessing grain size are based on the Tyler Standard or U.S. Series
screen scales, which grade the screen or sieve sizes in mesh numbers. In this technique,
representative formation sand samples are extracted, dried, weighed, and passed through
screens of varying sizes.
The slope of this sieve analysis curve indicates the sand’s uniformity. In Figure 15, curve
A which is almost vertical, represents a highly uniform sand. Curve D, which leans toward
the horizontal, suggests a non-uniform sand. A specific value of uniformity is useful in
providing an approximate description of the distribution curve.
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Figure 15. Sieve analysis curve
The convention has been to describe the distribution curve by the grain size at two specific
percentile points, 40 and 90.
The dimension of the grain size at the 40 percentile divided by that at the 90 percentile is
called the uniformity coefficient, Cµ.
d40
Uniformity coefficient = Cµ =
d90
Although this relationship has become the accepted method for expressing a sand’s
uniformity, it is somewhat confusing in that highly uniform sands have low uniformity
coefficients, whereas non-uniform sands have high coefficients. As a general guideline,
Cµ < 3 - Sand usually considered uniform
3 < Cµ < 5 - Sand considered non-uniform
Cµ > 5 - Sand highly non-uniform (sand with a uniformity coefficient of this

magnitude is rare)
11.4.2 Design Point
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A gravel pack is designed to restrain the load-bearing grains of the formation sand from
passing into the wellbore. These larger grains will bridge the smaller ones, controlling the
entry of formation sand into the well while permitting the passage of fluids. This size is
used as the design point for sizing gravel, because gravel size is a multiple of the formation
sand size at the design point.
For uniform sands the design point is not particularly important, since there is very little
difference in grain size between the 10 or 50 percentile points. For non-uniform sands,
however, a considerable difference in the grain size exists, and the selection of the
appropriate value becomes more critical. Work performed at Exxon and also by Shell*
suggests that designing a gravel pack on the 50 percentile point is probably the best for all
conditions. It will yield about the same design for a uniform sand that the 10 percentile
would, and it will also provide the optimum design for non-uniform sands.
Data indicate that a gravel pack should not be designed so that it blocks all formation
particles, which occurs when high design points are used. If high design points are chosen,
well productivity can be severely limited by a total plugging of the gravel pack by fine
particles - material that is normally produced through the gravel pack if it is designed to
retain only the load-bearing particles.
*Saucier, R.J., “Gravel Pack Design Considerations,” Paper SPE4030, 47th Annual Fall Meeting SPE of AIME, San Antonio,
Texas, Oct. 8-11, 1972.
Use of the 50-percentile design point produces a simpler and more straightforward design.
For highly uniform sands it yields the same design that the 10-percentile design point does.
For non-uniform sands, it avoids a gravel size so small that sand control measures predicted
on it will seriously affect well productivity.
11.4.3 Gravel-Sand Ratio
The gravel-to-sand (G-S) ratio - defined as the ratio of the gravel grain size to the formation
sand grain size at equal percentile points - is one of the most important parameters in the
design of a gravel pack. When the G-S ratio is too high, the oversized gravel is invaded by
formation sand, which reduces the overall permeability of the packed zone (often to less
than the native reservoir permeability) and impairs productivity. Oversizing the gravel is a
common error in designing oil field gravel packs. On the other hand, undersizing results in
excellent sand control; however, it is at the expense of productivity.
The theoretically optimum range for the G-S ratio is about 5 to 6, as illustrated in Figure 16,
for highly uniform sands. At a ratio of 6, productivity is at maximum and sand control is
also achieved. With a ratio of 15, pack permeability is good but sand control is poor,
because the formation sand can move easily through the pack. With a ratio of 10, formation
sand can move into the gravel pack but has difficulty moving through it. The result is a
severe loss in gravel pack productivity.
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Figure 16. Effect of sand control on productivity
To compensate for possible optimism and to adjust for an erroneous choice of design pont
(caused, perhaps, by improper sampling), a G-S ratio of 5 to 6 is recommended. That is, the
diameter of the gravel to be used for packing should be 5 to 6 times the diameter of the
formation sand at the 50-percentile design point selected from the grain-size analysis curve
of the formation sand.
The use of close, accurately sized gravel is important. Recommendations are that 96% of
the gravel should be within the specified size range and that fines compose no more than
2%. Further, a roundness and sphericity of 0.6 is recommended, and the acid solubility
should not exceed 3.0% when the sand is exposed to 12-3 hydrochloric/hydrofluoric acid
for 30 min.
11.4.4 Screen Slot Width
Ideally, slot widths should be as large as possible while retaining sand grains and not
restricting the flow of fluids and interstitial fines. Because it is imperative that all the
gravel be tightly packed and retained, screen slot width for a gravel pack should be about
one-half the smallest gravel diameter. Under no conditions should the slot be wider than
70% of the smallest gravel-size diameter.
11.4.5 Example Design
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An example of a typical gravel pack design is shown graphically in Figure 17 for a sieve
analysis whose 50 percentile point is about 0.004 inches. Six times this quantity is 0.024
inches. The gravel line is constructed through this point with a uniformity coefficient of
1.5. The gravel size for this sand is taken from the zero and 100 percentile points, 0.035
and 0.018 inches. Consequently the nearest standard gravel size is 20/40 U.S. mesh. The
slot width is taken as 1/2 the smallest gravel, which is 1/2 x 0.0165 = 0.00825 inches.
Figure 17. Gravel pack design
11.4.6 Gravel Pack Thickness
Many opinions have been expressed regarding the optimum thickness of gravel packs.
Carefully controlled laboratory experiments have shown that a thickness of only 3 to 5
grain diameters is required to create a stable bridge. This conclusion is based on the
assumption, however, that the bridge will be permanent and completely effective.
Occasional adjustments of sand particles with changes in differential pressures and flow
velocities will no doubt occur. With each failure of a sand bridge, individual grains -
particularly the finer grains - may encroach further into the gravel envelope. It follows that
the thicker the gravel bed, the greater the assurance that the pore spaces between gravel
particles will remain unclogged with sand. Gravel pack design should therefore place more
emphasis on pack thickness than on screen diameter.
Recommended screen diameters for various casing sizes are listed below :
Screen Size (in.) Casing Size (in.)
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5 9-5/8
3-1/2 7-5/8
2-7/8 to 3-1/2 7
2-3/8 5-1/2
1-1/4 to 1-1/2 4
Since screen flow capacities are extremely high, the screen diameter recommendation is
based on a diameter that allows it to be washed over.
11.4.7 Summary
To achieve optimum results from gravel packing the operator should :
• Obtain a representative sample of formation sand. Rubber-sleeve cores are best;

sidewall cores are acceptable; bailed or produced sand should be used only as a last
resort.
• Sieve the formation sand and plot a cumulative weight distribution. Calculating the
coefficient of uniformity may be useful, i.e.,
diameter at 40-percentile point

Cµ =
diameter at 90-percentile point
• Select a gravel diameter that is five to six times the design point size, i.e., five to six
times the 50-percentile size of the formation sand.
• Specify the narrowest range of sieve sizes that would successfully contain the selected
gravel diameter.
• Use a screen slot size that is one-half the smallest gravel size. In any case, slot size
should never exceed 70% of the smallest gravel diameter.
11.5 GRAVEL PACK PRODUCTIVITY
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Within the past several years, new emphasis has been placed on gravel packing, particularly
when cased-hole packs are required. This interest has evolved because of the new high-rate
fields under development that will require some sort of sand control. Examples are fields in
the North Sea, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Some of the wells in these areas are
capable of producing at rates in the 400 BFPD/ft range. Research on cased-hole gravel
pack performance has also accelerated because of higher water and gas cuts associated with
producing oil in older fields, a circumstance tending to have adverse effects on productivity
and sand production.
11.5.1 Open Hole Gravel Packs
Research was conducted to determine the magnitude of productivity losses associated

primarily with screens and slotted liners. The equipment used in this study is shown in
Figure 18. Here the model simulated flow conditions in the immediate vicinity of the well.
Note that the screen was placed in the model with sand around it, an arrangement actually
analogous to an open-hole gravel pack. Tests were then made to assess pressure losses as a
function of flow rate.
Figure 18. Schematic of and equipment used in flow capacity test

with screens and slotted liners
The results of these tests are shown in Figure 19. Note here that the flow rates were
extremely high, yet pressure losses were quite low. Wire-wrapped screens were shown to
have higher flow capacities than slotted liners; however, at realistic field rates the pressure
drop through either was only a few psi.
The implications of these tests are that the screen/slotted liner and gravel pack offer no
significant restriction to well productivity, unless they become plugged. We observed that
slotted liners become plugged more easily than do wire-wrapped screens. To avoid
plugging with gravel, screen/slot openings equal to half the smallest gravel size are
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preferred.
Figure 19. Flow capacities of 2-7/8 inch screens and slotted liners
Figure 20. Schematic and results of flow capacity tests of

cased-hole gravel packs
11.5.2 Cased Hole Gravel Packs
Results obtained from the model that simulated cased-hole packs are shown in Figure 20.
They demonstrate that well productivity is significantly reduced in this type of completion,
but by increasing the number and size of perforations, productivity can be significantly
increased. In comparison Figure 19, which reveals pressure drops of only a few psi, these
results show that a perforated gravel pack is productivity-limited by virtue of the flow
through the sand-or gravel-filled perforations.
11.5.3 Prepacking
It is apparent that the perforation tunnel is the most critical region in a cased-hole gravel
pack. Research has been conducted to determine the effects on well productivity and sand
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control of gravel size, different gravel/sand geometries, flow rate, and multiphase flow.
The model used here is shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21. Full scale gravel pack model and schematic
Gravel was placed around the screen and through the perforation of the model. A prepack
could also be simulated. Brazos River sand was primarily used for the formation sand since
it closely resembles the Miocene sands present in the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana.
Flow test results with a uniform 5-darcy Brazos River sand with no prepack but with the
perforation filled with gravel (Figure 22) revealed a high pressure drop across the
perforation. The data also indicate that packing the perforation reduces the pressure drop at
low flow rates. The plugging observed at high flow rates was due to viscous forces causing
the formation sand to migrate into the entrance of the perforation. When a prepack was
used, however, the pressure drop across the perforation was substantially lower.
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Figure 22. Gravel pack productivity, prepacked, perforation only prepacked and
perforation filled with formation sand
11.5.4 Producing Rate
Subsequent testing in which no prepack was used has shown that such completions are
more rate sensitive than prepacked completions, and that permanent damage can result if
the critical rate is exceeded. This liability is demonstrated in Figure 23. Plugging or
damage occurred when the viscous forces were high enough to move the formation sand
into the perforation.
Figure 23. Permanent formation damage caused by

high flow rates and lack of prepacking
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Figure 24. Test results demonstrating the importance of prepacking in

Preventing perforation damage
On the other hand, as Figure 24 shows, cased-hole prepacked gravel packs are not as
severely affected by rate, from the standpoint of permanent damage, as when no prepack
was used. They are affected by turbulent or nondarcy flow effects, as this figure shows.
Here the apparent perforation-tunnel permeability decreases as the flow rate was increased.
The apparent loss in permeability was the result of turbulent flow effects. Note that when
the flow rate was decreased to the initial level, no permanent damage was evident. In fact,
a slight improvement was observed in this test; it has been noted in several others, as well.
Apparently the improvement was due to a slight cleaning action by the produced fluids,
which caused the permeability improvement.
11.5.5 Summary
Based on the data presented here, the following conclusions concerning gravel-packed
completions can be made :
• The screen/slotted liner and gravel pack do not create a significant restriction to well
productivity unless they become plugged with formation sand.
• For cased-hole gravel packs, maximizing the size and number of perforations increases
productivity.
• Packing only the perforation may suffice for low-rate wells. This technique is rate
sensitive and should be avoided.
• Turbulence is a major factor in decreasing the productivity in high-rate, cased-hole

gravel packs.
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11.6 GRAVEL PACK WELL PREPARATION
Attention to details when performing a gravel pack can mean the difference between
completion success and failure. Consequently a logical and well executed completion
procedure offers the best chance for a well to be placed on production in an undamaged
condition. To achieve this goal, attention should be given to the following items :
• Cleaning the casing
• Workover fluids
• Underreaming
• Perforating
• Perforation washing
• Perforation surging
• Acidizing
11.6.1 Cleaning The Casing
Casing cleaning usually consists of performing bit and scraper runs to remove cement, rust
and other foreign material from inside the casing. It is important to prevent this material
from being mixed with the gravel and thereby reducing the pack permeability. In some
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cases the casing is even acidized to remove this material. Normally, weak 5-10%
hydrochloric acids are used for this purpose. Regardless of what technique is used,
obtaining the cleanest conditions possible will aid in achieving completion success.
11.6.2 Workover Fluids
Clear brines are the preferred workover fluids for gravel packing operations. Insoluble
materials should not be present. Gravel packing requires that the fluids be filtered at least
20 microns prior to use. Viscosity control is normally achieved by adding polymers such as
hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC). However, viscosified fluids should normally contain a
viscosity breaker which will reduce the viscosity to about that of water several hours after
the completion has been conducted. This step allows the well to “clean up” rapidly rather
than having to produce the high viscosity fluid that has leaked-off into the formation.
Foams have received quite a bit of usage in situations where low reservoir pressure exists
and where lost returns cannot be tolerated. Their use requires special equipment and highly
trained personnel to properly mix and handle them.
11.6.3 Underreaming
Once the decision has been made to open-hole gravel pack a well, the other decisions to be
made relate to the casing point, total depth, and whether or not to underream.
Selecting the casing point is straightforward; it can usually be determined by running and
correlating well logs or by analyzing sample cuttings at the surface. If at all possible, the
casing point should always be selected so that the overlying shales are cased off. The
reason for this recommendation is that shales sometimes heave or slough to the point that
the completion is adversely affected by contamination from the shales. Consequently, if
shales can be cased off, they will create no problem.
In most open-hole completions underreaming is recommended. Underreamers, or hole

enlargers, operate by the application of hydraulic pressure to the device, which is attached
at the end of the drill string. This pressure forces arms out against the borehole as the drill
string is rotated, thus expanding the hole to a predetermined radius. When the hydraulic
pressure is released, the arms return to their original position, allowing the underreamer to
be removed from the well.
Where feasible, brines make excellent underreaming fluids. Because of their low viscosity
and high fluid loss, however, the capability of brine to clean and remove cuttings from the
hole are limited unless high fluid velocities can be achieved in the well’s annulus.
Additives to the underreaming fluid have consisted of calcium carbonate and lignosulfonate
for fluid loss control and potassium chloride to prevent clay swelling.
11.6.4 Perforating
Cased-hole gravel packs differ from open-hole gravel packs in that the well screen is run
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inside perforated casing. The primary difficulty with this type of completion is that it
reduces the well productivity of high rate wells. Sand-filled perforations are the chief
restriction to flow. Consequently, increasing the size of perforations, as Figure 25
illustrates, is recommended. In most gravel packed wells, a minimum of four shots per foot
of 0.5-in. diamter should be used. Greater shot density and diameter should be considered
if excessive casing damage can be avoided. And, it is important to remember that
perforating operations should always be performed with a clean fluid in the well.
Because perforations are the main limitation to flow, the selection of perforating equipment
is critical to completion success. The perforation charges selected should yield the largest
diameter and the deepest penetration possible. Diameter, however, is more critical to the
flow capacity of cased-hole gravel packs than is perforation length, as long as penetration
extends beyond the cement sheath. Consequently, the recommendation is to perforate with
guns providing the largest hole diameter as well as adequate length. In most cases the
cased-gun perforator yields the best results in comparison with expendable guns, although
the cost is greater and the rig time longer.
Now available are new 7-in. diameter casing guns that shoot an 0.7-in. hole with an average
penetration of about 18-in. These guns have been used quite successfully in gravel packs in
which large-diameter casing has been run. In BDO, the guns have frequently been run.
Shot densities average about 8 to 12 per foot.
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Figure 25. Pressure drop in gravel-packed perforation tunnels as a function

Of hole size and flow rate (after Saucier)
11.6.5 Perforation Washing
Well preparation procedures are further complicated by the fact that for maximum
productivity, the perforations should be filled with the gravel used in the completion. In
addition, the region outside the perforations should be prepacked with gravel. If the
perforations are plugged with the formation sand or other debris, filling them with gravel
during the gravel pack is difficult, if not impossible. Consequently, prior to the gravel pack
or prepacking operation, steps should be taken to ensure that the perforations are open and
free of plugging material.
Perforation washing is the preferred method of cleaning perforations. The term generally
refers to any one of several techniques in which a wash fluid can be pumped through
opposed swab cups. The washing takes place across the cups by injecting down the tubing
and taking returns through the casing-tubing annulus to remove formation sand and other
debris capable of plugging the perforations.
An illustration of a conventional circulation wash tool is shown in Figure 26. The tool
configuration in the figure is simply two opposed swab cups with a narrow space between
them. Wash fluid is injected between the cups. Returns are taken by forcing the fluid to
enter perforations between the cups and to flow behind the cement to other perforations
where the fluid may enter the casing-workstring annulus. The tool configuration can also
be reversed so that the cups are unopposed. In this case, wash fluid is injected into
perforations above or below the cups, and returns are taken through perforations between
the cups.
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Figure 26. Perforation wash tool schematic, conventional-circulation type
The primary advantage of the basic tool design shown in Figure 26 is its simplicity. One
disadvantage is that all fluid injected between the swab cups must be returned up the
annulus, which can cause the tools to stick. To avoid this problem, a slide valve is usually
located on top of the tool to permit reversing debris from the annulus.
Baker and Dowell supply disposable wash tools. Since in certain situations well control has
been a problem when wash tools are removed, pump-off subs have been installed to
separate the tool from the workstring. This separation is accomplished by dropping a ball
in the tubing and allowing it to seat in the pump-off sub. Pressure is then applied until the
retaining pins are sheared to separate from the tubing. Once this has been done, the tool is
pushed to the rat hole (below the perforations). The workstring can now be removed from
the well without the swabbing action that would occur if the wash tool were removed
rapidly from the well.
Procedures used for washing perforations tend to be arbitrary and dependent on the
particular situation being encountered. Normally, perforations are washed from the bottom
up with conventional wash tools. The flow rate during washing operations usually averages
about 2 bbl/min, but up to 5-8 bbl/min is beneficial if these rates are attainable. A fluid
volume of about 10 bbl/ft is normally recommended. The material commonly recovered in
perforation washing operations is formation sand and miscellaneous debris.
11.6.6 Perforation Surging
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Perforation surging is another way of cleaning perforations and removing plugging material
from them. The tool used is in itself no more than a cylindrical chamber that can be sealed
at the surface so that the air inside the chamber is at atmospheric pressure. The tool is run
to the desired depth and opened in the well to expose the perforations to atmospheric
pressure (see Figure 27). The pressure change thereby forces a limited volume of
perforation debris, mud, formation sand, and reservoir fluid from the perforations.
Figure 27. Schematic of a typical perforation surge tool
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Although the surge tool has been effective in opening perforations, there are several
disadvantages to its use, namely :
• A trip of the tubing is required for each surge run.
• The tool is not well suited for long perforated intervals.
• There is a limited amount of flow through the perforation when the tool is opened.
Most of these disadvantages are not inherent in perforation washing tools. Consequently,
perforation washing is preferred to surging in most situations.
11.6.7 Acidizing
Acidizing can be used in several different ways to enhance gravel pack completion success.
Acid treatments can be performed either before or after the gravel pack.
In those instances where acidizing is performed before the gravel pack, the acid treatment is
run in the same manner that it would be run in a perforated well. Should acidizing be
considered necessary to completion success, it should be performed prior to gravel packing.
In the event that a post gravel pack acid treatment is considered, the reason is almost always
prompted by the well’s inability to produce at an acceptable rate. There is a high risk of
damaging the gravel pack with a post gravel pack acid treatment. Damage can result from
pumping the treatment at rates sufficiently high to fluidize the gravel pack. In this case well
productivity increase is usually temporary and may be achieved at the expense of sand
control.
In order to avoid this condition, post gravel pack acid jobs should be pumped at low rates.
They should not exceed 0.5 bbl/min for a well completed over 10 ft of interval and
perforated 8 shots/ft. In any event the acid pump rate should not exceed 2 bbl/min at a
surface pressure that will not exceed the fracture gradient.
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11.7 GRAVEL PLACEMENT - PREPACKING
11.7.1 Advantages
Cased and perforated well completions are usually less productive than are open-hole
completions. They are nevertheless widely used when the exclusion of interbedded water,
gas, or undersirable shale streaks is required. The productivity and lifetime of cased-hole
completions can be increased significantly by (1) creating an operating or cavity into the
formation beyond the perforation tunnel with properly sized gravel before placing a gravel
pack in the casing annulus. Cased-hole gravel packs, in which no attempt is made to
prepack the perforations, are not recommended for wells with high production rates,
because low-permeability formation sand can enter the perforation tunnel and restrict the
well’s productivity.
11.7.2 Transport Through Perforations
When particles are transported from the casing through the perforations during gravel
prepacking, inertial and gravity force cause particles in the sand slurry to separate from the
stream lines of the fluid entering the perforations. This separation causes greater
concentration of particle slurries with increasing distance from the perforated casing. This
process is further illustrated by the data in Figure 28. Here the particle concentration in
each perforation was sampled and compared with the injected concentration in a casing
with three perforations. The increase in concentration is more pronounced for the larger
gravel particles. Note that increasing the fluid viscosity from 1 to 10 cp leads to nearly
uniform distribution of particle concentration into the perforations. This uniformity is a
result of increased drag forces on the gravel caused by the more viscous fluid.
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A nearly uniform distribution of particles into the perforations is desirable because it

prevents buildup of high concentrations in the lower part of the casing. This is important
because, if gravel concentrations become too high opposite any of the perforations,
particles can bridge in the entrance of perforations. The result may well be incomplete
packing of the region immediately behind the casing.
It is recommended that the prepack gravel be pumped in a viscous slurry. The minimum
viscosity for 20/40 and 40/60 U.S. mesh gravel should be 100 and 30 cp, respectively.
Initial gravel concentration should be 2 to 4 lb/gal. However, concentration should be
increased to 8 to 10 lb/gal until a sand-out occurs. After the well has been cleaned out, the
prepacking operation can be repeated to ensure that all perforations are filled.
Figure 28. Uniform fluid flow through 3-inch casing
11.7.3 Bridging In Perforations
The maximum particle concentration transportable through perforations is shown by the

data in Figure 29. Bridging inside a perforation occurs even at the low gravel concentration
of 0.5 to 1 lb/gal (0.022 - 0.043 vol. fraction) if the perforation diameter is two to three
times the average particle diameter. However, when the perforation diameter is greater than
six times the diameter of the average particle, bridging does not occur even at gravel
concentrations of 30 lb/gal (0.58 vol. fraction).
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The ratio of perforation diameter to the average particle diameter at which bridging occurs
is not affected by the viscosity of the carrier fluid. The ratios are virtually the same
whether tap water or a 100-cp hydroxyethyl cellulose fluid is used. However, the size of
the particle node that forms in the casing around a bridged perforation increases with
increasing viscosity. If large enough particle nodes form on opposite sides of the casing, a
particle bridge can form, thus preventing particles from being transported downstream of
the bridged casing.
Figure 29. Bridging of particles in perforations
11.7.4 Wellbore Angle
Wellbore angle dramatically affects the transportation of gravel through the perforations.
When low-viscosity fluids are used to transport gravel, the result may be an incomplete
prepacking of the perforations in the upper part of the casing. When the gravel slurry enters
a non-vertical perforated casing, the gravel particles are distributed unevenly throughout the
cross section of the casing. Here the particles separate from the fluid and accumulate on the
bottom part of the casing. Here the particles separate from the fluid and accumulate on the
bottom part of the casing (see Figure 30). Gravel particles are then transported through the
perforations only on the lower side of the casing. They are not transported out from the
upper part of the casing, because the fluid exiting those perforations does not contain an
appreciable number of particles.
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Figure 30. Gravel prepacking in deviated wells. (A) Gravel particles transported
Out bottom perforations; (B) Upper perforations filled
Fluid transportation continues until all the perforations in the lower side of the casing are
filled with gravel. At this point, the gravel slurry fills the rathole up to the bottom
perforation. If the carrying fluid exerts sufficient drag forces on the gravel particles, the
gravel will then be transported into the upper perforations, starting at the bottom of the
wellbore and proceeding upward.
Low-viscosity fluids may not have sufficient drag force to carry the gravel slurry to the
perforations in the upper side of the casing. As injection continues, therefore, the gravel
fills the casing past some upper perforation until an equilibrium height is eventually
established. Above this equilibrium height the fluid has sufficient drag force, owing to the
increased velocity through the remaining perforations, to continue transporting the particles
into the upper perforations.
Any voids and perforation tunnels not filled with gravel can allow invasion of formation
sand. Or they may allow gravel in the wellbore to settle after the well is returned to
production, possibly leaving part of the screen uncovered with gravel.
Complete prepacking of the entire perforated zone is more likely if high-viscosity fluids are
used, since they exert greater drag forces on the gravel particles. The particles tend to
follow the trajectory of this fluid into the perforations more readily than if a low-viscosity
fluid is chosen.
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11.7.5 Fluid Viscosity And Flow Rate
The final number of particles transported through the perforations depends ultimately on
three factors : (1) presence of a void space outside the casing that can accept the particles
transported through the perforation; (2) size of the perforation relative to the particle size;
and (3) the transport efficiency of the carrier fluid.
The transport efficiency of particles - i.e., the fraction of particles transported through the
perforations - can be calculated if the critical trajectory of a particle just entering the bottom
perforation is known. The importance of this critical trajectory is illustrated in Figure 31.
All particles inside the envelope (or surface of revolution) generated by the trajectory will
enter the perforations, whereas all particles outside will sink into the rathole. The particle
transport efficiency can thus be defined as the ratio of the area inside the critical trajectory
to the total cross-sectional area of the casing.
Figure 31. Mathematical model used to determine prepacking efficiency
Figure 32 illustrates some theoretical results obtained for several gravel-fluid combinations
in a 6.2-in. ID casing with 100 perforations. These results demonstrate that significant
increases in particle transport efficiency can be achieved by increasing either the fluid
viscosity or the total fluid rate.
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Figure 32. Effect of flow rate on calculated transport efficiency
11.7.6 Recommendations
• Wash the perforations.
• Circulate the prepack slurry to the top of the perforations and squeeze.
• The minimum fluid viscosity during placement should be at least 30 cp when 40/60
mesh gravel is pumped. A minimum of 100 cp is required when 20/40 mesh gravel is
pumped. By raising the viscosity to about 300 cp, gravel concentrations in excess of
10 lb/gal are possible without significant settling.
• Do not exceed fracturing pressure during placement.
Figure 33 is a schematic of the prepack process.
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Figure 33. Schematic of the prepack process
11.8 GRAVEL PLACEMENT
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11.8.1 Choice Of Fluids
When gravel packing, the Engineer has a choice of using either low or high viscosity fluids.
Each system has its particular advantages and disadvantages. However, if performed
properly, either can result in an excellent completion. As a general guideline, low viscosity
fluids should be used to squeeze the gravel around the screen by taking no fluid returns to
the surface. Low viscosity gravel pack fluids are normally referred to as circulation-type
gravel placement fluids while the high viscosity fluids are commonly known as slurry pack
fluids.
Circulation packing involves pumping the gravel and the carrier fluid down the tubing, then
through a crossover into the screen-casing annulus. There the gravel settles to the bottom
of the interval while the fluid returns to the surface through the tail pipe and well’s annulus.
Slurry packing has been used as a gravel packing technique since the mid-1970s. The
major differentiation between slurry pack fluids and circulation-type fluids is the fluid
viscosity. Slurry pack fluids range in viscosity from about 20 cp up to as high as 1000 cp;
however, the viscosity is commonly 200-300 cp. Because of the high fluid viscosity, the
gravel-transport efficiency is improved and much higher higher gravel concentrations are
possible. Gravel concentrations of 15 lb/gal are common when slurries are used to gravel
pack. In contrast circulation-type gravel packs normally do not use gravel concentrations in
excess of 1-1/2 lb/gal because the low viscosity fluids (ordinary brine) do not have
sufficient transport capabilities to handle the higher concentration.
11.8.2 Slurry Packing
In slurry packing, the gravel is squeezed into place around the screen after being circulated
down the well’s tubing. Consequently, the carrier fluid is lost is to the formation rather
than being circulated back to the surface. This causes the slurry to dehydrate around the
screen to facilitate packing. Slurry pack downhole equipment commonly consists of the tail
pipe being packed off in the lower portion of the screen assembly. As shown in Figure 34,
this assembly also commonly consists of a bottom rather than a top telltale screen. The
purpose of the lower telltale screen is to insure that the gravel is packed from the bottom of
the screen section upwards.
Since the slurry pack completion equipment does not have an upper telltale screen and
because the gravel is squeezed into place, it is difficult to determine when and if sufficient
gravel is packed around the screen. The gravel volume is usually calculated based on the
theoretical volume plus about 0.5 sacks/ft outside the casing. In order to avoid placing an
insufficient amount of gravel, practice is to run a blank pipe section at least equal to the
length of screen section. Where conditions allow, the blank or reserve gravel volume may
be 2-3 times that of gravel volume around the screen.
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Figure 34. Slurry pack equipment
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of slurry packing are listed in the following :
Advantages
• Lower fluid volume requirements
• High gravel concentration may reduce mixing with formation sand
• Prepack and gravel pack can be performed simultaneously
• Usually requires less time to place gravel
• Minimum returns taken through screen which minimizes potential screen damage from
erosion.
Disadvantages
• No positive indication of gravel level around the screen when packed
• Gravel volume for pack must be predetermined.
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• Several joints of blank pipe are desirable for gravel reserve
• Should be run with minimum rathole (sump packer is preferred)
• Fluid break and settling required for a good pack
• Probably not well suited for high angle wells greater than 45°
Probably the most attractive features of slurry packing is that it can be performed very
quickly as compared to circulation packing. One of its main advantages is that it can
simultaneously prepack as well as gravel pack the completion interval. This can save
thousands of dollars when high rig costs are involved. However, slurry packing has its
limitations. At this writing its use should be limited to completions intervals less than 75ft
and well deviations of less than 50 degrees. Further work is needed to define the precise
limits of gravel placement in deviated wellbores using this technique.
11.8.3 Circulation Packing
Circulation gravel packing involves the use of low viscosity carrier fluids and low gravel
concentrations. Unlike slurry pack fluids, the gravel settles very rapidly in the low
viscosity, circulation-type fluids. As shown in Figure 35, gravel placement with these
fluids employs slightly different gravel pack equipment. With this type of fluid placement,
upper telltale screens are used. Their purpose is to indicate when the gravel has reached
this location during gravel placement. A signal of this event is the rapid rise in pump
pressure when the gravel covers the telltale screen.
Gravel achieves its highest initial density when it is circulated in the wellbore with low-
viscosity fluids, such as brines, and a tailpipe or stinger is used inside a slotted screen to
return the fluid to the surface. With this method, the gravel settling velocity is sufficiently
great that the material falls to the bottom of the wellbore. The pack then forms from the
bottom upward, creating a high-density mass.
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Figure 35. Circulation pack equipment
One might ask why high viscosity fluids are not used as an alternative for placing gravel in
the circulation mode. This practice is not recommended because the high viscosity fluids
will tend to drag the gravel into the screen and cause the pack to extend radially outward
rather than settling to the bottom of the screen section. The results in incomplete gravel
placement and premature cessation of pumping due to high pressures. However, once the
pumping is stopped, the gravel will settle so that the upper portion of the screen may not be
covered. In this event the gravel pack will probably be ineffective. As a result low
viscosity fluids are recommended when circulation packing operations are conducted.
To be performed properly circulation gravel packing should be conducted in two stages.

The first stage involves prepacking the perforations using high viscosity fluids while the
second stage is actually the gravel pack portion using the low viscosity fluid.
The advantages and disadvantages of circulation-type gravel placement are shown in the
following :
Advantages
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• Positive indication of gravel level at job completion
• No mixing of viscous fluids required
• Low gravel concentrations
• Probably better suited for high-angle holes - greater than 45°
• Less crushing (pots normally used)
Disadvantages
• Clean fluids are essential - especially when 40/60 mesh used
• Long circulation time may erode screen
• Can require a long time placement time
Requires a prepack prior to gravel pack for proper completion - this is critical in high rate
wells.
The single most important advantage in placing gravel in two stages is the greater
probability of completely filling both the void space behind the casing (including
perforation tunnels) and the annular space between the casing and the screen. During two-
stage gravel packing, the operator can measure how much gravel is placed behind the casing
(prepacking), and also how much gravel is placed in the casing annulus (gravel packing),
because the operations are performed separately.
The gravel packing of deviated wells with low-viscosity fluids is relatively effective if the
wellbore angle is less than 45°. Beyond 45°, incomplete gravel packing can occur if
precautions are not taken. During gravel placement in high-angle wellbores, a gravel dune
forms near the inlet of the wellbore, as shown in Figure 36.
The height of the gravel dune increases until fluid velocity in the open channel above the
dune is sufficiently high to transport gravel over the dune and deposit it further toward the
bottom of the wellbore. As the dune’s height becomes stabilized, and the dune continues to
descend the wellbore, the pressure drop of the gravel slurry over the stabilized bank
becomes sufficiently high to force the gravel-carrying fluid into the screen.
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Figure 36. Formation of gravel dune during gravel

packing of inclined wells
When fluid escapes from the open channel to the screen, fluid velocity in the open channel
decreases, the gravel is deposited, and the channel bridges off completely. Gravel can then
be deposited only upstream of the bridge, resulting in an incomplete gravel pack.
Figure 37 shows the effect of wellbore angle on gravel packing efficiency (percent of full
pack). In the tests cited, tap water and a 100-cp fluid were used to carry the gravel. The
effects of gravel concentration, fluid properties, flow rates, and resistance to fluid flow
inside the screen on circulation-type packing efficiency were evaluated. Packing efficiency
was observed to increase with:
• Lower gravel concentration
• Higher flow rates
• Higher fluid density
• Increasing resistance to fluid flow inside the screen
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Figure 37 Effect of wellbore angle on gravel packing efficiency
The most important variable in the gravel-packing of inclined wellbores with circulation-
type techniques is the resistance to fluid flow in the tailpipe/screen annulus. During gravel
placement, a high flow resistance inside the tailpipe annulus prevents all the fluid from
escaping into the screen until the gravel is transported to the bottom of the wellbore.
A convenient way to increase the resistance to fluid flow inside the screen is either (1) to
increase the flow rate of the carrying fluid, or (2) to use a larger diameter tailpipe inside the
screen. Tests have shown that even horizontal wellbores can be efficiently gravel-packed
by following either of these two simple measures.
11.8.5 Wash Down
The wash-down method (Figure 38), is a very simple completion technique, but one that is
performed quite differently from the circulation techniques described earlier. As in all
cased-hole gravel pack operations, it is necessary to clean the wellbore, open the
perforations in some manner, and prepack the perforations. This sequence is then as
follows :
1. Once the perforation pack is completed, gravel is left inside the casing at some
predetermined height.
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2. The screen is run to the top of the gravel and conventional circulation begun through
the bottom of the screen. (Several devices are available that allow sufficient
circulation to fluidize the gravel).
3. The screen is washed into place, circulation stopped, and gravel allowed to fall back
around the top of the blank liner section.
4. The working string is released from the screen through the use of a back-off sub and is
picked up a few feet.
5. Reverse circulation is initiated up the washpipe to ensure that the inside of the screen
is clean.
6. When necessary, a second trip is made to put a packer device on top of the screen
assembly.
The major disadvantage in this method is the limitation on the length of screen that can be
successfully washed down. Stopping circulation to make an additional connection can
cause gravel to fall around the screen, thus preventing any further circulation or movement
of the screen. As a result, the maximum screen setting should be nor more than one joint of
tubing, or about 30 ft.
With this technique, either low-or high-viscosity fluids can be used. The only requirement
is that the gravel be sufficiently fluidized so that the screen can be washed into position.
11.8.6 Reverse Circulation
Figure 39 shows the reverse circulation method of gravel placement. It requires wellbore
preparation similar to that of the wash-down method, except that all gravel is washed from
the wellbore after the perforation prepack operation is complete. The screen is then run and
set in position and the sand/water slurry circulated in a reverse manner to deposit the gravel
around the outside of the screen. This method should be used in conjunction with low-
viscosity fluids in order to avoid a premature gravel bridge caused by the slurry’s being
drawn into the screen rather than being allowed to fall to the bottom of the completion
interval.
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Figure 38. Wash-down method
11.8.7 Crossover
The crossover gravel pack technique, shown in Figure 40, consists of a workstring designed
to pump gravel slurry around the screen. With this equipment the slurry is crossed over
between the screen and the casing at the top of the screen section. Crossover gravel-pack
equipment can be used with either circulation or slurry pack placement.
This technique is preferred in those situations where its higher cost can be justified. This
form of gravel placement has several advantages over wash-down and reverse circulation
techniques.
• Mud, rust, pipe dope, and scale will not be scoured from the casing by the gravel
slurry. Thus there is less risk of depositing debris in the perforations or on the screen.
• The volume of the workstring is smaller than that of the workstring casing annulus. At
equal pumping rates, the higher fluid velocity inside the drill pipe reduces placement
time as well as the possibility of bridging or gravel segregation.
• Control of both fluid and gravel location within the workstring is more precise.
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Figure 39. Reverse circulation method
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Figure 40. Crossover gravel pack method
Crossover-type gravel placement can be accomplished with either a cup-type crossover tool
or with a crossover-type gravel-pack packer. With the cup-type, the crossover tool is part of
the workstring. The tool consists of a dual swab-cup assembly and crossover device. Upon
completion of the gravel pack. therefore, a second trip is required to set a packer or seal on
top of the screen assembly.
The crossover can also be included as part of the gravel-pack packer. A port collar and a
crossover assembly are incorporated into the service seal unit. Additional equipment - such
as wash pipe inside the screen and a circulating valve above the packer - may also be added.
See Figure 40.
As its major functions, the crossover assembly must provide :
• Means for setting and testing the packer
• Flow path for the sand slurry to be pumped down the workstring and out through the
ports in the port collar below the packer
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• Capability either to circulate fluids through the screen and out the workstring casing
annulus or to squeeze the fluids into the formation
• Means to release the crossover tool assembly from the packer
• Capability to reverse-circulate and clean out the screen and workstring after being
released from the packer
A crossover gravel-pack packer can be used with either circulation or slurry packs. When
slurry packs are performed, a bottom rather than a top telltale should be used. Also, the
tailpipe should be packed off on bottom so that returns are circulated through the lower
telltale.
Before selecting a supplier of such tools and services, an operator should consider the
following features, which have a bearing on the success of gravel pack placement :
• Wellbore fluids should not be allowed to flow through the screen while tripping in the
hole, since screen plugging can easily occur (especially in old wells).
• The ports on the crossover-tool outlet and port collar should overlap and should be
large. This features is especially important in high sand-concentration slurries and
when large gravel sizes are used.
• Some means must be provided to close or pack-off across the port collar after
completion of the pack.
• A positive indication of the tool position, such as squeeze (bullhead) or circulation,

should be available.
• The squeeze position should be maintained without the necessity of excessive tubing
weight.
• The tool should have an emergency release mechanism in case the primary releasing
device cannot be actuated.
11.8.8 Filtration
The first important consideration in gravel packing a well is the use of clean workover
fluids. Yet workover fluids vary in availability and quality. In some areas produced
formation fluids may be available; but even these fluids contain fines and possibly other by-
products of the production system, such as scale and hydrocarbons. The use of produced
fluids does offer one major advantage, however. Their chemical compatibility with the
formation being packed is usually greater than that of surface waters.
Where possible, fluids should be filtered to at least 20µ. Special caution must be exercised
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in filtering very dirty fluids, as the filtering devices tend to plug rapidly in the 20µ fliter
stage. When extremely clean fluids are required, filtering with devices down to 2µ may be
necessary.
Figure 41 is a schematic of the internal operation of a typical filtering system. The device
shown is a cartridge-type filter and is available from most service companies in the gravel
pack industry. This system is very effective, its filters are easily changed, and the cost is
reasonable.
In addition to the cartridge or sock-type filters, in certain areas several other filtering
systems are available, such as graded sand beds and diatomaceous-earth filter systems. The
major disadvantage of the graded bed filter is the extensive process required to exchange or
clean the filter media, which generally necessitates the presence of more than one cell on
location.
Figure 42 shows typical piping for a single-stage filtering unit. This unit may be used
where clean produced fluids are available. The filter cells are individually manifolded so
that one cell is used at a time. As the pressure differential across the system increases,
which will be noted on the inlet pressure gauge, that filter cell can be shut off and the
alternate cell opened for flow. The plugged filter cell can then be drained and the filtering
devices changed.
Figure 41. Typical filtering system
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Figure 42. Typical piping for single-stage filtering unit
11.8.9 Sand Injection
Figure 43 is a schematic of a typical downstream sand injector. Productivity testing

performed by Shell on its large-scale radial model has indicated that dirty gravel-pack
gravel can be a major source of productivity impairment. Because of the potential problems
of productivity decline and initial productivity impairment as a result of “crushed” sand, it
is recommended that sand be injected downstream of the high-pressure injection pumps
with a system comparable to the one illustrated.
Figure 43. Downstream sand injector
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This type injector also offers adjustable concentration control. It generally contains a choke
just upstream of the sand injection point and a by-pass control valve to drive the sand from
the pot. Opening the control valve will increase the flow rate through the sand, thereby
increasing the sand-fluid ratio. Similarly, closure of the valve will decrease the ratio. Such
a system will generally supply from 1/2 lb to as much as 1-1/2 lb of sand per gallon of fluid
pumped, which is sufficient for most ranges of desired sand-fluid concentration when low-
viscosity fluids such as water are used.
Blenders are normally used for mixing and handling high-gravel-concentration slurries.
They are available in a variety of shapes, sizes, and methods of operation. Blenders are no
more tanks in which the slurry is mixed and agitated (either mechanically or hydraulically)
before being pumped into the well.
11.8.10 Summary
Whether a well is gravel packed by either slurry or circulation fluids or whether wash
down, reverse circulation, or crossover placement techniques are selected, packing
technique is in many cases not the important issue. What is important is that the gravel is
placed properly around the screen and, in the case of cased-hole gravel packs, that the
perforations are prepacked. Several processes are capable of achieving excellent gravel
packed completions, but as has been mentioned earlier each has its particular advantages
and disadvantages. The choice of placement technique depends solely on the particular
well, reservoir, rig, and operating conditions.
11.9 PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION PRINCIPLES
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Plastic consolidation is a method of stopping sand production by artificially bonding the

formation sand grains together into a consolidated mass. Liquid chemicals are pumped
through the perforations and into the pore spaces of the formation sand. These chemicals
subsequently solidify to form the bonding material that holds the sand in place.
To successfully control sand, several important objectives must be reached in the

consolidation process. These objectives exist on both a macroscopic and microscopic scale.
A schematic representation of consolidation objectives is presented in Figure 44.
Figure 44. Plastic consolidation objectives
11.9.1 Macroscopic Objectives
The primary macroscopic, or large-scale, objective in a consolidation treatment is to bond

together the formation sand adjacent to every perforation. Because the treatment is
designed to function on formation sand, a zone several feet in radius around the wellbore
can be consolidated. A picture of a laboratory wellbore model after consolidation is shown
in Figure 45.
In Figure 45 a 1-in. pipe with two 0.5-in. perforations spaced one foot apart was surrounded
with formation-type sand. Consolidating fluid was pumped through the pipe and
perforations into the sand. It can be seen that the consolidation extends a full 360° around
the well; the consolidated radius is about one foot. It is important to recognize that the
consolidating fluid spreads around the entire wellbore circumference and also flows
vertically to enclose the well completely.
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Figure 45. Plastic distribution around a wellbore
The figure shows two distinct lobes consolidated sand, which seem to meet at a point half
way between the perforations. Had there been a plugged perforation between the two
perforations. Had there been a plugged perforation between the two open ones, it would
have been treated by consolidating fluids pumped through the open perforations. It is
important to treat every perforation, even though some of them may not permit fluid
injection. The necessity of covering every perforation cannot be overemphasized. The fact
that a perforation does not accept injected fluid during consolidation is no guarantee that it
will not permit fluid (and sand) flow during production.
The question often arises about how large a consolidated radius is necessary for a
successful treatment. Covering every perforation (to obtain high initial success) with a
sufficient amount of resin to allow for some deterioration (to achieve long lifetime) requires
an average consolidated radius of 2-3 ft.
11.9.2 Microscopic Objectives
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The three microscopic objectives, identified in Figure 1, are to : (1) coat the entire sand
grain with resin, (2) concentrate the resin at the contact points to bond the grains together,
and (3) leave the bulk of the pore space open for flow. A photograph from the scanning
electron microscope (Figure 46) illustrates the achievement of these objectives in an actual
consolidation of formation sand.
Coating the grains with resin indicates that the resin is wetting the sand surface and will
therefore form a good adhesive bond. Concentration of the wetting phase (resin) at the
grain contact points is a natural occurrence in all porous media when two phases are
present.
Before the resin hardens, the pore space is partially displaced with a non-reactive fluid.
Ordinarily, oil is used for this displacement, but water may also be used. Approximately
35% of the pore volume is filled with resin leaving the remainder open for flow.
Figure 46. Plastic coating on sand grains
11.9.3 Sand Coating Methods
Although there are many commercial consolidation processes, there are still only three
basic means of achieving the desired resin coating. These are described in the following
sections without specifically referring to the type of resin used.
Individual variations of these methods are described in the discussion of commercial

processes. The name given to each coating method refers, first, to the mechanism of mixing
the hardening agent with resin and, second, to the means of opening the pore space for fluid
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flow.
The Internally Catalyzed Phase Separation method employs the direct mixing of the resin
and hardening agent (catalyst) prior to contacting the sans; hence the description internally
catalyzed. Phase separation refers to the precipitation of the polymerized plastic from the
initial resin solution. At the end of the polymerization, there are two phases in the pore
space : polymerized plastic, which coats the sand, and solvent from the original resin
solution, which fills the bulk of the pore space and provides permeability.
A step-by-step representation of the pore space fluid saturations for an internally catalyzed
phase-separation plastic is shown in Figure 47A. Initially, the pore space is filled with
brine and oil, which are miscibly displaced with a mutual solvent preflush. The resin
solution then displaces the preflush to fill the pore space completely. The resin solution
then displaces the preflush to fill the pore space completely. At this point, fluid injection
ceases and the cure period begins. As the resin polymerizes, it becomes insoluble in the
carrier solvent and precipitates (phase separates) onto the sand grains. This leaves the
carrier solvent in the center of the pore space and a hardened resin film on the sand.
All the resin ingredients used in the Internally Catalyzed Overflush technique - including
the catalyst (or hardener) - are blended prior to injection. Permeability is achieved by
immiscible displacement of the excess resin by an inert fluid (usually an oil). A schematic
representation of this process is shown in Figure 47B. The oil and brine are displaced by
preflush, which in turn is displaced by resin. At this point, an oil is used to immiscibly
displace excess resin and to establish permeability. The resin is left as a coating on the
sand grains which then hardens without phase separating to cement the grains together.
The overflush process may be likened to the flushing of a water-saturated sand to residual
water with oil. With the consolidation process, a “residual resin” saturation is established
by the overflushing procedure. Typical “residual resin” saturations are 30-55% of the pore
volume.
Unlike the catalysts of the techniques described above, the catalyst in the In Situ Catalyzed
Overflush procedure is not included in the resin solution. Instead. it is dissolved in the
overflushing fluid and diffuses into the resin phase once the pore space has been
overflushed. A schematic representation of an in situ catalyzed overflush resin is given in
Figure 47C.
Separating the resin and catalyst during plastic placement overcomes the risks of limited
pumping time associated with internally catalyzed processes. In situ catalyzed resins retain
their original fluid state indefinitely, unless contacted with an overflush fluid containing
catalyst.
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Figure 47. Sand coating methods
11.10 PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION CHEMICALS
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Many chemicals are used during the plastic consolidation process. These chemicals can be
grouped into five functional categories : preflushes, resins/catalysts, diluents, coupling
agents and overflush fluids. The function of each chemical category as well as specific
chemical constituents are discussed in this section.
11.10.1 Preflush
A preflush is injected ahead of the consolidation resin to change either the fluid saturation
or the coating (wettability) of the formation sand. Surface preparation is vitally important
in any “gluing” operation. To be effective, there must be sufficient resin coating (wetting)
of the sand grains to provide adhesive strength. Achieving the desired “resin wet”
condition requires proper preparation of the formation prior to introducing the resin.
Probably the earliest uses of preflushes involved changing the fluid saturation near the
wellbore by injection of either Water or Oil. While these treatments cannot alter the
wetting of the sand surface, they can affect the resin saturation in the pore space.
By adding a Surfactant to an oil or water preflush, the sand wettability as well as the fluid
saturations can be changed. Fluid saturations other than residual water or residual oil can
be achieved with the aid of surfactants.
The term Mutual Solvent refers to a fluid that can simultaneously dissolve substatial
amounts of both brine and oil. This type of preflush is therefore useful in removing both
water and oil from the pore space. Two distinct types of phase behavior are exhibited by
these mutual solvents; they can be preferentially water-miscible or preferentially oil-
miscible.
If a preferentially water-miscible mutual solvent is added to equal volumes of brine and

crude, the volume of the aqueous phase will increase but the oil phase will show little
change in volume. As shown in Figure 48A, adding additional solvent eventually dissolves
both the oil and aqueous phase.
The type of mutual solvency illustrated in this example would be very effective in
mobilizing water in the formation pore space.
Adding a preferentially oil miscible mutual solvent to equal amounts of oil and brine will
primarily enlarge the oil phase, as shown in Figure 48B. Once again, if enough solvent is
added, both the aqueous and oil phases are totally dissolved. This type of phase behavior
would be effective in removing oil from a porous medium.
Laboratory experience has shown that most resins perform better if water is removed from
the pore space. This is not surprising since, in most sands, water is the wetting phase and
therefore the one that the resin must displace to achieve wetting. For this reason, a
preferentially water-miscible mutual solvent is often used as a preflush.
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Figure 48. Mutual solvent preflushes
11.10.2 Resin
Although there are many commercial plastic consolidation processes available, they are all
based on the polymerization reactions of either an epoxy, a furan, or a phenolic resin. The
basic resin reaction chemistry and physical properties are summarized in Figure 49 and
Table II.
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Figure 49. Consolidation chemistry
Table II
Summary of resin Properties
Wet Sands in
Reaction Softening Presence of Chemical
Resin Cured By By-Products Temperature Water Resistance
Epoxy Amines None 250°F No Excellent

Furan Strong Acid H2O 300°F Yes Excellent
Phenolic Strong Base H2O 300°F Yes Good
Epoxy resins are well known for their adhesive and surface-coating capabilities. The
hardening mechanism depends on the reaction of apoxide rings attached to each end of the
resin molecule. Two hardening reactions commonly encountered in sand consolidation
processes are illustrated in Figure 49A. The first reaction is the joining of two epoxide
rings which is promoted by a tertiary amine catalyst that does not take part in the reaction
itself. The second reaction is between an epoxide ring and a primary amine-curing agent.
Because there are no reaction by-products and there is little shrinkage during cure, epoxy
coatings are smooth, uniform, and highly resistant to chemical attack. Above 250°F,
ordinary epoxy formulations become soft and yield when placed under stress. This upper
temperature limit does not place any significant restrictions on usage for sand control, since
unconsolidated sands are rarely above 250°F.
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Furan consolidation systems are based on the polymerization of furfuryl alcohol with an
acid catalyst. The furfuryl alcohol molecules join together by forming a methylene bridge
(-CH2-) and releasing water as a by-product. This process is shown in Figure 49B. The
catalyst is usually a strong acid such as trichloroacetic acid (oil soluble) or hydrochloric
acid (water-soluble). Ordinarily, a mixture of furfuryl alcohol and furan resin is used. The
furan resin is prepared by partially polymerizing some furfuryl alcohol and then removing
the produced water. Furan polymerization reactions occur at a very rapid rate. Some
spontaneous polymerization occurs even at room temperature, which can limit the shelf life
of some resin formulations.
Phenolic resins are of great historical importance in consolidation because some of the
earliest processes, developed during the 1940’s, involved the use of a phenolic resin. The
resin is formed by the reaction between a phenol and an aldehyde. As seen in Figure 49C,
the result is a methylene bridge (-CH2-) linking two phenol molecules. Because there are
many sites on each phenol molecule to which the aldehyde may attach, the final structure is
always highly cross-linked.
11.10.3 Diluent
Almost every resin suitable for sand consolidation is too viscous to be pumped in the
undiluted state. Starting with undiluted resins having a viscosity of 100-10,000 cp, diluent
levels of 10-50% by weight are commonly required to each the desired 10-20 cp diluted
viscosity. Two types of diluents, reactive and non-reactive, are available for resin dilution.
A reactive diluent is able to polymerize with the resin while a non-reactive diluent is not.
Furfuryl alcohol is the most widely used Reactive diluent. It is used to dilute both furan
and phenolic resins. Furfuryl alcohol has two reactive sites; it therefore does not cause
chain termination during polymerization.
A Nonreactive diluent is an inert solvent that does not react chemically during the curing
process. Because it does not react, solvent left in the cured plastic serves only to weaken it.
It is of paramount importance that a non-reactive diluent be removed from the resin after
the resin solution has been injected into the formation.
11.10.4 Coupling Agent
Coupling agents in the plastic consolidation process serve the specific purpose of
chemically bonding resin to the silica surface. These chemical bonds are much stronger
than the usual attractive forces between the resin and the sand. The coupling-agent
molecule is chosen so that one end can react with the silica while the other end reacts with
the resin during polymerization. Dow-Corning Z-6020 is a typical organo-silane-coupling
agent. The organic end group (amine in this case) reacts with the resin whereas the silane
end group reacts with the sand.
H2NCH2CH2NH(CH2)3Si(OCH3)3
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reacts with resin reacts with silica
11.10.5 Overflush
The fluid used to overflush a plastic consolidation resin performs three important functions.
First, it must open a fluid pathway through the resin, filling the pore space so that the
consolidated sand will be permeable. Second, it usually must carry the catalyst into the
pore spaces to harden the resin coating. Third, the overflushing fluid is sometimes required
to extract the diluent from the resin.
To displace the excess resin efficiently from the pore space, the overflush fluid should be
more viscous than the resin. A favorable mobility (viscosity) ratio is necessary to prevent
the fluid from fingering or channeling through the resin.
By far the most common overflush fluid is diesel. Price and availability considerations
make diesel an attractive candidate. However, diesel viscosity is only 3 to 5 cp as opposed
to 10 to 20 cp for the typical resin. This difference makes the mobility ratio unfavorable for
displacing resin with diesel.
Several systems employ more highly refined oils than diesel. These include motor oil
brightstock, white oil, and process oil. The overflush-resin mobility ratio can be controlled
with these more viscous oil grades.
Recently, water brine has been used as an overflush fluid. It can compete economically
with diesel and offers a decreased pollution risk from a spill. The mobility ratio problem is
compounded by using a water overflush, since its viscosity is even less than diesel.
11.11 WELL PREPARATION FOR PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION
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11.11.1 Objective
Proper preparation of the well prior to consolidation can have a significant impact on job
success. One goal of the well preparation sequence is to ensure that all resin is displaced
from the wellbore tubulars and equipment into the formation. Serious production problems
can arise if even a portion of the resin hardens inside the wellbore. The second important
goal of the well preparation procedure is to achieve a uniform distribution of resin around
the well.
11.11.2 Wellbore Equipment
Sound wellbore equipment is absolutely essential if sand consolidation treatments are to be

successful. Any conditions allowing consolidation chemicals to enter areas of the wellbore
other than the interval to be treated will not only result in an unsuccessful job, but also can
cause the hole to be junked.
An unrepaired leak in the wellbore tubular goods is the surest way to glue a workstring in
the well. Damage that allows fluid to leak from the workstring/tubing annulus will permit
fluids to exit the wellbore at some point other than the perforations. Resin (and
subsequently catalyst) will flow up the annulus, causing the bottom portion of the
workstring to be glued into the well. The current record is 3000 ft of workstring glued into
a well.
A wide variety of conditions can cause leaks. Obviously, conditions such as split casing,
split tubing, or a failed squeeze cement treatment are major sources. If the well is on gas
lift, the valves are usually replaced with dummies to prevent damage. Each gas-lift mandrel
is therefore a potential leak site. At the very least, the gas-lift annulus should be killed and
a gauge used to monitor its pressure during the treatment. Preferably, the tubing string
should be pulled and the gauge-lift mandrels removed.
The surface-controlled subsurface safety valve is another potential leak source. This too
must be pulled and replaced by a dummy to prevent resin from entering the control lines.
The pressure of any annular space associated with the safety valve should be monitored to
detect leaks.
If a well has sanded up, it is frequently convenient to test the integrity of the wellbore
tubulars at this time. Since no fluid can be injected through the perforations in the sanded-
up condition, pressure testing of the casing or tubing can be easily performed.
11.11.3 Perforating
The relationship between perforating practices and sand control success has been the topic
of many studies during the past few years. The results of these studies can be used to
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define clearly the goals of a perforating technique used in conjunction with plastic
consolidation.
Every study of plastic consolidation has conclusively demonstrated that increasing the shot
density also increases the chances for sand control. The results of such a study are shown
in Figure 50. Long-term consolidation success is clearly improved by 20% when 4 shots/ft
are used as opposed to 1 or 2 shots/ft. Not every well can be perforated at 4 shots/ft
because of mechanical considerations, especially multiple tubingless wells. The goal of a
perforating operation should be to achieve the maximum number of perforations possible
under the circumstances. Shot densities in excess of 4 shots/ft are not generally used with
plastic consolidation systems. The perforations are left open after consolidation so they are
not a restriction to fluid production.
Figure 50. Effect of perforation density on consolidation success
Perforation size is not nearly as important in plastic consolidation as is the number of holes.
Ideally, however, one would like as big a hole as possible to increase the flow area and to
reduce the local drawdown stress. In gravel packing, large perforations are required
because they are always filled with gravel. In consolidation, the perforation tunnels are left
open, so their diameter is of less importance.
11.11.4 Prepacking
Prepacking a formation prior to consolidation involves filling the formation’s void spaces
with sand. Void spaces in the near-wellbore region can lead to resin channeling with a
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resulting uneven plastic distribution. If void spaces become large enough, segregation of
resin and catalyst will occur. The less dense catalyst oil will float over the resin, leaving a
significant portion of the resin uncured.
The correlation between prepacking and consolidation success has been firmly established
by several field lifetime studies. The results of the most recent study are shown in Figure
51. To eliminate as many variables as possible, the scope of this particular study was
limited to intervals perforated with 2 shots/ft and consolidated with base catalyzed phenolic
(BCP) resin. All were “old intervals” that had produced sand prior to treatment. The
results clearly show that a significant benefit accrues when “old intervals” are prepacked
prior to consolidation.
Figure 51. Effect of prepacking on consolidation success
Sand control success for “old intervals” after prepacking is seen in Figure 51 to be
equivalent to success in “new intervals” that have not produced sand.
The procedure used for prepacking the formation is uncomplicated and easily performed.
Sand is suspended at low concentration in a low-viscosity carrier fluid and pumped into the
formation until a sand-out occurs. Ordinarily, the well is reversed clean and the procedure
repeated until a second sand-out occurs.
A 40/60 U.S. mesh sand is used for most sandpacking operations. This sand size is easily
suspended in the carrier fluid and is readily consolidated by resin. Larger sand grains do
not have a sufficient number of contact points to be strongly consolidated. The 40/60 sand
is at least 10 times more permeable than any formation sand; therefore, no production
impairment will result from prepacking.
11.11.5 Injectivity Testing
The ultimate goal of any injectivity testing procedure is to ensure that the consolidation
chemicals may all be pumped without exceeding the fracture pressure of the formation.
The injectivity response must be determined in advance because, once pumped,
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consolidation chemicals cannot be recovered and reused.
Exceeding the formation fracture pressure is not permissible on a matrix-type treatment. In

such treatments (of which consolidation is an example), the goal is to have fluid reach every
pore space in the near-wellbore region. Exceeding the fracture pressure allows a channel to
develop, leading the treating fluids away from the area immediately surrounding the
perforations. No consolidation treatment will succeed if the fracture pressure is exceeded.
Most consolidation fluids are four to five times more viscous than diesel. A pressure
increase of 300-500 psi recorded during injectivity testing with diesel will therefore lead to
a 1200-2500 psi increase at the formation face when consolidation fluids are pumped at the
same rate. Under most circumstances, this would be sufficient injectivity to allow pumping
of the consolidation chemicals. However, a check should always be made to see that the
static pressure plus the injection pressure during consolidation does not exceed the fracture
pressure.
11.11.6 Acidizing
Acidizing is a method for removing clay, scale, and other particulate material from the
formation sand. Plugging of perforations by particles suspended in the workover fluid or by
particles loosened from the walls of the casing or tubing is a common occurrence during
workover operations. The particles impair injectivity (and subsequent productivity) and
must be removed prior to consolidation. The presence of these damaging solids can usually
be identified during an injectivity test.
In addition to improving injectivity, mud acid benefits a consolidation treatment by

cleaning the sand grain surfaces. Fresh silica is exposed by removing clay, feldspar and
other minerals from the pore space. Maximum bond strength is developed between the
consolidation resin and a freshly etched silica surface. Thus, even when no injectivity
problem exists, an acid treatment is frequently recommended to improve the strength of the
consolidated sand.
11.11.7 Neutralizer
An acid treatment must be followed by a neutralizing solution to remove residual acidity

from the sand. Residual acidity can be responsible for poor consolidation in one of two
ways. When an acid-catalyzed consolidation plastic is used, residual acidity will cause
premature hardening of the resin with subsequent loss in permeability. On the other hand,
when a base-catalyzed plastic is used, residual acid reacts with the catalyst and prevents
hardening of the resin.
Neutralizer capacity can be provided by using either ammonium bicarbonate (NH4HCO3) or

ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). These bases may be used interchangeably to provide a
neutralization capacity of 0.25 mole/liter.
The volume of neutralizer must be sufficiently large to displace residual acid from the pore
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space. To be effective, a minimum volume of 100 gal/ft of neutralizer is needed.

Ordinarily, however, a volume of 150 gal/ft is recommended to ensure effectiveness. The
cost of the neutralizer is typically low and is therefore not a major treatment expense item.
Two typical neutralizer formulas are shown below :
I II
H2O 150 gal H2O 150 gal

NH4Cl 50 lb NH4Cl 50 lb
NH4HCO3 25 lb NH4OH 12.5 lb
11.12 PLASTIC PLACEMENT
11.12.1 Objective
The procedure used to place (or inject) consolidation fluids has a large impact on job
success. Consolidation involves a chemical reaction between several of the injected fluids.
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For the results of this reaction to be predictable, the reactants must arrive at the formation
face in an uncontaminated condition.
Several unique injection procedures have been developed to deal with the placement
problem. Although each is different, all of them were designed with three common
objectives :
• To control fluid flow in the wellbore
• To segregate reactive components
• To protect wellbore tubular goods against excessive plastic buildup
11.12.2 Rathole Fluid
Because of its density (9.0 - 9.2 lb/gal), resin tends to sink into the rathole below the
perforations, displacing the original contents of the rathole (usually brine) into the
formation. This displacement process has two detrimental consequences. First, the rathole
is left full of resin which can become partially catalyzed during consolidation. The second
and possibly more detrimental consequence of rathole fluid movement is the contamination
of the formation sand with brine displaced from the rathole by resin. Simultaneous
injection of resin and brine causes brine to wet some of the sand surfaces, and in so doing
prevents wetting and adhesion by the resin. The remedy for this problem is to fill the
rathole with a fluid that is more dense than the resin.
A dense brine (9.5 - 9.8 lb/gal) can be circulated into the rathole with a workstring. Dense
bring has been used successfully many times in the field, but its use is somewhat time
consuming and is easily omitted from the procedure. Dense brine is satisfactory in non-
critical applications, but is not sufficiently reliable for use with epoxy resins that are
sensitive to the presence of water.
In the case of an epoxy consolidation process, introduction of water from the rathole during
resin injection reduces the strength of the final consolidation. In this situation, the use of
the more reliable o-nitrotoluene rathole filling method is essential. O-nitrotoluene, a dense
(9.66 lb/gal) organic liquid, is pumped to the perforated interval. As illustrated in Figure
52, a portion of the o-nitrotoluene sinks into the rathole due to gravitational forces, while
the excess is injected out the perforations into the formation. Brine displaced from the
rathole is similarly injected into the formation. To minimize the amount of o-nitrotoluene
needed, the rathole depth should be limited to 25 ft. Based on current safety information, o-
nitrotoluene should not be used with organic acid chloride catalysts (such as Halliburton’s
Sanfix).
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Figure 52. Rathole filling with 0-nitrotoluene
11.12.3 Annulus Fluid
Fluid movement must be prevented in the annulus between the workstring and casing for
the region above the perforations. If the annulus will not stand full of fluid, then injection
down the workstring into the formation will cause the fluid level in the annulus to rise.
This condition can allow some of the resin to flow up the annulus after leaving the
workstring. Any catalyst that flows up into the annulus will harden the resin on the
workstring. This invariable glues several joints of pipe into the well.
To prevent this situation, the annulus should be filled with diesel. When the bottomhole
pressure is low that the annulus will not stand full of diesel, a packer should be run on a
workstring. A Halliburton “RTSS” packer (or equivalent) is commonly used for this
application. Customarily, about 30 ft of tailpipe is used below the packer. With either a
diesel-filled annulus or a packer, fluid movement in the annulus will be eliminated.
11.12.4 Concentric Workstring
Perhaps the most versatile means of placing consolidation fluids is with a concentric
workstring. One advantage is the small volume of fluid needed to fill the workstring. This
allows precise injection of the small chemical volumes usually encountered in consolidation
treatments. Figure 53 shows the equipment layout for a typical 1-inch workstring
consolidation treatment.
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Figure 53. Concentric workstring placement technique
After completing the well preparation, it is time to begin the actual consolidation treatment.
If the rathole is to be filled with dense brine, it should be done now. Next, the workstring is
pulled to the top of the perforations and the well reversed full of diesel. An injectivity test
should be run to decide whether an acid treatment will be required. If needed, the well
should be acidized and neutralized. Finally, the workstring should be pressure tested before
pumping the consolidation chemicals.
The workstring should be positioned 10-15 ft above the perforated interval. Most
consolidation procedures are straightforward, requiring only that the chemicals be pumped
in the correct sequence. Tanks with the proper amount of each chemical ingredient should
be on location and clearly identified. The pump suction hose is moved sequentially to each
tank.
Workstring movement during the treatment is very limited. Once all the resin has exited the
bottom of the workstring, and spacer fluid begins to enter the perforations, the workstring is
usually picked up 5 ft. This ensures that the end of the workstring is not in contact with the
resin that has coated the casing wall. After all the consolidating fluids have been injected,
the workstring is picked up an additional 20-30 ft. At no time after beginning to pump the
consolidation resin should the workstring be lowered.
Because it is the most effective method for completely segregating consolidation fluids, the
concentric workstring method is probably the best injection technique. For this reason, it
should be used any time that a rig is on location.
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11.12.5 Conventional Workstring
The placement procedure for conventional and concentric workstrings is essentially

identical. However, the large internal volume of a conventional workstring - approximately
30 bbl or 1200 gal - necessitates a slight change in job approach. The preflush, resin,
spacer and a portion of the catalyst oil are pumped into the workstring before the preflush
ever reaches the formation sand. Because all the chemicals are in the tubing
simultaneously, a greater opportunity exists for adjacent chemicals to mix.
This mixing is primarily dependent on time spent in the tubing and not on flow rate. For
this reason, it is recommended that a pumping rate of 0.5 - 1.0 bpm be used to minimize the
time required to pump the chemicals to bottom. Because of fluid mixing, small chemical
volumes cannot be successfully pumped through a conventional workstring. For most
applications, the volume required to consolidate a 6 ft interval is the minimum amount of
fluid to pump. A shorter interval can be treated, but the chemical volume for a 6 ft interval
should be used.
11.12.6 Bullhead
The term bullheading refers to pumping the consolidation chemicals directly down the
permanent production tubing or casing. The wells can be either tubingless or conventional
completions with 2-3/8, 2-7/8, or 3-1/2 in. tubing. The chemicals are pumped through the
Christmas tree, since there is no workstring or rig. The same volume consideration as in
conventional workstrings also applies to bullhead placement.
The equipment requirements for the bullhead placement method are shown in Figure 54.
Since it is not possible to circulate the rathole full of brine without a rig, o-nitrotoluene
injection is the preferred rathole-filling technique. In conventional completions, the
annulus between the tailpipe below the packer and the casing must be filled with diesel.
Since there is no rig to circulate this fluid into place, it can be positioned only by pumping
the diesel to bottom and letting gravity direct it to the proper location.
Bullheading is the preferred technique when a rig is not needed on location. Such instances
include initial completions and recompletions in which the zone is to be perforated and then
consolidated. If, however, a well is sanded up and requires a rig for cleanout, a workstring
placement method would be preferred.
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Figure 54. Bullhead placement technique
11.12.7 Restoring Production
After consolidation, most wells will return to the productivity observed prior to treatment,
and some wells will produce at a higher rate. Significant productivity loss due to
consolidation can be treated by either HCL acidizing or reperforating. However, if the
problem is caused by poor reservoir quality, then little can be done to improve the
production rate.
If productivity loss is severe, acidizing with HCL after the consolidation resin cures has
been found to be an effective method for improving well productivity. Hydrochloric acid
will not harm the consolidation strength once the resin has cured.
If attempts to restore productivity with HCL have been unsuccessful, reperforation of the
consolidated interval can be attempted. The exact same interval that was consolidated must
be reperforated to avoid reaching sand that was not treated by resin injection. This
requirement calls for good depth control and close attention by service company personnel.
11.13 COMMERCIAL PLASTIC CONSOLIDATION SYSTEMS
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Through the years, many plastic consolidation processes have been developed and
commercialized. Claims abound regarding the advantages and virtues of each chemical
system. The discussion presented in the following pages will attempt to establish the
important criteria for evaluating consolidation processes, and then to measure the
performance of each commercial system using these criteria. Treatment design information
will be presented for a few systems offered commercially.
11.13.1 Evaluation Criteria
Selecting the best plastic consolidation process requires a comparison of strength,

permeability, and aging characteristics. Other considerations such as cost and method of
application are also usually important.
Uniaxial compressive strength is used as a laboratory test to measure how well the sand
grains are cemented together. Consolidation processes that yield compressive strengths of
1000-2000 psi are capable of withstanding drawdown forces of 2000-3000 psi. This is
considerably above the drawdown pressure drop encountered in most wells. Thus, any
plastic system capable of developing 1000-2000 psi in initial compressive strength is fully
capable of controlling sand initially.
Evaluating the permeability retention of a consolidation process involves measuring the

absolute (single phase) permeability of the sand before and after treatment. This
permeability ratio (after consolidation/before consolidation) is defined as the permeability
retention. Permeability retentions on the order of 70-80% are the best that can be achieved
without sacrificing compressive strength.
Almost any commercial consolidation process generating 1000-2000 psi in initial

compressive strength would be acceptable if the properties did not change with time.
Unfortunately, all consolidation plastics show deterioration when exposed to reservoir
fluids for an extended period of time. When the strength drops below that necessary to
withstand the drawdown forces, the plastic fails and the well begins to produce sand.
Knowledge of the plastic’s aging characteristics is an important criterion in evaluating a
consolidation process.
11.13.2 Data Sources
Most of the useful commercial consolidation processes have been tested in the laboratory.
The current laboratory testing procedure employs a 4-ft linear model. A drawing of the test
equipment is shown in Figure 55. In addition to data on strength and permeability of the
consolidation process, this apparatus yields information about how deeply resin can
penetrate into the sand.
Another important consolidation testing apparatus, shown in Figure 56, is the large 5-ft
radial model. In this model, the sandpack is 1-ft thick, covers one-fifth of a circle (70° arc),
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and extends up to 5-ft from the wellbore. Tests conducted in this model give information
about the size and properties of the consolidated sand mass under radial flow conditions.
Actual field results are the most valuable of the data used to evaluate a sand consolidation
process. Because the conditions vary so widely between wells, however, a statistical
approach must be used to evaluate job success. To be valid, this approach requires that a
large number of treatments be performed. It is obviously impractical to generate field
lifetime results for every consolidation process. But it is possible to correlate the initial
laboratory properties of the systems for which there are field results.
Figure 55. Linear model schematic
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Figure 56. Radial model schematic
11.13.3 Evaluation Summary
A broad overview of the number and types of commercial plastic consolidation systems
may be obtained by examining Table III. The systems are listed by resin type along with
the trade name and developer. Next, there appears information on the method of catalysis
and the manner in which permeability is obtained. The values for resin viscosity are
measured at room temperature and may be used as a guide for comparing the ease with
which the resins can be pumped.
Table III
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Commercial Plastic Consolidation Systems Evaluated
Obtain Resin Initial Permeability Placement Field

Resin Trade Name Developer Catalysis Permeability Viscosity Strength * Retention * Technique Experience
(cp@70°°F) (psi)
Epoxy Epoxy II+ Exxon In Situ Overflush 16 6000 60% Bullhead Good
EPR Epoxy Exxon In Situ Overflush 80 6000 60% 1-inch Good

Eposand 112 Shell Internal Overflush 15 5800 53% Bullhead Fair
Eposand 9 Shell Internal Phase sep 10 3500 70% Bullhead None
Chevron Chevron In Situ Overflush 100+ 4500 65% 1-inch None
Epoxy
Santrol BJ Hughes Internal Overflush 15 - - Bullhead None
Furan Sanfix + Halliburton In Situ Overflush 15 3500 55% Bullhead Good

Enriched Halliburton In Situ Overflush 26 2000 50% Bullhead None
Sanfix
Hydrofix + Halliburton In Situ Overflush 22 4200 27% Bullhead Good
Phenolic- Sandbond V Compl.Svcs In Situ Overflush 35 5100 21% Bullhead Fair

Furan .
Sandbond VI+ Compl.Svcs In Situ Overflush 35 - - Bullhead Fair
.
K200 Dowell In Situ Overflush 35 2800 60% Bullhead Limited
Phenolic BCP+ Exxon Internal Phase sep 10 1800 65% 1-inch Good
K86-87 Dowell Internal Overflush 22 1000 60% Bullhead None
K90 Dowell Internal Overflush 16 4000 60% Bullhead None
* 48-inch linear core test on mud-acidized Brazos River sand

+ systems used widely by Exxon
The next two columns show data on the initial compressive strength and permeability
retention of each system. Under placement technique, when the term bullhead appears, it
implies that placement may be made with any of the methods. When the term 1-inch
appears, it means that only a concentric workstring should be used to place resin. Finally,
operator’s field experience with each system is listed. Systems listed as having limited
experience have had fewer than 10 jobs performed and evaluated.
Based on the data presented in Table III, it appears that epoxy resins consistently provide
the highest compressive strengths while maintaining good permeability retention. Furan
and phenolic-furan resins are nearly equal in performance and as a class provide the next
best compressive strength. Finally, phenolic resins provide the least compressive strength,
although their strength are above or equal to the 1000 psi minimum recommended
compressive strength.
11.13.4 Epoxy II
The Epoxy II process was developed by Exxon to have a low viscosity (15 cp) thus
allowing considerable flexibility in the placement procedure. A job design is given in
Table IV that can be used with either the concentric workstring or bullhead placement
technique.
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As with all epoxy resins, water must be excluded from the formation during plastic
placement. O-Nitrotoluene has been included in the job procedure to displace brine from
the rathole, which thereby ensures that the resin will not become contaminated with water.
The 300 gal listed on the job design is sufficient to fill a 25-ft rathole depth.
The preflush is composed of Exxon Chemical’s Corexit 8626, a brine-miscible mutual

solvent. A viscosifier (PVP) and a coupling agent (Z-6020) have been included in the
preflush solution. The resin is a mixture of an epoxy resin and two diluents.
Although the actual formation temperature after pumping the consolidation fluids is not
needed for the job design, the possibility of excessive formation cooling must still be kept
in mind. The system is designed for a 20-40°F cooling by the injected fluids. For this
reason, pumping rates should be 1/4-3/8 bpm in 1-in. workstrings and 1/2 bpm in
production size tubing.
Radial model test results for Epoxy II are shown in Figure 57. The consolidated radius was
measured to be 32 inches from the wellbore. A series of cores were taken from the
consolidated mass at increasing radial distances. These cores were analyzed for porosity,
resin content, permeability and compressive strength. The average compressive strength
was 6500 psi and the composite permeability retention was 77%.
Table IV
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Epoxy II Job Design*
Fluid Ingredients Volume Comments
Standard acid/Mutual Recommended for increasing

solvent treatment consolidation effectiveness.
Neutralizer Water 150 gal 150 gal/ft Use only if acid treatment was
NH4Cl 50 lb performed. Can substitute 12.5 lb
NH4HCO3 25 lb NH4OH for NH4HCO3.
Wellbore conditioner o-Nitrotoluene 300 gal 300 gal Limit rathole depth to 25 ft. o-
Nitrotoluene is available from DuPont.
Preflush Corexit 8626 100 gal 100 gal/ft PVP is available from GAF. Z-6020
PVP (Type K-90) 4.0 lb coupling agent is sold by DOw-
Z-6020 0.5 gal Corning. Corexit 8626 is a product of
Exxon Chemical.
Resin Epoxy II resin 55 gal 55 gal/ft Epoxy II will be mixed at the service
company yard.
Spacer oil Mentor 28 20 gal 30 gal/ft Wiper balls are not required with this
Flexon 766 10 gal low viscosity formulation.
Catalyst oil Mentor 28 167 gal 257 gal/ft Mentor 28 and Flexon 766 are Exxon
Flexon 766 83 gal USA products. DMP-30 is available
DMP-30 7.5 gal from Rohm and Haas and epoxy resin
suppliers.
Diesel Diesel 100 gal 100 gal/ft
Displacement Diesel Tubing volume After displacement, allow curing time

of 12 hr.
* Temperature Range : 140-200°F static BHT

Placement Technique : Bullhead or concentric workstring
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Figure 57. Epoxy II radial model results
11.13.5 Sanfix
Halliburton’s Sanfix was one of the first furan-based consolidation systems. A job design
for Sanfix is shown in Table V. The resin is in situ catalyzed and requires overflushing to
develop permeability. The primary ingredient is a partially polymerized furfuryl alcohol
resin diluted with unpolymerized furfuryl alcohol.
It is recommended that a mud acid treatment precede the consolidation. As with any
consolidation treatment, neutrlization of the residual acid is essential prior to injection of
resin. In the case of an acid-catalyzed resin, residual acid can cause premature hardening.
Preflushing ahead of Sanfix resin is best accomplished with plain diesel. In the laboratory,
mutual solvents did not benefit the strength of Sanfix consolidations. Following the
preflush are resin and spacer fluid (without surfactant). Finally, there is the catalyst oil,
which is diesel containing just 0.8% of the catalyst (Sanfix C2).
Ease of application in the field has always been an attractive feature of the Sanfix process.
Because furan resin will wet sand in the presence of water, special procedures to exclude
water are not necessary. The Sanfix resin is routinely placed with either a workstring or
bullhead technique. Because of the rapid resin cure, pumping rates, formation cooling, and
other placement variables do not affect the cure of the resin.
11.13.6 Field Results
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Through the years, many studies of plastic consolidation field results have been performed.
Schroeder and Tucker summarized 20 years’ experience in the Grande Isle Block 16 field
through 1968, and analyzed sand control methods in terms of both initial success and
longevity. The report of Carr analyzes plastic consolidation results between January 1970
and May 1974. Powell compared and analyzed sand consolidation and gravel packs
performed on offshore formations between January 1970 and June 1975.
During 1970-76 the two consolidation systems used most often were BCP (483 Jobs) and
Halliburton’s Sanfix (156 Jobs). The success curves calculated according to standard
success curve methods are shown in Figure 59. The results are expressed as sand control
success versus cumulative fluid production (oil and water). To cause a decrease in job
success, a well must start producing sand. Wells removed from production due to reservoir
depletion or mechanical failure do not directly affect the success curves.
The initial success rate at zero production was 80-90%. Success slowly declined as the first
400-500 kbbl were produced, and then held steady for the next 500 kbbl. The average long-
term success for all systems was about 50%.
Figure 59. Plastic consolidation field results 1970-76
Since 1976 several new plastic systems have become available. A survey of USA
Operators showed that six different systems were being used during 1978-1982. These
systems and their frequency of use are shown in Figure 60. Halliburton’s Sanfix was the
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most frequently used system with 30% usage. Epoxy II (22%), BCP (17%), and Sandbond
VI (15%) were also used extensively. The aqueous catalyzed systems Hydrofix and
Sandbond V were used only to a limited extent. The bar labeled “Other” in Figure 60
represents systems that were used only once or twice.
Figure 60. Plastic consolidation systems used 1978-82
11.14 RESIN-COATED SAND
Controlling sand with a resin-coated sand pack is based on principles derived from both
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gravel packing and consolidation.
11.14.1 Objective
Like a gravel pack. a resin-coated sand pack is sized to hold back the formation sand;
however, a resin coating, rather than a screen, holds the pack sand in position. The pack
sand is pumped into the void spaces outside the casing as well as into the perforation
tunnels. The pack sand is sized according to standard gravel packing techniques to retain
the formation sand.
The resin coating is applied to the pack sand at the surface before pumping. After pumping,
this resin hardens to bond the sand grains together. Once bonded in position, the pack sand
will then retain the loose formation sand. No screen or liner is needed to keep the pack
sand in position. A schematic is illustrated in Figure 61.
Figure 61. Resin-coated sand pack
11.14.2 Sand Coating Methods
Two methods are available for initially coating sand with resin. In one case, the uncured
resin forms a liquid coating on the sand, while a second technique produces a solid coating
of uncured resin.
To produce a liquid resin coating, sand is first mixed with the carrier fluid to form a slurry.
A silane coupling agent can be added at this time to promote wetting and adhesion by the
resin. Finally, the liquid resin is added to form a coating on the sand.
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Because some of the resin diluent is extracted by the carrier fluid, the resin coating on the
sand becomes very viscous. Increased viscosity helps prevent resin removal during the
placement operation.
Liquid resin systems employ chemicals similar to conventional plastic consolidation

processes. Epoxy resins internally catalyzed with amines are in widespread use. Because
they react very rapidly, liquid furan resin coatings are usually in situ catalyzed by acids.
Solid resin coatings may be applied to sand in two ways. A solid resin can be melted,
mixed with the sand, and allowed to cool. Alternatively, the solid resin can be dissolved in
a solvent, mixed with the sand, and then the solvent evaporated. Both of these methods
require specialized processing equipment; hence, the resin is applied at a factory before
shipment to the well site.
Solid-resin coated sand is dry, free flowing and capable of being bagged and handled as
ordinary sand. The resin softens somewhat on exposure to water or diesel, so that when
immersed in liquid and compressed, the grains will adhere to one another. Elevated
temperatures (> 140°F) cause the resin to cure into a hard plastic that binds the sand into a
hard porous matrix.
11.14.3 Placement Procedures
Although each individual resin-coated sand process has recommended mixing and pumping
procedure, most techniques employ the same placement fundamentals. Initially, the pack
sand is sized on the basis of the formation sand sieve analysis. This procedure usually
results in the selection of 20/40 or 40/60 U.S. mesh sand.
The amount of slurry to be mixed depends on the length of the perforated interval.
Generally, one or two sacks of sand per foot of perforated interval will be needed. In
addition, sufficient sand must be available to fill the rathole and a portion of the casing
above the perforations.
Once mixed, the slurry is injected into the well through a conventional workstring. A
bullhead technique cannot be used, since excess sand must be removed from the well prior
to production. To minimize the mixing of slurry with other fluids in the casing, the end of
the workstring is positioned 40-60 ft above the perforations. The preflush chemicals (if
any) are pumped into the well followed by the slurry. The slurry pumping rate is kept low
to avoid fracturing the formation.
Slurry pumping continues until a “sand-out” occurs. At this point, there are two possible
procedures. Internally catalyzed systems are usually allowed to cure in the “sand-out”
condition. The sand in the casing is later removed with a mill. In situ catalyzed systems
may be reversed out of the wellbore and the sandpacking procedure repeated. After the
final washout, a catalyst solution is injected to harden the resin.
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To overcome the problems associated with uneven sand distribution, system formulators
have incorporated extra resin to consolidate some of the formation sand along with the pack
sand. The extra resin may be added to the initial resin-sand slurry, or it may be pumped as
a separate step after the pack sand is in place. If resin in excess of the amount needed to
coat the pack sand is incorporated into the initial slurry, resin leak-off from the slurry to the
formation sand will occur. This procedure will increase the radius of the consolidation
around the well, leading (one hopes) to an improved lifetime.
11.14.4 Commercial Systems
Table VI is a compilation of the significant features of current commercial resin-coated

sand. They are listed according to resin type along with the trade name and developer.
Next appears information on the method of catalysis and whether additional resin can be
used to consolidate some of the formation sand. The strength of the resin coating on 20/40
U.S. mesh sand is reported in the next column.
Resin-coated sand packs are routinely evaluated on the same basis as a sand consolidation
resin. Initial strength and permeability retention of the sand are determined. Unfortunately,
these tests represent the status of the resin-coated sand before injection into the formation.
There are no data available to evaluate the sand pack after placement.
Table VI
Commercial Resin-Coated Sand Systems
Additional Strength Well Field

Resin Trade Name Developer Catalysis Resin on 20/40 Cleanout Experience
Stage (psi)
Epoxy Sandlock IV Dowell Internal No 2500 Drill Limited
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(Liquid) Sandlock V Dowell Internal No - Drill Limited

Aqua-Epon Shell Internal No 1000 Drill None
Hydrocon-E Halliburton Internal No - Drill None
Comp-Perm Completion Internal No - Drill None
Service
San-Stop BJ Hughes Internal No - Drill Limited
Furan Conpac Halliburton In Situ Yes 2500 Wash Limited

(Liquid) Conpac II-H Halliburton Internal No 2500 Wash or Drill None
Hydrocon Halliburton In Situ Yes 2500 Wash Limited
Phenolic Super Sand Santrol Internal No 2500 Wash or Drill Limited

(Solid) Baker Bond Baker Internal No - Wash or Drill None
Ac Frac CR Acme Internal No - Wash or Drill None
Because the sand is resin-coated under controlled conditions at the surface, there is a wider
choice of chemical ingredients than in a conventional consolidation process. For this
reason, a high-strength resin may be formulated with little difficulty. However, because
there are fewer grain-to-grain contact points with 20/40 U.S. mesh sand than with formation
sand, the consolidated strength of the 20/40 resin-coated sand is lower than comparable
sand consolidation processes. The initial strength of most commercial resin-coated sand is
well above the 1000-2000 psi compressive strength needed to prevent sand production.
The permeability of either 20/40 or 40/60 U.S. mesh sand is so much higher than typical
formation sand that no productivity impairment should occur. However, if there is
sufficient mixing between the resin-coated and formation sands during or after placement,
well productivity will be affected. Data to evaluate the permeability after placement are not
available for the various commercial resin-coated sands.
11.14.5 Field Results
Field experience with resin-coated sand has been fairly limited. Over the past 20 years only
two systems, Conpac and Super Sand, have been evaluated on more than 10 wells.
During the late 1960’s, a series of 26 jobs were done in the USA with Halliburton’s Conpac
I system. The results, however, were disappointing from a lifetime standpoint. A similar
study of Conpac in USA’s Harvey District revealed a success rate of only 39%.
A total of 35 jobs have been performed and evaluated with Super Sand. Job experience has
been good with 32 of the 35 jobs judged to be successful. The most successful applications
has been by Oil Company G in a shallow-steam flood. After placement, the Super Sand is
heated to above 250°F with steam. This high cure temperature promotes good resin
strength, and job success has been excellent. The number of actual applications have been
too few to draw a firm conclusion about the merits of the process.
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11.15 SELECTING A SAND CONTROL METHOD
Once the decision has been made to perform a sand control treatment on a well, the
question of which method to use still remains. Generally the choice must be made from
among plastic consolidation, resin-coated sand pack, or gravel pack. This decision is made
on the basis of wellbore and completion requirements, as well as economics. The three
sand control options are illustrated in Figure 62.
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Figure 62. Sand control techniques
11.15.1 Plastic Consolidation
The objective of a plastic consolidation technique is to treat the formation in the immediate
vicinity of the wellbore with a material that will bond the sand grains together at their
points of contact. This is accomplished by injecting liquid chemicals through the
perforations and into the formation. These chemicals subsequently harden to form the
bonding material (usually a plastic). For these treatments to be effective, two requirements
must be met. First, the formation must be treated (consolidated) outside all perforations.
Second, the consolidated sand mass must remain permeable to well fluids. As a sand
control method, consolidation offers many advantages. First, future workovers are
simplified because no mechanical equipment is left in the wellbore. An expensive fishing
job is thus avoided in case of a sand control failure. Second, because all of the formation
material is cemented together for several feet surrounding the wellbore, the productivity
decline associated with the migration of fine particles toward the wellbore is absent.
Third, on wells that have not sanded up, consolidation can be performed without a rig. This
can be of special benefit in initial completions and recompletions.
Offsetting these benefits are the two primary disadvantages of a consolidation technique:
cost and coverage. The cost of a treatment is currently $ 2500-4000 per foot of perforated
interval. At this price, the cost of consolidating a long interval (50 ft) becomes
prohibitively expensive. For shorter intervals (10 ft or less), however, the technique is
competitive with other sand-control methods. The problems associated with coverage arise
from the injection of insufficient resin into low-permeability zones of highly stratified
reservoirs. Because stratification is generally more pronounced in longer intervals,
consolidation success has been lower for perforated intervals longer than 15 ft.
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11.15.2 Resin-Coated Sand
Like consolidation, the resin-coated sand technique relies on bonding sand grains together
to control sand. Instead of bonding formation sand, however, only a special pack-sand,
placed inside and immediately surrounding the perforations, is consolidated. The pack sand
(usually 40/60 or 20/40 U.S. mesh) is coated with a resin at the surface and then pumped
into the well as a slurry. This slurry is then squeezed through the perforations to fill a
region behind the casing. After hardening, this consolidated pack sand will prevent the
formation sand from entering the wellbore. Excess resin-coated sand is removed from
inside the casing either by drilling or washing.
The primary advantage offered by this technique is reduced cost. Because of the limited
amount of sand that is actually consolidated, the volume of resin needed is only 1-2 gallons
per foot of perforated interval. A resin-coated sand treatment can be done for one-fourth to
one-half the cost of a conventional consolidation treatment, making it economically
attractive in longer intervals. Because PCSB’s experience with resin-coated sand has been
very limited, it is difficult to evaluate this type of treatment fully.
The one potential disadvantage to resin-coated sand may be a short lifetime. To be

effective, a sand control method must stop sand production from every perforation. In the
case of resin-coated sand, this means forcing a significant amount of sand through every
perforation. The coverage problems appear to be even more severe than with a
consolidation treatment. Even with poor coverage, the initial job success may be high
because of the resin-coated sand packed into perforation tunnels. But because of the high
state of stress imposed on sand in or near a perforation, the job lifetime may be very short.
Whether this disadvantageous aspect actually materializes can only be determined by
monitoring future job success.
11.15.3 Gravel Packing
Perhaps the most widely used method of preventing formation sand from being produced is
to physically restrain its entry into the wellbore flow stream. This is the mechanism of sand
control used in gravel packing.
Because of its versatility and low initial cost, gravel packing has been used widely to
control sand. Since the screen is a mechanical device, the size of its openings and its length
may be chosen to control many different sand sizes over any perforated interval length.
Gravel packing interval lengths of 20 to 200 ft is common and treatments covering 500 ft or
more of interval have been done.
Although gravel packing offers an economical method of controlling sand, there are several
disadvantages to consider. First, whereas initial installation is economical, a remedial
treatment to replace a failed screen may involve an expensive fishing job. Second, in
overpressured reservoirs that cannot be controlled with a calcium chloride brine, the use of
a special gravel-packing fluid is required. In these cases, the cost of the workover fluid
could be large in comparison to the screen and gravel costs, thereby changing the
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economics. Third, productivity impairment caused by filling the perforation tunnels with
sand and/or invasion of the gravel pack by formation fines is an important consideration.
This problem is especially severe in small casing where a 1-in. OD screen must be used.
11.15.4 Conventional Completions
Initial sand-control success in a conventional completion generally runs 90% or better,

whereas the long-term success is 50% or better. Wells included in this category have 5-1/2
or 7-in. casing (or larger) with 2-7/8-in tubing (or larger). They may be completed either
open hole or cased hole.
Figure 63 shows the success of three sand control methods : open-hole gravel packing,
cased-hole gravel packing, and plastic consolidation. These data represents experience
during the period 1970-1975. In this figure, success refers to the permeability of a well
achieving a certain cumulative productive provided that there are sufficient reserves.
obviously, not every cased-hole gravel pack in the study reached 800,000 bbl of fluid
(sufficient reserves), only 25% had failed and 75% were still controlling sand.
The implications of Figure 63 are fairly clear; open-hole gravel packing is the most
successful of the sand control techniques. Unfortunately, only a few wells typically meet
the long-life productivity and minimum-recompletion requirements necessary for successful
open-hole production.
Frequently, however, a choice must be made between a cased-hole gravel pack or a plastic
consolidation. Both of these methods have a initial success rate, with most of the failures
occurring early in the production life of the wells. In the long run, gravel packing turns out
to be more successful than plastic consolidation in conventional completions.
Figure 63. Sand control success in conventional completions
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11.15.5 Tubingless Completions
With respect to multiple tubingless completions, the success data reported by various
Operators on plastic consolidation and cased-hole gravel packs are shown in Figure 64.
The percentage success is definitely lower in tubingless completions than in conventional
completions, especially for cased-hole gravel packs. No tubingless wells were completed
open hole.
There are several reasons why gravel packing success is reduced in tubingless completions.
First, the size of screen that can be placed inside 2-7/8 in. or 3-1/2 in. tubing is 1 to 1-1/4 in.
in diameter. The slot area of such a screen is small and therefore easily plugged by even a
small amount of fine material from the formation. Second, there is less than one inch of
gravel separating the screen from the perforations even if the screen is perfectly centralized.
This greatly increases the chances that formation sand will reach the screen. A sand-
control failure is the typical result, since the screens are not designed to bridge formation
sand.
Third, tubingless wells are ordinarily perforated at 2 shots/ft instead of 4 to 8 shots/ft for a
conventional completion. Filling this reduced perforations area with sand can dramatically
reduce well productivity. In fact, many of the wells produced no fluid at all after gravel
packing.
Figure 64. Sand control success in tubingless completions
11.15.6 Well Deviation
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In gravel packing deviated wells, there is the basic problem of completely filling the
annulus between the casing and screen with gravel. For wells inclined more than 45° with
the vertical, as little as 20-30% of the annulus may be filled with gravel. Recently, special
tools and placement techniques designed to overcome this problem have been developed.
There is no indication from either field or laboratory results that well deviation significantly
affects plastic consolidation results. However, no success study has specifically isolated
well deviation angle as a parameter.
11.15.6 Interval Length
Economic considerations often require that long intervals be gravel packed. However, with
interval lengths less than 20 ft, economic decisions must also include success and
productivity considerations. Previously presented sand-control success curves did not
differentiate between long and short interval lengths. In fact, the gravel-packing data were
collected primarily on wells with long production intervals, whereas the consolidation data
were almost exclusively from short zones. Long intervals have the advantage in a lifetime
study concerned only with cumulative production, because the total flow rates are usually
higher than in short intervals. At the same time, the specific production rate, bbl/day/ft, of
a long interval is typically less than of a short one.
To eliminate any distortion is results that might be related differing interval lengths, sand-
control success comparisons have been made for intervals of similar length. The success
rate for gravel packing and consolidation in intervals of less than 12 ft is shown in Figure
65. Gravel-packing success is about 10% lower for this range than it is when all lengths are
assessed. On the other hand, consolidation results do not differ when intervals of all
lengths are evaluated because very few treatments have been done when lengths exceeded
12 ft.
Conventional gravel packing still has the highest success rate in the control of formation
sand, followed by plastic consolidation, and finally, by tubingless gravel packing.
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Figure 65. Sand control success in intervals less than 12 ft
11.15.8 Sand Quality
Sand quality refers to the nonsilica content and grain-size distribution of the sand. In
general, formation sands are composed of sand and shale. Sand is mostly quartz (SiO2).
Shales contain various proportions of clay minerals (illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite), as
well as silt, carbonate, and other nonclay materials. Silt is a very fine-grained material that
is predominantly quartz, but it may include feldspar, calcite, and other minerals.
A good quality sand has a narrow grain size distribution and a low nonsilica content (i.e., 5-
15%). The permeability of such sand will generally be high - one darcy or greater. A poor
quality sand, on the other hand, generally has a wide particle-size distribution, an
appreciable fraction of which will pass a No. 400 U.S. mesh screen. The nonsilica content
of these sands can be as high as 50%, whereas the permeability may be under 100
millidarcies.
There are many sources of data on sand quality. Direct evidence includes rubber-sleeve
cores, sidewall cores, and the completion log constructed by the geologist from cuttings as
the well is drilled. Indirect evidence of formation strength can be obtained from the drilling
time log, the caliper log, and a recent combination (sonic density) logging tool called the
mechanical properties log. Clay content/shaliness can be estimated with increasing
precision from some single logs, dual log cross-plots, and multiple tool computed logs.
In general, as sand quality deteriorates, the success of all sand control techniques also
declines. Sand consolidating materials exhibit poorer wetting and adhesion when nonsilica
material is present. This can lead to a low-strength consolidation that is incapable of
withstanding the stresses of production. Gravel packs are usually too coarse to successfully
bridge off the very fine formation particles. These particles soon invade the pack and either
plug or erode the screen.
As the sand quality deteriorates, sand consolidation success tends to decline more rapidly
than does gravel packing. Hence, gravel packing tends to be the more prevalent technique
in poor quality sands.
11.15.9 Reservoir Conditions
As a rule, reservoir temperature does not play an important role in the selection of a sand-
control technique. With few exceptions, all sand-control techniques (consolidation, resin-
coated sand, gravel packing) may be applied to reservoirs with static bottom-hole
temperature between 120° and 200°F. This temperature range probably encompasses 95%
of all sand-producing wells. Being a mechanical technique, gravel packing is applicable at
temperatures both above and below 120-200°F, but many consolidation and resin-coated
sand systems are not.
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Like reservoir temperature, the reservoir pressure is not usually an important parameter to
consider. Workover fluids are commonly available to control formation gradients from
0.30-0.60 psi/ft, but in certain abnormally pressured reservoirs, special completion fluids
costing up to $ 200/bbl may be required.
The type of fluid (oil, gas, or water) produced from the reservoir should be considered
during technique selection. Erosion of mechanical equipment by fine particles entrained in
a high-velocity gas stream may be severe. The problem is even worse when the gas is in
turbulent flow, which it may well be (depending on rate) as it moves through the gravel
pack and screen. A recent analysis of several failed screens from offshore gas completion
reveals screen erosion as a primary failure mode.
11.16 WELL BEAN-UP PROCEDURE
The objective of a bean-up policy is to reach well potential within the shortest period of
time without jeopardising ultimate well integrity and productivity.
During sand control workshops, bean-up procedures were found to vary greatly between
operators and were not always clearly justified. some operators have however established
that rapid bean-up times are detrimental to the long term performance of their wells e.g:
Bean-up time resulting in impairment Acceptable bean-up time

Shell 1 day 5 days
BSP 2 weeks 3 months
One impairment mechanism during bean-up is thought to be migration of fines in the

reservoir. In formations susceptible to this type of damage, restricted production rates at
the bean-up phase may keep the concentration of moving fines low and hence prevent
blockage of pore throats. Also by gradually increasing the drawdown, movable fines
beyond this radius cannot be mobilised and are therefore no cause for worry. It should be
noted that the subject of fines migration is somewhat controversial and that no specific
guidelines to prevent impairment can be given. Core flow tests could be considered as a
means of assessing critical flowrates required for fines migration.
Restricted initial production rates may also allow a stable gravel/sand interface to build-up
with minimal invasion of sand into the gravel pack. This effect is however difficult to
quantify.
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Bean-up policies should be developed for each field and for their specific reservoirs. Bean-
up times will vary according to reservoir permeability, clay content, etc. Operators who
have not experienced impairment during bean-up should consider conducting trials at faster
bean-up rates.
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CHAPTER 12
FORMATION DAMAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 INTRODUCTION ……………….…...……………....………….….….…..….… 3
12.1.1 Chapter Goals ………………………………………………………. 3

12.1.2 Poor Productivity …………………………………………………... 3
12.1.3 Formation Damage ………………………………………………… 3
12.1.4 Wellbore Deposits …………………………………………………. 4
12.1.5 Ineffective Perforating ……………………………………………... 5
12.1.6 Treating Approaches ………………………………………………. 5
12.2 EFFECT OF DAMAGE …………………………………………………………. 6
12.2.1 Radial Flow ………………………………………………………… 6

12.2.2 Darcy’s Law ………………………………………………………... 6
12.2.3 Radial Reservoir Flow ……………………………………………... 7
12.2.4 Productivity Index …………………………………………………. 10
12.2.5 Inflow Performance ………………………………………………... 10
12.2.6 Effect Of Damage Zone Thickness ………………………………… 12
12.2.7 Effect Of Damage Location ……………………………………….. 14
12.2.8 Matrix Treating Benefits 15
12.2.9 …………………………………………… 15
Matrix Treating Undamaged Wells ………………………………...
12.3 INDICATORS OF DAMAGE ……………………………………………...……. 17
12.3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………… 17

12.3.2 Offset Production …………………………………………………... 17
12.3.3 Production History …………………………………………………. 17
12.3.4 Reservoir Predictions ………………………………………………. 18
12.3.5 Darcy’s Law Calculations ………………………………………….. 18
12.3.6 Well Testing ……………………………………………………….. 18
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12.4 CAUSES OF FORMATION DAMAGE …………………....…...……………… 21
12.4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………… 21

12.4.2 Clay Disturbance …………………………………………………... 22
12.4.3 Clay Swelling ……………………………………………………… 23
12.4.4 Clay Dispersion And Migration …………………………………… 23
12.4.5 Low Salinity Clay Dispersion ……………………………………... 23
12.4.6 Flow Induced Fines Migration …………………………………….. 24
12.4.7 Effect Of Mobile Water ……………………………………………. 24
12.4.8 Scale Deposition …………………………………………………… 26
12.4.9 Asphalt And Paraffin Deposition ………………………………….. 27
12.4.10 Emulsions ………………………………………………………….. 27
12.4.11 Water Blocking ……………………………………………………. 29
12.4.12 Wettability Changes ……………………………………………….. 30
12.4.13 Acid Precipitates …………………………………………………… 30
12.5 DAMAGE REMOVAL ………………………………………………………...… 31
12.5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………… 31

12.5.2 Matrix Treatments …………………………………………………. 31
12.5.3 Acidizing …………………………………………………………… 31
12.5.4 Solvents And Surfactants ………………………………………….. 31
12.5.5 Hydraulic Fracturing ……………………………………………….. 32
12.5.6 Tubing Treatments …………………………………………………. 32
12.6 DAMAGE PREVENTION ….....…………………………………………………. 33
12.6.1 Drilling Fluid Selection ……………………………………………. 33

12.6.2 Workover Fluid Salinity …………………………………………… 33
12.6.3 Brines To Stabilize Clays ………………………………………….. 34
12.6.4 Clay Stabilizers …………………………………………………….. 35
12.6.5 Avoid Incompatible Brines ………………………………………… 35
12.6.6 Surfactant Selection ………………………………………………... 36
12.6.7 Drawdown ………………………………………………………….. 36
12.6.8 Fluid Loss Control …………………………………………………. 36
12.6.9 Injection Water Quality ……………………………………………. 36
12.1 INTRODUCTION
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12.1.1 Chapter Goals
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the engineer to the common causes of poor
productivity which can be remedied by workover treatments. Special emphasis is given to
poor productivity attributable to permeability reduction of the formation near the wellbore,
commonly referred to as damage. Upon completing this section, the engineer should be
able to recognize well productivity impairment, review information to identify its likely
source, and avoid causing formation damage when possible.
The radial flow theory necessary to understand the effects of damage and estimate
unimpaired production is presented first. This is followed by a discussion of indicators of
damage, causes of damage and damage prevention. Finally, a brief introduction to damage
treatments serves to bridge the gap between this and subsequent sections.
12.1.2 Poor Productivity
There are two major categories of poor productivity : (1) poor productivity attributable to
reservoir characteristics, and (2) poor productivity caused by alterations in the formation
near the wellbore or deposits in the production tubulars. Reservoir factors such as low
pressure, low permeability, and high viscosity may be overcome through methods involving
flooding, thermal methods and large hydraulic fracturing treatments. These approaches
have in common that they are designed to affect large reservoir areas. However, for the
purpose of this section, we are interested in causes of poor productivity that can be
remedied by workover treatments localized to a particular well. Included in this category
are formation damage and well deposits.
Poor productivity caused by flow restrictions in the reservoir rock is called formation
damage. Formation damage is usually caused by disturbances to the formation or its native
fluids during drilling, workover, and producing operations. Formation damage is generally
limited to the reservoir rock lying within a couple of radial feet of the wellbore as
illustrated in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Damaged Zone Around A Wellbore Restricts Production
In contrast to reservoir limitations, formation damage can often be removed with relatively
small treatments designed to treat the wellbore or penetrate only a limited distance into the
formation.
12.1.4 Wellbore Deposits
Material deposited in the production tubing and casing also is a common cause of
productivity declines. Such deposits can consist of organic material such as paraffin, or
mineral material such as calcite and barite, known as scale. These and similar solids often
precipitate from produced fluids as they re-equilibrate with wellbore conditions. Removing
wellbore deposits often involves a different approach than removing formation damage.
12.1.5 Ineffective Perforating
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Optimal flow rate from a particular well is also dependent upon establishing good
communication between the wellbore and the reservoir. This is the goal of perforating. For
various reasons however, perforations may not provide the necessary good communication.
Charges may fail to ignite, or ignite below their design force, or the cement sheath may be
thicker than the limited penetration depth of the gun. These limitations are associated with
gun capabilities and may require re-perforation to achieve satisfactory flow.
The perforating technique is also important for attaining perforating objectives.

Specifically, it is widely recognized that perforations shot underbalanced in a clear fluid
perform better than those shot overbalanced in mud. Overbalancing causes perforation
debris and mud to become compacted in the tunnels, often necessitating an acid job to
attain maximum deliverability. These are but a few examples of how the perforating
process can effect well performance. For a more complete discussion refer to the section
on Perforating.
12.1.6 Treating Approaches
The type of treatment chosen is determined by the cause of the productivity impairment.
Formation damage is often treated with acids and solvents which are injected into the rock
matrix, so that flow restrictions will be dissolved. Material deposited in the wellbore may
also be remove with solvents, usually with less volume than required for matrix treatment.
In some cases, mechanical methods may be necessary to remove wellbore restrictions.
Hydraulically fracturing a formation will often be successful at by passing a zone of

damage. While such treatments are frequently designed to stimulate reservoirs by
overcoming naturally low permeability, added benefit often is realized from by passing
damage. In fact, smaller volume fracturing treatments are often designed only to penetrate
a damage zone immediately around the wellbore. However, fracturing treatments in general
tend to be more involved and costly, and there are added risks. Therefore, it is usually
desirable to remove damage with matrix treatments whenever possible.
12.2 EFFECT OF DAMAGE
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12.2.1 Radial Flow
The severity of formation damage is a consequence of the radial flow pattern of reservoir
fluids. Flow in an unfractured reservoir proceeds via radial geometry, in which fluids
traverse progressively smaller volumes of rock as they approach the wellbore.
Consequently, the greatest pressure drop occurs in the formation adjacent to the wellbore,
making overall production very sensitive to permeability reductions there.
12.2.2 Darcy’s Law
Henry D’Arcy, while studying the operation of sand filters for municipal water treatment in
France during the mid-1800’s, deduced the basic law for the flow of a single liquid through
a porous medium. Darcy (his name has long since been Anglicized) observed that the
velocity of flow is directly proportional to the pressure gradient, dp/ds, and inversely
proportional to fluid viscosity, µ. This proportionality is expressed in the following
equation;
v = - k dp
µ ds (1)
where k, the constant of proportionality is a characteristic of the porous medium called the
permeability. The velocity referred to in this equation is the apparent velocity and is equal
to volumetric flow rate divided by the area through which this flow occurs, i.e., v = q/A. In
cgs units, v is expressed in centimeters per second, viscosity in centipoise and pressure
gradient in atmospheres per centimeter. Similarly, volumetric flow rate is expressed in
cubic centimeters per second and area in square centimeters. In these units the
proportionality constant, k, is expressed in darcies.
Darcy’s Law applies to the laminar flow region only. Turbulent flow may occur in porous
media provided that flow rate is high enough, fluid viscosity low enough, or the
characteristic pore dimension large enough. In non-Darcy flow the pressure gradient
increases at a rate greater than flow rate. However, non-Darcy flow seldom occurs with
liquids flowing through porous media except in the case where very high injection or
production rates are encountered, and then only in the region nearest the wellbore. For gas
wells, however, non-Darcy flow is by no means uncommon. Calculations based on Darcy’s
Law on gas wells producing at high rates can be seriously in error.
12.2.3 Radial Reservoir Flow
Although flow very near the wellbore probably occurs via a complex combination of
geometries, most near-wellbore flow problems are analyzed by assuming a radial flow
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model throughout the reservoir. Radial flow actually occurs only in an open hole
completion from a formation of uniform permeability, as idealized in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Radial Flow
As a practical matter, however, flow from densely perforated completions can be

successfully analyzed by employing the radial flow model. When Darcy’s equation is
modified for radial geometry and converted from cgs units to customary field engineering
units of psi, barrels per day, millidarcies and centipoise, the final equation relates surface
production rate to pressure drop, formation permeability and fluid viscosity :
-3
Q = 7.08 x 10 kh (Pe Pw)
re
µ Bo ln rw (2)
Q = flow rate, stock tank barrels/day
k = average formation permeability, millidarcies
h = interval thickness, feet
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Pe = formation pressure at external drainage radius, psi
Pw = flowing wellbore pressure at perforations, psi
µ = oil viscosity at formation temperature, centipoise

reservoir barrels
Bo = reservoir fluid volume factor, stock tank barrels
re = drainage radius of well, feet
rw = wellbore radius, feet
Notice that the factor Bo appears in the equation. This factor is used to account for the
volume change of crude oil from the time it flows into the wellbore to the time it is
measured in a stock tank. This factor is determined from an analysis of a crude sample
taken at a particular point in a well’s production history. This equation can be used to
estimate an oil well’s flowing potential, if the required reservoir and wellbore factors are
known or can be estimated.
A slightly different equation exists for gas wells, and includes terms to account for gas
compressibility. This equation takes the form
-4 2
Q(MScf/D) = 7.03 x 10 kh (P e P2w)
re
µ T z ln rw (3)
where the additional term T is Rankine temperature, and z is a dimensionless factor

accounting for gas deviation from ideality.
The drainage radius is inferred from well spacing. For example, the drainage radius for a
well spacing of 40 acres is 660 feet. This can be verified by noting that a circle with radius
of 660 ft can be inscribed within a square 40-acre unit. Similarly, for 160 acre spacing, the
drainage radius is 1320 ft, and for 640 acre spacing, the drainage radius is 2640 feet. Thus,
quadrupling the spacing doubles the drainage radius.
Common well spacings and corresponding drainage radii are summarized in Table 1 :
TABLE 1
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Well Spacing Drainage Radius

Acres Ft
10 330
20 467
40 660
80 933
160 1320
320 1867
640 2640
While the concept of a drainage radius and wellbore radius is precise, neither quantity is
known with great precision. In the case of the wellbore radius, for example, this radius is
clearly not the inside radius of the casing, nor even the outside radius of the casing, but
rather the radius of permeable formation beyond the cement sheath at the cement-formation
interface. This radius is not always precisely definable because of hole enlargement or
filter cake deposition. Additionally, flow is through a perforation at this point and hence,
departs markedly from radial flow in the immediate vicinity of the perforation.
Nonetheless, these imprecisions on the determination of rw have less effect than might be
anticipated because of the logarithmic term in which re and rw appear. For example, in an
8” diameter wellbore (rw = 4 in or 333 ft) for a well on 40-acre spacing (re = 660 ft) the ratio
of re over rw is 1980 and the logarithm of 1980 is 7.59. An increase in the internal radius
from 4 in to 6 in, i.e., 50 percent increase in the value of rw yields a value of 7.18 for the
logarithmic term which is a decrease of less than 6 percent in the value of this quantity.
Thus, the effect of the uncertainty is greatly reduced in the final calculation.
In the practical application of this equation Pw is generally determined by measurements

with a bottomhole pressure bomb positioned adjacent to the sand face near the middle of
the perforated interval during the period when the well is flowing. Pe’ the pressure at the
drainage radius is generally estimated from a shut-in pressure buildup test. For relatively
permeable formations, this can be determined within a reasonably short shut-in period (say
24 hours) provided bottomhole pressures have substantially stabilized during this period.
More involved methods, however, must be employed on formations of low permeability to
obtain a suitable Pe.
The viscosity of the crude at reservoir temperature can be obtained from a hydrocarbon
report if available, or estimated from correlations of oil gravity and viscosity. Viscosity is
measured in centipoise, and can be compared to water at 1 cp.
Using the above equation, the average permeability of the formation may be estimated from
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a given flow rate at known pressure drawdown (Pe - Pw). This calculated permeability will
represent an average, which will include the effects of any damage zone that is present. As
discussed further in the text, comparing this average permeability with independently
measured formation permeability from core data or a buildup test often serves as an
indicator of well damage. Alternatively, this equation can be used to estimate flow rate
from a knowledge of formation permeability. In this case, permeability may be inferred
from buildup test data or core permeability measurements, when available.
12.2.4 Productivity Index
For field applications in which comparisons among wells in the same formation are often
relied upon as an indicator of damage, many of the terms in Darcy’s equation will cancel
out to give a simplified, convenient measure of productive capacity, called productivity
index, J :
q
J=
Pe - Pw (4)
The productivity index can be used to compare well performance within a given formation,
where formation properties are constant. The Specific Productivity Index, J per foot of
interval, is a way of accounting for differences in formation thickness from one well to the
next.
12.2.5 Inflow Performance
The productivity index is a limited concept in that it assumes that there is no relative
permeability during production; i.e., no other reservoir fluids are being produced with the
primary production fluid. Since the production rate is directly proportional to the pressure
drawdown, both will decrease proportionally as the well is depleted, and the productivity
index should remain relatively constant. The only reservoir characteristic that will alter the
productivity index is the presence of relative permeability.
In particular, the productivity index will decline in a well with a solution-gas drive reservoir
when the reservoir pressure falls below the bubble point of the formation’s crude oil. The
bubble point is the pressure at which gas begins to evolve from the crude. As gas is
released from the oil, it begins to fill the pore spaces, making it more difficult for oil to
flow. An inflow performance curve which is more applicable to a well producing below its
bubble point is shown in Figure 3. This curve demonstrates that a greater drawdown is
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required to obtain a given production rate as reservoir pressure declines below the bubble
point (when the straight-line relationship does not hold). When producing at reservoir
pressures below the bubble point, the productivity index will decline with time.
Figure 3. Typical Inflow Performance Relationship for Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs
When evaluating the productivity of a well by comparing its specific productivity index to
that of other wells, it will be necessary to first determine if a given well is producing above
or below its bubble point pressure. If the specific productivity index of a well is lower than
the specific productivity index of offset wells, it may not be damaged but simply producing
below its bubble point. The bubble point for various crudes will differ from one field to
another, depending on the fluid properties and temperatures of a given formation.
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12.2.6 Effect Of Damage Zone Thickness
As a natural consequence of radial flow, formation damage that is located closest to the
wellbore exerts the greatest adverse influence on production. Of course, the thicker or
deeper the damage zone is, the greater the reduction of productivity. However, once
damage to the near wellbore region occurs, deepening of the damage adds a progressively
smaller contribution to production loss. This is mathematically shown by manipulating
Darcy’s equation to include a zone of damaged permeability, kd, of thickness rd. The
resulting equation relates the productivity index of the damaged formation to the native
formation (J/Jo) and the depth and magnitude of damage :
re
αlog
rw
J/Jo = (5)
log re + αlog re
rw rw
where α is the ratio of damage zone permeability to virgin permeability. These dimensions
are illustrated in Figure 4 for an idealized damage zone. Plotting the above equation for
various amounts of damage, α, as a function of depth of damage radius shows that the
greatest effect of damage is within the first two inches of the wellbore (Figure 4), with
diminishing influence as depth of damage invasion increases.
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Figure 5. Effect of Moving a Zone of Damage of Constant Thickness

Outward from the Wellbore
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12.2.7 Effect Of Damage Location
The fact that damage is most harmful near the well also implies that a damage removal
treatment will be effective even though it may not penetrate deeply enough to remove all
damage. This is also mathematically founded in Darcy’s equation, which, when rearranged
to describe a residual zone of damage around the wellbore gives :
re
ln
rw
J/Jo = re k r (6)
ln + o − 1 ln d
rw kd ru
Figure 5. Effect of Moving a Zone of Damage of Constant Thickness

Outward from the Wellbore
As shown in Figure 5, a hypothetical zone of damage 6 inches thick exerts less influences
as it is placed further from the wellbore. This demonstrates that, although deep damage
removal may be desirable for complete recovery in some cases, it is not essential. Benefits
can be derived from removing damage near the wellbore even if the deeper portion can’t be
removed.
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12.2.8 Matrix Treating Benefits
Removing damage with solvents can result in productivity many times the damaged
productivity, depending on the extent of initial damage. For example, Figure 4 indicates
that a well which contains a 90% reduction in permeability in the first foot around the
wellbore has a flow efficiency near 35%. Therefore, a properly designed damage-removal
treatment has the potential to increase the production rate by a factor of three. Such
damage removal benefits are estimated on the assumption of uniform, radial removal of
damage from within the matrix of the rock, hence such treatments are often referred to as
matrix treatments. Hydraulic fracturing, as discussed later, can also yield these benefits, by
a mechanism which causes the damage to be bypassed. However, a fracture treatment must
be intentionally designed in order to be effective. Fracturing a treatment intended for
matrix injection will generally yield disappointing results.
12.2.9 Matrix Treating Undamaged Wells
Matrix treating only offers the potential for significant productivity improvement in
damaged wells. Little benefit can be expected if no damage is present. The negligible
benefits of undamaged well treating can be dramatized with the aid of Equation 5, this time
by approaching the limit of α = ∞ for the hypothetical case of a treatment which infinitely
increases near wellbore permeability of a 6-in. well completed on 40 acre spacing.
Physically, this would require underreaming the formation with a drill bit, thereby
removing all rock.
As shown in Figure 6, very little benefit can be expected from even such an extreme
operation as removing all rock radially out to 10 feet. A productivity index increase of two
fold is about the best to expect. In reality, such permeability increases are not possible with
matrix treatments, and production increases would be negligible. Furthermore, some
damage removal treatments may create damage if not performed properly. For these
reasons, there should be evidence of formation damage before a matrix treatment is
implemented.
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Figure 6. Stimulation of an Undamaged Well
12.3 INDICATORS OF DAMAGE
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12.3.1 Introduction
There is a large incentive for being able to identify the presence of treatable formation
damage, since the economic return of a field often depends on maintaining maximum
productivity from each well. Treatments performed on undamaged wells are wasted at best,
and may actually lead to increased damage. We can avoid many problems associated with
incorrect diagnosis by exploiting the evaluation tools available, including productivity
comparisons, calculated production estimates, and well testing.
12.3.2 Offset Production
A common indicator of well damage is low productivity relative to offset wells in the same
formation. The specific productivity index, J/ft of interval, provides a means for
quantifying this comparison. A substantially lower specific productivity index relative to
other wells in the field suggests that damage is present. However, although this is a useful
approach for initial screening, this concept is limited by the heterogeneous makeup of many
formations. Therefore, additional diagnostics and data should be gathered prior to deciding
a course of remedial action.
12.3.3 Production History
Comparison of present production with past production history is a good indicator of

problem wells, providing that normal reservoir decline is accounted for. Productivity
index, J, is especially useful for comparing production from the same well at different
times, since formation factors are likely to remain constant.
After an abnormally high production decline has been verified, the well’s history can give
important clues as to the type of damage present. Low productivity may be traceable to a
specific completion, workover or production practice. For example, formation damage is
often common after well killing operations, especially if drilling mud is used as a workover
fluid. Injection of unfiltered brines into disposal or injection wells is a common cause of
reduced injectivity. Instances such as these should be looked for in well files when damage
is suspected.
12.3.4 Reservoir Predictions
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Reservoir engineering calculations which predict production history are important guides to
a well’s potential, against which actual performance can be measured. A decline in
productivity which is inconsistent with reservoir predictions is reason to suspect damage.
12.3.5 Darcy’s Law Calculations
The previous subject detailed the use of the radial flow equation to estimate production, and
the use of this approach is an important part of diagnosing possible problems. If rock
permeability and hydrocarbon properties are known, a rough estimate of productivity index
can be calculated using Darcy’s equation and compared to the actual value. Although
limitations on our knowledge of the true rock permeability will make accurate predictions
difficult, large discrepancies imply formation damage.
12.3.6 Well Testing
Well testing is generally understood to encompass flow testing and pressure buildup testing.
Flow testing can provide productivity index, fluid ratios, and a measure of average
permeability. Changes in flow rate or relative fluid production from one test period to
another are often signs that the well is damaged.
Pressure buildup testing is a relatively sophisticated approach to measuring reservoir

permeability and obtaining an indication of formation damage. A buildup test involves
flowing the well at constant rate buildup of pressure in the formation is monitored. The
rate at which this pressure re-establishes itself after being drawn down is a measure of the
native formation permeability, and the presence of a damage zone.
The ideal system is a single well in an infinite, homogeneous reservoir containing a fluid
with constant properties but with no altered zone around the well. If this well is shut in at
the sand face after producing at a rate q for Horner time, th, the sandface pressure at time ∆t
after shut-in given by :
Pw - Pi = 162.6 qµ Bo log th + ∆t
kh ∆t (7)
This equation suggests that a plot of Pw vs log (th + ∆t/∆t) will be a straight line for
circumstances adequately described by the ideal reservoir model. Bulk formation
permeability can be obtained from the slope, m, of this straight line by :
K= 162.6 qµBo
mh (8)
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Original reservoir pressure, Pj, is obtained by extrapolating the straight line to infinite shut-
in time; i.e., where (th + ∆t)/∆t = 1 (See Figure 7).
In actual buildup or fall of test, it is rare for straight line to be observed over all shut-in
times. Instead, field curves have various shapes, which can be explained with the depth-of-
investigation concept. Field curves can logically be divided into three regions, as shown in
Figure 8. At early times, the depth of investigation is near the wellbore. Accordingly,
conditions in the altered zone (such as formation damage) determine the character of the
curve. In addition, continued production into the well (afterflow) because of surface shut-in
influences the curve in this region. “Afterflow” occurs because the compressibility of fluid
in the wellbore will permit residual feed in, even after shut in. This effect, which interferes
with early time data analysis, can be eliminated or reduced by using bottomhole shut-in
equipment.
Formation damage is often indicated by the shape of the curve in region I. A steeply rising
slope suggests a high pressure drop caused by formation damage. A numerical estimate of
damage, called the skin factor, “s”, is obtainable from this region. Although its calculation
is beyond the scope of this text, it is worthwile to gain an appreciation of typical skin factor
magnitude. A skin factor of 0 indicates that no damage is present, while positive skin
factors are typical of damaged formations. Typically, a skin factor of 5 - 10 may indicate
moderate levels of damage, while factors above 10 indicate severe damage. Very high skin
factors, say 30 and above, may sometimes be attributable to ineffective perforation
penetration or incomplete perforation of an entire interval. These possibilities should be
investigated in cases of high skin factors. Negative skin factors often are indicative of
stimulated wells.
In the middle time region, the depth of investigation has moved beyond the region of
influence of the altered zone and is not yet affected by conditions at the drainage boundary.
Bulk formation properties are the dominant influence. A straight line with slope m usually
occurs, from which bulk-formation permeability can be obtained just as if the reservoir
were infinite. Permeability can be obtained from the slope of the MTR using equation 8.
The flow rate q, is the maintained prior to the shut-in period. If they are not accurately
known from hydrocarbon analyses, the viscosity and formation volume factors can be
estimated from correlations using API gravity and gas/oil ratio obtained at the wellsite.
The buildup measurement of kh gives us a value to compare with average kh obtained from
production testing. If kh (buildup) is significantly greater than kh (flow), formation damage
is indicated.
At late times, the depth of investigation has reached the well’s drainage boundaries.
Pressure behavior is accordingly influenced by conditions at these boundaries
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Figure 7. Ideal Build-up
Figure 8. Actual Build-up

12.4 CAUSES OF FORMATION DAMAGE
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12.4.1 Introduction
Formation damage implies that hydrocarbon flow through reservoir rock has been impaired.
Solids plugging probably is the major cause of damage problems. As a category, solids
include native clays and fines, materials precipitated from reservoir fluids (mineral scale,
asphalt, paraffin) and solids introduced by drilling mud (barite, bentonite, drilled rock).
They can range in size from sub-micron clay particles to perforation and wellbore-filling
scale deposits. Some clay solids are illustrated in Figure 9.
Figure 9 Examples of Native Formation Clays
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Figure 10. Osmotic Swelling of Clays
Other established causes of damage are emulsion blocking, water blocking, and wettability
changes. These conditions adversely affect production through different mechanisms but
nevertheless the end result can be as harmful as solids damage. A more recently recognized
form of damage occurs as a result of reprecipitation of dissolved material during sandstone
acidizing.
12.4.2 Clay Disturbance
Clays are probably the fine particles most often responsible for damage. They can impair
permeability several ways. First, all clays are prone to dispersion and migration when
disturbed.
Foreign fluid invasion and fluid flow forces are common disturbance which are often
blamed for causing clay migration subsequent plugging. The second widely accepted
damage mechanism involves swelling. There is a variety of clay known as smectite
(montmorillonite) which can expand to several times its size upon water absorption. This
expansion is believed capable of causing blocking of pore spaces, especially if the clays are
located at critical pore throats. These clays are also more prone to disperse and migrate
when they expand. Consequently, they can restrict pores by a dual mechanism of
expansion and migration if disturbed. A scanning electron microscope photo of smectite is
included in Figure 9.
In actuality, attributing damage to either of these mechanisms exclusively is overly
simplistic. Clay damage probably proceeds via a combination of these and other
mechanisms in most cases.
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12.4.3 Clay Swelling
Swelling is believed to occur because of an osmotic pressure difference between the bulk
fluid and the interlayer region of the clay particle. This theory explains the sensitivity of
clays towards brines with salinity sharply lower than the connate brine. Water molecules
from a less-saline brine will enter a clay structure containing higher salinity brine. This
occurs because osmotic forces tend to equilibrate the lower bulk salinity with the higher
salinity in the vicinity of the clay layers, as conceptualized in Figure 10.
Divalent cations such as Ca ++ and Mg ++ limit clay swelling by holding the clay layers
together more tightly. This is also true of K + and NH4+, monovalent cations which are
effective at reducing swelling because they fit well into the clay structure. Regardless of
which cation is responsible for stabilizing clays, the effect is reversible. Stabilizing cations
can be replaced by re-exposure of clays to sodium, after which the clays are prone to low
salinity damage.
12.4.4 Clay Dispersion and Migration
Clays also reduce permeability by dispersing and migrating. In this case, they can lodge in
pore throats, causing blockage. Although this pore blockage occurs on a microscopic scale,
the result is a reduction of the bulk rock permeability. Migration can be caused by salinity
incompatibility with introduced brine and mechanical forces on particles during fluid flow.
Either or both of these causes may be operative at the same time.
12.4.5 Low Salinity Clay Dispersion
Abrupt salinity reductions of the clay environment will often cause clay particles to detach
from each other and the sand grain surfaces, as shown in Figure 11. Clays in this detached
state are free to migrate until they bridge at pore constrictions and reduce fluid flow.
The charge characteristics of clays explain their tendency to disperse upon exposure to low
salinity brines. Clays are characterized by a negative surface charge which attracts a
diffuse layer of cations such as Na+ and Ca++. This layer of cations experiences two
opposing forces which counteract each other. A diffusional force away from the clay
surface. The tendency for diffusion increases if the salinity is reduced, causing the layer of
ions to expand and exert repulsive forces on nearby particles, as shown in Figure 11.
This mechanism believed to be responsible for dispersing clays, especially if salinity
reduction is abrupt. However, evidence has shown that reduction in salinity sometimes will
be completely non-damaging if introduced gradually. This suggests that the repulsive
forces causing dispersion can be rendered less damaging if they are taken in a stepwise
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fashion. This observation has important practical implications for workover fluids. If low
salinity brine must be used, severe damage can be avoided by exposing the formation to
progressively lower salinity brine until the desired strength is attained.
Figure 11. Low Salinity Causes Clay Dispersion
12.4.6 Flow Induced Fines Migration
The foregoing discussion suggests that dispersion damage can be avoided by the proper
choice of fluids introduced to the formation. This is true, up to a point. Clays, as well as
other fine particles, can be mobilized by fluid forces exerted by fluid flow, and this problem
is more difficult to avoid. As shown in Figure 12, fluid flow velocities increase
dramatically towards the near wellbore region, and it is possible to entrain particles from a
few feet into the reservoir, particularly in a high rate well.
12.4.7 Effect of Mobile Water
Entrainment of fines by fluid flow has been shown to be related to the mobility of the water
phase. Clays and silica fines, being generally water-wet will experience greater fluid forces
if the water phase flows. This concept is illustrated in Figure 13, which portrays physical
laboratory observations made under a microscope.
Field observations tend to support this concept, since it is generally true that the onset of
water production marks the onset of sand production in poorly consolidated fields. Coning,
flood breakthrough, and workover fluid leakoff are a few mechanisms by which an
irreducible water phase, and hence fines, may become mobilized.
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Figure 12. High Fluid Velocity near Wellbore Can Cause Fines Migration
Figure 13.
12.4.8 Scale Deposition
Scale deposition occurs because produced fluids seek to regain equilibrium with the new
environment in the wellbore. As a result, solid mineral material, called scale, is often
deposited if solubility limits are exceeded under well conditions. Common scales include
CaCO3 (calcite), CaSO4 • 2H2O (gypsum). and BaSO4 (barite).
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Calcite scales are generally deposited as a result of pressure drop and CO2 gas evaluation
from produced brine, according to the equation :
Ca++ + 2HCO3 ➙ CO2 (gas) + CaCO3 + H2O
Deposition may occur in the perforations or tubing, depending on flow conditions. Figure
14 shows a scale buildup in a laboratory perforation which was exposed to downhole flow
conditions. The above equation also implies that calcite scale can form if a natural brine
rich in HCO3 is exposed to a Ca++ brine. This is also an established damage mechanism.
Calcite scales are very soluble in ordinary acids, so their removal is generally
straightforward.
Scales such as CaSO4 and BaSO4 are deposited as a result of temperature and pressure
drops which the produced fluids experience. Although these scales can be deposited in the
perforations or tubing, they usually occur in the tubing. Both of these scales are insoluble
in acids although there are treating chemicals available which will convert CaSO4 into an
acid soluble form. There is no solvent for BaSO4, therefore this scale is often mechanically
removed.
Figure 14. Scale Buildup in Simulated Perforation
12.4.9 Asphalt and Paraffin Depostion
Asphalt and paraffin are organic species which precipitate from produced hydrocarbons.
Temperature and pressure changes can be responsible for inducing their appearance when
they are present in the oil. Although reductions in temperature will cause reduced
solubility, reductions in pressure have a more complicated effect. Pressure reductions may
actually increase asphalt solubility by allowing methane and CO2 to escape. Both of these
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gases are known to reduce asphalt solubility. However, paraffin is less soluble in the
absence of methane, so its solubility decreases as pressure decreases below the bubble
point.
12.4.10 Emulsions
An emulsion is a dispersion of one immiscible phase in another (Figure 15). Emulsions can
exhibit varying degrees of stability, some having lifetimes of only seconds, others being
indefinitely stable. Much of the world’s oil is produced in the form of emulsions, one
estimate being as high as 70%. These emulsions are usually produced by fluid shear in the
tubing, and therefore do not affect formation productivity. However, the formation of
emulsions within the pore spaces of rock does occasionally occur, and in these cases
productivity suffers.
Figure 15. An Emulsion is a Dispersion of One Phase in Another
The viscosity of an emulsion is generally mush higher than the viscosities of either of the
individual phases, and may approach several thousand centipoise (compare to room-
temperature water at 1 cp). Because of their high viscosities, emulsions will inhibit flow if
they occur within pore spaces, as predicted by Darcy’s Law. An illustration of the
magnitude of this effect is given in Figure 16, which shows the productivity reductions
possible for various emulsion viscosities as a function of depth of emulsion.
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Figure 16. Production Rate Decrease Resulting from High-Viscosity Emulsions and
Increasing Radius of Blocked Formation
Emulsions can be generated by mixing of oil and aqueous fluids within the reservoir or in
the wellbore. For example, mixtures of acid and some produced crudes can create thick
stable emulsions which result in high injection pressures during acid jobs. Also, the misuse
of surfactants in acidizing and workover fluids has been suspected of stabilizing emulsions
in formation rock. Although surfactants are often added to prevent emulsions, and under
incompletely understood downhole conditions their behavior is often unpredictable.
Emulsions can be induced to form by fluid shear and agitation. Although such forces may
be present in the formation during routine well production, current experience suggests that
formation damage from this mechanism is not a common occurrence. Instead,
incompatibility of workover or acidizing fluids with crudes is a more established source of
emulsion problems.
12.4.11 Water Blocking
Water blocking refers to the condition in which a high water saturation impedes the flow of
hydrocarbons within pore spaces. Water blocking is a relative permeability effect, and can
be explained with the aid of Figure 17, which describes the effect of the presence of two
immiscible fluids on each other’s permeability. On each vertical axis is the permeability of
each phase in the absence of the other. For fluids which don’t interact with the formation,
these permeabilities are the same for both phases. The relative permeability curve also
shows how the presence of a second phase will reduce the permeabilty of the first.
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Increasing water saturation has the effect of progressively reducing oil permeability.
Figure 17. Example of Relative Permeability
Water blocks may occur as a result of coning or fingering of water from another zone, or
temporary loss of workover fluid. Acid jobs tend to leave small temporary water blocks,
which explains why restoring production often involves a short cleanup period during
which spent acid is recovered.
Water blockage from coning or fingering illustrated in Figure 18 is more of a problem,

since it will not clean up as a temporary block will. Increasing drawdown will generally
have the effect of bringing in more water, thus aggravating the problem. In such cases, re-
completion of the well may be necessary.
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Figure 18.
12.4.12 Wettability Changes
In an oil well, water usually is the wetting phase, meaning that it coats the grain surfaces
and is more tightly held in the smaller pore spaces. This situation is desirable, since it
allows the oil phase to flow through the larger, more permeable pores. Refer back to Figure
17, which summarizes the basics of relative permeability effects. From this figure, it is
obvious that the presence of two immiscible phases reduces the permeability of each one,
and this was termed water blocking. It is also shown that the permeability to the phase
which wets the rock, in this case water, is more severely affected by the presence of the
other phase. In other words, when two fluids compete for flow in the same permeable
medium, the wetting phase will be constrained to the smaller, less permeable pore spaces.
Wettability changes may occur through the use of surfactants which are incompatible with
the formation. For example, some surfactants with net positive charges have been known to
adsorb on sandstone surfaces which are negatively charged. The other part of the surfactant
molecule may then have enough hydrocarbon character to cause oil to be attracted to the
surface, causing oil wetting.
Oil wetting may also occur following acidizing if a clean silica surface is exposed to crude
oil with strong natural surfactants. These and other causes of wettability changes are more
thoroughly discussed in the chapter on Solvents and Surfactants.
12.4.13 Acid Precipitates
A relatively recently recognized mechanism for damage involves the precipitates which can
form during sandstone acidizing treatments. As discussed in the section on sandstone
acidizing, several precipitates including silica gel may appear during acid spending.
Improper treatment may allow these to reduce job success or actually increase damage.
12.5 DAMAGE REMOVAL
12.5.1 Introduction
Damage removal is the general term given to treatments designed to remove the effects
treatments remove the damage while others overcome its effects without actually removing
it. There are many techniques available for restoring productivity to a damaged well,
depending upon the type of formation and the type of damage. Most treatments fall into the
general categories of matrix treatments, hydraulic fracturing treatments, and wellbore
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treatments.
12.5.2 Matrix Treatments
Matrix treatments are designed to more-or-loss uniformly permeate the fabric of the rock in
order to dissolve damaging particles or deposits. This requires that the injection pressure
be kept below fracturing pressure, and that treating fluids contact all parts of the interval
intended to be treated. This latter requirement can be accomplished by various diverting
techniques, the subject of a later chapter. The various types of matrix treatments are briefly
introduced in the following paragraphs. A detailed discussion of each appears in their
respective chapters.
12.5.3 Acidizing
Acidizing is perhaps one of the earliest applications of matrix treating. Most reservoirs fall
under the categories of sandstone or carbonate, and each calls for a different type of acid
matrix treatment. Sandstones are most effectively treated with combinations of hydraulic
(HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCI). Hydrofluoric acid is the component which actively
dissolves damaging clays. On the other hand, carbonate formations are most often acidized
with HCI because this acid reacts very quickly with carbonate rock. The acid etches out
channels in the rock which are able to bypass the damage.
12.5.4 Solvents and Surfactants
Damage attributable to emulsions, water blocks, wettability changes, and organic deposits
is usually treated with surfactants and organic solvents. Surfactants are surface-active
molecules which can break emulsions, reduce water blocks and restore wettability if
properly chosen and applied. Organic solvents are used to dissolve asphalt and paraffin
deposits. Some special organic solvents can also break emulsions.
12.5.5 Hydraulic Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is another category of well treating. Hydraulic fracturing involves

generating a fracture within hydrocarbon formations and rendering the crack conductive,
either by propping it open with sand or by etching it with acid, if it is in a carbonate. These
treatments usually are done to effect reservoir stimulation by partially overcoming naturally
low permeability. However, fracturing is occasionally used to bypass formation damage as
shown in Figure 19. Usually, fracturing to overcome damage will involve smaller job sizes.
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Figure 19. Bypassing Damage by Fracturing
12.5.6 Tubing Treatments
Low productivity which is caused by mineral or organic scale deposits in tubing is removed
by treating the wellbore. In the case of soluble scale, acid circulated down to the
obstruction is frequently sufficient to restore production. Organic deposits, such as asphalt
and paraffin, can be removed with organic solvents or heated-oil treatments. Such
procedures are generally referred to as tubing or casing washes.
12.6 DAMAGE PREVENTION
12.6.1 Drilling Fluid Selection
Although drilling fluids are generally selected for their drilling properties, a consideration
of formation damage sensitivity should also guide mud selection. For example, formations
known to be sensitive to low salinity brine can be drilled with a NaCI brine mud or KCI-
polymer mud. Experience has shown that these muds can be less damaging to formations
with sensitive clays, leading to easier production testing and well completion.
Although approach to minimizing mud damage involves maintaining low fluid loss
properties in the mud, thereby confining the invaded zone close to the wellbore. Low
filtration characteristics require careful monitoring of the mud system, with the addition of
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additive and deflocculants as necessary. Maintaining the clays in a deflocculated state

increases their effectiveness at building thin, impermeable filter cakes. If this can be
accomplished, routine perforating may be sufficient to penetrate the shallow damage zone.
12.6.2 Workover Fluid Salinity
Formation damage from clay swelling and migration can be avoided during workovers by
exploiting some established properties of clays. Clays will tend to resist changing from
their native geologic equilibrium state, providing that external disturbances are not too
severe. This applies to both swelling and dispersing, where it has been shown in core tests
that gradual reductions in salinity are less damaging than abruptly imposed decreases (see
Figure 20). General experience suggests that clays which formed in high salinity connate
brines (50,000 ppm +) can withstand decreases in salinity of 50% or more, and even greater
final reductions can be tolerated if taken stepwise. However, general experience also
suggests that some clay disturbance will result in high salinity formations exposed to NaCI
brines lower than about 4000 ppm in salinity regardless of how slowly salinity is lowered.
Factors such as maximum tolerable salinity drop per step and damage threshold salinity are
certainly dependent upon the rock and the formation brine. Nevertheless, they provide us
with general guidelines for field application. For example, based on the above observations
it is recommended that workover fluid salinity not be sharply different from salinity. This
guideline permits us some leeway, in the sense that 50% reductions are often tolerable,
whereas a 95% reduction is usually too drastic. Fresher water formations, characterized by
5000 ppm salinity or lower, generally are not even sensitive to fresh water.
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Figure 20. Effect of Gradual Salinity Reduction on Permeability
12.6.3 Brines To Stabilize Clays
Clays can be stabilized against low salinity swelling by exposure to calcium brine. Core
material pretreated with calcium brines is typically insensitive to fresh water damage.
Other ions such as NH4+ and K+ may also be somewhat effective at preventing fresh water
damage, but this has not been conclusively demonstrated.
Damage from dispersion of non-swelling clays by fresh water can also be prevented by
treating these clays with calcium brine. As in the case of swelling, there is evidence that
NH4+ and K+ also help to inhibit dispersion.
Although there are a variety of theories and observations concerning clay sensitivity, it
seems clear that most damage can be avoided by preventing drastic decreases in salinity. It
is also well established that calcium brines will desensitize clays against swelling and
dispersal damage. These observations are the basis for establishing field guidelines
governing compatibility of workover fluids with formation clays.
12.6.4 Clay Stabilizers
Clay stabilizers are chemicals designed to eliminate the tendency of clays to swell and
disperse when exposed to low-salinity brine. These molecules function by adsorbing
tightly onto the clays, thus preventing the expansion of the ionic layer upon introduction of
fresh water.
Experiments confirm that some clay stabilizers are effective at preventing low-salinity
damage. However, experiments also show that currently available clay stabilizers are not
effective at preventing fines migration caused by fluid flow. Figure 21 shows the effect of
a clay stabilizer on a laboratory core under two flow rate conditions for the case of fresh
water exposure.
At the lower velocity, the clay stabilizer prevented clay damage and the core retained 100%
of its permeability, even after exposure to fresh water. However, above a critical flow
velocity, the permeability declined in spite of the presence of stabilizers. Thus, clay
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stabilizers should only be used where formations will unavoidably be exposed to fresh
water.
Figure 21. Pretreatment with a Clay Stabilizer Prevents Only Fresh Water Damage
12.6.5 Avoid Incompatible Brines
As discussed earlier, some combinations of calcium workover fluid and formation brine can
lead to scale damage in the formation. Where possible, a water analysis should be obtained
to determine this tendency. Specifically, there are methods to predict whether the HCO3
content of a reservoir brine will scale if exposed to calcium workover fluid.
12.6.6 Surfactant Selection
The use of surfactants which will not cause adverse wettability changes is also important.
Specifically, sandstone formations, which normally are negatively charged, should not be
exposed to positively charged cationic surfactants. Carbonate formations are positively
charged and therefore should not be treated with negatively charged anionic surfactants.
12.6.7 Drawdown
The drawdown, or pressure differential from the formation into the wellbore, can be
responsible for causing mechanical fines migration, especially in poorly consolidated
formations. This type of fines and clay migration cannot be prevented through the uses of
clay stabilizers. It may be necessary to limit drawdown and fluid production if fines-
migration damage and sand production is a severe problem.
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The ideal approach to workover fluid quality is to maintain well filtered fluids to prevent
damage from fines introduction into the formation. However, under realistic field
conditions, it is not often possible to achieve a high level of fluid cleanliness. This problem
is compounded if permeable zones are being exposed to the fluid. An approach to this
problem is to intentionally add acid-soluble fluid loss control particles to the fluid to
minimize leakoff and damage. These particles can then easily be removed with acid. This
procedure will be discussed in more detail in the workover fluids section.
12.6.9 Injection Water Quality
Formation damage in injection wells is often characterized by recurring injectivity declines

requiring periodic treatment. This is usually attributable to solid particle or oil injection,
which ultimately leads to plugged perforations and/or creation of a near wellbore oil
saturation. Although it is not practically possible to remove all solids and oil from injection
water, maximizing water quality within economic constraints will significantly reduce the
frequency of cleanout and damage removal operations. The cost of frequent treatments
must therefore be balanced against the cost of improved facilities.
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CHAPTER 13
SOLVENT AND SURFACTANT TREATMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13.1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………..…………….. 3
13.1.1 Scope ………………………………………………………………... 3

13.1.2 Objectives …………………………………………………………… 3
13.2 SOLVENTS ……………………………………………………………………….… 4
13.2.1 Solvent Definition …………………………………………………... 4

13.2.2 Miscibility …………………………………………………………... 4
13.2.3 Typical Oilfield Solvents …………………………………………… 5
13.2.4 Mutual Solvents …………………………………………………….. 5
13.2.5 Mutual Solvent Uses ………………………………………………... 5
13.3 SURFACTANTS ………………………………………………….………………… 6
13.3.1 Surfactant Characteristics and Behavior ……………………………. 6

13.3.2 Cationic Surfactant Uses ……………………………………………. 6
13.3.3 Anionic Surfactant Uses …………………………………………….. 7
13.3.4 Non-Ionic Surfactant Uses ………………………………………….. 7
13.3.5 Surfactant Compatibility ……………………………………………. 8
13.3.6 Wettability Changes ………………………………………………… 8
13.3.7 Surfactant Screening ………………………………………………… 9
13.4 PARAFFIN DEPOSITION …………………………………………………..…… 10
13.4.1 Physical Behavior Of Paraffins ……………………………………... 10

13.4.2 Paraffin Removal ……………………………………………………. 10
13.4.3 Paraffin Removal By Surfactants …………………………………… 11
13.4.4 Paraffin Inhibitors …………………………………………………… 11
13.5 ASPHALTENE DEPOSITION ………………………………………………...… 12
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13.5.1 Physical Behavior Of Asphaltenes ………………………………….. 12

13.5.2 Asphaltene Removal ………………………………………………… 13
13.5.3 Prevention Of Acid-Asphaltene Interactions ……………………….. 14
13.6 EMULSIONS …………………………………………………………………….... 15
13.6.1 Emulsion Description ……………………………………………….. 15

13.6.2 Emulsion Stability …………………………………………………... 15
13.6.3 Treating Emulsions With Solvents …………………………………. 16
13.6.4 Treating Emulsions With Surfactants ………………………………. 16
13.6.5 Treating Emulsions With Brines ……………………………………. 17
13.6.6 Emulsion Contact Problems ………………………………………… 17
13.7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY EFFECTS …………………………………….... 18
13.7.1 Fluid Saturation And Wettability Effects …………………………… 18

13.7.2 Water Blocks ………………………………………………………... 18
13.7.3 Wettability Changes ………………………………………………… 19
13.7.4 Water Injection Problems …………………………………………… 19
13.7.5 Mutual Solvents Remove Oil ……………………………………….. 19
13.7.6 Surfactants Remove Oil …………………………………………….. 20
13.8 ORGANIC DAMAGE REMOVAL …………………………………………...…. 21
13.8.1 Damage Identification ………………………………………………. 21

13.8.2 Organic Damage And Methods Of Removal ……………………….. 22
13.1 INTRODUCTION
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13.1.1 Scope
This Chapter is broken into three separate areas. First, the characteristic properties and
uses of solvents and surfactants are reviewed. Second, the problems that are commonly
treated with solvents and surfactants are discussed. Finally, general information about
identification, treatment, and treatment procedures associated with specific damage
problems is presented.
13.1.2 Objectives
After completing this Chapter, the engineer will be able to :
• Discuss the useful properties of organic solvents and mutual solvents,
• Describe the basic properties and uses of surfactants,
• List the basic subsurface production problems which solvent and surfactant treatments
can effectively correct,
• Design remedial solvent and surfactant treatments.
13.2 SOLVENTS
13.2.1 Solvent Definition
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A solvent is defined as a liquid capable of dissolving another material. More specifically,

an organic solvent is a liquid hydrocarbon that can dissolve various organic solids or tar-
like materials. Organic solvents are intended to remove organic solids from tubing strings,
perforations, and the pore spaces of rocks. They do not dissolve formation material to
create new permeability.
13.2.2 Miscibility
If two solvents can be mixed together in all proportions to form one phase, then the solvents
are said to be miscible. If two liquid phases exist after two solvents are mixed, then the two
solvents are considered to be immiscible. As an example, diesel and xylene are easily seen
to be miscible whereas water and xylene or water and diesel are observed to be immiscible.
(See Figure 1).
Figure 1. Miscibility
13.2.3 Typical Oil Field Solvents
Organic solvents commonly used in the oil field are lease crude, diesel, xylene, toluene, and
naphtha. Ethyleneglycolmonobutylether (EGMBE) is known as a mutual solvent and its
special properties will be discussed later. There are three basic reasons why these solvents
are used in preference to other widely available solvents.
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1. These solvents can generally perform the tasks that require the use of an organic
solvent.
2. These solvents are less hazardous to use than other typical organic solvents. For
example, carbon disulfide, CS2, is an excellent solvent but it is hazardous because of
its high toxicity and flammability.
3. These solvents, unlike the various chlorinated hydrocarbons, are easily handled
without the risk of damaging the catalysts or equipment used to process crude oils at
the refineries.
13.2.4 Mutual Solvents
The term “mutual solvent” is used to denote solvents which are not only miscible with
hydrocarbon solvents such as diesel, xylene, and most crude oils, but are also miscible with
brines. Furthermore, various proportions of oil and water can be made to form a single
liquid phase if a mutual solvent is added to the mixture at sufficiently high concentrations.
At lower concentrations, mutual solvents tend to remain in either the oil phase or the water
phase. If the mutual solvent remains mostly in the oil phase, it is said to be preferentially
oil miscible. If the mutual solvent remains mostly in the water phase, it is said to be
preferentially water miscible.
13.2.5 Mutual Solvent Uses
Mutual solvents are commonly used to remove unwanted oil saturations in the near
wellbore region of water injection wells. In addition, mutual solvents are added to brines to
increase surfactant solubility or dispersibility, to help break emulsions, and to reduce
interfacial tension. Finally, the mutual solvent, EGMBE, at a concentration of 10% in
xylene, has been shown to increase the rate of dissolution of asphalt.
13.3 SURFACTANTS
13.3.1 Surfactant Characteristics And Behavior
Surfactants (surface active agents) are substances that adsorb onto surfaces or interfaces
between phases. Surfactants are generally large molecules with two characteristically
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different chemical groups on the same molecule. (See Figure 2). One group is generally
non-polar and tends to be very soluble in hydrocarbons, whereas the other group, which is
either charged or polar, tends to increase the aqueous solubility. The three most commonly
used types of surfactants in the oil industry are cationic (+ charge), anionic (- charge), and
non-ionic (no charge) surfactants.
WATER-
SOLUBLE OIL-SOLUBLE GROUP
GROUP
Figure 2. Surfactant Molecule
13.3.2 Cationic Surfactant Uses
Most cationic surfactants, as presented in Figure 3, have a nitrogen base. Typically, these
surfactants are amines, imidazolines, or amides. The single most important use of cationic
surfactants in the oil industry is as corrosion inhibitors. Cationic surfactants are also used
to oil wet solids in oil base muds, to break emulsions, and to reduce interfacial tension.
A-
Figure 3. Cationic Surfactant
13.3.3 Anionic Surfactant Uses
Anionic surfactants, such as the lignosulfonates and various other soaps and detergents, are
generally used to keep clays suspended in drilling fluids, break emulsions, prevent
emulsions, or lower interfacial tensions.
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M+
Figure 4. Anionic Surfactant
13.3.4 Non-Ionic Surfactant Uses
The use of non-ionic surfactants has increased sharply over the last few decades because
their neutrally charged state renders them more compatible with other surfactants and less
likely to adsorb on rock surfaces. At this time, most of the surfactants presently used to
prevent or break emulsions downhole are non-ionic surfactants. Non-ionic surfactants also
are used to lower interfacial tension.
M+
Figure 5. Non-Ionic Surfactant
13.3.5 Surfactant Compatibility
Although the actual field behavior of a given surfactant is difficult to predict, certain
characteristic chemical interactions should be considered in choosing a surfactant. The first
consideration to be made in choosing a surfactant is the compatibility of the required
surfactant with other surfactants in the treatment. For example, cationic and anionic
surfactants react with each other and precipitate from solution. This can eliminate the
activity of both surfactants. Also, the salinity of the formation water can force a surfactant
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out of solution and reduce its effectiveness. When in doubt, laboratory testing is
recommended.
Another consideration to be made in selecting a surfactant for downhole treatment is the

compatibility of the surfactant with the formation, since the wrong surfactant choice could
cause an adverse wettability change in the formation. Clays and sand particles have a net
negative surface charge under typical reservoir conditions. Electrostatic considerations as
well as practical experience show that cationic surfactants adsorb onto sandstones and clays
due to the attraction between oppositely charged materials. The adsorption of these
surfactants onto the rock surfaces tends to leave the formation oil-wet since the oil soluble
portion of the molecule is directed toward the open pore spaces, while the charged portion
is attached to the rock (see Figure 6). A similar effect can be observed in carbonate
reservoirs. Since carbonates usually have a net positive charge, they tend to adsorb anionic
surfactants onto their surfaces. The adsorption of these surfactants can change the near
wellbore formation wettability from water wet to oil wet. Because of these adverse
wettability problems inherent with the use of charged surfactants, non-ionic surfactants are
normally used to maintain a water wet rock surface.
Figure 6. The Effect of Electrostatic Charge on Wettability
13.3.7 Surfactant Screening
Surfactants, as will be discussed later, are generally required to make, break, or prevent
emulsions. However, most surfactants can perform any of these three tasks under suitable
conditions. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that surfactants which are to be used
downhole be screened to insure that the surfactants are required, and that the surfactants
and their concentrations are appropriate to handle the indicated problem without adding
new problems. Typically, only laboratory core tests run under reservoir conditions can
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provide can provide this information.
13.4 PARAFFIN DEPOSITION
13.4.1 Physical Behavior Of Paraffins
Paraffin waxes, as indicated in Figure 7, are generally straight chain alkanes with melting
points in the range of 80 to 160°F. Paraffins often cause plugging in down-hole tubing and
flow lines because they will precipitate from solution when fluid conditions change as a
result of fluid production. A Figure 8 indicates, the solubility of paraffins in oil increases
with increasing temperature. However, the relationship between pressure and solubility is
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somewhat more complicated. Basically, paraffin solubilty increases as reservoir pressure

decreases in a saturated reservoir above the bubble point. Below the bubble point, paraffin
solubility decreases with decreasing pressure. The loss of paraffin solubility in the
wellbore fluid or in the reservoir fluid can initiate the precipitation of paraffins from the oil.
These precipitates can then attach themselves to the side of the tubing, flow lines, or the
reservoir rock, and initiate paraffin build-up.
Figure 7. Paraffin Wax
13.4.2 Paraffin Removal
The problems associated with paraffins have been known for a long time and, as might be
expected, a variety of techniques have been developed to remove or prevent paraffin
deposition. Various mechanical tools such as scrapers can be attached to wirelines and run
into the tubing or flow lines periodically to remove paraffin deposits. Since paraffins
generally melt at temperature above 160°F, certain oils can be heated to 200°F and used to
re-solubilize the paraffins. If it all possible, these paraffin treatments should not be pumped
into the perforations. This precaution is suggested to prevent solid paraffins or insoluble
materials from being flushed into the formation where they may precipitate. Finally, a more
costly but potentially less damaging method of paraffin removal is the use of hydrocarbon
solvents such as xylene or diesel to remove the paraffins.
13.4.3 Paraffin Removal By Surfactants
A third alternative for paraffin removal is the use of water-soluble and water-dispersible
paraffin removal agents. At the present time, it appears that paraffin dispersants in hot
water, (T = 200°F), can remove paraffins as well as hot oil treatments. In addition, these
hot-water-plus-paraffin dispersant treatments are less expensive than solvent treatments.
13.4.4 Paraffin Inhibitors
Finally, in fields where paraffin problems are known to occur, a method for the continuous
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injection of paraffin crystal modifiers (paraffin inhibitors) can be installed. The continuous
injection method can be very cost effective in preventing paraffin deposition in the tubing
when properly designed.
Figure 8. Paraffin Solubility

13.5 ASPHALTENE DEPOSITION
13.5.1 Physical Behavior Of Asphaltenes
Since asphaltenes and paraffins often occur together, the properties of these two heavy,
organic materials are often considered to be similar. However, this is not true.
Asphaltenes, as pictured in Figure 9, are aromatic molecules which form dark, friable solids
when they precipitate. These solids decompose at elevated temperature rather than melt.
Furthermore, when asphaltenes are in solution, they exist as dispersed micelles containing
several molecules rather than discrete molecules. However, asphaltenes do demonstrate
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some characteristic molecular properties as indicated in Figure 10. First, asphaltene

solubility decreases as temperature decreases, and decreases when pressure declines occur
above the reservoir bubble point. Below the bubble point, the solubility of asphaltenes
increases.
Figure 9. Asphaltene Type Structure
In general, asphaltenes may precipitate in the formation, perforations, or the tubing.

Asphaltenes are also observed to precipitate as a result of carbon dioxide, CO2, flooding
during secondary recovery processes. Another problem which appears during acidizing is
the formation of sludges or very viscous emulsions if the acid mixes with asphaltenic
crudes.
13.5.2 Asphaltene Removal
At the present time, there are no asphaltene dispersants to prevent asphaltene deposition.
Thus, the only methods available for asphaltene removal are solvent treatments or
mechanical milling-and-scraping techniques. Typically hot oil, diesel, xylene containing
10% EGMBE, or naphtha are used to dissolve or disperse precipitated asphaltenes. A
solution containing 10% EGMBE in xylene can be particularly effective for removing
asphaltene depositions. When treatment in the formation is required, the injection of 50 to
100 gal per ft of a xylene solution containing 10% EGMBE is recommended.
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Figure 10. Asphaltene Solubility
13.5.3 Prevention Of Acid-Asphaltene Interactions
When acidizing problems are expected or known to occur in reservoir which contain
asphaltenes, there are several possible approaches that can be used. One option is the
addition of surfactants which have been shown to prevent sludge or emulsion formation
under reservoir conditions. These surfactants can be used in acid treatments to avoid
unwanted reactions. However, although surfactants exist which prevent the formation of
sludges and emulsions during acid treatments, it is extremely important to test these
surfactants under the specific reservoir conditions. The use of core tests with the reservoir
crude oil at reservoir temperature offers the best method for evaluating the effectiveness of
the surfactants. Such tests should be performed for new fields where little or no experience
exists with acid treatments. These tests can aid in determining the specific surfactants and
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suitable concentrations to prevent emulsion and sludge formation.
An alternative method for preventing the reaction of acid with an asphaltene crude is the
use of a diesel spacer prior to injection of any acid. The diesel spacer should reduce the
contact between the acid and the crude oil. Also, if the proper surfactants are added to the
acid, the diesel preflush offers additional defense against severe formation plugging due to
an adverse acid-crude interaction.
13.6 EMULSIONS
13.6.1 Emulsion Description
Emulsions, as depicted in Figure 11, can be considered intimate mixtures of immiscible

liquids with one liquid dispersed as droplets in another liquid. Emulsions are classified
with respect to the continuous and dispersed phase. As an example, if water droplets are
dispersed in oil, the emulsion is called a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. Similarly, when oil
droplets are dispersed in water, the emulsion is called an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion.
Emulsion formation in the oil field is a natural occurrence, but it can only be observed in
produced fluids after they have exited the formation. Although emulsion formation could
feasibly occur during many workovers, it seems to be most prevalent when acid jobs are
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performed in reservoirs which contain heavy crudes.
Figure 11. Emulsions
13.6.2 Emulsion Stability
Although emulsions are inherently unstable, they can exist for extremely long periods of
time due to the adsorption of surfactants, fines, or by the formation of rigid films at the
surface of the dispersed droplets. In all three cases, the emulsions are stabilized by
adsorbed materials which prevent the coalescence of the dispersed droplets. In other to
break the emulsions, it is first necessary to remove the surfactants, fines, or films from the
surface of the droplets.
13.6.3 Treating Emulsions With Solvents
Basically, there are three methods to remove surfactants from the surface of dispersed
droplets. The first method involves the use of a solvent system that will dissolve the
surfactants and remove them from the droplet surface. Solvent systems which have
demonstrated some potential for breaking emulsions downhole have consisted of mixtures
of diesel, xylene, and EGMBE. These same solvents can potentially dissolve some
interfacial films.
However, without testing, it is impossible to know that a given solvent system will work
against a specific emulsion.
13.6.4 Treating Emulsions With Surfactants
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The second method for the removal of surfactants from a droplet surface is to use a second
surfactant to react in an antagonistic manner with the first surfactant. Generally, a given
surfactant will favor forming either O/W or W/O-type emulsions under most conditions.
Therefore, the use of surfactants which promote O/W emulsions are used to treat W/O
emulsions and vice versa. The use of the opposite type surfactant promotes the inverse
emulsion. This reaction, known as an antagonistic reaction, generally results in a broken
emulsion. Surfactants can also be used to water wet the fines that have been absorbed at a
droplet’s interface. Once the fines are water wet, they move from the interface to the water
phase and again allow the coalescence of the dispersed droplets. Typically, surfactant
treatments are used on produced emulsions since they provide an inexpensive and reliable
method for breaking emulsions. However, before a surfactant is used downhole, it should
be shown to attack the specific problem in question without causing new problems. In
troublesome fields, complete screening of surfactants should be accomplished before they
are used since the incorrect use of a surfactant could cause a more difficult problem than it
was designed to prevent. All workover operators should be aware that once an emulsion
forms in the formation, it may be extremely difficult if not impossible to remove.
Figure 12. Stabilization of Emulsions by Finely Divided Solids
13.6.5 Treating Emulsions With Brines
The third method that is sometimes successful in breaking emulsions is the use of high
salinity brines. Highly saline solutions can force surfactants into the oil phase and again
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allow the coalescence of the dispersed droplets. As always, this treatment should be tested
before it is used to insure formation and fluid compatibility.
13.6.6 Emulsion Contact Problems
Probably the single most critical factor in treating emulsion blocks is the limited ability to
contact the emulsion with the treatment, since most treatments will tend to finger past the
invaded zone during injection due to the large differences in fluid viscosities. Therefore,
reasonable precautions should always be taken to prevent emulsions from forming in the
reservoir.
13.7 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY EFFECTS
13.7.1 Fluid Saturation And Wettability Effects
The two major variables affecting relative permeability of fluids are fluid saturations and
formation wettability (see Figure 13). The relative permeability of any fluid in a porous
medium increases with its saturation. Also, the permeability of the wetting phase is
generally found to be significantly less than the permeability of the non-wetting phase at
similar saturations. A review of these concepts, which can be found in Section 130,
demonstrates why it is desirable that reservoirs be water wet.
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Figure 13. Example of Relative Permeability Curve
13.7.2 Water Blocks
A major problem associated with aqueous workovers on low permeability formations

concerns water blockage. In many instances, under-pressures or low permeability
reservoirs cease producing after exposure to aqueous fluids. This phenomena is often
associated with high water saturation near the wellbore and a comparatively large
hydrostatic head against which the reservoir has to produce. It is commonly found that
alternate days of swabbing and shutting-in these wells will bring them back to full
production capacity. However, due to the low pressure and/or permeability, these wells
typically take a much longer time to recover. With this understanding, it is probably a good
practice in these reservoirs to keep the amount of injected workover or stimulation fluid to
the minimum volume necessary to accomplish the goals of the workover.
Wettability changes in oil-production wells can rapidly translate into reduced oil
productivity due to the lower oil permeability. Therefore, it is imperative that sandstone
formations should not be treated with surfactants such as corrosion inhibitors that can
change their wettability.
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Formation wettability changes can also occur when large volumes of mutual solvent are
used to treat a formation, since the near wellbore region will temporarily become wetted by
the mutual solvent. However, as the mutual solvent is displaced by the next fluid, there is a
reasonable chance that the displacing fluid will wet the formation. Therefore when there is
a reasonable chance that will displace the mutual solvent, the use of 100% mutual solvent
should be avoided. Also, it should be realized that once formation wettability has been
changed from water wet to oil wet, there may not be any viable methods to water-wet the
formation. Therefore, the best methods are those that avoid changing the wettability of the
formation.
13.7.4 Water Injection Problems
The final topic to be covered in this section is water injection. There are basically two
problems associated with water-injection wells. The first and most important problem deals
with the injection of solid particles. It can be shown that for reasonably permeable
formations, the major problems are associated with the injection of solid material.
However, the solution of this problem is outside the scope of this chapter, and therefore
will not be considered further.
13.7.5 Mutual Solvents Remove Oil
The second problem associated with water-injection wells concerns the injection of
dispersed oil. As the oil saturation builds to the residual oil saturation level in the near
wellbore region, the permeability to water decreases. The decrease in the water
permeability is often paralleled by an increase in the water-injection pressures. The best
method to use for oil removal under these circumstances is the injection of 20 to 30 gallons
of xylene per foot of perforated interval followed by 20-25 gallons per foot of EGMBE. If
economics indicates that this treatments is too expensive, then 20-25 gallons per foot of
EGMBE can be pumped, although this treatment is unlikely to displace any heavy
hydrocarbons that may be in the pores. These solvents treatments can also be used to
increase water injectivity into a watered-out oil zone by removing the near wellbore oil
saturation. However, xylene or xylene with 10% EGMBE cannot be expected to remove
these oil saturations since xylene, which is an organic solvent, will remain as an organic
phase. Only a mutual solvent such as EGMBE can remove the xylene since EGMBE is
miscible with xylene and the injection brine.
13.7.6 Surfactants Remove Oil
Surfactants are also available that can reduce the near wellbore oil saturation. This method
requires the periodic addition of surfactants to the injection water so that the interfacial
tension of water and oil is lowered to a point where the oil can flow with the water.
Enhanced oil recovery operations have employed this technique successfully. However, it
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is doubtful that these surfactant treatments as normally practiced move heavy paraffinic or
asphaltenic crudes farther into the reservoir as successfully as a xylene-EGMBE treatment.
13.8 ORGANIC DAMAGE REMOVAL
13.8.1 Damage Identification
The five problems which require the use of solvent or surfactant treatments are :
• Asphaltene/paraffin deposition in production tubing

• Asphaltene/paraffin deposition in the reservoir
• Stable emulsion formation
• Excessive fluid saturations
• Near wellbore wettability changes
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Of these five problems, only the deposition of asphaltenes/paraffins in the tubing can be
identified with certainty, since this is the only problem where an actual sample of a
plugging material can be analyzed. All of the other problems must be inferred from the
existence of asphaltenes/paraffins in the crude, field production history, changing reservoir
conditions, and an understanding of the conditions which cause these problems. Often
several different experimental treatments may be performed before the best corrective
treatment is identified. Table 1 presents some damage mechanisms, possible sources for
the damage, removal treatments, and common procedures for implementing the treatment.
TABLE I
ORGANIC DAMAGE AND METHODS OF REMOVAL
Possible Causes - Problem Problem Source Recommended Treatment Level Method of Suggested Procedures
Low Productivity Identification Treatment Application
Asphaltene Obtain sample, Asphaltenes in 90% xylene 5X deposited Bullhead - Pump solvent slowly past
Deposition in analyze crude oil - 10% EGMBE; or asphaltene volume deposit
Tubing Temperature 100% diesel - Displace treatment to top of
gradient in Tubing deposit with xylene or diesel
- Allow treatment to soak 3 to
24 hours
- Return well to production
Paraffin Obtain sample, Paraffin in crude Xylene or diesel 5X deposited Bullhead - Same as for asphaltenes in
Deposition in analyze oil-Temperature paraffin volume tubing
Tubing gradient in tubing
Hot oil 2-3 tubing volumes Bullhead - Pump oil past deposit
- Reverse oil out
- Repeat as necessary
- Return well to production
- Try to avoid injecting oil into
formation
Concentric work - Circulate hot oil slowly down
string workstring while
reciprocating workstring
- through deposit
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Return well to production

Hot water plus 3-5 tubing volumes Bullhead - Same as hot oil treatment
paraffin dispersant - Same as hot oil treatment
Concentric
workstring
Asphaltene Well history - Drilling or 90% xylene 50-100 gal/ft Concentric - Circulate solvent to
deposition in remedial 10% EGMBE workstring or coiled perforations
formation treatment tubing - Cease circulation
which - Inject solvent at matrix rates
lowered - Reciprocate tubing slowly
wellbore across perforations while
temperature injecting
- Reservoir - Allow solvent to soak 8-24
pressure hours
decrease - Return well to production
above the
bubble point
Paraffin deposition Well history - Drilling or Xylene 20-60 gal/ft Concentric Same as treatment for
in formation remedial workstring or coiled asphaltene deposition
treatment tubing
which
lowered
wellbore
temperature
- Reservoir
pressure
decrease
below the
bubble point
Emulsion in Injectivity Acidizing To be determined - - To prevent adverse acid-

formation substantially above formation which crude interacrion; Use a 40-
productivity contains 50 gal/ft diesel preflush
asphaltenic before acidizing
crudes; drilling;
injection of wrong
surfactants
Water blocks Less than 100% Recent exposure Alternate days of - - Swab out as much fluid as
recovery of to aqueous fluid shutin and swabbing possible
workover fluids
Oil blocks in water Injection water - Xylene followed by 25 gal/ft xylene Bullhead Inject solvents below fracture
injection wells containing oil 100% EGMBE 25 gal/ft EGMBE pressure
Water soluble 0.1-1% surfactant Add surfactant
surfactant directly to injection
brine after filters
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COMPLETION MATRIX ACIDIZING OF CARBONATES Page 1 of 25
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 14
MATRIX ACIDIZING OF CARBONATES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14.1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 3
14.1.1 Treatment Goal 3

14.1.2 ….…………………………………………………... 3
History
……………………………………………………………….
14.2 CARBONATE MINERALS ……………………………………………………….. 4
14.2.1 Calcite 4
14.2.2 ……………………………………………………………….. 4
14.2.3 Dolomite 4
14.2.4 ………………………………………………………….…. 4
14.2.5 Occurrence in Nature 5
………………………………………………...
Natural Fractures
…………………………………………………….
Vugs
…………………………………………………………………
14.3 DISSOLVING CARBONATES …………………………………………………… 6
14.3.1 Acid Strength 6

14.3.2 …………………………………………………….…. 7
14.3.3 Acid Reaction With Carbonates 7
14.3.4 ………………………………….…. 7
Dissolving Power
……………………………………………………
Organic Acid Limitations ……………………………………………
14.4 ACID ATTACK ON CARBONATES ……….………………………………….… 9
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14.4.1 Reaction Time 9

14.4.2 .……………………………………………………… 9
14.4.3 Temperature and Pressure Effects 9
14.4.4 …………………………………... 9
14.4.5 Carbonate Mineral Type Effect 10
14.4.6 ..……………………………………. 11
14.4.7 Wormhole Formation 11
…...…………………………………………...
Wormhole Properties
..……………………………………………….
Fluid Loss Control ...………………………………………………...
Effect of HCl Acid on Cement
…..…………………………………..
14.5 ACIDS USED TO DISSOLVE CARBONATES ……………………….………... 13
14.5.1 HCl Acid 13

14.5.2 ………..…………………………………………...……… 13
14.5.3 Acetic and Formic Acid 13
14.5.4 ….……………………………………...….. 14
14.5.5 Chloroacetic and Sulfamic Acid …………………………..…….….. 14
Hybrid Acids
………………………………………………...………
Acids to Avoid
………………………………………………...…….
14.6 ACID ADDITIVES ..………………………………………………………………. 15
14.6.1 Corrosion Inhibitors …………………………………………..…….. 15

14.6.2 Mutual Solvents …………………………………………..………… 15
14.6.3 Alcohols 16
14.6.4 …………………………………………………..………… 16
14.6.5 Sequestering Agents 16
14.6.6 …………………………………………...……. 17
14.6.7 Surfactants and 17
14.6.8 Demulsifiers…………………………………………. 17
14.6.9 Antisludging Agents ………………………...……………………… 17
14.6.10 Foaming Agents 18
……………………………………………..………
Commingled Nitrogen
………………………………………..….…..
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Questionable Additives ………………………………………..…….

Additive Packages
…………………………………………..……….
14.7 TREATMENT DESIGN …………..………………………………………………. 19
14.7.1 Treatment Objective 19

14.7.2 ……………...…………………………………. 19
14.7.3 Well Conditions …..………………………………………………… 19
14.7.4 Spacers 19
14.7.5 ………………………………………………………………. 20
14.7.6 Acid Choice 20
14.7.7 ..………………………………………………………... 20
14.7.8 Acid Strength and Volume 21
.………………………………………….
Acid Displacement
…………………………………………………..
Matrix Injection Pressure and Rate
………………………………….
Diversion
…………………………………………………………….
14.8 TREATMENT IMPLEMENTATION …………………………………………… 22
14.8.1 Safety Considerations 22

14.8.2 ...…………………………………………….. 22
14.8.3 Acid Quality Control 22
14.8.4 ...……………………………………………… 23
14.8.5 Bullheading …………………………………………………………. 23
14.8.6 Concentric Tubing 23
14.8.7 …………………………………………………... 23
Establishing Injectivity ………………………………………………
Monitoring Treating Pressures
………………………………………
Spent Acid Recovery ………………………………………………
14.9 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………….. 25

14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.1.1 Treatment Goal
The goal of a matrix acidizing treatment in a carbonate formation is to create conductive
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flow channels through a damaged zone, using acid. The flow channels (or wormholes) result
in an increase in the apparent formation permeability near the wellbore by restoring fluid
flow. A successful matrix treatment requires that acid is pumped below the formation
fracture pressure. This is in contrast to acid fracturing which is described in the fracturing
section of this text. The engineer must also make a judicious selection of the acid and acid
additives and insure that the job is implemented according to the treatment design.
14.1.2 History
The earliest matrix treatments in carbonate formations were performed by Frasch around
1900. The treatments involved dumping HCI acid into the wellbore, and when possible, an
afterflush of water was pumped to displace the acid into the formation. It is remarkable that
the earliest treatments were similar to the technique used today. Even though Frasch’s
treatments were successful, matrix acidizing treatments of carbonates were not widespread
until about 30 years later.
14.2 CARBONATE MINERALS
14.2.1 Calcite
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Calcite is the most common carbonate mineral in nature. The chemical composition of pure
calcite is calcium carbonate, CaCo3, which has a hexagonal crystal structure. Calcium
carbonate can also occur as aragonite (orthorhombic) or as vaterite (hexagonal). However,
the crystal of CaCo3 is called a limestone. If the CaCo3 is fine-grained and powdery, it is
called a chalk. Calcite is also found as a component of sandstone and marl. Marl is a poorly
consolidated mixture of carbonates, clays, and shell remnants.
14.2.2 Dolomite
The chemical composition of pure dolomite is calcium magnesium carbonate, CaMg (CO3)2.
The crystal structure of dolomite is hexagonal. Dolomite is generally believed to be formed
from calcite by replacement of some of the Ca ions by Mg. calcite, dolomite is also found as
a component of sandstone and marl. But as a reservoir rock, dolomite is not as common as
calcite.
14.2.3 Occurrence in Nature
In nature, a pure calcite or dolomite reservoir is uncommon. This is a consequence of the

origin of the reservoir and the changes that can occur over geologic time. A carbonate
reservoir can be created by chemical and biochemical precipitation in a water environment
or by transportation of clastic grains. Over time, some calcite can be converted to dolomite
in a process referred to as dolomitization. Thus, the two carbonate minerals are often
intermingled and interbedded with one another. Siliceous components, for example quartz,
chert, and shales may also be found in a component of the rock. Figure 1 is a possible
classification scheme for reservoirs containing carbonates and other minerals.
14.2.4 Natural Fractures
Natural fractures are microcracks in carbonate minerals that occur naturally due to earth
stresses. Small fractures can also be induced in the near wellbore region during the drilling
and completion of a well. These fractures can have a pronounced influence in the response
to acid by directing the flow down the fracture. For example, if a natural fracture intercepts
the wellbore, it will probably accept most of the acid. It is also possible that a more reactive
mineral is formed as a secondary deposit in the natural fracture. In this case, the mineral in
the fracture will be preferentially dissolved.
14.2.5 Vugs
A vug is a cavity in a carbonate mineral that is usually created by a dissolution process

during the burial history. This leaves a void in the carbonate mineral that is visible to the
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unaided eye. In comparison with natural fractures, vugs are generally larger in diameter and
much shorter in length. The vugs in a carbonate mineral direct the initial flow of acid in a
manner similar to fractures. Thus, the presence of vugs can also affect the response to an
acid treatment.
Figure 1. A possible classification scheme for reservoirs containing calcite, dolomite,

and other non-carbonate minerals
14.3 DISSOLVING CARBONATES
14.3.1 Acid Strength
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When an acid is placed in water, it dissociates (ionizes) by the generalized reaction :
HA H+ + A′
(1)
In equation 1, the acid is denoted HA and the ionized species in the water are H+ and A′.
For example, HCl acid ionizes to produce hydrogen ions (H+) and chloride ions (Cl′).
Equilibrium is rapidly attained when an acid is added to water. At equilibrium, there is no net
change in the concentration of HA, H+, or A′. It is convenient to define an equilibrium
constant that can be used to determine the concentration of HA, H+, and A′ at a given
temperature. The equilibrium constant for an acid dissociation is called a dissociation
constant (KD) and is given by :
(H+) (A′)
KD =
(2)
(HA)
If KD is large, the acid is strong and will dissociate completely; if KD is small, the acid is
weak and will only partially dissociate. A weak acid is not as effective for dissolving
carbonates.
The dissociation constants for three common acids used for carbonate acidizing are given in
Table I. Note that the values of KD are a function of temperature and that HCl is much
stronger than acetic and formic acid, making it more effective for reaction with carbonates
Table I
Dissociation Constants of Acids
Acid 77 ° F 150 ° F 250 ° F

HCl ~ 103 ~ 103 ~ 103
Formic (HCO2H) 1.8 x 10-4 1.5 x 10-4 7.7 x 10-5
Acetic (CH3CO2H) 1.8 x 10-5 1.5 x 10-5 8.2 x 10-6
14.3.2 Acid Reaction With Carbonates
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The H+ ion of a dissociated acid is the active species that attacks a carbonate mineral. An
acid reacts with a carbonate to form calcium or magnesium chloride (CaCl2 or MgCl2),
carbon dioxide gas (CO2), and water. The reaction products are soluble and pose no
reprecipitation problems. For example, when HCl acid reacts with calcite or dolomite, the
balanced reactions are :
2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

(3)
4HCl + CaMg (CO3)2 CaCl2 + MgCl2 +2CO2 + 2H2O

(4)
The numbers in front of the chemical symbols are called the stoichiometric coefficients and
are needed to balance the equation. The balanced equation for calcite shows that 2 moles of
HCl are required to dissolve 1 mole of calcite yielding 1 mole of CaCl2, CO2, and H2O.
Combinations of the stoichiometric coefficients with molecular weight and acid strength data
allows a calculation of the amount of acid required to dissolve a given quantity of carbonate.
14.3.3 Dissolving Power
The dissolving power of an acid is a measure of the amount (mass) of carbonate dissolved
for a given strength and volume of acid. It is useful to define the dissolving power to
compare the effectiveness of different acids used to dissolve carbonates. Based on acid
strength and equilibrium considerations, it can be shown that HCl acid has the greatest
dissolving power, followed by formic acid, and the acetic (Reference 1). This means that
HCl acid is the best acid for general use in carbonate formations. Formic and acetic acid
are occasionally used for special applications.
14.3.4 Organic Acid Limitations
Since HCl is a strong acid, it reacts essentially to completion with carbonates, until it is spent.
In comparison, the weaker organic acids (formic and acetic) that have smaller dissociation
constants do not react to completion at reservoir conditions because a state of equilibrium
develops. Equilibrium occurs because CO2 (one reaction product) is held in solution by the
reservoir pressure and not allowed to escape from solution. At low pressure, the CO2 can
escape and even the weak acids will react to completion.
Results of tests relating the fraction of acid reacted to the temperature and acid composition
at 1500 psi are given in Figures 2 and 3 (Reference 2). The values expressing the fraction
reacting can be used to approximate the reduction in dissolving power of formic and acetic
acid. For example, Figure 2 shows that at 150°F and 1500 psi, only about 50% of a 10 wt%
acetic acid solution will react. Thus, the dissolving power of the acid must be reduced by
50%.
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Figure 2. Fraction of acetic acid reacted vs. temperature at 1500 psi
Figure 3. Fraction of formic acid reacted vs. temperature at 1500 psi
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14.4 ACID ATTACK ON CARBONATES
14.4.1 Reaction Time
The reaction of a carbonate mineral with acid is very rapid, occurring as soon as live acid
contacts the mineral surface. We can conceptually divide the reaction into three steps :
(1) live acid transport to the carbonate mineral surface
(2) acid dissolution of the carbonate mineral
(3) reaction product transport away from the surface
It can be shown (Reference 1) that the slowest step in the reaction is the first step. This
step controls the overall reaction time or rate. A heterogeneous reaction of this type is
called mass-transfer limited and is controlled by live acid diffusing to the carbonate mineral
surface. However, at reservoir conditions, the acid diffusion is rapid, so the reaction is
essentially instantaneous.
14.4.2 Temperature and Pressure Effects
An increase in temperature results in more rapid diffusion and an overall faster reaction
time. However, this effect is only of secondary importance since the reaction is already
very fast. The effect of pressure on the reaction time is minimal and can be neglected.
Keep in mind that pressure does limit complete spending of the weaker organic acids (see
Subject 14.3).
14.4.3 Carbonate Mineral Type Effect
The effect of mineral type on the acid attack of carbonates is also of secondary importance.
At low temperature (77°F), it has been shown in the laboratory that calcite reacts faster with
HCl acid than dolomite. (This is step number 2 in the previous reaction scheme). However,
at typical formation temperatures (~ 200°F), the rate of reaction of both carbonates is
controlled by the diffusion of live acid (step number 1) from the bulk solution to the
carbonate mineral surface.
14.4.4 Wormhole Formation
When an acid is pumped into a carbonate reservoir at pressures below the fracture pressure
(matrix rates), acid flows preferentially into the highest permeability regions, which may
include natural fractures and vugs. The fast acid reaction in the higher permeability regions
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favors the formation of flow channels called wormholes. Representative wormhole patterns
in carbonate minerals are schematically shown in Figures 4 and 5.
14.4.5 Wormhole Properties
The rate of fluid loss from the wormhole to the formation will control the length, diameter,
and number of wormholes. a high fluid loss acid tends to generate a few wormholes that are
short and larger in diameter. This is illustrated in Figure 4. A lower fluid loss acid tends to
generate more wormholes that are longer with a smaller diameter. This case is illustrated in
Figure 5.
Figure 4. Representative wormholes for a fast reaction time – high fluid loss case
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Figure 5. Representative wormholes for a slower reaction time – lower fluid loss case
Acids normally used in field treatments are highly reactive and tend to form only a limited
number of wormholes. This assertion is substantiated by both laboratory tests with HCl acid
and theoretical models. In laboratory tests with HCl acid, reaction is usually characterized
by the formation of a single wormhole. Although several large pores will form initially at the
acid injection face, continued pumping results in enlargement of fewer pores, until ultimately
only one channel is accepting most of the acid.
Theory also predicts that only a few wormholes will form due to the rapid reaction and fluid
loss rate of HCl acid. In the zero fluid loss limit (a hypothetical case), wormholes up to
about 100 feet are possible. In reality, wormholes of a few inches to a few feet are formed.
The shorter wormholes would be more likely in a higher permeability carbonate (~ 100 md)
and the longer wormholes are more likely in a lower permeability carbonate (~ 1 md).
To control wormhole properties, several methods of fluid loss control have been attempted.
These include :
• Particulate fluid loss agents
• Acid viscosifiers
• Emulsified acids
• Foamed acids
• Retarded acids
Of these five techniques, only acid viscosifiers and emulsified acids have proven somewhat
effective (see Section 17). Particulates are not generally effective, because rapid carbonate
dissolution prevents the formation of an impermeable filter cake. Foamed acids provide
some fluid loss control, but suffer from a reduced dissolving power. The so-called retarded
acids are not retarded at reservoir conditions and provide no benefit for fluid loss control.
Because of the practical difficulties and questionable benefit of acid fluid loss control for
matrix stimulation, fluid loss agents are seldom used in routine jobs.
14.4.7 Effect of HCl Acid on Cement
Tests have been conducted under simulated downhole conditions to determine the effect of
HCl acid on the wellbore integrity. The following conclusions were reached :
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• Cement is not severely attacked by HCl acid in normal acidizing conditions.
• The cement-casing bond is not weakened by HCl acid.
• Mud channels may be broken down by HCl acid. This is a mechanical failure of the
mud channel, not a dissolution of bypassed mud solids.
• The cement-formation bond in a carbonate formation can be weakened due to the rapid
dissolution of carbonates in acid.
The breakdown of a mud channel or the attack of the cement-formation bond may result in
an increased water cut or a higher GOR after carbonate acidizing if these zones are nearby.
However, before concluding that the job was pumped at matrix rates to insure that a fracture
was not generated.
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14.5 ACIDS USED TO DISSOLVE CARBONATES
14.5.1 HCl Acid
Excepts for special applications, HCl acid should be used for matrix acidizing of carbonates.
Normally, 15% HCl is used but 28% is sometimes preferred in lower permeability
formations. A 28% HCl may also provide some benefit in that the spent acid contains a
higher concentration of CaCl2 or CaCl2/MgCl2. The increase in concentration results in a
higher viscosity, which partially reduces fluid leak-off from the wormhole.
The primary advantages of HCl acid are its moderate cost and complete spending at
reservoir conditions. The principal disadvantage of HCl acid is its corrosivity. HCl is more
corrosive than other acids and generates a pitting type of corrosion. In addition, corrosion
inhibition of HCl acid above 250°F is difficult. Also, aluminum, chrome, or zinc plated metals
(often found on pumps) are severely attacked by HCl acid.
14.5.2 Acetic and Formic Acid
Acetic (CH3CO2H) and formic (HCO2H) acid may be used for carbonate acidizing in cases
where HCL acid is not acceptable. The principal advantage of acetic and formic acid is
their lower corrosivity and easier inhibition at higher temperature of for extended periods.
The corrosion rate of aluminum, chrome, and zinc is also reduced in acetic and formic acid.
The principal disadvantages of acetic and formic acid are their increased cost and reduced
dissolving power due to equilibrium limitations (see Subject 14.3).
Acetic and formic acid are usually used at about 10 wt%. At this concentration, the reaction
products remain soluble in the spent acid. In comparison with HCl acid, acetic and formic
acid result in similar wormhole properties and stimulation ratios. Since formic acid is
stronger than acetic acid, it reacts further to completion than acetic acid.
14.5.3 Chloroacetic and Sulfamic Acid
Chloroacetic (CH3CICO2H) and sulfamic (H2NSO 3H) acid are supplied in powdered form
and are readily soluble in water. Because they are powders, they can be inexpensively
transported to remote locations where the acid solution can be prepared onsite. Sometimes
these acids are cast into useful shapes such as “acid sticks”, a form convenient for
introduction into the wellbore.
Both sulfamic and chloroacetic acid are substantially more expensive than HCl acid on an
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equivalent dissolving power basis. However, reduced transportation costs and service
company charges for fluid and equipment may offset their increased cost. Of the two
powdered acids, chloroacetic acid is more stable and stronger than sulfamic acid and is
generally preferred. Sulfamic acid decomposes at about 180°F and is not recommended for
formation temperatures above 160°F.
14.5.4 Hybrid Acids
Hybrid acids are prepared by mixing two (or more) acids together. In most cases, one of the
acids is HCl. These acids have generally been designed to exploit the dissolving power
economics of HCl acid while attaining lower corrosivity of the weaker acids. Their
application is therefore almost exclusively in high temperature formations in which corrosion
inhibitor cost greatly affects the overall treatment cost
The hybrid mixtures have often been sold as retarded acids because of the presence of the
organic acid. It is important to realize that under formation conditions, the CO2 evolved by
the HCl reaction may partially limit the weaker acid from reacting. More importantly, the
hybrid acids are not retarded at reservoir conditions.
14.5.5 Acids to Avoid
The use of mud acid (HCl-HF), propionic acid (CH3CH2CO2H), or phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
should not be used for carbonate acidizing. Although these acids will dissolve carbonates,
they will form precipitates with the products of the reaction. The precipitates can result in
damage that is difficult to remove. Although hybrid acids that do not contain phosphoric,
propionic, or mud acid can be safely used, they offer no additional benefit, except where
corrosion inhibitor costs are significant.
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14.6 ACID ADDITIVES
14.6.1 Corrosion Inhibitors
The essential additive needed in all acids is a corrosion inhibitor. Corrosion inhibitors are
chemicals that adhere (either chemically or physically) to metal surfaces to form a protective
barrier between metal and acid. The barrier is never completely effective and, in essence,
the rate of metal corrosion is slowed rather than stopped.
Inhibitor effectiveness decreases as temperature is increased. This is a consequence of

inhibitor desorption and more rapid diffusion of the acid through the inhibitor film. In addition,
some organic inhibitors become chemically unstable and decompose at temperatures above
250°F, thereby losing their ability to protect the metal. Inhibition of acid corrosion above
250°F for eight hours or longer poses on of the more difficult challenges for acidizing deep,
hot wells.
To specify a corrosion inhibitor, it is necessary to have the following data :
• Type and concentration of acid
• Type of metals exposed to the acid
• Maximum pipe temperature
• Maximum acid/metal contact time
With these data, service company information on available inhibitors can be used to
determine both the type and concentration of inhibitor needed to provide a practical level of
protection. Much of the service company information is based on the assumption that a
metal loss 0.05 lb/sq ft of area (or ~ 1 mil) can be tolerated if no pitting is present. If this
loss cannot be sustained without adverse effects on well equipment, either higher
concentrations of inhibitors or more effective ones must be used.
14.6.2 Mutual Solvents
Under some situations, a mutual solvent may be beneficial as an acid additive for carbonate
acidizing. Mutual solvents aid in dissolving corrosion inhibitors. They may also provide some
benefit by preventing adverse acid/crude interactions or emulsions, but this should be
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established by fluid testing at simulated downhole conditions. If a mutual solvent is used for
carbonate acidizing, it is recommended that EGMBE (i.e.Conqor 303) be added at 10% by
volume to the acid.
14.6.3 Alcohols
The use of alcohols is most beneficial in low pressure and low permeability wells (especially
gas wells) where spent acid clean-up is known to be a problem and other methods to unload
acid are not available. Typical alcohol concentrations used in acid are 10-20% by volume.
Alcohols aid in clean-up by lowering the interfacial tension between spent acid and
hydrocarbons, and by increasing the vapor pressure of the spent acid. However, at higher
temperatures (~ 250°F), the acid can react with the alcohol and limit its effectiveness
(Reference 3).
14.6.4 Sequestering Agents
Sequestering or complexing agents are chemicals that prevent precipitation by binding up

metal ions, which keeps them soluble even in spent acid. The metal that is believed to be the
major problem is iron (Fe). Possible sources of iron are :
• Corrosion of tubulars with acid
• Dissolution of iron and mil scales
• Iron that occurs naturally in the formation
The precipitation of iron depends on the iron concentration, pH, and oxidation state of the
iron. The oxidation state of iron can be Fe (II) (ferrous) or Fe (III) (ferric). The Fe (II) is
not a problem since it precipitates around pH ~ 6 and the acid only spends to pH ~ 4. The
Fe (III) precipitates as iron hydroxide around pH ~ 2.
Precipitation of ferric iron during carbonate acidizing is by no means a common problem.

(The possibility of iron precipitation during sandstone acidizing is discussed in more detail in
Section 15). In the presence of iron pipe, most Fe (II) and in carbonate formations there is
little if any Fe (III). For these reasons, an iron-sequestering agent should only be considered
for water injection wells where corrosion control has been inadequate.
Some of the common iron sequesterants on the market include citric, lactic, acetic, and
gluconic acid. Derivatives of these basis acids include ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid
(EDTA) and nitrilo-triacetic aid (NTA). Each of these sequesterants has certain advantages
and limitations. The primary limitations are low solubility, precipitation of reaction products,
or high temperature instability. Both cost and performance vary widely.
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14.6.5 Surfactants and Demulsifiers
Surfactants and demulsifiers are surface-active chemicals that are designed to prevent
emulsions that may form when a crude mixes with acid. A surfactant or demulsifier may
have a legitimate use, but it is good practice to first demonstrate in a laboratory that they
function effectively at reservoir conditions. Surfactants and demulsifiers must also be
compatible with formation fluids and should not adversely wet the reservoir rock. Due to
these limitations, the indiscriminate use of surfactants and demulsifiers is not recommended.
14.6.6 Antisludging Agents
Antisludging agents are designed to prevent the formation of asphaltene sludges when acid
contacts an asphaltic crude. Some oils have been shown to form asphaltene sludges. These
sludges may plug the formation due to their high viscosity and can be difficult to remove due
to a loss in injectivity.
Some sludging problems can be remedied by an antisludging additive in the acid. Materials
used in this application are generically alkyphenols, fatty acids, and certain oil-soluble
surfactants. However, before adding an antisludging agent to acid, a sludging problem
should be identified by previous field experience or laboratory tests at simulated reservoir
conditions. An alternative to the use of antisludging agents is a diesel spacer (see Subject
14.7). Also, a surfactant or a demulsifier may also function as an antisludging agent. For
more details, refer to Chapter 13.
Foamed acid has been used for matrix acid treatments in carbonate formations. Some of the
claims for foamed acid include better fluid loss control, faster clean-up, and improved
diversion. These claims have not been fully substantiated. The primary disadvantage of a
foamed acid is the reduced dissolving power, compared to plain HCl acid.
14.6.7 Foaming Agents
Foamed acid has been used for matrix acid treatments in carbonate formations. Some of the
claims for foamed acid include better fluid loss control, faster clean-up, and improved
diversion. These claims have not been fully substantiated. The primary disadvantage of a
foamed acid is the reduced dissolving power, compared to plain HCl acid.
14.6.8 Commingled Nitrogen
The commingling of nitrogen (N2) with acid will aid in the clean-up of spent acid. Typical
treatments involve the use of 500-2000 SCF N2/bbl. The use of N2 should be considered in
low bottom hole pressure wells, especially gas wells. The N2 can also be used to jet out
wellbore fluids, if a workstring is available, and get a well back on production.
14.6.9 Questionable Additives
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All the additives described above may have a legitimate use in carbonate acidizing.
Additives that usually provide no benefit for carbonate acidizing include :
• Clay and fine particle stabilizers (see Chapter 12)
• Friction reduces
• Particulate fluid loss agents
A carbonate reservoir is usually low in clay content and carbonate fines will be rapidly
dissolved by HCl acid. At the low matrix injection rates, friction reducers are in most cases
of no benefit except in deep wells or small diameter tubing. The particulate fluid loss agents
are generally not effective due to the rapid erosion of filter cake.
14.6.10 Additives Packages
When selecting acid additives, it is good practice to minimize the number of additives. Other
than a corrosion inhibitor, a specific need for another additives should be demonstrated
before it is added to the acid. Service companies often recommend several specialty
additives that are not useful and may even cause problems. If a number of additives are
used, the additives should be compatible. The engineer should also insure that all additives
are compatible with the formation and all formation fluids.
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14.7 TREATMENT DESIGN
14.7.1 Treatment Objective
The objective of a matrix acid treatment in a carbonate formation is to create wormholes

that bypass a damaged zone and restore flow. For a successful treatment, the engineer
should first assess well conditions, then specify the type and volume of acid and any acid
additives. Calculations should be performed to determine the maximum surface pressure to
avoid fracturing. The use of spacers and diverting agents should also be considered. It is
equally as important to insure that the treatment is implemented as close as practically
possible to the design.
Basic stimulation theory is relevant to matrix acidizing of carbonate formations. A well must
be damaged to show a significant improvement upon acidizing. Diagnostic techniques
discussed in Chapter 12 will aid in assessing any damage and in specifying the proper
treatment. Particulate material such as barite drilling mud solids, clays, and silica fines,
which are capable of causing damage, are not soluble in HCl acid. However, acid can
circumvent this type of damage by creating wormholes that bypass the damage.
14.7.2 Well Conditions
The design of a matrix treatment in a carbonate formation must be tailored to the existing
well conditions. The well file is generally the best source of information. Consultation with
field personnel can supplement or update the information in the well file.
The final design must specify treating pressures that are within the tubing and wellhead
pressure ratings. The type of completion and interval are other factors that affect the design
of the treatment. Further important considerations are any downhole equipment, condition of
the tubulars, artificial lift equipment, and the fluids currently in the wellbore.
14.7.3 Spacers
If adverse acid/crude interactions are known to exist, this problem can be reduced with a
diesel spacer ahead of the acid. Diesel may also be used to establish injectivity. A tubing
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volume of diesel
14.7.4 Acid Choice
Except for special applications, HCl acid should be used for matrix acidizing of carbonates.
The only required additive to HCl acid is a corrosion inhibitor. The need for other additives
should be demonstrated in a laboratory or substantiated by previous field success. The use
of any unnecessary additives increases job cost and may cause unforeseen problems.
14.7.5 Acid Strength and Volume
The acid concentrations most often used are 15% HCl and 28% HCl. Since dissolving
power of 28% HCl is roughly double that of 15% HCl, about half the volume of 28% HCl is
required to dissolve an equivalent amount of carbonate. Exact treatment volumes are
difficult to predict due to differences in formations and the severity of damage. Typical
treatment volumes range from 50-150 gal/ft of perforated interval. Larger volumes should
be used when deep damage is suspected and in higher temperature wells.
14.7.6 Acid Displacement
All the HCl acid used in the treatment should displaced into the formation to insure that it
spends to completion. The displacement volume will depend on the method of treatment
implementation. For bullhead jobs, the volume will be the tubing plus casing volume. If a
workstring is used, the volume should be equal to the workstring plus casing volume below
the workstring.
The displacement fluid can be fresh water, brine, diesel, or lease crude, depending on
reservoir type. A non-damaging fluid must be used for displacement in case a portion of this
fluid is accidentally injected into the formation. If brine is used, it should be properly filtered
and compatible with the formation brine. In gas wells and water injection wells, only fresh
water or brine should be used. In oil wells, any of the fluids can be used. However, if a
crude contains paraffins or asphaltenes or has been treated with demulsifiers, it may damage
the formation.
14.7.7 Matrix Injection Pressure and Rate
In most cases, acid should be pumped below the formation fracture pressure. The engineer
should calculate the surface pressure at which fracturing will occur. The pressure depends
on the fluid gradient, fracture gradient, friction pressure, and true vertical depth. The
maximum injection rate can be used to estimate job time. For an example calculation of the
maximum surface pressure and rate, see Chapter 15.
In some cases, exceeding the fracture pressure while pumping acid is not detrimental. It
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may even provide some additional stimulation by generating conductive mini-fracs. If natural
fractures are present, pumping above fracture pressure will increase the chance of getting
acid into the fractures. This will also provide stimulation above that due to damage removal.
However, in cases where communication with a water or gas zone may occur due to a
fracture, it is important to pump at pressures below the formation fracture pressure.
14.7.8 Diversion
Diversion refers to a method to uniformly place acid throughout the entire damaged interval.
Diversion should be considered in carbonate intervals longer than about 20 feet or when two
or more intervals are separated by more than about 20 feet of a non-productive zone. For
bullheaded treatments in straight holes with a perforated casing, buoyant ball sealers are
probably the most effective method of diversion.
Effectiveness diversion in open hole completions or deviated wells is more difficult. Some
options in open hole or deviated wells include particulates, mechanical diversion, or viscous
plugs. In the laboratory, only large quantities of the particulate, J-237, have been partially
successful for diversion in carbonates. Mechanical diversion techniques or viscous plugs
may be effective but are generally more costly and involve greater risks. Partial diversion
can be attained by reciprocation of coiled tubing across the perforated interval during the
pumping of acid. For an open hole completion, reciprocation is often the best technique. For
more details on diversion, refer to Chapter 18.
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14.8 TREATMENT IMPLEMENTATION
14.8.1 Safety Considerations
Safety should be a primary concern when pumping acid at high pressure. Many operators
require that a safety meeting be held before beginning a job. At this time, the design of the
job can reviewed so that all personnel know the job procedure. When pressure testing lines,
personnel should be located in a safe place. Those that have to be near the wellhead or
high-pressure lines during pumping should wear proper head, eye, and body protection
equipment.
14.8.2 Acid Quality Control
In most cases, acid is mixed in the service company yard and is not a responsibility of the
PCSB engineer. In cases where powdered acids are used, the engineer should insure that
correct amount of acid is added and that all the solids dissolve. The injection of undissolved
solids will result in damage by plugging.
For premixed acid, the engineer can check the specific gravity of the acid on-site with a
hydrometer to insure that the correct strength acid is delivered. Knowledge of the specific
gravity is especially important if buoyant ball sealers are being used for diversion. Before
measuring the specific gravity, it is good practice to circulate the acid in the tanks two or
three times (commonly called rolling the tanks). This insures that all additives, especially
dispersible corrosion inhibitors, are uniformly distributed in the acid. Often times, the
inhibitors can float to the tank, resulting in inaccurate specific gravity readings or corrosion
problems.
The following empirical expression can be used to calculate the density (or specific gravity)
of a given weight HCl acid, with EGMBE mutual solvent if present, at the field temperature:
HCl
ρ = 0.9982 + 5.241 x 10-3 wt% HCl – 0.0004 (T-20)
+ V%7610 (-6.167 x 10-5 wt% HCl – 2.208 x 10-4)
(5)
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where ρHCl is the HCl density, wt% HCl is the weight percent of HCl acid, T is the
temperature in degrees centigrade, and V%7610 is the volume percent of EGMBE.
14.8.3 Bullheading
Pumping the treatment directly down the tubing, or bullheading, is one of the least expensive
methods of treatment implementation. The technique usually involves the use of Chicksan
line to connect the pumping equipment to the wellhead. Chicksan line is high-pressure steel
tubing with rotatable elbows that facilitate connection. The primary disadvantages of
bullheading is that all wellbore fluids and any debris will be injected into the formation ahead
of the acid.
Since acid cannot be spotted across the carbonate interval, establishing injectivity may also
be more difficult. Spent acid recovery may also be more difficult with a bullheaded job since
nitrogen cannot be injected downhole to reduce the fluid hydrostatic head.
14.8.4 Concentric Tubing
The use of concentric tubing, including coiled tubing or a workstring, is generally more
expensive, but has advantages over bullheading the treatment. The advantages include :
• Wellbore fluids and debris are not injected
• Better fluid control is attained
• Acid diversion is improved
• Acid recovery is facilitated
If the location, depth, and economics of the job are nor restrictive, the use of either coiled
tubing or a workstring is recommended over bullheading.
14.8.5 Establishing Injectivity
Establishing injectivity can be a problem in severely damaged wells. In cases where there is
no injectivity, fracture pressure can be temporarily exceeded and then reduced when acid
hits the formation. In carbonate formations, acid should break down the formation soon after
the acid reaches bottom hole. Thereafter, the treatment should be performed at matrix
rates.
14.8.6 Monitoring Treating Pressures
To ensure that fracture pressure is not exceeded, the engineer should monitor treating
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pressure throughout the job. Most service companies have a permanent record of the
surface pressure on a chart recorder. Often, there is a pressure gauge on the wellhead. In
rare cases, a downhole pressure gauge is available. Significant events to note are the
breakdown of the formation due to acid attack, the “ball action” if ball sealers are used for
diversion, or the pressure response to other diverting agents. A large drop in surface
pressure that suddenly occurs may indicate that the formation was inadvertently fractured
(see Chapter 17).
14.8.7 Spent Acid Recovery
In carbonate acidizing, the acid should return spent provided that it was properly displaced
into the formation. No shut-in time is required for spending since the reaction is very fast.
A shut-in time will not result in precipitation damage, but corrosion may continue to occur if
the acid was mot displaced.
The return of live acid to the surface is an indication that part of the acid was not properly
injected. Live acid can also remain in the rathole and result in corrosion problems. It is good
practice to record the volume of recovered fluid and compare this volume to the fluid
pumped. If formation water is not being produced back with the spent acid, the volume will
give an indication of the well clean-up time.
If a production well will not unload, some form of temporary artificial lift must be used. If
nitrogen is on-site with a concentric tubing, the N2 can be used to jet-out the wellbore. If gas
lift is available, it should be initiated to unload fluids. Swabbing may also be required if the
above techniques are not available. In low bottom hole pressure wells, especially gas wells,
swabbing may be required for as long as three to four days before enough spent acid and
formation water is recovered to initiate flow. A zone should not be abandoned if it fails to
flow within the first few days.
Acid should not be recovered from an injection well. In this case, the displacement fluid can
be the injection water. The well can be returned to injection immediately following the job.
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14.9 REFERENCES
1. B.B Williams, J.L. Gidley, R.S. Schecter, Acidizing Fundamentals, SPE of

AIME Monograph Volume 6, Dallas (1979).
2. J.C. Chatelain, I.H. Silberberg, R.S. Schecter, SPEJ, 189 (Aug. 1976).
3. B.R. Keeney, J.G. Frost, JPT, p. 552, (May 1975).
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COMPLETION SANDSTONE ACIDIZING Page 1 of 38
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 15
SANDSTONE ACIDIZING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
15.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………...……………………….. 4
15.1.1 Purpose Of Acidizing ……………………………………………….. 4

15.1.2 History ………………………………………………………………. 4
15.1.3 Chemicals Used ……………………………………………………... 4
15.1.4 Chapter Goals ……………………………………………..………... 5
15.2 SANDSTONE COMPOSITION …………………………………………………… 6
15.2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 6

15.2.2 Silica ………………………………………………………………… 6
15.2.3 Feldspars ……………………………………………………………. 6
15.2.4 Clays ………………………………………………………………… 7
15.2.5 Carbonates ………………………………………………………….. 7
15.3 REACTION CHEMISTRY ………………………………………….…………..… 8
15.3.1 HF Acid ……………………………………………………………... 8

15.3.2 Dissolution Reactions ………………………………………………. 8
15.3.3 Precipitation Reactions ……………………………………………… 10
15.3.4 Fluosilicates …………………………………………………………. 10
15.3.5 Hydrated Silica ……………………………………………………… 11
15.3.6 Calcium Fluoride ……………………………………………………. 12
15.3.7 Iron And Aluminum Hydroxides …………………………………… 13
15.3.8 Dissolving Power …………………………………………………… 14
15.3.9 Laboratory Tests Prior to Treatment ................................................. 14
15.4 MECHANISM OF ACID ATTACK …………….……………………..………… 16
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15.4.1 Acidizing Dynamics ………………………………………………… 16

15.4.2 Mineral Reactivity …………………………………………………... 16
15.4.3 Carbonate Dissolution ………………………………………………. 16
15.4.4 Clay Dissolution …………………………………………………….. 16
15.4.5 Acid Spending ………………………………………………………. 17
15.4.6 Silica Precipitation ………………………………………………….. 18
15.4.7 Formation Unconsolidation …………………………………………. 18
15.4.8 Depth Of Penetration ………………………………………………... 18
15.4.9 Effect Of Temperature ………………………………………………. 18
15.4.10 Effect Of Injection Rate …………………………………………….. 19
15.4.11 Effect Of Mineral Composition …………………………………….. 19
15.4.12 Carbonate ……………………………………………………………. 20
15.4.13 Clays …………………………………………………………………. 20
15.4.14 Native Permeability …………………………………………………. 20
15.4.15 Effect Of HF Concentration ………………………………………… 20
15.4.16 Effect On Cement …………………………………………………… 20
15.5 TREATMENT DESIGN ………………………….………………………………. 21
15.5.1 Candidate Selection …………………………………………………. 21

15.5.2 Treatable Damage …………………………………………………… 21
15.5.3 Required Data ……………………………………………………….. 22
15.5.4 Fluid Composition ………………………………………………….. 22
15.5.5 Preflush ……………………………………………………………… 22
15.5.6 Preflush Volume …………………………………………………….. 23
15.5.7 HF/HCl ……………………………………………………………… 23
15.5.8 HF/HCl Volume …………………………………………………….. 24
15.5.9 Afterflush ……………………………………………………………. 24
15.5.10 Afterflush Volume …………………………………………………... 24
15.5.11 Acid Additives ………………………………………………………. 25
15.5.12 Injection Pressure …………………………………………………… 25
15.5.13 Fracture Gradient ……………………………………………………. 25
15.5.14 Fluid Gradient ………………………………………………………. 26
15.5.15 Tubing Friction Pressure ……………………………………………. 26
15.5.16 Surface Pressure …………………………………………………….. 27
15.5.17 Injection Rate ……………………………………………………….. 27
15.5.18 Acid Penetration Distance …………………………………………... 27
15.5.19 Diversion ……………………………………………………………. 28
15.5.20 Example Design …………………………………………………….. 29
15.6 FIELD IMPLEMENTATION …………………………………………...……….. 32
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15.6.1 Well Condition ……………………………………………………… 32

15.6.2 Safety ……………..………………………………………………… 32
15.6.3 Mixing Acid ………………………………………………………… 32
15.6.4 Establishing Injectivity ……………………………………………… 33
15.6.5 Bull Heading ………………………………………………………... 34
15.6.6 Circulating With Workstring ……………………………………….. 34
15.6.7 Coiled Tubing Injection …………………………………………….. 34
15.6.8 Injecting The Treatment …………………………………………….. 36
15.6.9 Returning Well To Production ……………………………………… 36
15.6.10 Acidizing Gravel Packs ……………………………………………... 37
15.6.11 Acidizing Success …………………………………………………… 37
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.1.1 Purpose Of Acidizing
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Sandstone acidizing implies the use of hydrofluoric acid to dissolve clay and other siliceous
minerals which are causing damage in a sandstone formation. The acid reacts within the
rock’s pore structure, thereby removing damaging obstructions and increasing permeability
in the neighborhood of the wellbore. To contact the entire pore structure near the wellbore,
acid is injected under matrix treating conditions, that is, at a pressure less than the fracture
pressure. Stimulation by sandstone acidizing is limited to the removal of near-wellbore
damage, since active acid penetrates less than two feet from the wellbore.
15.1.2 History
The most prevalent type of sandstone acidizing employs a mixture of hydrofluoric and
hydrochloric acids. The first commercial use of hydrofluoric-hydrochloric acid mixtures
was begun by Dowell around 1940. Their product, called Mud Acid, was developed to
dissolve drilling-mud filter cake. These early treatments were successful, and use of the
technique expanded. Although many modifications and improvements have been
introduced since 1940, the basic sandstone acidizing treatment continues to be used to the
present.
15.1.3 Chemicals Used
An acidizing treatment for a sandstone formation will normally consist of the sequential
injection of three fluids : an HCl preflush, a mixture of hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids,
and an afterflush. These fluids serve specific purposes :
• The HCl preflush displaces water from the tubing and connate water from the near-
wellbore region, thereby minimizing direct contact between calcium, sodium, and
potassium ions in the formation brine and hydrofluoric acid reaction products. The
goal of this displacement is to avoid re-damaging the formation by precipitation of
insoluble sodium or potassium fluosilicates. The acid also reacts with calcite
(calcium carbonate), or other carbonaceous material in the formation, thereby
reducing, or eliminating, reaction between the hydrofluoric acid and calcite. This
maximizes utilization of the more expensive HF and prevents the precipitation of
calcium fluoride.
• The acid used to dissolve sand, clays, and other siliceous minerals is hydrofluoric
acid (HF). Although HF is the only acid that will dissolve siliceous minerals, it is
most frequently employed in a mixture with HCl. The purpose of HCl is to provide a
highly acidic environment for the reaction between HF and sandstone. This acidic
environment enhances the dissolving power of HF and also tends to maintain the HF-
silica reaction products in solution. A mixture of HF and HCl is commonly referred
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to as mud acid.
• An afterflush is used to displace acid reaction products away from the near-wellbore
region. In oil wells the afterflush is usually diesel, HCl, or an NH4Cl water each
containing a mutual solvent. The mutual solvent is included to eliminate
emulsification of crude oil by the acid and to keep the reservoir rock water wet.
When an oil saturation is to be avoided as in gas or water injection wells, an afterflush
of nitrogen, HCl, or NH4Cl water and a mutual solvent is used.
15.1.4 Chapter Goals
This Chapter is intended to provide the engineer with basic design procedures for a
sandstone acidizing treatment. Fundamentals are treated in sufficient depth to allow for
flexibility to handle a variety of saturations. Upon completion of this section an engineer
should be able to :
(1) Decide when sandstone acidizing is appropriate for damage removal
(2) Specify fluids and treatment volumes
(3) Prescribe proper implementation procedures
(4) Decide when special placement techniques (diversion) are necessary for treatment
distribution.
15.2 SANDSTONE COMPOSITION
15.2.1 Introduction
To begin a study of sandstone acidizing, it is important to define the types of geological

materials that the acid will react with the dissolve. Sandstone is commonly composed of
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minerals from four different categories : silica, feldspars, clays, and carbonates.
Hydrofluoric acid, which is the only substance capable of dissolving silicates within a
reasonable time, will dissolve all of these minerals.
15.2.2 Silica
The main constituent a sandstone reservoir is silica, for which the simplest chemical
formula is SiO2. The quartz sand grains that are the primary constituent of a sandstone are
essentially pure silica. Frequently, the cementing material holding the sand-grain matrix
together is also composed of silica. The silica structure is very stable, making the rate at
which this mineral dissolves in HF very slow.
15.2.3 Feldspars
Another group of minerals commonly found in sandstones are feldspars. Feldspars have a
three-dimensional network structure with SiO4-4 and AlO4-5 tetrahedra as the building
blocks.. The negative charge of this network is balanced by the presence of cations such as
Na+, K+, and Ca++ in the interstices. The feldspar aluminosilicate structure is similar to the
pure silica structure found in quartz, except that aluminum has been substituted for some of
the silicon. This makes feldspars more susceptible to attack by HF; hence, the rate of
dissolution of feldspars is somewhat greater than that of silica.
Although all feldspars share the same basic aluminosilicate structure, the exact chemical
composition and crystal structure is determined by the cations present. There are three
basic chemical compositions for feldspars :
Potassium feldspar KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase)

Sodium feldspar NaAlSi3O8 (albite)
Calcium feldspar CaAl2Si2O8 (anorthite)
Unlike silica, which is deposited as a pure substance, feldspars are rarely formed with the
compositions listed above, but occur with various proportions of K, Na, and Ca. As a
practical matter, the precise composition of the feldspar component has negligible impact
on sandstone acidizing, relative to other factors, and hence does not affect design.
15.2.4 Clays
Clays are siliceous materials like silica and feldspar, but their structure is quite different.
Instead of being three-dimensional, clays have a sheetlike structure. Silica sheets composed
of SiO2 alternate with alumina sheets of composition Al2O3. Frequently other atoms such as
Fe++, Ca++, Mg++, or Al++ become substituted for one of the Si or Al atoms. This
substitution results in a charge imbalance within the sheets that is balanced by the
incorporation of Na+ or K+ atoms on the sheet surfaces. This highly substituted sheet-like
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structure is highly susceptible to rapid attack and dissolution by HF. Even plain HCl is
capable of attacking the structure by leaching out the aluminum and iron constituents of
some clays.
Depending on the relative arrangement of silica and alumina sheets and the type and degree
of substitution within the structure, many different clays exist,, the most familiar being
kaolinite, montmorillonite (smectite), illite, and chlorite. These clays all dissolve similarly
in HF, although there are differences in the relative amounts of Si, Al, and other
components which are solubilized from one clay to the next. In terms of acidizing design,
however, there is no precise way to utilize the data on relative clay proportions from x-ray
analysis. Qualitatively we recognize that high clay content will limit live acid penetration
distance, but as yet there is no design approach which will overcome this.
15.2.5 Carbonates
Carbonate minerals are also present in many sandstones. There are three carbonate
minerals common to sandstone reservoirs :
Calcite CaCO3
Dolomite Ca0.5Mg0.5CO3
Siderate FeCO3
These minerals often occur as cementing material between the quartz grains. The
carbonates react very rapidly with HF, but they are also reactive toward HCl and other
strong acids.
15.3 REACTION CHEMISTRY
Successful application of sandstone acidizing technology requires some basic

understanding of the chemical reactions that occur when hydrofluoric acid is injected into a
sandstone. There are, first, the dissolution reactions whereby HF dissolves rock and
enhances permeability. However, there are also precipitation reactions that deposit material
in the pore spaces and thereby reduce permeability. To acidize a sandstone successful,
conditions must be adjusted so that dissolution reactions are promoted and precipitation
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reactions minimized.
15.3.1 HF Acid
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is the only commonly available solvent which will dissolve silica
formation damage in a reasonable period of time. Although HF can be obtained in
corrections up to 49%, it is used at no greater than 3% in the field.
Hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid that is only partially ionized in solution :
HF → H+ + F
This means that HF is not very effective at providing H+, the acid component. Therefore,
HCl is added to the HF to maintain an acid medium to prevent precipitation of some of the
reaction products. Adding HCl also increases the dissolving power of HF and the rate of
dissolution.
15.3.2 Dissolution Reactions
The object of sandstone acidizing is to dissolve silicate damage and produce soluble
products. Most components of sandstone will dissolve in HF :
• Silica (quartz)
The simplest of these reactions involves silica dissolution, which produces fluosilicic acid,
H2SiF6 :
SiO2 + 4HF → SiF4 + 2H2O
SiF4 + 2HF → H2SiF6
• Feldspar (albite)
Feldspars also react with HF to produce fluosilicic acid as the final product. However,
because feldspars are aluminosilicates, aluminum fluoride is also a reaction product.
NaAlSi3O8 + 22HF → 3H2SiF6 + AlF3 + NaF + 8H2O
• Clay (kaolinite)
Clays also react with HF to yield soluble fluosilicic acid and aluminum fluoride. Although
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the ratio of Si to Al will vary with different clay types, the reaction product species will be
essentially the same.
Al2Si2O5 (OH)4 + 18HF → 2H2SiF6 + 2AlF3 + 9H2O
Figure 1 shows room temperature lab data representing the dissolution of kaolinite clay in
HF. Before the acid spends, the concentration of solubilized Si and Al in the acid increases
n proportion to their ratio in the clay, in this case 1 : 1, showing that all clay components
dissolve at an equal rate.
Figure 1. Dissolved Si and Al in HF Acid Reacting with Clay
For clays with 2 : 1 Si to Al ratios, this is reflected by the 2 : 1 concentration of soluble Si

to Al in the acid before complete spending.
• Carbonate (calcite)
Carbonates are dissolved by many acidic substances, including HF and HCl. The H+ ion is
the active species and fluorine does not take part in the dissolution reaction. However,
CaF2 will precipitate if HF is spent on calcite; hence precautions are necessary to prevent
this in an actual acid job.
CaCO3 + 2H → Ca++ + CO2 + H2O
15.3.3 Precipitation Reactions
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Competing with the dissolution reactions are a series of precipitation reactions. Dissolving
a feldspar or clay mineral with HF does not mean that it will always remain in solution.
Indeed, there are many conditions under which the dissolved ions can precipitate from
solution. These precipitates can be damaging to the permeability of the near-wellbore
region. Because many of these precipitates are gelatinous, they occupy more space than
does the mineral that was originally dissolved. Therefore, a net decrease in formation
permeability can result when reaction product precipitation occurs.
The major precipitation reactions are related to the dissolved silicon, which can
reprecipitate as fluosilicate salts or silica gel. Dissolved aluminum ions are too soluble in
conventional low pH mud acid to reprecipitate. Under some circumstances a precipitate of
calcium fluoride can form.
15.3.4 Fluosilicates
The sodium and potassium salts of fluosilicic acid are very insoluble. The introduction of
Na + or K+ ions into a spent hydrofluoric acid solution containing fluosilicic acid will cause
immediate precipitation of the salt :
H2SiF6 + 2Na+ → Na2SiF6 (ppt) + 2H+
The solubilities of some fluosilicates in water are given in Table I. Only the salts of sodium
and potassium present any significant hazard of fluosilicate precipitation.
Table I
Solubilities of Fluosilicates
Salt Solubility at Room Temperature

g/100g soln.
K2SiF6 0.18
Na2SiF6 0.74
CaSiF6 10.6
(NH4)2SiF6 15.6
MgSiF6 23.0
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There are generally two sources of Na+ and K+ in sandstone formations. First, feldspars and
most clay minerals contain some Na+ and K+ in their crystal lattices. As these minerals
dissolve, some Na+ and K+ ions are put into solution. However, the amount is relatively
small and experimental evidence that this source of Na+ and K+ is not significant.
The second source of Na+ and K+ is formation brine. Mixtures of formation brine and spent
HF acid will invariably result in precipitation. In designing a sandstone acidizing
treatment, it is important to avoid contacting the HF - either before or after spending on the
sand - with formation brine. The HCl preflush is specifically designed to isolate the HF
from formation brine.
15.3.5 Hydrated Silica
As the HF is consumed during its migration through the formation, the HF concentration
becomes very small. Aluminum ions which continue to leach from clays will eventually
complex a disproportionate amount of HF, because Al bounds more strongly with HF than
Si does. Under these conditions silica is forced to precipitate :
H2SiF6 + 4H2O → Si(OH)4 (ppt) + 6HF
This precipitation reaction is almost the reverse of silica dissolution, except that silicic acid
is precipitated instead of quartz. Silicic acid is a hydrated form of silica and exists as a
gelatinous precipitate in the pore space.
Figure 2 illustrates the precipitation of silica from a laboratory HF solution spending on

clay.
These data are similar to those of Figure 1, except that the temperature was 150°F, which
accelerated the spending and precipitation reactions. Equal dissolution of Al and Si ceased
before 30 minutes and was followed by continued Al dissolution and Si precipitation.
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Figure 2. Clay Dissolution Followed by Silica Re-Precipitation
Since the precipitation of silicic acid does not begin to occur until after the HF is spent on
the sandstone, formation damage from this precipitate can be avoided by : (1) employing an
afterflush, and (2) returning the well to production immediately after acidizing. The use of
an afterflush will displace the partially spent HF near the wellbore to a location deeper in
the reservoir. If precipitation does occur, it will be far enough away from the wellbore so
that the effect on well productivity will be minimal.
Even when an afterflush is used, it is recommended that the well be put on production (or
injection) immediately following the acid treatment. This step will permanently remove
spent HF from the near-wellbore region, eliminating silicic acid precipitation problems
entirely.
15.3.6 Calcium Fluoride
Contacting HF with a high concentration of calcium ions may lead to precipitation of

insoluble calcium fluoride (CaF2) :
HF + Ca++ → CaF2 (ppt) + 2H+
As with fluosilicate precipitation there are two sources of Ca++ in the reservoir : (1) the
formation brine and (2) the reservoir rock. Solubility measurements in spent mud acid have
shown that this precipitate will generally not form even if small amounts of calcium are
present and the HCl component does not spend completely. However, significant quantities
of calcium may be present in the form of calcite in the reservoir rock, releasing large
amounts of Ca++ and spending the HCl component to a pH near 5. By employing a preflush
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of HCl, this calcite can be dissolved prior to arrival of the HF, and the problem of calcium
fluoride precipitation thus avoided.
15.3.7 Iron And Aluminum Hydroxides
The precipitation of iron and aluminum hydroxides is a danger only in reservoirs with
significant quantities of iron-and aluminum-rich clay coexisting with large amounts of
calcite. Also, these precipitation reactions only affect spent HCl. Mud acid does not suffer
from these reactions because the HF reacts strongly with aluminum and iron to keep them
soluble.
Certain clays, notably chlorite, will release substantial amounts of iron and aluminum when
exposed to HCl or similar acids. The iron and aluminum dissolved from clays will
reprecipitate if the pH of the acid rises to a point in excess of the hydroxide or carbonate
solubility product constant. For iron (II) hydroxide or carbonate, this pH is relatively high,
falling in the pH range of 6-8 and 3.5-4.5 respectively. Iron (III), whose hydroxide appears
in the pH range of 1-2, is the most easily precipitated, while aluminum hydroxide can
appear near a pH of 1-3. These ranges of precipitation are illustrated in Figure 3. The
lower limit of each range represents the pH at which precipitation begins, while the upper
limit represents 99% precipitation.
In order for any precipitation to occur, there must be a source of carbonate to spend the acid
into the pH ranges of the above precipitates. Most sandstone formations contain carbonate,
so that most HCl acids will be spent at some point in their flow through the rock, the actual
penetration depth of live acid depending on the quantity of carbonate originally present.
Sufficient acid volume should be used to insure that complete spending does not occur near
the wellbore. When HCl is neutralized by calcium carbonate under downhole conditions,
the pH of the final solution can rise to between 4 and approximately 6, depending on initial
acid concentration. This rise in pH cannot be tolerated by iron (III) or aluminum, which
both precipitate as hydroxides as indicated in Figure 3. Although the iron (II) carbonate
precipitation range is entered at pH = 3.5, this crystalline precipitate is slow to form, and
poses less damage potential.
Analytical methods exist for measuring extractable iron (III), aluminum and carbonate, so
that the HCl precipitation tendency of a sandstone can be estimated. Such analytical
measurements of a large number of iron-rich sandstones has shown that most iron occurs in
the + 2 oxidation state which does not readily precipitate. However, leachable aluminum is
usually available and may precipitate if large amounts of carbonate are present. This can
usually be remedied with sufficient preflush volumes to maintain a low pH. In some cases,
a sequestering agent added to the HCl portion of a treatment can reduce this problem.
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Figure 3. pH Ranges for Precipitation from HCl
15.3.8 Dissolving Power
The concept of dissolving power is difficult to define for HF acid for two major reasons.
First, the chemical composition of actual formation clays and other minerals is very
variable and can only be estimated by exhaustively dissolving and analyzing actual
samples. Second, the re-precipitation of silica complicates the reaction because material
eventually begins to precipitate even as more material is dissolved. This makes it difficult
to determine exactly when an acid is spent, rendering conventional dissolving power
definitions useless.
15.3.9 Laboratory Tests Prior to Treatment
Several laboratory tests should be performed prior to acidizing any formation for the first
time, or as required by the completion engineer. These tests fall into three categories :
1) Formation characterization
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2) Flow tests
3) Compatibility tests
Formation analysis/characterization involves the establishment of formation mineralogy,

porosity, grain structure cementation, pore size distribution and location of formation
minerals which will help in determining formation changes after treatment. The devices
used to perform these tests on the formation rock include x-ray analysis, thin section
analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Flow tests are used to determine the absolute permeability of a formation core. These tests
establish the effect of various invading fluids on the producing formation. The test used is
called a core flow test. These tests are normally conducted at reservoir conditions. This
test helps to determine the effect of drilling fluids and filtrate on the formation rock and the
effectiveness of acid to stimulate the formation. Further, the effect of completion and
workover fluids on the reservoir rock permeability are established, too.
Core flow tests can be used to effectively design drilling and completion fluids that create
minimum formation damage. Further, as per this section, the best is used to design an acid
treatment and the effect of acids on formation integrity.
There are some limitations to the core flow test :-
• cores used only represent a small portion of the producing interval
• testing conditions many not simulate actual well conditions
• clean laboratory conditions may not be economically duplicated in the field.
Compatibility tests are run to determine the reaction and reaction by-products of the acid
and treating fluids with the formation and formation fluids. Similarly, this may also be
done with drilling and completion fluids, to observe the effects of treating chemicals on the
tubulars downhole hardware.
15.4 MECHANISM OF ACID ATTACK
15.4.1 Acidizing Dynamics
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The process of sandstone acidizing is a dynamic one. Pore spaces composed of several
different mineral species have hydrofluoric acid flowing through them. The minerals are all
dissolving simultaneously, but at different rates, according to their reactivities.
Complicating the overall process is the silica precipitation reaction which begins after the
HF is depleted to a low level. Although precipitation is believed to be unavoidable,
procedures can be followed to minimize its affects.
15.4.2 Mineral Reactivity
From the reactivities shown in Table II, we can expect the pore spaces to first be depleted
of clay because it is the most reactive. Next, the feldspars are dissolved, leaving only silica,
the slowest reacting mineral.
Table II
Reactivity of Siliceous Minerals with HF
Mineral Reactivity
Clay Very reactive
Feldspar Reactive
Silica Slowly reactive
15.4.3 Carbonate Dissolution

During the injection of the HCl preflush, the carbonates are removed from the pore spaces
and formation brine is displaced. These processes insure that calcium fluoride and
fluosilicate precipitation will not occur during the subsequent HF stage.
15.4.4 Clay Dissolution
The HF acid stage is injected immediately after the preflush. Clays begin to dissolve
immediately upon injection of HF into a sandstone. During the time in which there is an
excess of HF, the clays are consumed stoichiometrically, that is, all components are
dissolved at an equal rate.
15.4.5 Acid Spending

The HF stage is considered spent when it begins to re-precipitate silica. Beyond this point
no net dissolution of material occurs, and the volume of re-precipitated silica is actually
greater than the volume of original minerals which were dissolved. Precipitation occurs
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fairly rapidly at formation temperatures, and probably begins within inches of the acid
injection face.
Of course, as clays are depleted, the precipitated silica is redissolved and the precipitation
zone moves progressively outward, where dilution minimizes the effects of any precipitates.
There is considerable experimental evidence to support this mechanism of acid attack. Data
from a typical acidizing experiment on a 30-in.-long piece of sandstone are presented in
Figs. 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows the composition of the core effluent while mud acid (3% HF,
12% HCl) was continuously injected.
The effluent concentrations of two key ions, aluminum and silicon, are plotted vs. volume
of effluent recovered.
Figure 5. Core Permeability after Acidizing with 3% HF-10% HCl at 150°F

15.4.6 Silica Precipitation
The data in Figure 4 can be separated into three stages of chemical reaction. The first acid
to exit the core was high in aluminum and has essentially no dissolved silicon.
This is reflection of silica precipitation within the core. The high concentration of
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aluminum in the acid drove the HF to very low levels, forcing silica to precipitate. As the
aluminum was depleted in the second stage, silica could be retained in solution by a
proportionately higher amount.
15.4.7 Formation Unconsolidation
In the final stage of acid attack, most of the accessible clay has been dissolved and the
feldspar and silica framework was more vigorously attacked. During this phase the silica
cement begins to dissolve, which ultimately leads to unconsolidation if excessive volumes
are used.
15.4.8 Depth Of Penetration
Correlating these effluent curves with the core-permeability profile after acidizing further in
Figure 5. The region farthest from the HF injection shows no real change in permeability.
Yet the clays in this region are no longer susceptible to damage by fresh water. This region
has undergone aluminum leaching. However, there was little penetration of live HF into
this region so that no significant dissolution of clay fragments or feldspars could take place.
Moving closer toward the HF injection side of the core, we find a region of increased
permeability. All the clays and most feldspars have been removed from this region. This
permeability discontinuity marks the penetration distance for live HF in this core.
This region closest to HF injection shows signs of major silica dissolution. The silica
cement has been partially dissolved over this region. In fact, the first 4 in. of the core were
unconsolidated. Figure 6 shows the state of unconsolidation of a laboratory core after
acidizing.
15.4.9 Effect Of Temperature
Increasing temperature accelerates the rate of most chemical reactions, and sandstone
acidizing is no exception. The rate at which HF reacts with the constituent minerals is
heightened by higher temperature. Since the HF is reacting faster, its concentration in the
partially spent acid will decrease more rapidly with time. The HF cannot therefore travel as
far through the rock pores it reacts; hence the HF penetration distance will be smaller.
Temperature also accelerates the re-precipitation of silica. For example, silica will re-
precipitate within 25 minutes at 150°F, but within 10 minutes at 200°F.
The treating temperature is generally fixed by the bottomhole temperature of the reservoir
and is no subject to the engineer’s control.
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Figure 6. Unconsolidation in a Laboratory Core Acidized with HF
15.4.10 Effect Of Injection Rate
A higher rate of HF injection allows HF to penetrate slightly farther into the sandstone.
This deeper penetration extends the zone of increased permeability farther from the
wellbore. In general, for wells with only moderate amounts of clay, the best results are
obtained when acid is pumped at the maximum injection rate, as long as frac pressure is not
exceeded.
15.4.11 Effect Of Mineral Composition
Because sandstone acidizing involves a chemical reaction between HF and the mineral
constituents of the sandstone, changes in the mineral composition can have a large affect on
the results. As a rule, engineers designing an acidizing treatment have only a vague idea of
the sand composition to be treated. Even if the composition were known precisely,
acidizing technology has not advanced to the point that an optimally effective treatment
could be designed.
However, there are some general guidelines that can observed if mineral composition is
known.
15.4.12 Carbonates
Although sandstones generally contain only a few percent carbonate, some formations
actually may have upwards of ten percent total carbonate. This can impact the quantity of
HCl preflush required to prevent HF spending on carbonate. Larger preflushes and/or
smaller HF stages may be required.
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15.4.13 Clays
As might be expected, the greater the amount of clay, the faster the acid spends and the
shorter the penetration distance. At present there is no effective way to design for clay
content. If damage is not deep, it will not matter if penetration distance is short.
15.4.14 Native Permeability

The permeability of the formation influences acid job design in several ways. Low
permeability makes it difficult to inject treatments rapidly enough to avoid near wellbore
precipitation. Retrieving spent acid to re-establish a hydrocarbon saturation is also more
difficult. The blocking action of the aqueous fluids will inhibit flow. General experience
suggests that formations with less than 5 md permeability are poor acidizing candidates.
Variation in permeability over the interval also must be considered from a standpoint of
attaining good fluid distribution. Higher permeability zones may accept disproportionate
amounts of acid, thus depriving part of interval of treatment. The approach to this problem
is discussed in the Chapter on treatment Diversion.
15.4.15 Effect Of HF Concentration

Increasing the concentration of HF will increase the amount of dissolved mineral.
However, the higher HF concentrations will also allow reaction products to achieve higher
concentration levels. This condition may force some species to exceed their solubility
limit, thereby causing precipitation of reaction products. Choosing the optimal acid
concentration requires a balance between dissolving power and reaction product solubility.
Investigators over the years have found that 3% HF by weight approaches the maximum
desirable concentration. Lower concentrations are often necessary in high temperature
applications.
15.4.16 Effect On Cement

Laboratory tests have shown that HF will attack the cement at the cement-to-formation
interface, principally because residual drilling mud cake offers a point of weakness.
Moderate acid volumes are generally not harmful. However, channeling may be prone to
occur if a poor cement job has left mud channels behind casing.
15.5 TREATMENT DESIGN
It cannot be overemphasized that a well must be damaged before a sandstone acidizing

treatment will yield significantly enhanced productivity. The first step in a treatment
design, therefore, is to generate some evidence that the candidate well is damaged.
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Even after ascertaining that a well is damaged, there is no assurance that sandstone
acidizing will increase its productivity. The reason is that not all types of formation
damage can be removed by sandstone acidizing. Problems such as emulsions, water
blocking, and the precipitation of certain scales, paraffins and asphaltenes are best treated
by other methods. It is consequently important to determine the cause of low productivity
before deciding whether or not to acidize the well.
Some wells are poor candidates for acidizing because of inherently low formation
permeability and high clay content. Although no exact cutoff point can be identified,
formations with large amounts of clay and low permeability (5 md) are unlikely to respond
favorably to acidizing, and fracturing may be a necessary alternative.
15.5.2 Treatable Damage
The types of damage susceptible to removal by sandstone acidizing are those caused by
solid plugging material. Hydrofluoric acid is particularly effective in removing near-
wellbore damage caused by :
• Drilling mud solids. The buildup of a mud filter cake during drilling operations can
sometimes force mud solids into the formation matrix. With well-formulated drilling
mud and good drilling practices, this particle invasion can be limited to a few inches.
Modern perforating techniques will usually penetrate this damaged zone.
Occasionally wells are drilled in high-permeability formations with poor mud
properties, or a high overbalance, or ineffective perforation. In these instances, we
can suspect damage from the invasion of drilling-mud solids.
• Clay damage. The introduction of low-salinity water into the formation can cause
clays to swell or disperse. Some clays, like montmorillonite, (smectite) increase in
size by imbition of low-salinity water. Others, like kaolinite and illite, can be
removed from the pore walls and then transported until they become lodged in a pore
constriction. Sources of low-salinity brines include drilling mud filtrates, injection
water, and some workover fluids.
• Plugged perforation. Perforations can become plugged any time that a well is
worked over. Fluid-loss control agents or other solids suspended in the workover
fluid sometimes remain after the workover is completed, plugging the perforations.
• Fines migration. Fine particles naturally present in the reservoir tend to migrate
toward the wellbore during fluid production. Any buildup of these fines in the near-
wellbore region will create a damage zone around the well.
If the type of damage suspected in the candidate well is one of these four, then a sandstone
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acidizing treatment should be recommended.
15.5.3 Prior Data
Prior to beginning an acid job design, the engineer should gather the following data :
• Completion information - downhole equipment, pressure ratings, sand control

equipment.
• Formation data - mineralogy data, permeability, state of consolidation, fracture

gradient, static temperature and pressure.
• Interval information - depth of interval, perforation distribution, sand thickness.
15.5.4 Fluid Composition
The next step in designing a sandstone acidizing treatment is to specify what fluids will be
used. Generally, three fluids must be specified : an HCl preflush, the HF-HCl acid, and an
afterflush.
15.5.5 Preflush
Recall that the purpose of the preflush is twofold, namely, to :
• Prevent contact between HF and formation brine, so that insoluble fluosilicates are
not precipitated
• Remove calcite (CaCO3) from the reservoir rock, so that calcium fluoride (CaF2) is
not precipitated from the HF
A solution of hydrochloric acid is best suited meeting these preflush requirements.

Concentrations of HCl used in the preflush stage range form 7.5% HCl to 28% HCl.
Generally, 15% HCl is recommended. This concentration is sufficient to remove the calcite
from the near-wellbore region in most wells. This acid concentration may possess excess
dissolving capacity for low carbonate reservoirs, but there is little risk in pumping excess
HCl.
In cases where a demonstrated incompatibility between crude and acid exists, a spacer of
diesel or neutral brine may be necessary to prevent emulsions or sludge from forming. This
spacer is injected into the tubing prior to preflush injection and usually constitutes less than
a tubing volume.
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15.5.6 Preflush Volume
The preflush volume must be sufficient to prevent HF and formation brine from mixing.
The minimum volume of 15% HCl to accomplish this end is about 50 gal/ft. This volume
of 15% HCl usually has sufficient dissolving power to remove all the calcite from the near-
wellbore region. In highly calcareous sandstones, however, it may be necessary to increase
the volume to 100 gal/ft. Mineralogy data obtained from core analyses are useful in
determining the acid volumes and concentrations that will be most effective on a given
formation.
15.5.7 HF/HCl
The mixed hydro fluoric/hydrochloric acid stage is the silicate-dissolving portion of the
sandstone treatment. In practice, hydrofluoric acid is never used by itself. It is always used
with hydrochloric acid for two reasons. First, the dissolving power of HF is enhanced by
the HCl, and second, the HCl prevents the appearance of precipitates such as metal
hydroxides and calcium fluoride (CaF2).
A common formulation, known as “12-3 mud acid,” consists of a 12 percent hydrochloric

acid and 3 percent hydrofluoric acid mixture. This is prepared either in the field or in the
service company yards by adding solid ammonium bifluoride acid, 3 percent HF, and about
3 percent ammonium chloride (a byproduct). Under high temperatures (greater than 200°F,
the use of half strength mud acid has been found to be beneficial because it reduces the rate
at which silica will reprecipitate from spent acid. This half strength acid consists of 6
percent hydrochloric acid and 1.5 percent hydrofluoric acid.
15.5.8 HF/HCl Volume
The volume of mud acid required for this stage ranges from 25 to more than 150 gallons per
foot. A typical design volume consists of about 125 gallons per foot. Volumes as low as
25 gallons per foot can be used if the damage is confined to the perforations, or is only a
few inches deep. Smaller volumes may also be appropriate in lower permeability zones or
lower pressure wells where fluid recovery could be difficult. Volumes greater than 150
gallons per foot are infrequently used. Excessive volumes can lead to unconsolidation of
the sandstone matrix and possible sand production, as well as making it difficult to recover
spent acid. Larger volumes do not necessarily lead to significantly greater penetration
distances. Once clays and silica damage have been removed from the first few inches of the
wellbore, the acid begins to dissolve the silica framework, causing unconsolidation.
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15.5.9 Afterflush
The purpose of an afterflush in sandstone acidizing is twofold :
• To displace HF reaction products away from the wellbore, thereby preventing damage
from silicic acid (Si(OH)4) precipitation in the critical near-wellbore region.
• To help the water-wetting of formation rock and fines, thereby preventing

emulsification of crude oil and acid.
For oil wells, diesel is usually chosen as the afterflushing fluid. Diesel not only displaces
spent acid from the near-wellbore region, but it also establishes high oil saturation there.
This saturation and lower fluid gradient usually allows the well to initiate crude oil
production with the least amount of swabbing or gas lifting. In areas, where the use of
diesel may be inconvenient, 3% NH4Cl water can more effectively displace spent acid via a
miscible process. However, in spite of the arguments for use of either fluid, the relative
merits of diesel vs. NH4Cl are still unclear.
In gas wells where oil saturation is to be avoided, field experience suggests that nitrogen
provides the most benefit, although 15% HCl and 3% NH4Cl are most commonly used.
Water injection wells should be afterflushed with aqueous fluids such as 3% NH4Cl or 15%
HCl.
15.5.10 Afterflush Volume
Very little data are available with which to evaluate the effect of different volumes of
afterflush. Current guidelines that call for the afterflush and HF/HCl volumes to be
approximately equal appear to be adequate. Therefore, afterflush volumes can fall in the
range 25-150 gal/ft.
15.5.11 Acid Additives
A corrosion inhibitor should always be added to acids such as HCl or HF/HCl. The use of
other additives, such as surfactants, antisludge agents, and iron-sequestering agents should
be minimized. These additives should be used only after testing has clearly demonstrated
their potential benefit in the well or reservoir to be acidized.
15.5.12 Injection Pressure
Injection pressure during sandstone acidizing must be limited to a value that will not
fracture the formation. Treatment fluids must flow through the porous rock matrix if they
are to remove the damage around the wellbore. Calculating the maximum permissible
surface pressure is readily accomplished from the fracture and fluid gradients.
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15.5.13 Fracture Gradient
The fracture gradient is the equivalent gradient of fluid plus pressure that will cause the
formation to fracture. In practice the fracture gradient for a well or field can be found as
follows :
1. The best measurement of the fracture gradient is obtained from the instantaneous
shut-in pressure measured during or following a recent fracturing treatment in the
formation of interest.
2. If no recent fracturing treatments have been done, but there are data from old
fracturing treatments, the following formula can be applied :
Formation Pressure
Frac. Grad. = αβ + (1 - α)
Vertical Depth
For practical purposes, β, which is related to the overburden gradient, can be approximated
as 1.0. This equation is explained in greater depth in Section 17, “Hydraulic Fracturing”.
To use this method, compute α from the fracture gradient, formation pressure, and depth
measured on the day that the well was fractured. Use this value of α along with the current
measurements of formation pressure and depth to calculate the current fracture gradient.
3. If no previous fracturing data exist, then a value of α = 0.5 may be assumed and the
above equation used to estimate a fracture gradient.
4. In the final technique, a fracture gradient between 0.70 and 0.75 psi/ft is merely
assumed. Although this method appears to be little more than guesswork, many
calculated and measured fracture gradients actually fall within this range. The key to
successful application of the method is to remember that it is an assumed value.
15.5.14 Fluid Gradient
A fluid gradient is easily calculated from the density of the fluid (or fluids) in the well
tubing. Since acidizing fluids are usually the densest in the wellbore, a conservative
approach is to use the acid fluid gradient as the gradient for all the fluids used throughout
the job. When a diesel afterflush is used, it is usually advisable to recompute the gradient,
since diesel is far less dense than acid.
The fluid gradients for different concentrations of HCl are listed in Table III. Gradients for
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HF/HCl mixtures may be found by using the combined weight percentages of the HF and
HCl concentrations (e.g., 3% HF/12% HCl is equivalent to 15% HCl).
The fluid gradient decreases as the temperature of the fluid column rises; but this effect is
partially offset because the gradient increases as hydrostatic head increases. Consideration
of either of these effects for engineering calculations is seldom required.
Table III
HCl wt % Specific Gravity @ Fluid Gradient,

Concentration 70°°F psi/ft, @ 70°°F
0 1.000 0.433
5 1.025 0.433
10 1.049 0.454
15 1.075 0.465
20 1.100 0.476
28 1.141 0.494
15.5.15 Tubing Friction Pressure
In general, fluid injected at matrix treating rates will not generate significant amount of
friction pressure when injected through conventional production tubing or work strings.
However, if coiled tubing units are used where the internal diameter is one inch or less and
the entire coil of tubing may be 15,000 feet long or greater, significant frictional pressure
drops (up to several thousand psi), may be encountered. Friction pressure charts are
available for coiled tubing units and other workstrings. However, the friction pressure can
be measured directly in coiled tubing if sufficiently accurate gauges and flowmeters are
available.
15.5.16 Surface Pressure
The maximum permissible surface injection pressure to avoid fracturing is readily

calculated from the following equation.
Pmax = (Frac. Grad. - Fluid Grad.) x Vertical Depth + Friction Pressure
As discussed above, the friction pressure contribution only enters into the calculation if
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coiled tubing is used.
15.5.17 Injection Rate
Injection rate during sandstone acidizing is typically controlled by the maximum surface
pressure and the extent to which the well is damaged. That is to say, the injection rate is
held at whatever value is required to equal, but not exceed, the maximum permissible
surface pressure. Using this criterion, one can reasonably expect to inject fluids slowly at
first, then to increase the rate as the acid removes damage from around the well.
The maximum HF penetration distance will always be achieved by keeping the injection
rate at the maximum value. Achieving maximum penetration can be important in removing
damage caused by fines migration, but it is of lesser importance in the attempt to open
perforations plugged during a workover.
As a practical matter, certain guidelines are usually followed for injection rates. In short
perforated intervals (5-20 ft), injection rates with an upper limit of about 0.5 to 1 bpm are
typical. For intervals approaching 50 ft in length, rates up to 2 bpm are common. In longer
intervals even further increases (to 5 bpm) are possible.
15.5.18 Acid Penetration Distance
All estimates of the HF-acid penetration distance are derived from laboratory investigations
of the sandstone acidizing process. There is no known technique for measuring the actual
distance of acid penetration in a producing oil well.
Early laboratory measurements involved small-scale acidizing tests on cores followed by

the use of a computer program to scale up the results to field applicability. More recently,
laboratory tests have been conducted in larger cores, which minimize the necessity for
scaling up. Although not all investigations are in complete agreement, the bulk of the data
indicates that the values shown in Table II are reasonable.
Table IV
Hydrofluoric Acid Penetration Distances
Process Description Penetration Radius
Significant dissolution; sand unconsolidated 1 - 4 in.
Major permeability increase; clay and feldspar dissolved 8 - 16 in.
Aluminum leaching from clay; clay structure destroyed 12 - 30 in.
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The penetration distances in Table IV are computed from treatment consisting of the
concentrations and volumes recommended in this section. It is only possible to express HF
penetration in terms of ranges, because the results are strongly dependent on mineral
content, injection rate, and treating temperature.
15.5.19 Diversion
Diversion simply refers to the proper placement of the acid fluid over the entire interval
intended to be treated. Some parts of the interval may be so severely damaged that they
will not accept fluid, and the acid treatment will be taken by another zone. Alternatively,
parts of the interval may be of much higher permeability, causing them to accept a
disproportionate share of acid. Under these circumstances, some sort of diverting agent
may be necessary. In general, diversion techniques should be used when the treatment
interval is 20 to 50 feet long and varies greatly in permeability, and in all cases where the
interval is greater than 50 feet long. A producing zone with multiple sands that are widely
separated may also require diversion. The general concept of diversion is illustrated in
Figure 7.
Although the details of diversion appear in a later section, effective use of diverting
methods is accomplished by integrating them into acid job design.
Figure 7. Effective Treatment Distribution Requires Diversion
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15.5.20 Example Design
A recently completed gas well in an onshore field failed to produce according to reservoir
engineering expectations, and a subsequent buildup test revealed severe formation damage.
The gas zone of this well is from 9010 - 9040 feet and was drilled with 11 ppg
lignosulfonate mud. The entire zone is perforated at 4 spf. The following parameters were
measured in this well :
Static B.H. Temperature = 250°F
B.H. Pressure = 4500 psi
Initial Frac Gradient for the field = .80 psi/ft at initial formation pressure of
5000 psi
Formation water salinity = 150,000 ppm Dissolved Solids
The mineralogy and permeability were determined from cores taken from the same
formation in an offset well. Basically, the formation contains about 2% carbonates and
about 5% clay. The permeability in this well varies from < 1 md to > 100 md with 10 feet
being less than 10 md.
Given the above information, suggest a likely source of damage and design a damage
removal treatment, specifying chemicals, concentrations, volumes, and maximum pressures.
Answer to Sandstone Acidizing Problem
1. Because of the high overbalance (662 psi) during drilling with fresh water mud,
likelihood is that formation clays are disturbed, especially considering the high
salinity native brine with which they were in equilibrium.
2. An HF damage removal treatment is probably necessary to remove this clay damage.

However, because of high reservoir temperature, it is suggested that half strength
(6% HCl - 1.5% HF) be used.
3. The design must include an HCl preflush, an HF stage, and a water base afterflush
such as NH4Cl : Notice that only about 20 feet of sand has permeability greater than
10 md; therefore, we design for this interval length.
Fluid Volume per Foot Total Vol Comments
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15% HCl 50 1000 gal Low amount of carbonate indicates moderate

Preflush amount of HCl required. We must still use
+ enough to displace formation brine, however.
corrosion
inhibitor
6% HCl - 75 - 100 gal/ft 1500 - 2000 gal Half strength needed to minimize re-
1.5% HF precipitation at high temperature
+
corrosion
inhibitor
3% NH4Cl 75 - 100 gal/ft 1500 - 2000 gal Use an aqueous afterflush in a gas well.
4. Maximum injection pressure can be calculated from present frac gradient and fluid
gradient, using the approximation that β = 1.0 :
Pressure
Present F.G. = αβ + (1 - α)
Depth
Pressure
Initial F.G. = 0.80 = αβ + (1 - α)
Depth
α = 0.55
4500
Present F.G. = 0.55 + (0.45)
9025
= 0.77
15% HCl Fluid Gradient = 0.47 psi/ft
7.5% HCl Fluid Gradient = 0.45 psi/ft
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Therefore, while pumping HCl preflush, maximum surface injection pressure

= (0.77 - 0.47) 9025 = 2708 psi.
While pumping HF acid, maximum pressure at surface = (0.77 - 0.45) 9025 = 2888.
15.6 FIELD IMPLEMENTATION
15.6.1 Well Condition
Before any acidizing treatment is done on a well, the engineer should have investigated the
history of the well condition and the pressure rating of the wellhead. For instance. The
tubing design and types of wellbore equipment present should be known so that precautions
may be taken to remove or protect acid-sensitive components such as downhole pumps.
Acidizing treatments should never be done on wells with known tubing or casing leaks until
the leaks until the leaks are repaired. The pressure ratings of the wellhead should be known
so that injection pressures do not exceed the rated working pressure. The burst rating of the
downhole tubulars must also be known so that back pressure may be applied to the annulus
in cases where injection pressures may be very high.
15.6.2 Safety
Acidizing demands some special safety attention because of the corrosiveness of the fluids
and the high pressures sometimes encountered. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid
which can cause severe burns. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is more hazardous than HCl because
of the types of burns it inflicts. These burns do not appear immediately, but may take a
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while to develop. However, they are slow to heal. Suitable neutralizing agents should be
on site to treat exposure to either HCl or HF. Eye protection is also necessary for those
working in the vicinity. In general, acid is not pumped during hours of darkness because of
the extra hazards of undetected leaks.
15.6.3 Mixing Acid
Mixtures of HF and HCl are most frequently prepared by adding ammonium bifluoride
(NH4FHF) to hydrochloric acid. Adding 400 lb of NH4FHF to 1000 gal of 15% HCl will
yield an acid containing 3% HF. Conventional mud acid (3% HF - 12% HCl) is prepared
by adding NH4FHF to 15% HCl.
1000 gal 15% HCl 12% HCl

⇒ 1000 gal 3% HF
400 lb NH4FHF 3% NH4Cl
Other strengths of mud acid may be prepared by scaling this basic formula down.
15.6.4 Establishing Injectivity
Before initiating any acid injection, a neutral fluid such as diesel or brine should be injected
to establish injectivity. This is especially important if the acid is to be injected down the
tubing without a means to circulate it out. If the well will not accept fluid, removing live
acid from the wellbore will be a difficult operation.
When performing sandstone acidizing treatments on highly damaged wells, one sometimes
encounters candidates whose injectivity before the treatment is essentially zero at the
maximum allowable surface pressure. Yet some injectivity must be established to perform
the acid treatment. There are two ways to proceed from this point.
The preferred course of action is to circulate a small amount of mud acid to bottom. If a rig
is still on location (such as following a workover), it can be used to circulate a few barrels
of mud acid across the perforations to establish some injectivity. Since a rig is usually
unavailable, a coiled tubing unit can be used instead to spot some mud acid across the
perforated interval.
If the acid treatment must be completed without a rig or coiled tubing unit, then there is
little choice other than exceeding the fracture pressure to establish injectivity. The HCl
preflush is pumped at a pressure above fracture pressure to displace the original contents of
the tubing into the formation. Once HCl is at the perforations the pumping should be
ceased and the fracture given time to close.
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At this point HCl injection should be resumed, but at a pressure less than the fracture
pressure. Exercising patience at this point and allowing the HCl to contact the formation
for a while often allows the injection rate to be increased to a minimally acceptable value.
If the formation fails to respond to HCl, then it too must be injected above fracture
pressure.
15.6.5 Bullheading
The bullhead technique simply refers to injecting the treatment directly down the existing
production tubing. This treatment has the advantage of being the lowest cost method of
placing a treatment. No tubing manipulation is required. The service company pump truck
connects its pump discharge line directly to the top of the wellhead, usually to the crown
valve, using a flexible joint known as a “chiksan”. The primary disadvantage of this
technique is poor treatment control. With the bullhead technique there is no means of
circulating fluids into the formation. Injectivity is established by injecting a neutral fluid
before performing the stimulation job. If injectivity is note established beforehand and the
acid cannot be injected, it will be difficult to handle a tubing full of live acid when
removing it from the well. Another disadvantage of the bullhead technique is that there is
no way to circulate or place live acid directly opposite the perforations in order to effect
initial breakdown.
15.6.6 Circulation With Workstring
Acidizing through a concentric one inch or one and one-quarter inch workstring can provide
better treatment placement control than injection through the production tubing, a
conventional workstring, or circulation with a CTU. A concentric workstring can be used
to operate at greater depths and higher treating pressures than coiled tubing because of its
additional strength. For example, a one-inch I.D. workstring has a burst pressure rating
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near 14,000 psi compared with a burst pressure rating of 7,000 psi for one-inch O.D. coiled
tubing. The use of a concentric workover rig also provides the ability to rotate the
workstring in order to mill out debris or paraffin prior to an acid job. Because of the higher
pressure rating, higher circulation rates are also possible through these workstrings, making
it easier to clean out a well prior to acid treatment. The major disadvantage to a concentric
workstring is the increased cost involved, since it does require the use of a workover rig and
the killing of the well prior to the workover.
15.6.7 Coiled Tubing Injection
Coiled tubing workover techniques employ either a three-quarter inch or one inch O.D.
continuous tubing to place the acid across the perforations and to inject the acid. The
advantage to this technique is more control over the acid can be achieved in that it can be
circulated and placed exactly where desired. Also, the acid may be distributed more evenly
over longer intervals by simple tubing reciprocation up and down across the interval during
the acidizing treatment. While this is not true diversion, advantages are gained by
contacting the entire interval to be acidized with live acid.
The major disadvantages of the coiled-tubing unit are the higher friction pressures and the
relatively low burst ratings of the coiled tubing. Also, coiled tubing is not routinely used at
depths below 15,000’ due to its limited tensile strength. Because coiled tubing exists on a
continuous reel which can be up to 20,000 ft long, all fluids must be pumped through the
hub of coil and through the entire length of tubing, which results in relatively high friction
pressures compared to the other treatment placement techniques. For example, as shown in
Figure 8, pumping saltwater (SW) through 10,000 ft of one-inch coiled tubing, at a rate of
0.6 barrel per minute, will result in a friction pressure of approximately 4,000 psi. This
friction pressure must be added to the maximum allowable surface injection pressure, as
described previously.
If possible, a circulation test should be done with the coiled tubing before acid injection is
initiated to determine the exact friction pressure drop that can be expected. Ideally, the
friction pressure drop is determined by the service company by performing a circulation test
in their shop. In these shop tests a fluid is circulated at a quarter of a barrel per minute,
one-half barrel per minute, three-quarters of a barrel per minute, and one barrel per minute
while monitoring the circulating pressure. The resulting curve can be used to interpolate
pressures at other rates and should be consulted during a treatment to avoid hydraulically
fracturing the formation.
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Figure 8. Friction Pressures in 10,000’ Coiled Tubing in 2-7/8” Tubing
15.6.8 Injected The Treatment
No matter what technique is used to get the mud acid to the perforations, it is essential that
the mud acid be injected at a pressure less than the fracture pressure. The wisdom of this
advice is corroborated by a study of pumping pressures during acidizing in South Texas.
The data in Table V shows 80% success for jobs pumped at less than fracture pressure and
only 6% success (one well) when the fracture was exceeded. These statistics are
continually confirmed by field experience.
Table V
Effect of Exceeding Frac Pressure on
Sandstone Acidizing Success in South Texas Fields
Jobs Pumped at Less than Jobs Pumped at Pressure Equal to or

Estimated Fracturing Pressure Greater than Estimated Fracturing
Pressure
Type Number % Success Number % Success
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Oil wells 11 64 9 0
Gas wells 8 88 7 14
Water injection wells 6 100 0 -
TOTAL 25 80 16 6
15.6.9 Returning Well To Production
To minimize the occurrence of damage from reaction products precipitating from mud acid,
the well should be returned to production or injection immediately after the acid treatment
is completed. To define the term “immediately” a little more precisely, producing the well
one hour after job is completed is acceptable whereas waiting 12 to 24 hours is not.
Achieving this goal requires good cooperation between production and workover personnel.
Field results have demonstrated that it is well worth the effort.
In recent years several studies have been made demonstrating that wells whose rates were
increased slowly after acidizing had higher sustained production increases than wells
brought to full production capacity immediately after acidizing In most of these studies the
best performance was obtained from wells brought to full production over a period of
several weeks. Although more data need to be gathered to prove this point conclusively, it
may be worth considering in regions in which acidizing success has been low.
15.6.10 Acidizing Gravel Packs
Acidizing a gravel pack is a special case of sandstone acidizing. Witj a gravel-pack

completion, care must be exercised to prevent corrosion of the screen by acid, which would
enlarge the slot width. Possibly even more important is the need to minimize the amount of
gravel dissolved. Gravel dissolution can cause grain size to decrese, possibly allowing some
grains to pass through the screen. Any reduction gravel volume would be compensated for
by production of formation sand into the screen/casing annulus, a most undesirable
condition.
Studies have shown, moreover, that acidized gravel packs have a higher failure rate than
unacidized packs. In response to these observations, there has been a trend in recent years
to perform small-volume acid treatments on gravel-packed wells and to use half strength
mud acid for some applications. Mud acid volumes in the 25-50 gal/ft range have been
successful in removing damage. The success of these low-volume treatments suggests that
the damage zone is either in the gravel itself, or more likely, in the perforation tunnel. It
may not be necessary to design a mud acid job for deep penetration when treating a
damaged gravel pack.
In most of these studies the best performance was obtained from wells brought to full
production over a period of several weeks. Although more data need to be gathered to
prove this point conclusively, it may be worth considering in regions in which acidizing
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success has been low.
Studies have shown, moreover, that acidized gravel packs have a higher failure rate than
unacidized packs. In response to these observations, there has been a trend in recent years
to perform small-volume acid treatments on gravel-packed wells and to use half strength
mud acid for some applications. Mud acid volumes in the 25-50 gal/ft range have been
successful in removing damage. The success of these low-volume treatments suggests that
the damage zone is either in the gravel itself, or more likely, in the perforation tunnel. It
may not be necessary to design a mud acid job for deep penetration when treating a
damaged gravel pack.
15.6.11 Acidizing Success
Almost every well that was (1) initially damaged by solid plugging material, (2) acidized at
a pressure below fracture pressure, and (3) is characterized by average permeability above 5
md will show an increase in productivity following a mud acid treatment. On the basis of
this statement one might expect sandstone acidizing success to be nearly 199%. Although it
is generally recognized that acidizing success is good, it is still not at the 100% level.
Several problems emerge in this connection.
First, not all wells produce more oil after acidizing, but may produce more water. This
increased water production is thought to result from a breakdown in zone isolation. The
mud acid either dissolves cement, or it finds channels of mud left behind the cement to
create a flow path for water. This problem should be recognized and the proximity of water
to the oil zone determined when the suitability of a well for a mud acid treatment is being
evaluated.
A second problem associated with sandstone acidizing success is the short-term nature of
the production increase. In a few cases the production decline following acidization is so
rapid that the job fails to pay out. The cause, it has been proposed, is the rapid migration of
formation fines or precipitates toward the wellbore. The mud acid penetration radius is not
sufficiently large to remove enough of these fines. Although near-wellbore damage is
removed initially, movement of fines located just outside the acid penetration radius causes
damage in the near-wellbore region to reoccur.
Problems with rapid productivity decline rarely occur as isolated instances. Usually the
decline is experienced on a fieldwide basis. Examination of the production history of other
acidized wells in the same field will usually suggest whether a rapid decline in productivity
is likely or not.
Finally, there are cases where wells weather do not respond or show increased damage
following acidizing, assuming that acid soluble damage was present. This problem is
usually attributable to operational practices or improper candidate selection. Specifically,
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there is enough field experience to show that rapid turn around and spent acid recovery
increases the likelihood for job success, whereas long shut-in times often correlate with
failure. It is also generally observed that low permeability formations do not respond well
to treatment, partly because it is more difficult to remove the spent acid quickly and re-
establish communication with the hydrocarbons.
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COMPLETION SCALE TREATMENTS Page 1 of 26
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 16
SCALE TREATMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 4
16.1.1 Scale Definition 4

16.1.2 ….……………...…………………………………... 4
16.1.3 Scope of Problem 4
…..……………………………..…………………
Treatment Goal
……………………………………………………....
16.2 LOCATION OF SCALE DEPOSITS …………………………………………….. 5
16.2.1 Tubulars 5
16.2.2 …………………………………………………………….. 5
16.2.3 Subsurface Equipment 5
16.2.4 …………...……………………………….… 6
16.2.5 Perforation Tunnels During Production …………………………….. 6
Perforation Tunnels During Injection ……………………………….
Reservoir
………….…………………………………………………
16.3 CARBONATE SCALE ……………...……………………………………………... 7
16.3.1 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) 7

16.3.2 …………………………………….….. 7
16.3.3 Natural Cause of CaCO3 Scale 7
16.3.4 .………………………………….….. 8
16.3.5 Induced Causes of CaCO3 Scale 8
.……………………………………
CaCO3 Scale Removal
……………………………………………….
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Field Example ……………………………………………………….
16.4 SULFATE SCALES ………………….……….…………………………………... 10
16.4.1 Calcium Sulfites (CaSO 4 and CaSO 4 • 2H2O) 10

16.4.2 ….…………………... 10
16.4.3 Barium Sulfate (BaSO 4) 10
16.4.4 ………...…………………………………... 11
16.4.5 Strontium Sulfate (SrSO 4) 11
……..…………………………………….
Causes of Sulfate Scales
…...………………...……………………...
Sulfate Scale Removal
..……………………..………………………
16.5 IRON SCALES …………………………………..……………………….………... 12
16.5.1 Iron Oxides (Fe 2O3 and Fe 3O4) 12

16.5.2 ……...…….………………...………. 12
16.5.3 Iron Sulfides 13
16.5.4 ………….….……………………………………...…... 13
16.5.5 Iron Carbonate (FeCO3) 13
…………………………………..…….…...
Causes of Iron Scales
……………..………………………...……….
Iron Scale Removal
…………………………………………...……..
16.6 SILICON BASE SCALES ..………………………………………………………. 14
16.6.1 Silica and Silicates ..…………………………………………..…….. 14

16.6.2 Causes of Sillicon Scales ………………..………………..………… 14
16.6.3 Silicon Scale Removal ………..…………………………..………… 15
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16.7 SALT SCALE ………….…………..…………………………………………...….. 16
16.7.1 Sodium Chloride (NaCl) …..……...………………………………… 16

16.7.2 Causes of NaCl Scale 16
16.7.3 …..…………………...………………………. 16
NaCl Scale Removal
………………………………………………...
16.8 SCALE DIAGNOSIS …………………………………………………………….… 17
16.8.1 Field Tests 17

16.8.2 …………....……………………………………………... 17
16.8.3 Chemical Analysis 19
16.8.4 …...……………………………………………... 19
16.8.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) …………..…………………. 19
16.8.6 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 19
16.8.7 …………………………………………... 19
16.8.8 Well Response To HCl Acid 20
……………………..………………….
Reservoir Characteristics
…………………………………………….
Production or Injection History ……………………………………...
Water Analysis
………………………………………………………
16.9 TREATMENT DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION …………………………. 21
16.9.1 Introduction 21
16.9.2 …………..……………………………………………... 21
16.9.3 Acid Treatment Volume 22
16.9.4 …...………………………………………... 22
16.9.5 Contacting Scale 22
16.9.6 ……………………..…………..…………………. 23
16.9.7 Acid Recovery 23
…………..…………………………………………...
Special Application Acids ….……………………..…………………
Corrosion Inhibitors …………………………………………………
Mechanical Methods
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………………………………………………...
16.10 SCALE INHIBITION ...………………………………...…………………………. 24
16.9.1 Introduction 24
16.9.2 …………..……………………………………………... 24
16.9.3 Production Modifications 24
16.9.4 …...……………..………………………... 25
Chemicals For Scale Inhibition …………………..………………….
Inhibitor Treatments
…………………………………………………
16.11 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………….. 26
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16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.1.1 Scale Definition
For our purposes, scale will be defined as an inorganic mineral deposit formed from a water
solution. In some publications, organic deposits of asphaltenes and paraffins are also
referred to as scales. However, these organic deposits are covered in Section 13 of this text
and will not be discussed here. Any given scale deposit may contain primarily one type of
scale or several different inorganic scales deposited together. It is also possible to have
organic material, sand, and other debris codeposited with an inorganic scale.
16.1.2 Scope of Problem
Scale deposits may accumulate on any surface that comes into contact with a supersaturated
brine. This includes surface facilities, subsurface hardware, and the resevoir itself.
Although the same general principles apply for deposition, independent of where the scale is
located, this Section deals only with scale deposits on wellbore tubulars, on subsurface
equipment, in perforation tunnels, and in the reservoir.
16.1.3 Treatment Goal
The goal of a scale removal treatment is to remove scale deposits that are restricting fluid
flow. The first step in a successful treatment is the determination of the location and type of
scale. The engineer must then design and properly implement a scale removal treatment. A
scale inhibition program can be initiated if the scale problem reoccurs.
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16.2 LOCATION OF SCALE DEPOSITS
16.2.1 Tubulars
Scale deposits are commonly found on wellbore tubulars. The deposits may be located in the
tubing string, on the casing, or both. The location of tubular deposits will depend on a
number of factors including reservoir characteristics, thermal gradients, production practices,
and wellbore deviation. Often, it is difficult to pinpoint the location and amount of all the
scale on the tubulars.
16.2.2 Subsurface Equipment
Scale may form on subsurface equipment, especially if the presence of this equipment
causes a sudden pressure change or a modification of flow conditions. Subsurface pumps,
downhole chokes, gas lift valves, subsurface safety valves, and gravel pack screens are a
few examples of equipment that may collect scale deposits.
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Figure 1. An iron sulfide scale deposit on the inside of a production tubing string
16.2.3 Perforation Tunnels During Production
Scale can form in perforation tunnels during production. The primary cause of perforation
scale is the large pressure drop that occurs as fluid flows through the perforations. Large
pressure drops can result in gas evolution and scale formation. Continued scale
accumulation can completely block flow through a perforation.
16.2.4 Perforation Tunnels During Injection
Scale may also accumulate in perforation tunnels during injection. This scale usually forms
upstream of the perforations and is suspended in the injected fluid. The suspended scale is
carried to the perforations by the injected fluid, causing blockage. This mechanism for
blockage is similar to damage caused by the use of dirty fluids.
16.2.5 Reservoir
Although difficult to verify in the field, it is possible that scale can deposit in the reservoir
itself. One cause for scale precipitation in the reservoir is the mixing of incompatible brines.
This can occur during flooding operations or when a completion or workover fluid is lost to
the formation.
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16.3 CARBONATE SCALE
16.3.1 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
The most commonly occurring scale is calcium carbonate, CaCO3. This carbonate scale
may deposit as calcite (hexagonal), aragonite (orthorombic), or vaterite (hexagonal).
Combinations of these different crystal structures may coprecipitate. Also magnesium (Mg)
or iron (Fe) can substitute for Ca in the mineral lattice. However, for practical purposes, the
crystal structure or ionic substitution does not have a major effect on CaCO3 scale deposition
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or removal.
16.3.2 Natural Cause of CaCO3 Scale
Deposition of CaCO3 scale can occur by a natural mechanism whenever any amount of
water is produced from a reservoir containing naturally occurring CaCO3 and CO2 gas. The
primary cause for the natural mechanism is a sudden pressure drop. The pressure drop
allows CO2 gas to escape from the produced water which in turn deposits CaCO3 scale :
+ 2
Ca + 2HCO3 - CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
(1)
(bicarbonate) (scale) (gas)
Production practices, nucleation kinetics, inorganic impurities, and organic adsorption also
affect CaCO3 scale deposition. In addition, an increase in temperature reduces CaCO3
solubility, which favors scaling.
16.3.3 Induced Causes of CaCO3 Scale
Deposition of CaCO3 scale may be induced by the use of a calcium containing fluid or an
HCl treatment that generates calcium from the minerals in the reservoir. The increase in the
calcium concentration results in a shift of the equilibrium in Equation 1 to the right, which
deposits CaCO3. Induced deposition may preclude the use of a calcium containing
completion or workover fluid and limit the long-term effectiveness of a matrix HCl
treatment.
It can be shown that for brines in equilibrium with reservoir CO2 and CaCO3, the maximum
allowable concentration of calcium in a completion or workover fluid is three times the
calcium concentration of the reservoir brine. However, a water analysis of a surface sample
may not be representative of the actual reservoir brine if scale has precipitated. A downhole
sample or a surface sample re-equilibrated to reservoir conditions is needed to determine the
native composition of the reservoir brine. Alternatively, the presence of bicarbonate in a
surface sample is an indication that a calcium containing fluid may induce CaCO3 scale.
16.3.4 CaCO3 Scale Removal
HCl acid (15% or 28%) should be used for the first attempt to remove CaCO3. Calcium
carbonate is dissolved by HCl acid rapidly when live acid contacts the scale. The dissolution
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products are soluble and pose no reprecipitation problems provided that the acid is not
injected into the formation. (Mud acid should not be used for CaCO3 scale due to the
potential for formation of a CaF2 precipitate). The balanced chemical equation for CaCO3
scale dissolution in HCl acid is :
CaCO3 + HCl τ CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

(2)
(scale) (acid) (gas)
In reservoirs that are not compatible with HCl acid because of high bicarbonate, a chelating
acid can be used to remove CaCO3 scale. A chelating acid has the ability to dissolve the
scale and chelate calcium (Ca), thereby preventing redeposition. Disodium-dihydrogen
EDTA (Na2H2EDTA) is a chelating acid that has been successfully used for CaCO3 scale
removal. However, EDTA should also be shown to be compatible with the reservoir before
it is injected.
16.3.5 Field Example
A successful solution to a CaCO3 scale problem in Alaska’s Prudhoe Bay Field is

documented in Reference 1. After severe productivity declines occurred in a number of
wells, field data was reviewed and laboratory tests were performed to assess the damage
mechanism. The field data revealed that wells could be damaged with a CaCl2 brine.
CaCO3 scale was also recovered from some of the producing wells which had not been
exposed to a calcium containing brine. In the damaged wells, matrix treatments with HCl
acid restored production temporarily, but rapid productivity declines followed (see Figure 2).
A thorough laboratory simulation of Prudhoe Bay producing conditions identified that CaCO3
scale could deposit in perforation tunnels by the natural or induced mechanisms described
above.
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Figure 2. High decline rates following HCl acid treatments
To avoid inducing CaCO3 scale formation, calcium containing completion and workover
fluids were no longer used. Calcium impurity levels in alternative brines were monitored to
insure that they were low enough to prevent scale formation. To reduce the possibility of
induced damage caused by HCl acid injection, a chelating acid was selected for CaCO3
scale removal. A chelating acid has the ability to dissolve CaCO3 and chelate Ca, thereby
preventing redeposition. The chelating acid used successfully at Prudhoe Bay was Na3
H2EDTA. EDTA had sufficient dissolving power to remove perforation scale and was
compatible with the reservoir.
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16.4 SULFATE SCALES
16.4.1 Calcium Sulfates (CaSO 4 and CaSO 4 • 2H2O)
Calcium sulfate scale is the second most commonly occurring scale. Calcium sulfate can
occur as gypsum (CaSO 4 • 2H2O) or anhydrite (CaSO 4). The crystal structure of gypsum is
monoclinic and anhydrite is orthorombic. Gypsum scale occurs more frequently than
anhydrite. Codeposition of gypsum and anhydrite may also occur.
14.4.2 Barium Sulfate (BaSO 4)
Barium sulfate (BaSO 4) scale is the third most commonly occurring scale in the oilfield. The
mineral name for BaSO 4 is barite, which is recognized as a weighting agent in other
applications. Strontium (Sr) ions often substitute for Ba in the scale lattice to give a mixed
BaSO 4/(SrSO 4 scale. X-ray analysis shows an orthorombic crystal structure for BaSO 4 as
seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3. An SEM photograph of a BaSO4 scale with Sr substitution formed by
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mixing incompatible brines
14.4.3 Strontium Sulfate (SrSO 4)
Strontium sulfate (SrSO 4) scale occurs less frequently than BaSO 4. Although it can occur in
petroleum operations, it is more common in geothermal wells. As mentioned above, SrSO 4 is
often found as a minor codeposit with BaSO 4, as (Sr, Ba) (SO 4)2. The mineral name for
SrSO 4 is celestite and in its pure form it has an orthorombic crystal structure.
14.4.4 Causes of Sulfate Scales
The most likely cause of a sulfate scale is the mixing of incompatible brines. For example,
the mixing of seawater (a source of sulfate, SrSO 4–2) with a brine containing Ca, Sr, or Ba
may result in sulfate scale formation. Sulfate scale may also occur due to temperature or
pressure reductions during production which cause supersaturation.
14.4.5 Sulfate Scale Removal
For practical purposes, sulfate scales are not soluble in acid. CaSO 4, CaSO 4 • 2H2O, and
SrSO 4 have limited solubility, but they cannot be effectively removed with HCl, while BaSO 4
is essentially acid insoluble. Of the sulfate scales, only the calcium sulfates can be converted
to an acid soluble form. This is accomplished by soaking the calcium sulfates with a solution
that will convert it to CaCO3 or Ca (OH)2.
After the soaking period, the wellbore is pumped out and the converted scale is dissolved
with HCl acid. One limitation of CaSO 4 scale conversion is that surface buildup of the acid
soluble scale forms a layer that blocks further scale conversion. This means that cycles of
conversion/dissolution may be necessary to remove the required amount of scale.
Sulfate scale may also be removed by mechanical methods. This involves physically
detaching the scale deposits from the surface to which it adheres. One option is to pull the
scaled object and jar the scale loose. Alternatively, the scale can be drilled out. Other
devices such as scrapers, brushes, and cutting heads have been run into the hole. In
addition, techniques using jetting, sand blasting, ultrasonics, and thermal shock have all been
used to remove sulfate scale. Even though the mechanical methods are generally costly and
time consuming, they are the only option for BaSO 4 and SrSO 4 scale.
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16.5 IRON SCALES
16.5.1 Iron Oxides (Fe 2O3 and Fe 3O4)
Iron oxides scales are commonly referred to as rust, corrosion, or mill scales. The two
common iron oxide scales are hematite (Fe 2O3) and magnetite (Fe 3O4). The crystal
structure of Fe 2O3 is rhombohedral and Fe 3O4 is isometric. These scales form to some
extent whenever a brine is in contact with the iron and steel in a well. Iron oxide scales
deposit on metal surfaces due to the formation of electrolytic cells. Iron goes into solution at
the anode of this cell and hydrogen is liberated at the cathode. The iron then combines with
oxygen in the water to form the scale.
16.5.2 Iron Sulfides
Iron sulfide scales are commonly found in the oil field. Iron sulfide scales form when the
sulfide in a brine combines with the iron generated from metal corrosion. Sulfide may be
present in the brine due to hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S or sour gas) or reduction of sulfate ions
(SO 4-2) by sulfate reducing bacteria, abbreviated SRB. The SRB are anaerobic bacteria that
thrive in oxygen free waters that are stagnant (Reference 2). After formation, iron sulfide
has a tendency to become oil wet in mixed oil/water systems (Figure 4).
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Figure 4. A partially oil-wet iron sulfide (Fe9S8) particle in a produced brine, magnified 80 x
The basic form of iron sulfide is FeS, which has the mineral name troilite. Its crystal
structure is hexagonal. In the oil field, it is more common to find codeposits of pyrite (FeS2),
mackinawite (Fe 9S8), or pyrrhotites (Fe n-1Sn, where n ranges from 5 to 16). However, for
practical purposes, the different forms of iron sulfide do not affect scale deposition or
removal.
16.5.3 Iron Carbonate (FeCO3)
Iron carbonate can be classified as an iron scale or as a carbonate scale. Since it is related
to corrosion, it will be included here. The mineral name for FeCO3 is siderite and its crystal
structure is rhombohedral. As was the case with CaCO3, FeCO3 can form due to a shift in
the bicarbonate/ CO2 equilibrium. A sudden pressure drop evolves CO2 gas and the iron
from metal corrosion combines with bicarbonate in the water to form FeCO3 scale.
Alternatively, a high iron concentration due to corrosion when combined with the natural
bicarbonate in a formation water can result in FeCO3 scale.
16.5.4 Causes of Iron Scales
Iron scales form when the iron generated from metal corrosion combines with dissolved
species in the water. The dissolved species can be oxygen (iron oxides), sulfide (iron
sulfides), or bicarbonate (iron carbonate). The corrosion of metal is accelerated by the
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presence of acid gases (H2S or CO2). These gases dissolves in the produced brine forming
a corrosive acidic solution. The presence of dissolved oxygen or soluble salts also enhances
corrosion.
16.5.5 Iron Scale Removal
Fortunately, all iron scales are soluble in HCl acid. After locating the scale deposit,
contacting it for a sufficient time with HCl will remove the deposit. In general, a short
contact time will remove FeCO3 scale, while iron sulfides may require a soaking period. The
Fe 2O3 and Fe 3O4 scales usually require a long soaking period for complete removal. In
severe cases of iron corrosion scale on tubulars or subsurface equipment, the engineer
should be aware that the removal of scale may result in leaks, parting of tubing, or equipment
failure.
16.6 SILICON BASE SCALES
16.6.1 Silica and Silicates
Silicon base scales can be classified into two types, silica and silicate scales. Silica scale
generally forms first as amorphous silica gel (Si(OH)4) (Figure 5) and can convert ultimately
to quartz (SiO 2). The silicate scales are more complex in that a number of different scales
can form. In silicate scales, silicon and oxygen can combine with sodium, potassium, iron,
aluminum, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, and other metals to form complex metal oxides
(Figure 6). Often, silicon base scales are a minor component of other types of scale.
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Figure 5. Suspended silica scale (Si(OH) 4) in a produced brine, magnified 300 x

Note the gel-like appearance
16.6.2 Causes of Silicon
Silicon base scales can form when high temperature steam is in contact with a source of
silicon. In the oil field, such a situation occurs when steam is used in steam flooding
operations. The steam dissolves quartz and other minerals containing silicon. As the steam
cools to water, silicon scales can precipitate in the produced water. If these solids are not
removed by filtering, the precipitates can cause plugging of disposal wells. It is also possible
that silicon scales can deposit downhole in producing wells that are being steam stimulated.
16.6.3 Silicon Scale Removal
Silica scale is not soluble in HCl acid. Mud acid (HCl-HF) is required to remove silica scale.
Some of the silicate scales can be removed with HCl, but generally HCl-HF is required. Still
others require the use of strong base followed by acid in staged treatments. Reference 3
presents methods for silicate scale removal in more detail.
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Figure 6. A complex silicate scale deposited on the inside of tubing, magnified 120 x.
The scale contains Si, Al, Ca, Mg, and S.
16.7 SALT SCALE
16.7.1 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
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Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the only salt scale that occurs with enough frequency to warrant
discussion. In this Section, a salt scale is defined as a water soluble scale. NaCl is common
table salt and has the mineral name halite. Its crystal structure is isometric.
16.7.2 Causes of NaCl Scale
The cause of NaCl scale formation is the supersaturation of a brine solution, usually due to
water evaporation caused by pressure reduction or by decreases in temperature during
production. NaCl scale can occur in high rate gas wells or in oil wells that produce large gas
volumes at low water cuts.
16.7.3 NaCl Scale Removal
NaCl scale is soluble in fresh water, brine, or acid. Since fresh water or brine will dissolve
the scale, it is not necessary to use acid. Fresh water can be used for scale removal if the
reservoir is a carbonate, but brine should be used if the reservoir is a sandstone. This will
prevent formation damage due to clay disturbance.
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16.8 SCALE DIAGNOSIS
16.8.1 Field Tests
Field tests on recovered scale samples can provide an indication of scale type. Some
properties that can be readily determined are the natural color, the color in a flame, the
crystalline form, and the solubility in xylene, water, HCl acid, and mud acid. However, field
results can be misleading, especially for codeposited scales. For this reason, it is advisable to
perform further testing in the laboratory to confirm the field results. Tables I and II outline
properties and solubilities of most scales discussed in this Section. The silicate scales are not
included, due to the large variability in their composition and properties.
Table I
Physical Properties of Scales
Scale Type Properties
NaCl whitish; cubic crystals

CaCo 3 whitish
FeCO3 gray, black, or red
FeS black; oil wet; flaky particles
Fe2O3 red
Fe3O4 black; magnetic
Si(OH)4 whitish; gel-like
CaSO4 brown; soft
CaSO4 • 2H2O brown; soft; well crystallized
BaSO4 high specific gravity; green in flame
SrSO4 red in flame
16.8.2 Chemical Analysis
If a scale can be dissolved in some medium, the chemical composition of the solution can be
analyzed to determine scale type. If the scale is not readily dissolved, it can be decomposed
by fusion, then dissolved for analysis. A chemical analysis is generally performed in a
laboratory and uses atomic absorption, ion chromatography, titration and precipitation, or
other techniques.
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Table II
1
Solubility Tests for Scale Identification
YES NO
Test # 1 Organic material -

Soluble in xylene
Test # 2 NaCl CaCO3, FeCO3, FeS, Fe2O3, Fe3O4 CaSO4,

Soluble in H2O CaSO4 • 2H2O, BaSO4, SrSO4, Si(OH)4
Test # 3 CaCO3 CaSO4, CaSO4 • 2H2O, BaSO4, SrSO4,

Soluble in HCl • evolves CO2 gas rapidly Si(OH)4
• no odor
FeCO3
• evolves CO2 gas slowly
• no odor
• acid turns yellow
FeS
2
• evolves H2O gas
• rotten-egg odor
Fe2O3
• no gas evolution
• slow to dissolve
Fe3O4
• no gas evolution
• slow to dissolve
Test # 4 Si(OH)4 CaSO4, CaSO4 • 2H2O, BaSO4, SrSO4

Soluble in
HCl-HF
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1. Note whether the scale is completely or partially dissolved. Partial solubility indicates the
presence of codeposited scales or other incorporated material.
2. Caution must be exercised when performing this test to avoid breathing H2S gas which is
poisonous.
16.8.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
A recovered scale sample can be examined by a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to aid
in the identification of scale type. The SEM will reveal the structure (morphology) of the
scale and is often coupled with an energy dispersive analysis (EDAX). The EDAX
attachment determines the atoms that compose the scale.
16.8.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
If a scale is crystalline, free of organic impurities, and is not composed of several types of
scale, it can be identified by XRD. Since each scale type diffracts x-rays in a characteristic
manner, a diffractogram can be used to establish scale type. Generally, only a small amount
of sample is required for XRD analysis.
16.8.5 Well Response to HCl Acid
If a scale sample cannot be recovered for analysis, the response of the well to HCl acid will
provide an indication of the scale type. The scales that respond favorably to HCl acid are
the HCl soluble scales listed in Table II. It is also possible to have a favorable response to
HCl with codeposited scales consisting of acid soluble and acid insoluble components.
16.8.6 Reservoir Characteristics
The reservoir characteristics can determine the scaling tendency of a well. For example, a
high CO2 content in the reservoir gas and naturally occurring CaCO3 in the formation can result
in conditions favorable for CaCO3 scale deposition. (It is common to find CaCO3 occurring
naturally in sandstone reservoirs). A high sulfate content in the formation water can result in
sulfate scale problems. A high salinity water is more likely to lead to NaCl scale deposition.
The presence of CO2 or H2S accelerates corrosion and may cause an iron scale to form.
Silicon base scales will occur most frequently in steam flooding operations.
16.8.7 Production or Injection History
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The accumulation of scale deposits can also be assessed by reviewing the production history
of a well. Losses in productivity, above normal decline, may be indicated of scale deposits
and not fines migration as is often assumed. If the scale is removed, the removed, the
production should again follow the normal decline due to reservoir depletion.
A loss of injectivity can be caused by scale buildup in perforation tunnels. Scale and other
debris can continue to accumulate until fracture pressure must be exceeded to maintain
injectivity. (Wellbore fill should also be considered as a reason for reduced injectivity).
Backflowing may remove part of the perforation scale and this may aid in identification.
16.8.8 Water Analysis
A water analysis is another method that will aid in the identification of scale type.
Equilibrium solubility calculations can be performed to assess the compatibility of a formation
brine with a waterflood brine or a completion or workover fluid. If a scale has already
deposited, the remaining brine will generally have an excess of one of the ions that compose
the scale. The other ion will have precipitated and should be at or near the equilibrium
solubility of the scale in the brine. In addition, the possibility of induced CaCO3 scale
formation caused by HCl acid injection can be identified from a water analysis.
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16.9 TREATMENT DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
16.9.1 Introduction
The steps in a successful scale removal treatment are :
(1) Determination of the location of the deposit,
(2) Identifying the scale type,
(3) Selecting the best method for removal, and
(4) Properly implementing the treatment.
Scale can often be located by running wireline tools to detect restricted regions in the
tubulars. Equipment that is removed from the hole for servicing should be examined for
scale deposits. If some scale can be recovered from downhole or from surface facilities,
field and laboratory tests can be performed to determine scale type.
A scale treatment should generally be designed around the primary component of the scale.
However, when an acid soluble scale is present as a secondary component with an acid
insoluble scale, acid alone may remove a sufficient amount of the scale. The presence of an
inorganic scale with an organic deposit (asphaltenes or paraffins) may require both solvents
(see Section 13) and acid for complete removal.
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16.9.2 Acid Treatment Volume
If the scale is acid soluble, scale removal with acid is usually the method of choice. The
volume of acid required depends on the amount and type of scale. In practice, the volume is
difficult to determine because the amount of scale is not known very accurately. Typical
treatment volumes for scale in the tubulars are 500-5000 gallons 15% HCl. Table III
presents approximate volumes of 15% HCl acid needed to remove different types of scales.
Table III
Approximate volume of 15% HCl needed to remove a cubic foot of scale
Scale Type Gallons 15% HCl/ft 3 Scale
CaCO3 90
FeCO3 120
FeS 180
FeS2 140
Fe2O3 340
Fe3O4 300
For perforation scale, as little as 25 gal/ft of perforated interval has been successful. If scale
is believed to be in the reservoir, about 50 gal/ft of acid should be sufficient. If available,
prior experience should be used as a guide to establish an effective volume of acid. If
periodic treatments are required, a field program can be initiated to optimize the treatment.
16.9.3 Contacting Scale
If a scale is not properly contacted, a scale removal treatment will obviously not be
successful. Of course, knowledge of the scale location is required before a decision is made
concerning the method used to contact it. The simplest method of contacting scale is to
bullhead acid down the tubing. However, fluid control is limited and if there is no injectivity,
live acid may be left in the well. Better fluid control can be achieved by using either
concentric tubing or a coiled tubing unit. With a workstring, acid can be spotted on the scale
or the workstring can be reciprocated across the scaled interval during pumping of the acid.
This promotes better contact between the scale and the acid. A workstring can also be used
to circulate out acid after the treatment.
If it is believed that scale has deposited in the reservoir, then matrix injection is required. For
matrix scale removal, calculations should be performed to insure that the acid is pumped at
rates below the fracture pressure. Due to the limits of acid penetration in radial flow, scale
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damage more than a few feet out into the reservoir cannot be removed. In practice, this is
not a severe limitation since near-wellbore scale will impose the greatest limitation on well
productivity.
16.9.4 Acid Recovery
Unless all the acid spends completely on the scale, part of the acid will return live when it is
circulated out or produced back. Provisions should be made to neutralize the acid or
otherwise properly dispose of it. It is also important to insure that all the acid has been
circulated out of the wellbore, especially since an acid can fall through fluids in the well and
remain in the rathole, resulting in corrosion problems.
16.9.5 Special Application Acids
In some cases, HCl acid may not be acceptable for scale removal due to operational
limitations, reservoir incompatibility, or unacceptable corrosion at higher temperatures. In
these cases, one of the following acids may be substituted :
• Formic
• Acetic
• Chloroacetic
• EDTA
• Mud Acid
HCl acid has a more severe pitting type corrosion but formic and acetic corrode more
uniformly and can be more effectively inhibited at higher temperature. However, formic and
acetic are more expensive and have a reduced dissolving power under pressure when
compared with HCl. Chloroacetic and sulfamic have one advantage in that they are
available in powdered form and as such, can be more easily transported to remote locations.
The powdered acids are more costly and do not offer a significant reduction in corrosion.
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EDTA may be used for applications where a complexing acid is required, provided that it is
compatible with the reservoir. Mud acid (12% HCl – 3% HF) should only be used to
remove silica scale. The use of mud acid to remove other types of scale may result in
damaging precipitation.
16.9.6 Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors should be added to all acids. The type of corrosion inhibitor needed is
determined by the maximum temperature expected, the acid and metal type, and the time of
contact. Service company personnel can aid in the selection of an appropriate corrosion
inhibitor.
16.9.7 Mechanical Methods
Mechanical methods must be used to remove BaSO 4 and SrSO 4 scales which are not acid
soluble or convertible. The possible mechanical methods are outlined in Subject 16.4 in this
Section. Keep in mind that the mechanical methods are generally costly, time consuming, or
inefficient and should be used as a last resort if the scale cannot be removed by acid.
16.10 SCALE INHIBITION
16.10.1 Introduction
Often, it is more cost effective to prevent scale deposits from forming, than to periodically
remove them. Scale inhibition is a method to prevent or reduce the growth of scale deposits.
This may simply involve a modification of production practices or continuous treatment with
scale inhibitor or corrosion inhibitor chemicals.
16.10.2 Production Modifications
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Before a scale inhibitor chemical is selected, a change in production practices should be

examined. Sometimes a change in production is enough to eliminate or reduce scale
deposition. For example, reducing drawdown may prevent some CO2 from escaping from
solution which will reduce CaCO3 scaling. An increase in production rate may warm the
tubulars enough to prevent scale deposition downhole. Likewise, the elimination of fluid dead
spots may prevent scale crystals from growing. However, any change in production must be
consistent with the overall economics of a successful well and be acceptable to the existing
production facilities.
16.10.3 Chemicals for Scale Inhibition
Scale inhibitor chemicals are designed to prevent the growth or formation of scale deposits.
They function by a surface mechanism which results in crystal modification and inhibited
growth. Some inhibitor chemicals also function as dispersants or sequesterants in addition to
crystal modifiers. To be cost effective, scale inhibitor chemicals must function at part-per
million (ppm) levels.
Chemical scale inhibitors can be classified into three basic types :
• Inorganic polyphosphates
• Organophosphorous compounds
• Organic polymers
These three basic types are available in a variety of minor modifications and are sold under a
number of trade names. The most effective chemical inhibitor depends on the scale type,
the reservoir fluids and characteristics, and formation compatibility. Generally, this must be
determined in the lab or through a field testing program.
If the scale is corrosion related (an iron scale), some form of corrosion control is necessary.
One method of corrosion control is the use of corrosion inhibitors. Another is the use of
tubulars made of corrosion resistant alloys (CRA). If sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) are
causing an FeS scale, the bacteria must be treated with a bacteria cide to control their
growth.
16.10.4 Inhibitor Treatments
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For corrosion control, periodic tubing displacements or continuous injection of corrosion

inhibitor is commonly used. Corrosion inhibitor squeezes may also be an effective method of
corrosion control. This method involves the injection of corrosion inhibitor into the formation,
with the hope that the slow feedback of inhibitor will reduce corrosion, thereby preventing
iron scale formation. However, it should be established that the corrosion inhibitor is
compatible with the formation before a squeeze is performed. For example, damage may
occur due to reservoir wettability changes that reduce oil permeability or due to formation of
another fluid phase in the near-wellbore region.
Scale inhibitor chemicals for non-corrosion related scales may be applied by continuous
injection or by squeeze treatments. For the squeeze treatments, some of these chemicals are
designed to precipitate in the reservoir others are designed to adsorb onto the formation rock.
The slow feedback by desorption from the rock or dissolution in the produced brine is
designed to inhibit the formation of scale. As was the case with the corrosion inhibitor
squeezes, the scale inhibitor chemicals should be shown to be compatible with the reservoir.
16.11 REFERENCES
1. C.M. Shaughnessy, W.E. Kline; “EDTA Removes Formation Damage at

Prudhoe Bay,” JPT 35, 1784 (1983).
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2. C.C. Patton, Oilfield Water Systems, Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman,

Oklahoma (1977).
3. J.C. Cowan, D.J. Weintritt, Water-Formed Scale Deposits, Gulf Pub. Co.,
Houstan, Texas (1976).
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COMPLETION FRACTURING Page 1 of 51
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CHAPTER 17
FRACTURING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
17.1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 4

17.1.1 Objective ……………………………………………...…………….. 4
17.1.2 Scope ………………………………………………………………... 4
17.2 BENEFITS FROM HYDRAULIC FRACTURE STIMULATION ……….…… 5

17.2.1 Linear Flow vs Radial Flow ………………………………………… 5
17.2.2 Accelerated Recovery …………………………………………….…. 5
17.2.3 Increased Productivity/Injectivity …………………………………... 6
17.2.4 Damage Bypass ……………………………………………………... 6
17.2.5 Candidate Selection .......................................................................... 7
17.3 ESSENCE OF THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING PROCESS ……….………. 8

17.3.1 Pressure Profile ……………………………………………………... 8
17.3.2 High Pressure Injection ……………………………………………... 9
17.3.3 High Rate Injection …………………………………………………. 9
17.3.4 Rock Failure ………………………………………………………… 9
17.3.5 Fracture Growth …………………………………………………….. 9
17.3.6 Viscous Liquids ……………………………………………………... 10
17.3.7 Controlled Fluid Loss ……………………………………………….. 10
17.3.8 Fluid Efficiency ……………………………………………………... 10
17.3.9 Pore Pressure Buildup ………………………………………………. 11
17.3.10 Proppant or Acid Addition ……………………………………….…. 11
17.3.11 Shutdown-ISIP ……………………………………………………… 11
17.3.12 Fracture Gradient ………………………………………………….… 12
17.3.13 Fracture Closure …………………………………………………….. 12
17.4 PRODUCTIVITY INCREASES FROM FRACTURES ………………………... 13

17.4.1 Productivity Index …………..………………………………………. 13
17.4.2 Stimulation Ratio …………..……………………………………….. 13
17.4.3 Conductivity Ratio ...…….….………………………………………. 13
17.4.4 Conductivity Limited …..…………………………………………… 14
17.4.5 Length Limited ……………………………………………………… 14
17.4.6 Oil Wells-MCGUIRE SIKORA …………………………………….. 14
17.4.7 Oil Wells-TANNICH CURVES ……………………………………. 16
17.5 FUNDAMENTAL ROCK MECHANICS ……………………………….……….. 17
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17.5.1 Compressive Earth Stresses ………………………………………… 17

17.5.2 Orthogonal Principle Stresses ………………………………………. 17
17.5.3 Minimum Principle Stress …………………………………………... 17
17.5.4 Vertical Plane Orientation …………………………………………... 18
17.5.5 Containment of Vertical Height …………………………………….. 18
17.5.6 Horizontal Plane Orientation ……………………………………….. 18
17.5.7 KZ & PKN Practical Geometry Models ...………………………….. 18
17.6 FUNDAMENTAL FLUID/PROPPANT MECHANICS ……..…………………. 20
17.6.1 Ideal Fluid …………………………………………………………... 20

17.6.2 Power Law Fluids …………………………………………………… 20
17.6.3 Generic Fluid Components …………………………………………. 21
17.6.4 Linear Water-Based Gels …………………………………………… 21
17.6.5 Crosslinked Gels ……………………………………………………. 22
17.6.6 Gelled Oils ………………………………………………………….. 22
17.6.7 Emulsions …………………………………………………………… 22
17.6.8 Foams ……………………………………………………………….. 22
17.6.9 Proppant Types ……………………………………………………… 23
17.6.10 Sand …………………………………………………………………. 23
17.6.11 Ceramic Proppants ………………………………………………….. 24
17.6.12 Proppant Transport ………………………………………………….. 25
17.6.13 Total Proppant Suspension ………………………………………….. 25
17.6.14 Equilibrium Bank Formation ……………………………………….. 25
17.6.15 Acid Fluid Loss ……………………………………………………... 27
17.6.16 High Rate Acid Fluid Loss ………………………………………….. 27
17.7 PROPPANT FRACTURE DESIGN …...……………………………………...….. 29
17.7.1 Design Objectives …………………………………………………… 29

17.7.2 Fluid Selection ……………………………………………………… 29
17.7.3 Treating Rate Determination …………..……………………………. 30
17.7.4 Pad Volume Determination …………………………………………. 31
17.7.5 Proppant Selection ………………………………………………….. 34
17.7.6 Treatment Schedule …………………………………………………. 34
17.7.7 Job Size Determination ……………………………………………... 35
17.7.8 Computer Design ……………………………………………………. 35
17.7.9 Checklist For Good Design …………………………………………. 36
17.8 ACID FRACTURE DESIGN …………………………………………….……….. 38
17.8.1 Design Objectives …………………………………………………… 38
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17.8.2 Physical Processes During Acid Frac ……………………………….. 38

17.8.3 Fluid Selection ……………………………………………………… 38
17.8.4 Plain HCl …………...……………………………………………….. 40
17.8.5 Acid Emulsions ……………………………………………………... 40
17.8.6 Gelled Acid …………………………………………………………. 41
17.8.7 Treatment Specification …………………………………………….. 41
17.8.8 Computer Design ……………………………………………………. 41
17.8.9 Checklist For Good Design …………………………………………. 42
17.9 FIELD IMPLEMENTATION ……………………………………………………. 43
17.9.1 Planning ……………………………………………………………... 43

17.9.2 Equipment Layout …………………………………………………... 43
17.9.3 Blenders ……………………………………………………………... 44
17.9.4 Pumping Equipment ………………………………………………… 45
17.9.5 Bulk Handling Equipment ………………………………………….. 45
17.9.6 Surface Pipe and Wellhead 45
17.9.7 ………………………………………….. 46
17.9.8 Monitoring Equipment ……………………………………………… 46
17.9.9 Quality Control ……………………………………………………… 46
17.9.10 Special Procedures For Acids ………………………………………. 46
Safety ………………………………………………………………...
17.10 FIELD DIAGNOSTICS .………...………………………………………………… 48
17.9.1 Radioactive Sand ……………………………………………………. 48

17.9.2 Temperature Log ……………………………………………………. 48
17.9.3 History Match ……………………………………………………….. 49
17.9.4 Fracture Orientation ………………………………………………… 49
17.11 REFERENCE MATERIAL .….....………………………………………………… 51
17.9.1 Citations …………………………………………………………….. 51

17.9.2 General References 51
…………………………………………………..
17.1 INTRODUCTION
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17.1.1 Objective
The objective of this hydraulic fracturing Chapter is to provide our engineers with the
ability to:
• understand the fracturing process
• design a proppant fracturing treatment
• design an acid fracturing treatment
• implement a fracturing treatment
17.1.2 Scope
The subjects on the essence of the process, fundamental rock mechanics, and fluid and
proppant mechanics demonstrate the influence each component of the operation has on the
resulting fracture. An understanding of the fracturing process provides the necessary
foundation for the design and implementation discussions. The proppant design subject
presents a procedure for conducting a design, and guidelines for design choices. Using the
fundamentals of the process and the proppant frac design as building blocks, the essential
differences needed for acid fracturing are presented. The subjects of field implementation
and diagnosis alert the participants to the types of equipment available in the field and some
of the procedures and practices available to help convert good fracture design into a
successful fracture treatment.
Throughout the text of this Chapter on the writer refers to “a program, the program,
program or computer program.” In all instances this can be interpreted to mean an in-house
computer program used to assist an engineer in designing an hydraulic fracture treatment or
to a similar program which is provided by a service company who does this type of work
for us.
17.2 BENEFITS FROM HYDRAULIC FRACTURE STIMULATION
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17.2.1 Linear Flow vs Radial Flow
Hydraulic fracturing is the only stimulation process that can achieve significantly more
production than the undamaged well. In fracturing, we are not trying to chemically or
mechanically alter the rock matrix. Instead we are changing the flow pattern of the fluids in
the reservoir. These changed patterns are demonstrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Fracture stimulation from flow pattern change
17.2.2 Accelerated Recovery
Thus the principal effect of a hydraulic fracture stimulation comes from altering the
reservoir flow pattern from a radial to linear flow path along the fracture length.
This benefit can be recognized in various situations. There can be a significant economic
advantage to accelerated production and sale of the fluids even if the ultimate recovery is
not increased. An example is shown in Figure 2. Tight gas could not be produced at a rate
fast enough to pay out investment without fracturing.
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Figure 2. Accelerated recovery from fracturing
17.2.3 Increased Productivity/Injectivity
A second situation where fracturing is effective is when the increased productivity or

injectivity is essential. A well at its economic limit or an injection well that will not take
the required fluid input are two situations in which to consider fracturing. The cost of
fracturing in this case must be weighed against the drilling of another injector. Often
fracturing can be an economic method of keeping production or injection up to required
minimum operating limits.
17.2.4 Damage Bypass
In addition to using fracturing to change the reservoir flow pattern, we sometimes use
fractures to eliminate formation damage. Although wellbore damage should be treated
using matrix jobs when possible, there are situations where the zone of altered permeability
is quite deep (greater than 5ft). In these cases a small hydraulic fracturing treatment can
provide a high permeability conduit through the damaged zone and return the well to an
undamaged or slightly stimulated state. Note that damage removal achieved by fracturing is
more correctly termed damage bypass since the damage still remains in most of the pores
near the wellbore.
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Before deciding that a well should be fractured, its reservoir and mechanical properties
must be evaluated to determine if the procedure can be performed without exceeding the
limitations imposed by the reservoir properties, or the mechanical condition of the well. If
there is a high risk of exceeding these limitations, the well should not be fractured.
Reservoir considerations include the incremental increase in production resulting from the
fracturing procedure, the stability of the gas/oil or water/oil ratios, geological
characteristics of the surrounding formations, and the effect of the fracture wells. This
information is derived from data in the well files and/or is obtained by means of various
openhole and production logs. The reservoir engineer, working in conjunction with the
subsurface engineer, must evaluate reservoir data to determine the risk of severely
damaging or losing the well due to performing the fracturing procedure.
Mechanical considerations include the condition of the tubulars, downhole equipment, and
wellhead equipment. All such equipment must have working pressure ratings higher than
the required fracturing pressure. The maximum treatment injection pressure (fracturing
pressure) required to create the fracture must be calculated to determine if the working
pressure ratings of this equipment will be adequate.
Currently in PCSB, it is the responsibility of the reservoir engineer to identify the hydraulic
fracturing candidate and to evaluate the economic feasibility of a possible fracture
stimulation. Once the candidate is identified, it becomes the responsibility of the petroleum
technologist to develop the hydraulic fracturing design, and to provide sufficient
engineering input to the workover supervisor to ensure the procedure’s successful field
implementation.
17.3 ESSENCE OF THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING PROCESS
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17.3.1 Pressure Profile
The essence of a hydraulic fracturing treatment is illustrated by the bottom hole treating
pressure during a fracture. An ideal bottom-hole pressure treatment response is given in
Figure 3a along with the matching surface treatment pressures in Figure 3b. Injection
pressure is plotted as a function of time from the point of initial fluid injection until the
treatment has been completed and the fracture closed. Under this subject each of the stages
of the treatment will be discussed along with how it affects the pressure profiles.
Figure 3. Bottom-hole and surface pressures during treatment
17.3.2 High Pressure Injection
During a hydraulic fracturing treatment, the treating pressure must be sufficient to initially
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break down or fracture the formation, and continue to propagate the fracture both in width
and length. The pressure required to initiate a fracture is higher than the pressure required
to propagate the fracture. It takes more force to overcome the hoop stresses at the wellbore
than it does to extend the fracture after it is formed.
The working pressure limits of the wellhead and tubular goods determine the maximum
surface pressure that can be tolerated.
17.3.3 High Rate Injection
To continue fracture growth, high flow rates are required. Often treating rates of 10-20
bpm are used for fracturing down tubing and rates of 20-50 bpm or higher are used for jobs
going down casing. These high rates provide enough fluid to fill newly created fracture
volume and keep treating pressures high in spite of the leak-off losses occurring through the
fracture face.
17.3.4 Rock Failure
A low-viscosity fluid is recommended for initially creating the fracture (overcoming the
wellbore hoop stresses). A thin fluid will penetrate the permeable formation and distribute
the bottom-hole treating pressure over a larger formation surface area than would a high-
viscosity fluid. This stage of the treatment is normally called the prepad.
Referring to Figure 3, the “breakdown pressure” is that pressure required to initially

fracture the formation. Once the fracture has been created, the fracture can be propagated
with lower bottom-hole treating pressure. (The surface pressure may vary due to fluid
hydrostatic differences). Note that the difference between “breakdown” and “propagation
pressure” during a fracturing treatment may not be observed if the formation had been
previously fractured while drilling, perforation breakdown or undergoing remedial
workover operations. In these cases a prepad may be eliminated from the job design unless
needed for other purposes such as wellbore cooling.
17.3.5 Fracture Growth
After the fracture has formed, the fluid behaves like a wedge forcing the fracture to grow in
width, length, and height. The fracture grows in two directions, diametrically opposed
(180°). This dynamic fracture geometry is the fracture shape developed while a fluid is
injected into a reservoir and is larger than the final propped frac geometry.
17.3.6 Viscous Liquids
During the growth stage of the treatment high-viscosity fluids are normally used. The
fracture width is related to viscosity to the one-fourth power. Therefore, we can achieve
much more width for proppant penetration with a much smaller treatment using viscous
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fluids. A fluid of viscosity 20-200 cp creates a frac 2-4 times wider than water (1 cp).
Thus, the normal treatment after the prepad is a viscous pad, which opens up fracture width
and length making proppant entry possible. The treatment stages are all carried out with
viscous fluids to retain the width as well as provide proppant transport.
17.3.7 Controlled Fluid Loss
During a fracturing treatment, a portion of the fluid will leak into the permeable formation
as the fluid moves down the fracture. This fluid loss will reduce the flow rate of the fluid
along the fracture, and increase proppant concentration. This could lead to a screenout due
to sand bridging. High fluid loss also decreases fracture volume, which could lead to a
screenout by fracture volume fillup.
17.3.8 Fluid Efficiency
Fluid efficiency is defined as the dynamic fracture volume divided by the total volume of
fluid injected. An efficient fracturing fluid will generate a large amount of fracture volume
per volume of fluid injected, whereas an inefficient fluid would lose a significant volume of
fluid to the reservoir and create little fracture volume. Fluid efficiency is inversely related
to fluid loss.
The fluid leak-off velocity must be known in order to predict the dynamic fracture
geometry. The major factor in controlling fluid leak-off is the development of a very low
permeability filter cake. Effective filter cakes composed of polymer and other fluid loss
additives often have permeabilities as low as one microdarcy. Particulate additives such as
silica flour 9325 mesh sand), emulsified 5% diesel, or oil soluble resins are often added to
gelled-water systems to form the filter cake and raise the fluid efficiency.
Increased viscosity of the frac fluid helps control overall fluid loss but is not sufficient by
itself to result in successful fracturing. In addition, the reservoir fluid which is being
compressed during the treatment may offer some resistance to fluid invasion, especially if
the reservoir fluid is a viscous, asphaltic or tarlike oil.
The fluid loss resistances, particle deposition (filter cake), fracturing fluid viscosity, and
reservoir fluid compression, are additive. We can combine these resistances to calculate the
volume of fluid lost when predicting the dynamic fracture geometry.
17.3.9 Pore Pressure Buildup
During the growth stage of fracturing, an increase in bottom hole treating pressure is almost
always observed. Some of this increase may be due to increasing friction along the
fracture. It is also known from measuring sequential shut in pressures, that more pressure is
required to propagate the fracture as the treatment progresses. An empirical relationship
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has been developed to relate the increase in required propagation pressures to an increase in
near fracture pore pressure due to leak-off. This demonstrates a method for measuring leak-
off coefficients during the treatment by monitoring the increase in pore pressure.
17.3.10 Proppant or Acid Addition
The purpose of hydraulic fracturing is not just fail the rock, but to leave a conductive
pathway for flow from the reservoir. There are two methods of accomplishing this : (1)
leaving proppant in the fracture or (2) acid etching fracture faces in the case of carbonate
reservoirs. After pumping sufficient fluid to provide enough width for the proppant
particles to enter the fracture, we normally add sand or a stronger proppant. The proppant
is carried out along the fracture by the viscous fracturing fluid. When the treatment is over,
the sand will be pressed between the fracture walls providing a highly permeable channel in
the reservoir. Exact placement of the proppant depends on the fluids and the treatment
rates and pressures. Another method of forming a conductive pathway is by using an acid
fluid in a carbonate formation. Fracturing with an acid fluid causes uneven etching of the
fracture walls as well as leak-off wormholes along the walls. This results in more fluid
flow pathways in the reservoir.
It is the sand or acid stages of the treatment that result in the productivity increases of the
reservoir. During this part of the treatment while pumping at a constant rate, the bottom-
hole treating pressures is increasing slightly while the surface pressures generally decrease
due to the increasing hydrostatic head of fluid in the wellbore.
17.3.11 Shutdown-ISIP
The “instantaneous shut-in pressure” is the pressure required to hold the fracture open after
fluid injection has ceased. The pressure difference between the propagation and
instantaneous shut-in pressures represents friction losses due to fluid flow down the
wellbore, through the perforations, and along the fracture.
The first instantaneous shut-in pressure (ISIP) should be measured early in the treatment
after a small volume of pad fluid has been injected. Usually, the ISIP is higher at the end of
the treatment because of localized over-pressuring of the reservoir and the longer fracture
length.
17.3.12 Fracture Gradient
The fracture gradient is the bottom-hole pressure required to maintain the fracture open
divided by the reservoir depth.
F.G. (psi/ft) = (PISIP + PHH)/D (1)
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The fracture gradient, which depends on the total formation stress, is a function of reservoir
pressure as shown in Eqn. (2).
F.G. = α β + (1-α) P/D (2)
where :
F.G = fracture propagation gradient, psi/ft
α = v/(1-v), dimensionless
v = poisson’s ratio, dimensionless
β = overburden stress gradient, psi/ft
P = reservoir pressure, psi
D = well production zone depth, ft
To obtain a reliable value of fracture gradient, field measurements should be made. In lieu
of these data, α = 0.5 [Eqn. (2)] can be used to predict fracture gradients. For a normally
pressured reservoir (P/D 0.43), β = 1.0 and α = 0.5, the calculated fracture gradients is 0.72
psi/ft which is close to the U.S. Gulf Coast average fracture gradient of 0.7. Use of Eqn. (2)
in this way should be considered, at best, a rough estimate of the frac gradient.
A more reliable use of Eqn. (2), however, is to measure a fracture gradient at a given
reservoir pressure, calculate an α, and then use this α to predict fracture gradient changes as
a function of reservoir pressure.
17.3.13 Fracture Closure
While the fracture closes on the proppant, the pressure decreases rapidly as fluid leaks off
into the formation. Eventually the fracture is supported only by the proppant or by closed
or irregular faces, and the bottom-hole pressure is equal to the reservoir pressure.
The closure stress exerted on the fracture walls is equal to the fracture pressure (fracture
gradient times the depth) minus the flowing bottom-hole pressure. The closure stress is an
important parameter in determining the conductivity of the fracture.
17.4 PRODUCTIVITY INCREASES FROM FRACTURES
17.4.1 Productivity Index
The productivity index, J, describes a well’s productivity in general, and it can be used as a
comparative measure before and after fracturing. This index for oil and gas wells is
expressed as follows :
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Oil wells J = Q
Pres - PFBHP (3)
Gas wells J = Q
P2res - P2FBHP
where :
J = productivity index BPD/psi or MSCF/D/psi2
Q = production rate, STB/D or MSCF/D
Pres = static reservoir pressure, psi
PFBHP = flowing bottom-hole pressure, psi
The development of this equation is more fully discussed in Formation Damage, Chapter 12
of the text.
17.4.2 Stimulation Ratio
The stimulation ratio is defined as being the productivity index, J, after a fracturing
treatment divided by the productivity index, Jo′ of an unfractured and undamaged well. If
the previously unstimulated reservoir was damaged or experienced turbulence in the near
wellbore region, the observed initial productivity, Jo′, would be different from Jo. The
observed stimulation ratio, J/Jo′, after fracturing would be greater than J/Jo because of the
additional productivity improvement from damage removal. Conversely, if the formation
was previously stimulated, the observed stimulation ratio, J/Jo′, will be less than the
stimulation ratio, J/Jo′, because Jo′ would be greater than Jo.
17.4.3 Conductivity Ratio
A well’s production response following a fracturing treatment depends upon the fracture
conductivity (width x permeability) and fracture length. It is not the dynamic geometry that
influences the conductivity but the final closed fracture geometry. For propped fractures it
is important to know the proppant width and proppant pack permeability. For acid fractures
the acidized conductivity is needed. The ratio of the fracture conductivity to the reservoir
permeability is one of the main components influencing the production potential from a
fractured system.
17.4.4 Conductivity Limited
If the conductivity ratio is low, the fracture is not much more conductive than the formation
rock. This means that flow along the fracture path is not much more desirable than flow
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through the matrix pores. More permeable proppants or wider fractures will increase the
stimulation ratio in these cases. In this situation the fracture is said to be conductivity
limited.
17.4.5 Length Limited
If the conductivity ratio is high, flow through the fracture is much more desirable than flow
through the formation rock. Any fluid available to the fracture face will move rapidly own
the pack to the wellbore. In this case, increase in the fracture surface area, namely more
length, is the key to increases in productivity. In this situation the fracture is said to be
length limited.
17.4.6 Oil Wells-MCGUIRE SIKORA
In 1960, McGuire and Sikora used an electrical analog model to generate curves for
predicting stimulation ratios2. They assumed that fractures are rectangular and have a
uniform width, permeability, and height. The curves are shown in Figure 4,
where :
hf is the total propped fracture height,

hn is the net reservoir sand thickness,
w is the fracture width (in.),
L is the fracture length (ft),
kf is the permeability of the fracture (md),
k is the reservoir permeability (md),
re is the drainage radius of the well (ft),
A 0is the well spacing (acres),
rw is the wellbore radius (ft).
The conductivity ratio whfkf/hnk is valid only if hf is less than hn. When hf is greater than hn
the conductivity ratio equal to wkf/k should be used. This conductivity ratio is multiplied
by the spacing factor listed, as is the stimulation ratio. With these scale factors, one plot
can be used for different well spacings.
As can be seen from the McGuire-Sikora curves, stimulation ratio is a function of the
propped or acidized conductivity ratio and fracture length. In general, the higher the
conductivity ratio, the higher the stimulation ratio; and the longer the fracture length, the
higher the stimulation ratio. Figure 4 shows that if the conductivity ratio is less than 104,
there is no need to have L/re > 0.5.
Fractures any longer than this give no better stimulation than fractures equal to one-half the
drainage radius. For lower conductivity ratios, fractures can be even shorter without
limiting stimulation. When the situation exists where longer fractures do not increase
productivity, stimulation is conductivity limited. The only way to increase stimulation
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further is to increase the conductivity of the fracture.
In contrast for conductivity ratio greater than 104 the most effective method of increase in
the stimulation ratio comes from moving up from one L/re curve to another representing a
longer fracture. This is the length-limited situation.
The McGuire-Sikora curves apply only to oil wells since incompressible fluid behavior was
assumed for their development.
Figure 4. Reservoir stimulation ratios in oil wells versus fracture parameters

(McGuire-Sikora Chart)
17.4.7 Oil Wells-TANNICH CURVES
For gas wells the incompressible assumption does not apply. In addition, flow is usually
turbulent. Turbulence is an unfractured and undamaged well appears as effective damage
due to the extra pressure drop around the wellbore from turbulence.
After fracturing, most or all of the flow is in the fracture, significantly reducing the flowrate
through the rock pores. Since turbulence in the formation is due to high flow rates in the
pores, it is greatly reduced by the fracture. Tannich has developed an analysis technique for
turbulent gas systems that is similar to the McGuire-Sikora curves. Productivity as a
function of the conductivity of the fracture and fracture length is plotted with scale factors
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used to place all drainage areas on the same plot. The relative turbulent conductivity is a
function not only of the fracture parameters but also of the properties of the gas and the
reservoir.
Most proppant fracturing computer programs use the McGuire-Sikora curves for oil wells
and Tannich curves for gas wells. If the input reservoir fluid viscosity is less than 0.15 cp,
then gas well calculations are used. If the viscosity is greater than or equal to 0.15 cp, the
laminar McGuire-Sikora curves are used to predict stimulation ratio.
17.5 FUNDAMENTAL ROCK MECHANICS
17.5.1 Compressive Earth Stresses
Hydrocarbon reservoirs thousands of feet deep are stressed as a result of the weight of the
earth above them. The weight of the earth, or the overburden, attempts to force the
reservoir rock to move in a lateral direction, but the rock is confined and cannot move.
Therefore, the overburden stress squeezes the reservoir rock, causing stresses in lateral
directions. In order to fracture a reservoir, the stresses that are confining the rock must be
overcome.
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17.5.2 Orthogonal Principle Stresses
The stresses acting on the formation are normally termed the principal stresses, as shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Stresses acting on a formation
17.5.3 Minimum Principle Stress
If enough pressure is applied to overcome the smallest stress, the formation will fail. A
measure of the pressure needed is given by the fracture gradient. The pressure needed to
fail the rock is therefore equal to the minimum principle stress and the orientation of the
plane of the fracture will be perpendicular to the minimum principal stress.
17.5.4 Vertical Plane Orientation
For most reservoirs greater than 2000 feet deep, the fractures created will be vertical. The
azimuthal direction of vertical fractures can vary depending on local stress distributions.
The plane of the fracture will be perpendicular to the least principal horizontal stress. This
direction is not easily determined. Fracture azimuth can be measured either during or
following a fracture treatment by various techniques discussed under the Subject 17.11-
Field Diagnostics. The exact azimuth of fracture orientation depends on local conditions
and the only way to be certain of fracture orientation is to create a fracture and measure the
orientation.
17.5.5 Containment of Vertical Height
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Fracture height is controlled by the stress state of the reservoir and bounding rock strata.
Increase in stress of shale zones above or below a porous zone cause the fracture to grow in
length rather than height. Horizontal stresses induced by the overburden are greater in the
shales than in the sands. The required degree of stress difference needed to produce
containment is dependent on the thickness of the shales and fracturing treatment specifics.
This subject is currently being studied extensively with the development of 3-dimensional
fracture simulators.
17.5.6 Horizontal Plane Orientation
At depth less than 2000 ft the overburden or vertical stress is usually the minimum stress.
In fracturing these zones a pancake type horizontal fracture would be formed rather than the
typical vertical fracture. These fractures are circular with the wellbore generally near their
center.
17.5.7 KZ & PKN Practical Geometry Models
There has been a great deal of effort given to the development of mathematical models of
the complex fracturing process. Two models have evolved from a different set of boundary
conditions applied to the rock mechanics theory, one developed by Khristianovich and
Zheltov (referred to as KZ) and another model developed by Perkins and Kern and modified
by Nordgren (referred to as PKN). Both models assume a fixed vertical height and an
elliptical horizontal cross section.
Figure 6 illustrates the difference between the KZ and PKN models in vertical cross
section. Scale drawings of the two shapes are shown for equal area at three different aspect
(H/W: height/width) ratios. Since a typical fracture would have an aspect ratio greater than
1000, the visual shape of the fracture is not the important difference between the two
models on a field scale.
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Figure 6. Vertical cross section comparison – KZ vs. PKN
The difference in fracture shape between the KZ and PKN models leads to significantly
different fracture widths and lengths because the frictional pressure loss along the two
fractures is different. The KZ fracture has decreasing pressure loss as the fracture becomes
wider and longer. The PKN fracture behaves in the opposite way, with width not
increasing fast enough to overcome the affects of increased length. The PKN fracture has
increased friction loss at it becomes longer. The level of friction loss influences the
distribution of fracture volume into width and length. The PKN fracture would be roughly
twice as long, and half as wide as an equivalent fracture generated under the KZ
assumptions.
17.6 FUNDAMENTAL FLUID/PROPPANT MECHANICS
17.6.1 Ideal Fluid
Any fracturing fluid chosen must be compatible with the reservoir, be able to fracture the
formation, and carry or transport the proppant into the desired configuration.
An ideal fracturing fluid possesses the following characteristics :
• It is easy to pump down wellbore configurations, i.e., low tubing friction, and is easy
to handle and mix in surface equipment, as well as being safe.
• It gives a high friction pressure in the fracture, i.e., creates a wide fracture.
• It is capable of carrying proppant down a wellbore, through the perforations, and into
the fracture.
• It is easily removed from the formation without damaging it.
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• It is inexpensive.
17.6.2 Power Law Fluids
At first glance, a fluid with low tubing friction and high fracture friction seems like a
contradiction. Actually many fluids exhibit this behavior. These are called shear thinning
fluids.
The viscosity of most fracturing fluids can be described by the power law relationship,
µ = Kγn-1
where :
µ = fluid viscosity, cp
γ = shear rate, sec-1
n = power law exponent

= power law constant
K
The constants n and K define the power law viscosity description. An n = 1 represents a
Newtonian fluid such as water and an n < 1 a shear thinning fluid like the polymer solutions
used in fracturing.
The shear thinning power law fluids are ideal for fracturing. In the fracture the shear rate is
low and thus the fluid viscosity is high. But in the tubing and perforations, the shear rate is
higher and therefore the viscosity is lower. The fracturing fluid is easy to pump down the
tubing but exhibits a high viscosity when in the fracture.
17.6.3 Generic Fluid Components
In order to achieve the ideal qualities, a fracturing fluid is made up of various components :
• A base liquid, normally water, oil, or a mixture of each. Sometimes gas is also
included.
• Some type of polymer viscosifier (gelling agent) to thicken the fluid, giving it high
friction pressure in the fracture.
• Polymer breakers to reduce the viscosity of the fracturing fluid after the treatment and
allow the fracture to clean up easily.
• Fluid loss additives to make the fracturing fluid efficient.
• Friction reducers to make the fluid more easily pumped.
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• Additives to prevent formation damage, for example, to prevent clay swelling.
Many fracturing fluids may have some or all of these components added in an attempt to
achieve the ideal fluid characteristics.
The cost of different fracturing fluids varies considerably. Water is inexpensive, but
additives such as polymer gels and fluid loss substances can be costly. Water-based fluids
are usually the least expensive. Oil-based fracturing fluids can be very expensive if the
entire cost of the oil is considered. If we assume that the oil injected into the reservoir will
eventually be recovered, the cost is substantially reduced. With all fracturing fluids, the
various additives make up a very large portion of the cost.
17.6.4 Linear Water-Based Gels
The most common fracturing fluids are water based. A small amount of polymer (10-20
lb/1000 gal) added to the water will lower the pumping pressure of the water. This fluid is
generally referred to as slick water. This type fluid is rarely used to carry proppant in a
fracturing treatment, but it is used to initially break down a formation or to cool down the
tubing and formation before a highly viscous fluid is injected. Slick water is used to
determine if the reservoir is accepting fluid and to initiate a fracture.
When more polymer (30-80 lb/1000 gal) is added, the water is referred to as a gelled water
system. Guar gum is the most commonly used polymer system. Cellulose and
polyacrylamide polymers are also used for this purpose.
17.6.5 Crosslinked Gels
Crosslinked fracturing fluids are the most commonly used systems for carrying proppants.
These use the same gelling agents as gelled water, but a cross-linking additives causes the
polymer molecules to react with one another to form a network structure. The result is that
a high viscosity fluid is formed. The crosslinking additives are normally added while the
polymer is being pumped. It takes some time for this crosslinking reaction to occur. The
crosslinking usually occurs while the fluid is being pumped down the tubing forming the
high-viscosity crosslinked fluid that is pumped into the fracture.
The crosslinked hydroxylpropyl guar fluids are used in 60-70% of the fracturing treatments
in the U.S. today. There are crosslinked guar systems available that hold their high
viscosity for 8-10 hours.
17.6.6 Gelled Oils
Crude oils, lease oils, refined oils, condensates, and asphaltic oils are generally used to
make gelled oil frac fluids. Proprietary additives and soaps such as aluminum soaps are
used to gel oil. Oils can be crosslinked to give moderate viscosity fracturing fluids
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although their stability at temperature is not as good. It is important to remember that the
type of oil used in the fracturing fluid must be compatible with the oil or gas reservoir.
17.6.7 Emulsions
Oil and water may be combined in various forms to create fracturing fluids. A fluid was
developed called Polymulsion which contains brine and oil in the ratio of 1:2. Guar and
silica flour are used to thicken this fluid and give it good fluid loss characteristics. The
fluid has a moderate viscosity and has been used successfully in oil and gas reservoirs.
17.6.8 Foams
Fluids that consist of a combination of water and/or oil and gas are increasing in use in the
industry. Nitrogen, for instance, can be added to the fluid while pumping. This lightens the
fluid head remaining in the wellbore after the treatment and allows the fluid to clean up
easily because of the gaseous component. Another type of gas and liquid system is the
foam fracturing system. These fluids have fairly good fluid loss characteristics and can
carry large amounts of proppant. The state of the art of these systems is developing and
foams are being used in about 15% of the U.S. fractures today. Although a good
understanding of the fundamental properties is not available, the practical use
characteristics of foams are developing.
One instance in which foams are an excellent fracturing fluid is in a very low pressure
reservoir. In this case the low density of the foam allows the fracture to clean up easily and
the well to be produced without an excessive amount of swabbing.
17.6.9 Proppant Types
The function of a proppant in a fracturing treatment is to keep the fracture open after the
treatment has been completed. The stimulation ratio depends on the final propped fracture
conductivity and length. The best type of proppant to use will depend on the specific
conditions of reservoir properties and closure stress for a given well.
Currently, two types of proppants are recommended for fracturing treatments: sand and
ceramic materials. Historically, many other different types of materials have been injected
into fractures in an attempt to achieve maximum conductivity. These materials include:
ground-up walnut hulls, steel shot, aluminum balls, plastics, glass beads, resin coated sand.
These materials have been used as fracture proppants for various applications. In field
usage, only sand and ceramic have performed satisfactorily on a consistent basis.
17.6.10 Sand
Plain sand is the principle hydraulic fracturing proppant used today. When selecting any
proppant it is important that it is spherical and not angular. Point to point contact between
angular grains leads to more crushing than that seen in more spherical materials. Since
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sand is a natural product, it comes in a wide variety of qualities. Many sands have been
examined by the standard procedures for testing fracture materials given in API RP 39. The
“Ottawa” or “white” frac sands are common terms for sands that perform well. These sands
can be from different fields and of many colors so testing to verify their high quality is
necessary. Ask the service company for sieve analysis and conductivity data for the sand
they intend to use.
Figure 7 illustrates the reduction in fracture permeability caused by high closure stresses.
Sand will crush under large confining stresses generating fine particles, which reduce the
propped fracture porosity and decrease the fracture permeability. For maximum
stimulation, the propped fracture permeability should be much greater than the formation
permeability.
At a closure stress above 5000 psi the economics of using stronger ceramic proppants
should be seriously considered. Very roughly stresses above 5000 psi are reached when
well depths exceed 10,000 ft.
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Figure 7. Proppant conductivity vs. closure stress
17.6.11 Ceramic Proppants
Sintered bauxite is a ceramic proppant that is superior to sand at a fracture closure stress
greater than 5000 psi. Sintered bauxite has been produced commercially since 1977 and
has the best performance characteristics of all the available fracturing proppants. Recently,
the manufactures have introduced new sintered ceramic proppants into the market place that
may be used in wells where the fracture closure pressure is in the 5000 to 10,000 psi range.
The densities of these new ceramic proppants are less than sintered bauxite but greater than
sand; hence, they are frequently referred to as Intermediate Density Proppants (IDP).
As can be seen from Figure 7 the ceramics all have significantly more conductivity than
sand at closure stresses greater than 5000 psi. Although sintered bauxite is the superior
ceramic product for equal pack densities at all closure stresses, economics should be the
main deciding factor between the ceramics for wells with maximum lifetime closure
stresses less than 10,000 psi. Above 10,000 psi stress sintered bauxite is the preferred
proppant.
The density difference between the sintered bauxite (3.7 g/cc) and the IDP’s (3.2 g/cc) is
often cited as an important advantage in favor of the IDPs. Since the IDPs are made from a
lower grade of bauxite, IDP packs tend to have lower permeability due to more proppant
crushing. The density advantage on the surface is substantially reduced by the lower
permeability and greater pack width reduction with increasing stress.
The ceramics are substantially more expensive than sand but increased productivity often
makes them quite economic.
17.6.12 Proppant Transport
To predict the stimulation ratio that will result from a specific sand-fluid combination, the
final distribution of sand in the fracture must be known. As proppant is injected through
the perforations into the fracture, it will begin to settle because it is heavier than the
fracture fluid. Proppant will travel away from the wellbore at the same time. Let us
examine two limiting cases, one in which the proppant settles very little after entering the
fracture, and another in which the proppant settles quickly upon entering the fracture.
For most fracturing treatments proppant will be transported somewhere between the two
limiting cases although generally the suspending case is closest to reality. The prediction of
proppant transport is complex because many factors influence the flow of the proppant-
fluid slurry. Proppant settling is affected by the fluid properties, which are changing with
temperature, the flow rate along the fracture, the presence of the fracture walls, and the
concentration of proppant. To complicate things even further, all these factors change
along the fracture.
Computer programs are available to include all these factors, but a great deal can be learned
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from looking at cases as if they followed one extreme or the other.
17.6.13 Total Proppant Suspension
The extreme we consider most often occurs when a high-viscosity fracturing fluid is used.
Assume that the viscosity of the fracturing fluid is so high that the proppant does not settle
at all during the treatment, as depicted in Figure 8. The proppant moves down the fracture
with the fluid as it is pumped in. For this completely suspending fluid, the propped fracture
width will be smaller than the dynamic width, as shown in Figure 8. From conductivity
testing using fracture packs under stress, the resulting pack width for different proppants at
different stresses and concentrations can be measured. This value is generally 25 to 50
percent of the dynamic fracture width. The concentration of the proppant away from the
fracture entrance will be greater than the injected concentration because of fluid loss to the
permeable reservoir rock.
17.6.14 Equilibrium Bank Formation
If every low viscosity fracturing fluid is used, proppant will enter the fracture and quickly
settle, as indicated in Figure 9. A proppant bank begins to build up in the bottom of the
fracture. As more proppant is injected, this proppant bank continues to build higher and
higher.
Figure 8. Propped fracture width when sand is totally suspended
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Figure 9. Formation of an equilibrium sand back during a proppant fracturing treatment
As the velocity across the top of the bank increases, the proppant will be swept over the top
of the bank and deposited on the far side. This condition of a stable bank is called an
equilibrium bank. Very high injection rates are required and since the proppant settles out
during treatment, this type treatment is difficult to design or control. We rarely choose to
make an equilibrium bank fracture.
17.6.15 Acid Fluid Loss
The fluid loss behavior of acids during acid fracturing treatments is probably the most
important aspect limiting stimulation. When plain acid contacts permeable, carbonate rock,
the slightest pressure differential into the rock-surface will cause the acid to quickly
wormhole through the rock. This wormhole phenomenon is significantly different from
individual pore fluid loss and is more difficult to control since wormhole growth is
unpredictable.
17.6.16 High Rate Acid Fluid Loss
Field data are also consistent with high rates of fluid loss. Figure 10 shows data from more
than twenty wells which has a response consistent with high fluid loss. The dots represent
the actual stimulation ratios observed for each well. The bars associated with each well
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represent the two limiting fluid loss cases. The upper extreme of the bar represents the
estimated stimulation ratio if fluid loss was controlled by the pad fluid preceding the acid.
The lower extreme represents the estimated stimulation ratio if fluid loss was controlled by
the pad fluid preceding the acid. The lower extreme represents the estimated stimulation
ratio if fluid loss was controlled by the acid itself, independent of any preceding fluid. It is
evident that most of the data points tend to agree with the lower limit indicating the fluid
loss of plain HCl controls the penetration distance of plain HCl.
Figure 16 shows that when special additives are used to control plain HCl fluid loss, the
upper limit to the stimulation ratio can be obtained.
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Figure 10. Comparison of field data to fluid loss and reaction limits
Figure 11. Effect of HCl fluid loss additive on field treatment results
17.7 PROPPANT FRACTURE DESIGN
17.7.1 Design Objectives
To gain the maximum stimulation for the minimum cost is the basic goal in designing
proppant fracturing treatments. An initial treatment size can be selected based on
economics. Using that treatment size as in the test case, it can be determined if the situation
is conductivity limited or length limited.
If the situation is conductivity limited, a more permeable proppant or higher proppant

concentrations are required to increase productivity. If the fracture is length limited, a
larger job size is needed. The effects on the productivity gained by changing the job size
have to be weighed against the cost of the job in designing a specific treatment. Many
precautions must be taken in the final treatment specification to ensure that the treatment
can be implemented in the field.
17.7.2 Fluid Selection
To begin a design, a fluid system must be chosen that will be able to achieve the desired
proppant distribution. This fluid will either carry the proppant a long distance from the
wellbore or allow the proppant to settle. The viscosity and temperature stability of the fluid
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determines which will occur. The prediction of proppant transport is extremely complex,
and only by running a computer program can an estimate of proppant distribution be
determined. One of the main considerations for fluid selection is also what fluid is
available that can achieve proppant carrying viscosity for the treatment time frame required.
The crosslinked fracturing fluids will suspend all sizes of proppant. These high viscosity
fluids can carry even large proppants at concentrations up to 5-10 lb/gal. These fluids can
have stable viscosities from 1-12 hours at temperature.
Foam fracturing fluids are 60-70% gas and only 30-40% water or oil. These fluids are very
good for reservoirs with low bottom hole pressures or highly water sensitive clays. The
foams can suspend 1-4 lb/gal of proppant. Maximum concentration is limited mainly by the
operational constraint that all of the sand must be carried by the water phase as it passes
through the blender.
The polymulsion fracturing fluid with 0.5-1.0 lb guar/bbl brine can carry 20/40 mesh
proppant concentrations up to 3 lb/gal. If higher concentrations of guar are used (1.5-2.0
lb/bbl brine), mesh sizes up to 8/12 can be carried.
The above guidelines should be used as a starting point to select fracturing fluids for
consideration. The prediction of proppant transport depends on many factors, and only the
proppant-transport computer program can estimate the distribution of proppant in the
fracture.
In addition to its proppant-transport ability, the fracturing fluid should be safe, easy to
pump, and inexpensive, as discussed in the section on proppant fracturing fluids. The fluid
must be available from the service company that will do the job. The fluid must be efficient
so that a large volume is not needed to create a fracture. The viscosity must be sufficiently
high to create a fracture wide enough for the injections of proppant. The fluid must be
compatible with the formation fluids and temperatures that will be encountered.
The exact choice of a fracturing fluid must be based on detailed calculations. The next
section discusses in detail how to examine various fracturing fluids and determine the exact
treatment specifications.
17.7.3 Treating Rate Determination
For a given fluid and wellbore geometry, there is a limit to how fast the fluid can be
injected. This maximum injection rate is mainly determined by the amount of pressure that
can be lost due to friction in the wellbore.
The relationship between the different pressure terms which contribute to the fracturing
pressure is given in Eqn. (5).
Pfrac = FG * D = Psurf + Phh - Pfric + Pperfs (5)
where :
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Pfrac = fracturing propagation pressure

FG = fracture gradient
D = perforation depth
Psurf = wellhead pressure
Phh = hydrostatic pressure of the fluid on wellbore
∆Pfric = tubing friction pressure
∆Pperf
= perforation friction pressure
Eqn. (5) shows that the injection of fluids into the reservoir is assisted by the surface pump
pressure and the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the tubing. Opposing injection are pressure
losses to tubing and perforation friction. The friction pressure in the fracture itself is
another source of resistance but is generally ignored when determining treating rates.
Rearranging Eqn. (5) yields an expression for the maximum amount of friction pressure that
is available for injection fluid.
∆Pfric = Psurf + Phh - Pfrac + ∆Pperfs (6)
The pressure drop through the perforations can be calculated as follows :
∆Pperfs = 0.2369Q2ρ
d4α2 (7)
where :
Q = flow rate/perforation, bbl/min
ρ = density of fluid, lb/gal
d = diameter of perforation, in.
α = efficiency (use 0.9)
For more fracturing conditions the pressure drop through the perforations is very small and
therefore neglected when evaluating Eqn. (6). One the friction pressure drop is calculated,
an injection rate can be obtained from the service company friction pressure curves. If a
wellbore geometry is complicated with a tapered string (two or more different sizes of
tubing in the same wellbore), the friction pressure drop through each section of tubing must
be added. In such cases it would be easiest to calculate the pressure drops for several
different flow rates and obtain a plot of surface pressure vs flow rate. From this plot one
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can obtain the maximum injection rate.
Injection rates and pressures are calculated to determine if the fracturing fluid selected can
be injected at a high enough rate to adequately fracture the formation. An injection rate of
10 bbl/min is adequate for proppant fracturing treatments; however, rates as low as 5
bbl/min can be successful. If injection rates are this low, caution should be exercised in
designing the specific treatment, or preferably a different fluid with a lower friction
pressure should be selected to give a higher injection rate.
17.7.4 Pad Volume Determination
Before placing proppant in a fracture, a volume of fluid must be injected to create a

fracture. This fluid volume is usually subdivided into two components, a prepad and a pad.
The purpose of a prepad is to (1) create the fracture by breaking down the formation and (2)
reduce the temperature of the tubular goods in the near wellbore region. Usually two
wellbore volumes of a slightly viscosified prepad fluid are injected into a well to initiate a
fracture. This low viscosity fluid will cool the tubular goods and near wellbore region
approximately 2-3°F per thousand feet of depth. If greater cooling is required, a larger
prepad can be used.
Following the prepad, a volume of fluid having the same viscosity as the proppant-laden
fluid is injected into the fracture. The pad volume develops dynamic fracture width and
length which is a function of the volume and rate the fluid is injected. Fluid loss additive is
usually added to all of the pad volume.
The pad volume must create enough fracture width to allow proppant to enter the fracture.
To avoid a proppant screenout, the proppant volume should not exceed 70 percent of the
dynamic fracture volume. If the computer programs indicate a fracture fillup in excess of
70 percent, a larger pad volume, lower proppant concentration, a more efficient fracturing
fluid, or a higher treating rate should be considered. It is typical that the pad volume is 30-
40% of the total fluid pumped. This is a good initial guess prior to computer modeling.
If excessively large pad volumes are required to pump a job with one fluid, then a more
viscous higher efficiency fracturing fluid should be used. A higher viscosity fracturing
fluid will create a wider fracture. Also, a higher injection rate combined with a more
viscous fracturing fluid will develop fracture width. However, a decision to raise the
injection rate must be tempered by (1) maximum pressure limits of the wellhead and tubular
goods and (2) excess vertical height growth.
If the formation is naturally-fractured or contains vugular porosity, a larger pad volume will
be required to account for fluid loss. Occasionally 100 mesh sand at concentrations ranging
from 1-2 ppg has been added to the pad volume when treating naturally-fractured
reservoirs. This material might aid in plugging the natural fractures to achieve fluid loss
control but field experience is mixed on this point. When designing a treatment to
stimulate a naturally fractured reservoir, the pad volume is often increased to above 40% of
the total treatment volume and injection rates are increased to 50-100 BPM to keep up with
high fluid loss.
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To calculate the minimum pad volume, a rule of thumb is to use a fracture width equal to
2.5 times the maximum proppant diameter to establish the minimum dynamic fracture width
at the wellbore before injecting proppant. Table 1 shows the minimum fracture widths for
the various sizes of proppant.
Table 1
Minimum Width at the Wellbore Required

U.S. Mesh (2.5 x largest proppant diameter)
(inch)
40/60 0.041
20/40 0.083
10/20 0.20
8/12 0.23
The computer program will compare the proppant diameter to the fracture width (as the
proppant moves along the growing fracture) and will signal when the fracture width
becomes less than 3 times the average proppant diameter. Table 2 shows the minimum
dynamic fracture width required for the various mesh sizes.
Table 2
Minimum Fracture Width Required

U.S. Mesh (3.0 x largest proppant diameter)
(inch)
40/60 0.049
20/40 0.098
10/20 0.23
8/12 0.28
In naturally fractured reservoirs or on new reservoirs where the properties are not very well
defined, conservative estimates of pad volumes or large risk factors are recommended.
Also, in an environment, e.g., abnormal pressure, H2S, etc., where a workover to remove
proppant following a screenout would be expensive, a large pad volume (high risk factor)
should also be employed.
Finally, the diameter of the perforation must be large enough to allow proppant to enter the
fracture at the desired concentration. Figure 12, is a plot of the maximum proppant
concentration as a function of perforation diameter, and shows the maximum proppant
concentration that can be safely injected through a perforation. The perforation diameter
must be approximately 6 times the average particle diameter to inject more than 6 ppg of
proppant. For 20/40 mesh or smaller proppant, the perforation must be larger than 0.15
inches. For 10/20 mesh proppant, the perforation diameter should be approximately 0.33
inches. To inject more than 6 ppg of 8/12 mesh proppant, the perforations should be
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approximately 0.5 inches in diameter. For less concentrations of proppant, e.g., 2 or 3 ppg,
the fore-mentioned perforation diameter requirements can be reduced.
Figure 12. Maximum proppant concentration vs. perforation diameter
17.7.5 Proppant Selection
The proppant type needed in a given situation is a function of the required pack
permeability for the well environment weighed against the cost of the proppant.
Sand is the cheapest proppant and can be used successfully in most applications up to 6000
psi closure stress. Ceramic proppants, sintered bauxite and the intermediate density
proppants offer significantly improved pack permeabilities above 6000 psi stress although
their cost increases significantly as well. In many conductivity limited applications the
increases cost of the ceramic can pay for itself in just days to weeks by substantially
increased productivity.
Above 10,000 to 12,000 psi stress, lab testing demonstrates sintered bauxite to be a better
performer than the other ceramics and the choice of ceramic proppant must be made on an
increased production vs. cost basis.
Once the type of proppant is selected, the size of proppant must be specified. Most
fracturing treatments are performed with 20/40 mesh proppant. Therefore high quality
proppant is readily available in this size range. There are circumstances where other
proppant sizes are used such as when 8/12 or 10/20 sand is used for added conductivity
where bauxite is economically prohibitive.
Higher sand concentrations at the end of jobs have proved more reliable than changing
proppant size to increase near wellbore conductivity. Tailing in with a stronger proppant
(bauxite after sand) has not been shown in the field to be as economic or effective as
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choosing the best proppant for the full treatment.
17.7.6 Treatment Schedule
In order to select an optimum treatment a spectrum of proposed treatments should be

compared. From these the optimum treatment based on economics can be chosen.
The following steps should be followed when designing a treatment schedule. A slightly
viscosified prepad, usually two wellbore volumes, should be injected into a well to initiate a
fracture. Following the prepad, a pad volume estimated using a frac program is injected
into the fracture.
After injecting the pad volume to create the required fracture width, the proppant-laden
fluid is injected into the fracture. The initial proppant concentration should be low, e.g., 1
ppg, increasing in a stepwise manner up to the maximum concentration. Generally, the
stage volume for each concentration should be approximately 1-2 wellbore volumes to
ensure that each portion of the treatment is injecting easily before we commit to injecting
larger sizes and concentrations of proppant. The deepest perforation should be used to
estimate the wellbore volume for the proppant-laden fluid.
The final stage in the treatment is the flush used to displace the proppant laden fluid to the
perforations. It is critical not to overdisplace the proppant slurry because the near wellbore
region will be flushed causing the fracture to close and drastically decrease the overall
stimulation. The flush fluid is often 2% KCl or workover fluid or slick water whichever is
most convenient.
17.7.7 Job Size Determination
A preliminary economic analysis should be performed comparing various proppant types,

sizes, and treatment volumes. A specific design which will meet the economic guidelines
generating the largest incremental revenue should be selected. Note the proppant transport
computer program assumes that the fracture height is centered with respect to the net
reservoir sand thickness. Therefore, when reviewing the proppant distribution, determine if
any of the net reservoir sand was left unpropped. The treatment schedule can be adjusted to
achieve the optimum proppant distribution. The engineer should vary the fracture height,
net reservoir sand thickness, formation permeability etc., to identify any potential problems
that may lead to an early screenout.
When the final treatment is selected, a detailed economic analysis can be performed using
the reservoir simulator programs to predict future production.
17.7.8 Computer Design
As stated above an applicable computer program laboriously solves the governing equations
for the fracturing process. Examples are FracPro, Mfrac, Stimplan, Terrafrac, Fracade, etc...
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The basic calculations performed using a computer program have not changed over the
years. Fracture geometry is calculated as a function of treatment size, and stimulation ratio
(or now stimulated rate) is calculated for steady state production before and after the
treatment. In cases where the steady state assumption is not valid, calculations will not be
correct. However, it has been observed that even in highly transient gas wells, the early
time stimulated rate seems to be about correct.
To efficiently use a computer program the engineer would run multiple cases to assess what
effect the change of one of the independent variables would have on overall treatment
response. The program is so complex that it cannot be accurately predicted what will
happen when one variable is changed. Experience with time has led to some generally valid
trends as indicated below :
(1) Fracture gradient and treating wellhead pressure combine to control treating rate.
The higher the frac gradient and the lower the treating wellhead pressure, the lower
the treating rate.
(2) Net permeable zone thickness per stage has a strong effect on fracture geometry.
The larger the thickness, the less width and length of fracture that are formed. This
is because the net thickness is the interval available for fluid loss of fracturing
fluid, and the greater the thickness, the more fluid loss that occurs.
(3) Gross fracture height has a moderately strong effect on fracture geometry. Fluid
loss is not is not involved in the non-permeable part of the fracture height, but the
volume of the fracture must be filled with fracturing fluid.
The other parameters of the input stream can be very important in specific cases. However,
sensitivity is highly dependent on the specific case under consideration. It can be generally
concluded that the reservoir fluid parameters do not strongly influence fracture geometry.
Fluid viscosity, density, compressibility, and reservoir sonic travel time and porosity do not
normally exert a strong influence on geometry. However, these parameters including
temperature and pressure do strongly influence pre and post stimulation rates.
It remains for the thinking, intelligent engineer to anticipate the important parameters for
his particular well. It is a truism that computers will only work as well as we allow them to
work. In other words, you will either have garbage in and garbage out, or sweet oil in and
more sweet oil out.
17.7.9 Checklist For Good Design
(1) Are the pumping pressures compatible with the wellhead and tubing pressure
limitations?
(2) Are the friction calculations accurate? If the pressure drop through the perforations
was neglected, is it negligible? How well is the fracture gradient known? Will an
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error cause considerable change in surface pumping pressure and injection rate?
(3) Are the anticipated fracture height and net reservoir sand thickness fairly well
known? If not, be sure to run several designs for limiting cases of these parameters.
(4) Are all perforations open?
(5) Is a substantial amount of prepad required to initiate a fracture and/or cool down
the wellbore and formation? What are the major unknowns in estimating a pad
volume for the treatment? Be sure that limiting cases for reservoir properties are
considered. Be especially conservative on pad volume if the formation is expected
to be vugular or naturally fractured.
(6) Is the fracturing fluid compatible with the formation and reservoir fluids? When
injecting proppant, be sure to start with a small concentration of proppant and
increase the concentration gradually. If large-mesh proppant is going to be used for
the majority of the treatment, for example, 10/20 or 8/12 mesh proppant, start
injecting a smaller size proppant initially, such as 20/40. Later in the treatment,
once it is assured that the fracture is open and is accepting proppant, the size and
concentration can be increased.
(7) If possible, the final portion of the treatment should contain a high concentration
(around 5 lb/gal) of proppant. This higher concentration should be injected only if
it appears that the lower concentration in the bulk of the treatment is being injected
smoothly.
(8) Displace the proppant fluid slurry to within a few barrels of the shallowest
perforation. Do not overdisplace away from the wellbore; underdisplace, if
necessary, to ensure that overdisplacement does not occur.
(9) Do the production rate, reservoir permeability thickness, and condition of the well
(for example, damaged, stimulated) all agree with each other?
(10) Will production be in the steady-state or unsteady-state region following the

treatment? How will this affect production?
(11) When simulating the final treatment using a computer program, be sure that there
are no warnings printed which indicate some potential problem with the treatment.
Check to see if proppant settles below any single reservoir sand stringers.
(12) Is the fluid proposed for the treatment capable of carrying the proppant at the
design concentration?
(13) From the fracture closing time estimated by your computer programs, estimate
when to turn the well around. Be conservative, so that the well is not produced
while the fracture is open, which may cause proppant to be produced form the near-
wellbore region.
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17.8 ACID FRACTURE DESIGN
17.8.1 Design Objectives
The basics of acid fracturing treatment design are similar to proppant fracturing treatment
design in that the size of the treatment is determined by economics. Acid fracturing
treatments are easier to design than proppant fracturing treatments because there are fewer
fluids to choose from. Because there is no proppant in acid fracturing treatments, there is
no concern with the possibility of a screenout and, thus, no worry about pad volumes and
fracture widths. A unique danger associated with all acid treatments is the possibility of
being unable to inject into the well after the wellbore is full of live acid. To minimize this
possibility, we always establish injectivity into the well with a neutral fluid.
17.8.2 Physical Processes During Acid Frac
The way the acid option of your program models the sequence of fluids that might be
pumped during an acid treatment is shown in Figure 13 with the exception of the inert pad
fluid. A good understanding of this figure will go a long way to a good understanding of
the acid fracturing process. Figure 13 shows the dynamic fracture length, acidized fracture
length, and average acidized fracture conductivity as a function of the volume of total fluid
injected during the treatment. While the inert pad is pumped, the dynamic fracture length
increases with time. Since no acid has been injected at this point, the acidized fracture
length and average conductivity are zero. When the acid pad is injected, the dynamic
fracture length continues to increase because the acid pad had high viscosity and low fluid
loss. During this time, the acidized fracture length and average fracture conductivity will
increase. When the plain acid portion of the treatment is injected, the fracture will partially
close, as reflected by the decrease in dynamic length. Plain acid has poor fluid loss control
even though a pad fluid has been injected ahead of it. It has been shown in the laboratory
that when carbonate rock is filled with a thick, viscous fluid, and plain acid is then injected,
the plain acid will flow through the core just as quickly as if the viscous fluid were not
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present. While plain acid is being injected, neither the dynamic or acidized length can
increase. The average conductivity increases very slightly because the near wellbore region
has had additional rock removed.
17.8.3 Fluid Selection
For acid fracturing treatments, the first choice that must be made is whether to use plain
hydrochloric acid or polyacid. Since the choice depends on the type of reservoir and the
fracturing treatment parameters, designs should be done for both treatments. Once both
treatments are designed economics will determine which is the best.
The two current types of acid fracturing treatments involve either plain HCl or emulsified
HCl. Plain HCl is simplest to use, but suffers from high rates of fluid loss into the fracture
faces. The net result of this is short penetration distances on the order of 50 ft or less.
Emulsified acid in the form of acid polymulsion, Polyacid, has low fluid loss, and live acid
penetrates hundreds of feet along the fracture. Polyacid is somewhat difficult to mix
properly. Figure 14 illustrates the different fracture shapes produced by each treatment.
Figure 13. Fracture growth during a treatment
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Figure 14. Fracture shape for polyacid and plain HCl treatments
17.8.4 Plain HCl
Plain hydrochloric acid is normally used in 15 or 28 weight percent concentrations.

Although there is a wide range of additives that can be used with plain HCl, the only one
that must always be used is a corrosion inhibitor to protect the pumping equipment and
tubular goods. The other additives should be used on an as needed basis that must be
determined by your knowledge of well and reservoir you are going to treat. This is a very
thin, low-viscosity fluid that has poor fluid loss control except in very low permeability
reservoirs. The low viscosity also means that the mass transfer of the acid to the surface of
the fracture wall is rapid. The result is that most of the acid reaction occurs near the
wellbore, and therefore most of the rock dissolved will be near the wellbore. This wide
fracture near the wellbore is highly conductive and can be the optimum fracture under
certain conditions.
17.8.5 Acid Emulsions
An acid fracturing treatment done with the acid external emulsion, Polyacid, gives a
different result. Polyacid is a high viscosity fluid containing a large amount of fluid loss
additive. Principal benefit comes from the low fluid loss of this acid system. A secondary
benefit results from the high viscosity of polyacid. The effective diffusion coefficient is
much lower than that for plain acid, and thus the overall reaction rate is lower. The
reaction of the acid with formation rock will occur over a larger area in the fracture due to
fluid loss. As a result, a much longer acidized fracture is normally created with Polyacid
than with plain HCl. Because the acid reacts over a large area, however, the amount of rock
dissolved per unit area will be smaller than with plain acid, and the width and conductivity
will be lower.
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Polyacid is an acid external, oil internal emulsion containing gelling polymers and a fluid
loss additive. The specific recipe is :
• 1 part of 28% HCl with 1% by volume, e.g., Dowell’s U78.
2% by volume Dowell A-166 corrosion inhibitor or equivalent.
2 lb of guar/bbl of acid.
3.5 lb of polyvinyl alcohol (Dupont Elvanol 70-30G)/bbl of acid.
• 2 parts oil (condensate, diesel, lease crude).
• 200 lb of silica flour/1000 gal of emulsion.
The emulsified oil and water form a creamy, moderate viscosity fluid. The guar gum,
polyvinyl alcohol polymer, and silica flour form a fluid loss additive package that greatly
restricts fluid loss of the overall acid system. The absence of any one of these fluid loss
control components greatly increases fluid loss.
17.8.6 Gelled Acid
To date some of the new gelled acids on the market have shown good stability and potential
for some fluid loss control. Since they are substantially simpler to mix than Polyacid, they
may replace Polyacid.
17.8.7 Treatment Specification
Treatments generating a wide fracture are not necessary because no proppant will be
injected. Several precautions are necessary, however, to minimize potential problems. It is
desirable to precede the first acid with an inert fluid, normally one or two tubing volumes.
This inert fluid will break down the formation and initiate the fracture. An inert fluid is
used so that if enough pressure or injection rate cannot be achieved, the wellbore will
contain an inert fluid rather than acid. Slick water is normally used as the pad fluid. If
reservoir permeability is high, however, the low-viscosity water may not be adequate to
initiate a fracture. In this case, a higher viscosity inert fluid should be used. The inert fluid
must be compatible with the reservoir rock and reservoir fluids.
Pumping rates are calculated by the same procedure used in proppant fracturing treatments.
For acid fracturing treatments, low injection rates are not hazardous. Injection rates as low
as 3 to 5 BPM could be adequate. Your computer program will predict stimulation ratios
for very low injection rates, even though these rates may not actually create a fracture. As
injection rate approaches zero stimulation ratio approaches 1.0. If injection rate is
uncertain, various cases can be run with your computer program to assess the effect.
Unlike proppant fracturing treatments, with acid treatments it is desirable to overflush the
acid from the wellbore. We do not want unreacted acid in the wellbore at the end of the
treatment. There is no real time limit on when to turn the well around and produce it. We
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do need to allow sufficient time for the acid in the fracture to react completely, but
normally this is only a few minutes. The time required for the service company to rig down
from the wellsite is a sufficient period to wait before turning the well around. It is desirable
to turn a well around as quickly as practical so as to use the injection pressure buildup in
the reservoir and the CO2 generated by the reaction to help remove the fracturing fluids.
17.8.8 Computer Design
The acid and proppant options generated by your computer program both use the same
dynamic fracture geometry calculations. These options also calculate acid reaction along
the fracture and relate this to acidized length and acidized conductivity to yield the
expected stimulation ratio.
Your computer program can model two types of acid fracturing fluids – a viscous acid pad,
and plain, low-viscosity acid. The inert pad fluid is normally a slick water prepad which is
used to initiate the fracture and cool the wellbore. It also ensures that well injectivity is
possible before the wellbore is loaded with acid. The viscous acid pad is normally Polyacid
with its low fluid loss and reduced reaction rate. In the near future, other viscous, gelled
acids may be substituted here if they pass current lab tests for low fluid loss and stability.
The plain acid is usually either 15 or 28% HCl.
17.8.9 Checklist for Good Design
The acid frac design process has only two major steps once the candidate well has been
selected – the acid is selected, and the program is run. However, there are a number of
practical considerations that must be addressed before a treatment design can be
successfully pumped away. Some of these questions are the following, with additional
important questions for your well being those that you must ask as part of your work as an
engineer.
Design Considerations
(1) Make sure that the pumping pressures are compatible with the wellhead and tubing
limitations.
(2) Make sure that friction pressures are reasonable. Did you forget to account for
losses in the limited entry perforations?
(3) Are gross and net fracture height reasonably well known? If not, run multiple
design cases to assess the effect.
(4) Is diversion necessary during the treatment? What is the best method?
(5) Are the perforations open?
(6) Are all of the proposed fluids compatible with the reservoir?
(7) Will the cooling associated with the injection cause precipitation of substances like
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asphaltenes or paraffins?
(8) Does the known production history of the well and your reservoir permeability
thickness product agree on well capacity? Is there damage? Is the well already
stimulated?
17.9 FIELD IMPLEMENTATION
17.9.1 Planning
Planning is the most important factor in carrying out a successful field treatment.
Once a candidate well is selected and a job design has been developed there are still many
important steps required before you go to the field.
Fracturing treatments on some “stimulation candidates” are doomed to failure before they
begin because of overlooked or unexpected mechanical problems. Before setting a date
with the service company, take the time to troubleshoot the well. Know the well and well
sketch information are up to date and check and test them before moving frac equipment on
sight.
The success of a frac job is also dependent upon effective communication between the
engineer, the field superintendent, and the service company selected to do the job.
In today’s economic market most frac jobs are put out to bid. As you develop a design the
service company engineer can often help with input on the available fluids and their
properties. After writing a procedure and having the companies bid the job, review the
proposed job with the successful service company again. Discuss the specifics of the
treatment and decide on a final design.
Several days before the job is to be pumped the service company engineer should be called
to discuss any final details of the frac job.
Write up a frac procedure stating clearly the objectives of the job, well data, material and
equipment, needed treatment schedule and sight layout. Clearly state contingency plans for
anticipated problems and any safety risks that pertain to the specific job.
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Hold a pre-job conference with Service Company Engineer and PCSB Workover
Supervisor. Discuss and agree upon the specifics of the treatment programs as laid out in
the procedure. A treatment cannot be successful unless each person on the site knows their
responsibilities and has a clear understanding of what to do. Once the planning for the job
is over the treatment can begin.
17.9.2 Equipment Layout
If at all possible, the engineer should be at the well site when the fracturing equipment is
being positioned. Flammable fluid storage should be placed away from the high-pressure
equipment.
Figure 15 illustrates a typical equipment layout for a conventional hydraulic fracturing

treatment. The equipment consists of proppant storage silos, fluid tanks, blender, several
high-pressure fracturing pumps, and related manifolding. The 500 barrel capacity fluid
tanks can be rented from the service company performing the treatment or from tank rental
companies. Before each treatment, each tank should be steam-cleaned to remove debris,
scale, and other foreign material. If a tank contains residual material from the previous job,
the fracturing fluid used on your treatment may not gel properly.
Figure 15. Conventional fracturing equipment layout
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17.9.3 Blenders
The blender is the heart of the fracturing operation. It mixes the proppant with the
fracturing fluid to produce an even distribution of proppant-laden fluid to the fracture
pumps. A blender consists of two fluid transfer pumps and a mixing tub. The suction
pump transfers fluid from the frac tanks or pit into the blending tub where proppant and
other additives are mixed usually by mechanical agitation (e.g., auger screws or paddles) or
hydraulic jet action to create a homogeneous dispersion. A centrifugal pump discharges the
proppant-fluid mixture from the tub to the fracturing pump(s) at a pressure of 30-50 psi.
Accurate metering of the proppant-fluid ratio is the primary problem of blenders. This
problem is minimized if the density of the proppant-fluid slurry exiting the blender is
measured. Therefore, the production engineer should specify a radio-densitometer be
installed at the wellhead to check the proppant concentration.
Discharge lines from the blender to the fracturing pump are also a source of trouble.
Flexible rubber hoses used by some service companies as standard equipment cause
sandouts if the blender is unable to maintain enough pressure to keep the hose open. Also,
if the fluid velocity through the hose is not adequate to suspend the proppant, a sandout can
occur within these hoses. These problems may be eliminated if wire-reinforced hoses or
solid connections are used and hoses are kept as short as possible, without severe dips or
bends.
17.9.4 Pumping Equipment
Nearly all service companies use reciprocating triplex pumps for their hydraulic services.
Frac pumps are rated between 155 and 825 hydraulic horsepower and are capable of
pumping fluid at maximum pressures of 5000 to 15,000 psi. Wide flexibility in pressure
and rate can be achieved with frac pumps by changing plunger sizes and/or fluid ends.
Intensifiers are horizontal triplex pumps with five foot long strokes. They are powered by a
hydraulic “pressure intensifier”, with conventional frac pumps, serving as prime movers.
The greatest advantage of an intensifier is the relatively few pump strokes and valve
actuations required to pump a given volume of fluid. These units have the capability of
pumping large proppants in high concentrations at high pressures for sustained periods with
a minimum of valve and seat erosion.
17.9.5 Bulk Handling Equipment
Bulk handling equipment consists of “over-the-road” and “on-site” equipment. Capacity of

“over-the-road” transports is limited by highway load limits. Since the volumes of
materials required for MHF treatments are so large that they require several transport loads,
“on-site” storage bins with capacities of 50,000-100,000 lbs. are provided by the service
companies. These are transported to location, set up and filled prior to job time. Several
types and sizes of both types of equipment are available.
Liquid transport are used to have acid, chemicals or concentrated gel from the district to the
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well site. Liquid transport vary from 1500 to 5000 gal. capacity.
On site the bulk of the liquid is stored in a bank of frac tanks. For most purposes the
working capacity of a 500 bbl frac tank is 475 bbls or 20,000 gals. Have them steam
cleaned, if necessary, to remove any residual material left over from a previous job.
17.9.6 Surface Pipe and Wellhead
Specially designed surface piping and wellhead equipment is used on most MHF
treatments. This equipment is designed to minimize hook up time, minimize vibration
during the job, and provide a high degree of safety.
A part of the high-pressure treating equipment is a Manifold Trailer. This unit has a
permanently mounted high-pressure manifold that allows the high pressure pump discharge
lines to be connected to the manifold system and larger high-pressure treating pipe to rig
from the manifold trailer to the well.
The wellhead isolation tool (also called the wellhead by-pass tool or the tree saver) is used
to protect the tree from high pressures and abrasive fluids during frac treatments. The tool
is attached to the top of the Christmas tree while the well is shut in.
17.9.7 Monitoring Equipment
The frac van serves as a control center for frac jobs. Instruments inside the frac van
monitor and record the important rates, pressures, volumes and proppant concentrations.
While the service company operator coordinates the activities of his men and equipment,
PCSB and service company supervisors can watch the instrument read-outs to make sure
the frac job is proceeding as expected.
17.9.8 Quality Control
Prior to beginning the treatment, the viscosity of the fracturing fluid in each tank should be
measured and compared to specifications. A radioactive densitometer is recommended to
avoid overdisplacement of the proppant-laden fluid plus to insure accurate metering of the
proppant-fluid ratio throughout the treatment.
17.9.9 Special Procedures For Acids
Special procedures are required for acid fracturing treatments because of the reactive nature
of acid. The first and most important requirement is a corrosion inhibitor to prevent
damage to surface and wellbore metal goods. As discussed, service companies can
normally be relied upon to recommend the type and amount of corrosion inhibitor
necessary. With acids, special care should be taken for safety at the treatment site. Any
spillage or sloppiness can be hazardous to personnel.
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17.9.10 Safety
As with any workover operation, personnel safety is most important. The high pressures
and combustible fluids frequently used in hydraulic fracturing make this type of operation
hazardous. A prejob safety meeting outlining the treatment program, identifying the high
pressure equipment, and escape routes is required.
The service company equipment should be pressure tested prior to job initiation. This is
accomplished by shutting the valve at the wellhead and slowly increasing line pressure with
the high-pressure pumps. General practice is to test to 1000 psi above the highest
anticipated pumping pressure and watch for leaks in the lines or equipment.
Equipment should be placed on site according to the company safety procedures.
Field practices for pumping acids involve all of the same considerations already discussed
for the pumping of high pressure proppant fracturing fluids.
The additional aspects deal with the toxity of acid, and the prevention of acid contact with
personnel. Blender operators and others that need to be near acid fumes should be wearing
appropriate breathing gear to minimize acid contact with their lungs. To the extent
possible, hoses should be covered with leak shields to deflect the spraying of acids on
people if a small leak should occur. Safety is even more important during acid fracturing
treatments than during proppant jobs because of the corrosive, toxic acid.
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17.10 FIELD DIAGNOSTICS
17.10.1 Radioactive Sand
Radioactive sand at low concentration is often used along with fracturing sand so that a
gamma ray log run after the fracturing treatment will show the location of the zones
fractured. This technique is normally used along with temperature logs, so that
interpretation of results is facilitated. Sand deposited in a channel behind the casing or held
up in the wellbore can appear to be a fracture. Sand deposited more than a few inches from
the wellbore cannot be detected. So, the technique has definite limitations.
Radioactive sand is sometimes pumped after a matrix-rate acid treatment. The sand will
enter perforations that are open, and a subsequent gamma ray log will show which
perforations were acidized.
17.10.2 Temperature Log
For several years temperature surveys have been used in conjunction with fracing
operations to locate the zones that have received the injected frac fluid.
Interpretation of the temperature log depends on a measureable difference between the

injected fluid temperature and the ambient temperature of the formation prior to injection.
After injection, the entire wellbore will have been cooled below the normal or ambient
formation temperature (this assumes that the injection fluid is colder than the formation
temperatures). In addition those intervals that have received the injection fluid will exhibit
a slower recovery rate in returning to the original formation temperature. The rate of
recovery is a function of the amount of injection fluid involved and the intervals are
indicated on the temperature gradient by separation from the base log.
Many times only a small temperature difference exists between the injected fluid and
formation. In such instances, more sophisticated equipment and special logging techniques
are required to obtain the desired information. Here the differential temperature curve can
be a real asset.
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Frequently, after completing the injection of the frac fluid, the well will go on a vacuum at
the surface, which means that for some period of time there will be fluid movement in the
well. Under these conditions it is necessary to wait until the well stabilizes and pressure
equalizes to obtain a meaningful temperature log.
17.10.3 History Match
The ultimate test of any fracture model is the degree with which model predictions agree
with actual postfracture well response. If the fracture treatment has been closely modeled
during pumping, and if the sand placement and subsequent fracture closure have been
closely modeled, a reservoir simulator containing the final geometry should predict the
actual production. This has been done with computer programs and simulators quite a
number of times with the finding that we can closely describe actual well response if
undamaged/unstimulated well capacity is known, and the fracture height is measured after
the treatment. It is of great importance to know the well flow capacity before the fracture
treatment in order to assess the benefit from the fracture. The information necessary to
determine well flow capacity in order of desirability is :
• A good prefracture production test and pressure buildup test with corresponding core
permeability data for the interval.
• A prefracture production test and buildup test alone.
• A prefracture production test alone.
• Core data alone.
If none of the above are available, the only measure available for the quality of the fracture
treatment is the overall response of the well. If the well comes in at a high rate from a low
rate, it will probably be an economic success, but details of the fracture benefits cannot be
determined.
17.10.4 Fracture Orientation
Many techniques have been developed in the last few years to determine fracture
orientation. From fracture mechanics we know that a vertical fracture will be in the
direction of the maximum horizontal stress. That means the rock fails against the force of
the minimum principal stress.
The main techniques used to determine fracture orientation are
• Tiltmeters
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• Strain relief
• Borehole seismic
• Borehole ellipticity
Tiltmeters are very sensitive gyroscopic tools that were developed for earthquake
measurements. During the fracturing process the surface of the earth tilts as the rock is
failed. This surface tilt is measured by a circular array of meters spaced less than 1 mile
from the wellbore with the meters placed in 30 foot deep holes. The analysis of tiltmeter
data is complicated but dependable data can be collected if the correct measurement and
analysis techniques are used.
Strain relief is a fracture orientation measurement technique where oriented cores are
brought to the surface and strain gauges strapped to the surface of the core measure the
strain relaxation of the core. The direction of minimum principal stress can be determined
from the anisotropy of the core expansion.
Borehole seismic is a technique where we listen for the seismic waves produced from the
rock just after a fracture treatment. This technique has also been shown to be valuable in
determining natural fracture orientation as well as hydraulic fracture direction.
Borehole ellipticity has been used for measuring fracture orientation for many years. The
mechanism causing the borehole to elongate in a preferred direction has been argued. The
current consensus is that the minimum principal stress lies along the long axis of the
wellbore and therefore the fracture direction is along the short axis. Borehole elongation
can be gotten from dip meter surveys.
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17.11 REFERENCE MATERIAL
17.11.1 Citations
1. Nierode, D.E.: “Comparison of Hydraulic Fracturing Design Methods to

Observed Field Results” JPT, Oct. 1985, v.37, p.1831 – 1839.
2. McGuire, W.J., and Sikora, V. J.: “The Effect of Vertical Fractures on Well
Productivity,” Trans. AIME (1960), v.219, pp.401 – 403.
17.11.2 General References
Williams, B. B., Gidley, J. L., and Schecter, R. S.: “Acidizing Fundamentals,” AIME
Monograph Volume 6, New York, 1979.
Howard, G. C., and Fast, C. R.: Hydraulic Fracturing, AIME Monograph Volume 2, New
York, 1970.
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COMPLETION DIVERSION Page 1 of 41
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 18
DIVERSION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
18.1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 3
18.1.1 Problem : Treatment Placement ........................................................ 3

18.1.2 Solution : Diversion .....................……………….…………………. 4
18.1.3 When To Divert ………………………..…………………...……..... 4
18.1.4 How To Divert ................................................................................. 4
18.2 MECHANICAL/HYDRAULIC DIVERTING TECHNIQUES ............................ 5
18.2.1 Packers …......……………………………………………………….. 5

18.2.2 Multifrac Baffles …........………...……………………………….…. 6
18.2.3 Limited Entry …......................................…………………………... 6
18.2.4 Modified Limited Entry …....................……………..……………... 7
18.2.5 Complete, Treat and Plug-Back Sequence ........................................ 7
18.3 PARTICULATE DIVERTING AGENTS ...........................................…………... 8
18.3.1 Description …..............................……………………………….….. 8

18.3.2 Ideal Behavior .…….........................…………………………….…. 8
18.3.3 Material Selection ......................……………………………………. 9
18.3.4 Treatment Design …...........…………………………………………. 9
18.3.5 Fracturing ......……………………………………………………….. 10
18.3.6 Sandstone Matrix Acidizing ............................................................. 10
18.3.7 Carbonate Matrix Acidizing ............................................................. 10
18.3.8 Field Application ............................................................................. 11
18.4 VISCOUS FLUID DIVERTING AGENTS ………………….……….………..... 13
18.4.1 Description ….....................................................…………………... 13

18.4.2 Gelation Time ...............………...…………………………………... 13
18.4.3 Breaking Time …..................…..………………...…………………. 13
18.4.4 Temperature ..................…...………………...……………………… 13
18.4.5 Field Applications ........……………………..………………………. 16
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18.5 PERFORATION BALL SEALERS ...................……………………….………... 17
18.5.1 Description ….............................…...…….………………...………. 17

18.5.2 Performance Factors ………….….……………………………...…... 17
18.5.3 Perforation Flow Rate ...…………………………………..…….…... 17
18.5.4 Wellbore Flow Rate ...……………..………………………...……… 18
18.5.5 Fluid Viscosity ….......…………………………………….......…….. 18
18.5.6 Ball-Fluid Density Contrast .............................................................. 18
18.5.7 Ball Sealer Seating Mechanisms ....................................................... 19
18.5.8 Applicability .................................................................................... 21
18.5.9 Wellbore Deviation .......................................................................... 21
18.5.10 Size and Composition ...................................................................... 21
18.5.11 Selection Guidelines ......................................................................... 23
18.6 BALL SEALER TREATMENT DESIGN ..……………………………………… 24
18.6.1 Ball Transport ........…………………………………………..……... 24

18.6.2 Fluid Transport …..............……………..………………..…………. 24
18.6.3 Ball Migration …............……..…………………………..………… 25
18.6.4 Ball Migration Control ..................................................................... 25
18.6.5 Ball Injection ................................................................................... 26
18.6.6 Ball Removal or Control .................................................................. 27
18.7 PERFORATION BALL SEALERS – FIELD RESULTS ………….………...…. 29
18.7.1 Acid Fracturing – Injection Well …..……...……………………...… 29

18.7.2 Acid Fracturing – Production Well …..…………………...………… 30
18.7.3 Matrix Acidizing – Production Well ………………………………... 31
18.7.4 Matrix Acidizing – Disposal Well .................................................... 32
18.7.5 Matrix Acidizing – Production Well ................................................. 34
18.7.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................... 34
18.8 TREATMENT EVALUATION …………………………………………...…….… 37
18.8.1 Production Logging .......................................................................... 37

18.8.2 Surface Pressure/Injection Rate Response ......................................... 37
18.8.3 Bottom-Hole Pressure Response ....................................................... 37
18.9 APPENDIX A: RISING OR SETTLING VELOCITIES OF BALL SEALERS 38
18.9.1 Newtonian Fluids …………..……………………………………….. 38

18.9.2 Non-Newtonian Fluids ........………………………………………… 40
18.1 INTRODUCTION
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During damage removal or stimulation operations, it is usually necessary to treat several

intervals communicating with the wellbore. Such multiple-zone stimulation is
accomplished using some means of distributing or diverting the treating fluids to the
different zones. Mechanical tools, selective perforating methods, particulate materials,
viscous gels, or ball sealers are commonly used diversion techniques.
18.1.1 Problem : Treatment Placement
Over the past several years, it has become increasingly clear that the effectiveness of many
damage removal or stimulation treatments is limited by the lack of diversion of the treating
fluids.
Treating fluids follow the path of least resistance. This path is determined by the relative
degree of inhomogeneity of the formations, assuming that adequate access to them is
available. For example, the major portion of any matrix treatment will probably always be
injected into the zone with the greatest permeability (all other things being equal), provided
that there is no excessive perforation damage, near-wellbore damage, and the like. The
major portion of a fracturing treatment will probably always be injected into the zone with
the lowest breakdown pressure.
Several factors influence treatment placement, namely :
• Number of completed intervals
• Thickness of completed intervals
• Degree of homogeneity between zones or within a massive interval
• Plugged or partially plugged perforations
• Near-wellbore damage
• Scale or paraffin buildup
• Presence of channels or split casing
• Existence of low pressure “thief zones”
• In-situ stresses (frac pressures)
In general, the severity of the placement problem increases as the relative difference among
intervals increases.
18.1.2 Solution : Diversion
The solution to these treatment placement problems lies in providing adequate diversion.
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Diversion can be described as any procedure or operation carried out to distribute treating
fluids where they are intended to be placed in the wellbore.
18.1.3 When To Divert
There are many well conditions that may require the use of diversion techniques in
conjunction with a damage removal or stimulation treatment. Diversion is usually practiced
during :
• Matrix acidizing when interval lengths are greater than about 20 to 50 ft – 20 ft being
applicable to ratty zones and 50 ft to homogeneous sands;
• Matrix acidizing of isolated individual sands separated by distances greater than about
20 ft;
• Fracturing when zones are separated by impermeable layers thicker than about 50 ft;
• Fracturing when the perforated interval length is greater than 100 to 150 ft.
18.1.4 How To Divert
There are basically four classes of diversion techniques or diverting agents currently in use
in the petroleum industry :
• Mechanically/hydraulic diverting techniques
• Particulate diverting agents
• Viscous fluid diverters
• Perforation ball sealers
These diverting techniques and agents will be discussed in detail in the following sections.
18.2 MECHANICAL/HYDRAULIC DIVERTING TECHNIQUES
Mechanically/hydraulic diverting techniques include :
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• Packers
- Packers and bridge plug combinations
- Straddle packers
• Multifrac baffles
• Limited entry perforating techniques
• Modified limited entry techniques
• Complete, treat, and plug-back sequence (Pine Island fracs)
• Combinations of the foregoing techniques
18.2.1 Packers
Packers, straddle packers, packer and bridge plug combinations, and similar mechanical
equipment offer the most reliable method of containing fluid diversion during well
treatments. By physically isolating the particular zone(s) of interest from “thief” zones
above and below, packers ensure positive injection of treating fluids into the intended strata
(assuming a good cement job). An example of this technique is depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of zone isolation with a straddle packer
The packer method, however, is generally, the most time-consuming and costly because of
the associated packer-tubing manipulations, which require a rig. Hence, packer diversion
techniques are used primarily in circumstances in which serious diversion problems exist or
in which rig costs are low.
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18.2.2 Multifrac Baffles
Halliburton’s multifrac baffles, shown schematically in Figure 2 are seating rings that are
run as an integral part of the original casing string. Spherical sealers, fracturing balls, or
“frac bombs” are designed to land in these casing seats, thereby sealing off everything
beneath them and diverting all flow to zones above the baffle. As many as three zones have
been selectively diverted with this completion technique; the smallest bomb/seat
combination is placed in the deepest zone and, at the shallower depths, progressively larger
combinations are used.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of Halliburton’s multifrac baffle. Lower zone is first

perforated and treated; upper zone is then perforated, isolated with fracturing ball, and treated.
This is an extremely economical method of providing effective diversion for fracturing

treatments. It is most useful during a field development in which the geology has been well
established and/or in which the zones are separated by reasonably large distances.
18.2.3 Limited Entry
Limited entry is a completion technique in which perforations of limited size and number
are used to provide diversion during a fracturing treatment. The completion is designed so
that a high pressure drop (typically 700 to 1400 psi) is developed across the perforations
during treatment injection. This perforation differential pressure is designed to maintain
the bottom-hole treating pressure above the breakdown and fracture propagation pressures
of all zones to be treated. Hence, all zones are stimulated simultaneously, and fluid is
distributed according to the number and size of perforations per zone.
Since the success of limited entry is critically dependent on the size and number of open,
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effective perforations, it is generally recommended that an acid “ball-out” precede any such
treatment to ensure that all perforations are open.
18.2.4 Modified Limited Entry
The hydraulic horsepower requirement associated with the conventional limited entry
treatment is often excessive. In attempting to reduce pumping requirements, several
operators have modified the technique by staging limited entry stimulation, typically into
upper and lower treatments. Modified limited entry is most successful when the two zones
break down at significantly different pressures, and all intervals within each zone have
essentially the same breakdown pressure. After the first stage of the treatment is
concluded, a bridge plug or ball sealers (see “Perforation Ball Sealers” subjects in this
section) are generally used before the second stage is begun.
Under these conditions the perforation differential can be kept around 300 psi, because only
one zone at a time (containing several smaller sands) will be fractured.
18.2.5 Complete, Treat, and Plug-Back Sequence (Pine Island Fracs)
Occasionally used in initial completion/stimulation treatments, this sequence is perhaps one

of the simplest and most straightforward diverting techniques available to the industry.
Although the name suggests fracturing, the technique, developed in the Pine Island field in
Louisiana, is applicable to matrix stimulation as well.
As the first step, the lowest interval is perforated and treated. The wellbore is then plugged
back with sand or pea gravel to some suitable point above the first set of perforations. The
lowest interval is thus effectively sealed off so that a second zone can be perforated,
treated, and filled with sand. After all zones have been treated in the same fashion, the
wellbore is washed out and the well put on production.
The main advantage of the Pine Island technique is that it provides reliable, multizone,
selective diversion. As many as six zones have been treated in this manner. A
disadvantage is that costs can be high if excessive standby time is required for the
perforation, treatment, and plug-back sequence. Furthermore, the well is susceptible to
damage during washing operations, since fluid leak-off may be great and fines generated by
washing can be forced into the formation.
18.3 PARTICULATE DIVERTING AGENTS
The use of particulate diverting agents has a long and spotty history in stimulation
treatments. The literature reveals that a wide variety of materials have been used with
varying degrees of success. What has succeeded in one area has not always done so in
another. The results of laboratory tests to assess the usefulness of benzoic acid flakes,
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paraformaldehyde, rock salt, naphthalene (moth balls), and finely divided resins have not
always agreed with claims made for these substances by the service companies supplying
them. The welter of conflicting claims underscores the importance of devising meaningful
laboratory experimentation for a given application, then following the tests up with
sufficient field testing to demonstrate the diverting agent’s effectiveness (or lack of it).
18.3.1 Description
Particulate diverting agents are simply solid particles pumped with the treating fluid that are
designed to form a low permeability filter cake across the permeable zones. Since the filter
cake builds faster on the more permeable zones, treating fluids are diverted to the less
permeable zones.
Figure 3. Diverter filter cake of low permeability used to improve fluid distribution
18.3.2 Ideal Behavior
Ideally, we require that a particulate diverting agent, first, retard or stop the flow into a
fractured or high permeability zone. The second requirement is that the agent produce a
buildup of pressure in the wellbore, which results in fracturing a second zone or, in the case
of matrix treatments, forcing fluid into a less permeable zone without reopening the first
zone to take fluid. The third requirement is that the agent should dissolve, vaporize, or
otherwise break down after the treatment so that it does not interfere with subsequent
production or injection.
Models of matrix acidizing treatments with diversion indicate that the material of
preference is one that forms a thin, resistive (low permeability) filter cake on the sand
surface. Figure 3 shows the distribution of injected fluid when such a diverter is added
continuously to the acid during a matrix treatment. The three zones depicted had widely
differing permeabilities, but received roughly equal amounts of acid as the diverter built up
a resistant cake in the perforations. The pressure drop between the wellbore and the
formation is indicated at the right for each step.
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18.3.3 Material Selection
Some of the questions which should be considered in selecting a particulate diverting agent
are these :
• What is likely to be size and shape of the opening that we are trying to block?
Blocking fractures of 0.1 – 0.3 in. width or perforations in a fracturing treatment will
obviously require coarser material than blocking flow into high permeability sandstone
in a matrix treatment with mud acid.
• What is the interaction between injected fluids and the diverting agent? A water-based
frac fluid will dissolve various salts unless it is saturated with them. After placement,
leakage of the injected fluid through the diverting agent will rapidly dissolve the plug
unless the fluid is also saturated. Oil-soluble agents in acid have been shown to react
with additives such as corrosion inhibitors and surfactants, depending on the
proportions of each. Surfactants are sometimes added at 5 to 10 times the
concentration of the oil-soluble diverter, and the additives can negate the effects of the
diverter by softening or dissolving it.
• What quantity of diverter should be used? The thickness of the zone believed to be
opened first and the number of perforations taking fluid are not usually known;
therefore, some judicious assumption will be required to estimate the amount of
diverter needed between stages of the treatment. A sustained increase in pressure as
each slug of diverter reaches the formation is the best indication that diversion has
occured.
• How completely is the material removed after the treatment? Oil-soluble diverters are
suitable in a producing oil well, provided that the diverter comes into contact with the
oil. At the same time, a perforation filled with a firmly packed impermeable resin may
clean up very slowly. The same is true for some water-soluble diverters in a water
injection well or vaporizable materials, such as benzoic acid, in a gas well.
18.3.4 Treatment Design
In practice, the optimum amount of diverter to be used to achieve maximum results is

unclear, because we seldom know accurately the size of the first zone being treated. As a
consequence, the quantity of the diverter may be too small, so that flow into the first zone is
restricted only a little. Or it may be too large, so that it is carried over into the second zone
being opened up by the increased pressure. Diverter plug size is therefore based primarily
on field experience. Different design considerations apply to fracturing, sandstone
acidizing, and carbonate acidizing.
18.3.5 Fracturing
In proppant or acid fracturing treatments, several diverting agents are known to be

effective; they are listed in Table 1. The combination of rock salt and paraformaldehyde
flakes was effective in lab tests and in certain field applications for diversion of acid during
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fracturing of water injection wells. This is a water-soluble diverting agent and its use
should be restricted to water injection wells. For oil-producing wells, oil-soluble Unibeads
and TBA-350 are recommended. These should be used within the proper temperature
limits outlined in the table. All agents for fracturing are most effective when they are added
in the course of pumping, rather than being premixed, and when they are used in high-
viscosity carrier fluids.
18.3.6 Sandstone Matrix Acidizing
In sandstone matrix acidizing, the diverting agents J-237, Matriseal “O”, and Matriseal
“OWG” are known to be effective (see Table 1). Recent research indicates that finely
ground resins (J-237 and Matriseal “O) can be adversely affected by additives such as
corrosion inhibitors, surfactants, and antisludge chemicals, so that compatibility should be
investigated before using them. These materials may be used continuously throughout the
fluid volume or added in slugs if economics do not permit large quantities to be used.
For a complex mud acid treatment, in which a preflush, mud acid, and mutual solvent
afterflush are used, a special technique is needed. Initially, a diverting agent must be used
to ensure that the preflush covers the entire interval. Then it should be removed (with
either oil or water, depending on its solubility) and the next stage run, again with a
diverting agent added. Afterward, the agent must once more be removed. A fresh agent
must then be used in the final stage.
Alternatively, mud acid jobs with particulate diverting agents have been conducted with
multiple stages of the treating fluids. Each stage consists of preflush, mud acid, afterflush,
and particulate agent. This sequence is intended to completely treat and subsequently plug
a portion of the interval.
Sandstone matrix treatments with particulate diverting agents are obviously complex, and
inclusion of these particulates should be encouraged only when field results show that
diversion is necessary and other techniques are not acceptable.
18.3.7 Carbonate Matrix Acidizing
In carbonate matrix acidizing, the wormhole effect of the acid makes diversion with
particulates extremely difficult. In the laboratory, only large quantities of J-237 have been
found to be effective.
Many other diverting agents have been tested, but they were found to be inferior to those
already discussed. The substances listed in Table 1 were found to be most effective under
the given conditions and are therefore currently recommended.
18.3.8 Field Application
The water injection rate of a North Sea well decreased from 36,000 BPD to 30,000 BPD
after perforations were added. The well was stimulated with 200 gal/ft of half strength mud
acid (HMA – 6% HCl + 1½% HF). The treatment consisted of 5 separate stages, each
consisting of 2,000 gal 7½% HCl preflush, 6,000 gal HMA, and 2,000 gal 7½% HCl
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afterflush with Dowell’s J-363 diverting agent (sodium benzoate).
The particulate diverting agent was used at a concentration of 3 lbs/perforation. The acid
was injected at 9 bpm at 1,800 psi WHP. Water injection was resumed immediately after
the acid job.
Figure 4 depicts the treating log for this job with injectivity index (BPD/psi) plotted versus
time (min). A summary of the results follows :
• A slight positive reaction (injectivity increase) was noticed upon injection of HCl.
• A significant positive reaction (injectivity increase) occurred each time HMA reached
the perforations.
• A significant reduction in injectivity was observed each time the diverter reached the
perforations. This is indicative of good diverter action.
• Post treatment performance suggested a rapid dissolution of the diverting agent.
The injection capacity of the well increased from 30,000 BPD to 50,000 BPD following the
diverted mud acid job.
INJECTIVITY INDEX (BPD/PSI)
HCL
DIVERTER
DIVERTER
DIVERTER
HCL
HMA
DIVERTER
HMA
HMA
HCL
HCL
HMA
HCL
HCL
HMA
Figure 4. Injection well treatment log depicting injectivity response from acid
job with particulate diverting agent
Table 1
Recommended Diverting Agents
Effective
Temperature Treatment Parameters
Range – F°
Type Type Slug

Diverting Agent Available Of of Soluble Treating Reservoir Quantity Concentration or Carrier
Form Formation Treatment in Continuous Fluid
Rock salt + Any service Any Frac Water [ 300 Any 4.5 lb/perf; 1.5 - 3 lb/gal Slug Saturated brine with
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paraformadehyde company 10 ppf* 60 lb guar and 100

flakes* lb of silica flour or
adomite aqua/1000
gal. Use spacer
plug of this fluid at
same volume as
carrier volume.
Unibeads ** Any service Any Frac Oil [ 80 µ 130 2-4 lb/perf; 1.5 – 3 lb/gal Slug Water or oilΑ
OS-90 company 10 ppf
Unibeads ** Any service Any Frac Oil 70-100 µ 150 2-4 lb/perf; 1.5 – 3 lb/gal Slug Water or oilΑ
Unibeads ** Any service Any Frac Oil 70-120 µ 190 2-4 lb/perf; 1.5 – 3 lb/gal Slug Water or oilΑ
TBA-350 Halliburton Any Frac Oil 120-160 µ 160 2-4 lb/perf; 1.5 – 3 lb/gal Slug Aqueous Fluid
160-250 10 ppf
J-237 Dowell Carbonate Matrix Oil [ 250 Any Continuous 40 gal/1000 gal Continuous Acid
Sandstone Continuous 1-3 gal/1000 gal Continuous Acid
0.05 gal/ perf; 1-3 gal/1000 gal Slug Acid
0.1 gpf ≅
Matriseal “O” Halliburton Sandstone Matrix Oil < 325 Any Continuous 3-5 gal/1000 gal Continuous Acid
1/16-1/4 gal/ 3-5 gal/1000 gal Slug Acid
perf;
1/8-1/2 gpf
Matriseal “OWG” Halliburton Sandstone Matrix Oil < 250 Any Continuous 50-100 gal/1000 Continuous In acid or oil with 5
Water 1/4-1/2 gal/ gal Slug gal/1000 gal HCl
Gas perf; 50 gal/1000 gal dispersing agent.
1/2-1 gpf Carrier fluid must
be saturated with
“OWG”. (1%
volume at 200°F for
acid. Use 10 times
this amount to
saturate oil).
* Use 50:50 mixture with medium-grade rock salt

** Use 50:50 mixture of buttons and wide range
* ppf:lb/ft of open hole
≅ gpf:gal/ft of open hole
Α Some oil-soluble paticulates can be used in an oil carrier because the dissolution rate is slow at low treating temperatures (as specified)
18.4 VISCOUS FLUID DIVERTING AGENTS
18.4.1 Description
Historically, viscous fluid diverters have included emulsions, oil-based gels, and water-
based gels. Currently, the most widely used systems are the water-based gels, to which this
discussion will be limited.
In general, these gels are blends of natural or synthetic polymers, typically guar gum or
cellulose derivatives. They are designed to form a temporary, highly viscous gel.
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The systems consist of a gelling agent, cross-linking agent, and breaker, and are designed to
maintain a relatively low viscosity while they are being displaced into the formation. Once
placed, or during placement, cross-linking is initiated, and a highly viscous gel forms.
Highly concentrated gel plugs containing 6-9% cross-linked guar have been used to divert
acid in the fracturing of deep, hot carbonate formations. Dowell’s “Protectozone” and
Halliburton’s “Temblok” are examples of these systems. Large slugs of cross-linked
polymer at lower concentrations have been reported to divert successfully in the proppant
fracturing of massively thick sections.
18.4.2 Gelation Time
Gelation time is the time it takes for the gel to reach 10,000-cp viscosity. The gel must be
placed within the gelation time or extremely high friction pressure will prohibit further
injection. This time typically ranges from 10-60 minutes and is generally controlled by
injection temperature and/or catalyst concentration. Figure 5A shows a typical curve of
gelation time plotted against temperature for Dowell’s Protectozone WH 750, which has
been used successfully in the field.
18.4.3 Breaking Time
Breaking time, or gel life, is defined as the time that elapses before a gel system decreases
in viscosity to 5000 cp. This gel degradation time is varied through the addition of
chemical breakers, which destroy the gel plug at reservoir temperature. Figure 5B shows
typical gel life curves for Dowell’s Protectozone WH 750.
18.4.4 Temperature
It must be emphasized that, since placement and breaking times are critically dependents on
the bottom-hole treating temperature and formation temperature, it is imperative that
accurate measurements are taken.
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Figure 5A Typical placement time curve for a cross-linked gel diverter

(Dowell’s Protectozone WH750)
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Figure 5B. Typical gel-life curves for a cross-linked gel diverter

(Dowell’s Protectozone WH 750)
18.4.5 Field Applications
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Two accounts follow of the field usage of viscous gel diverters that provide some idea of
possible applications. The first concerns an actual field application; the second is reported
by The Western Company in published articles.
Recently, gel plug diverters (Protectozone and Temblok) have been used successfully in
acid fracturing deep, high-temperature wells. The procedure involved setting a 2000-gal gel
plug in the deepest permeable zone before perforating and treating tighter zones above it.
The treatment of the upper zones involved successively acidizing and plugging 10 to 20ft
zones. About 200 gal/ft of acid were injected followed by a gel plug before injecting the
next stage of acid.
Two fieldwide applications of cross-linked gelled polymer used as a diverter in proppant

fracturing have been reported in the literature by The Western Company. These diverters
probably contain much lower polymer concentrations (0.5% to 1%) than the gel plugs
described above. The intent of the procedure was to create and prop a long fracture over
about 20% of a 300 - to 500ft interval and to then fill the fracture near the wellbore with a
viscous cross-linked gel that resists flow during the breakdown of successive zones. For the
treatment to be effective, the thick formation must breakdown in short segments during
each stage, a circumstance not within the control of the operator. In addition, the gel must
be kept pumpable while it is being placed, and must reach maximum viscosity or gel
strength after emplacement in the fracture.
The Western Company has reported using this technique in the Mississippian trend in
Oklahoma and Austin Chalk in Central Texas. The treatments involved slugs (6-8% of the
fracturing fluid volume) of viscous gel carrying 10/20 sand at 2-4 lb/gal between each of
the five stages of fracturing fluid. The viscous gel was placed at reduced rates, or pumping
was halted for five minutes, to allow high viscosity to develop at a low shear rate in the
fracture. After placement of the gel plug, injection of the next stage of gelled water with
proppant was begun at high rates.
18.5 PERFORATION BALL SEALERS
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Since their introduction in the mid-1950s, ball sealers have been used throughout the
industry with varying degrees of success to divert stimulation fluids during fracturing
treatments. In this section the uses of ball sealers are detailed, together with the factors
affecting ball sealers reliability. Several improvements in ball sealer diversion technology,
which extend its range of applicability to include matrix treating, are also described.
18.5.1 Description
Ball sealers are small spheres intended to seat inside the casing on perforations accepting
fluid. They are therefore used strictly in perforated completions.
When a ball seats on a perforation, it is held in place by the pressure differential developed
across the ball and the perforation. Once seated, the ball effectively diverts treating fluids
to the other perforations or intervals requiring treatment.
Once treatment is finished, the balls are designed to unseat from the perforations. They will
either sink to the rathole or float toward the surface, depending upon the relative densities
of the ball and the wellbore fluid.
18.5.2 Performance Factors
Studies have revealed that four factors appear to be the controlling variables in the ball
sealer seating process, namely :
• Flow rate through the perforations
• Flow rate past the perforations
• Fluid viscosity
• Density contrast between the ball and the fluid
18.5.3 Perforation Flow Rate
Flow rate through the perforations has been identified by others as extremely important in
non-buoyant ball sealer efficiency. In general, increases flow rate through the perforation
enhances ball-seating efficiency. Perforation flow rates in the 0.25 – 1.0 bpm/perforation
range are necessary when attempting to divert with non-buoyant ball sealers.
18.5.4 Wellbore Flow Rate
Flow rate past the perforations affects ball seating efficiency. A high flow rate past the
perforations imparts greater momentum on the ball, which in turn decreases its seating
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probability within a given perforated interval.
18.5.5 Fluid Viscosity
Fluid viscosity intensifies the fluid drag force exerted on the ball. Laboratory studies
indicate that greater fluid viscosity generally results in greater ball sealer seating efficiency.
18.5.6 Ball-Fluid Density Contrast
The single most important parameter-affecting ball seating efficiency is the density contrast
between the ball and the fluid. By varying the density contrast alone, balls can be adjusted
from 0% to 100% seating efficiency under a given set of conditions.
Laboratory tests have shown that buoyant ball sealers maintain 100% seating efficiency
over a wide range of injection rates, from those characteristics of fracturing treatments
down to the low rates typical of matrix treatments. Non-buoyant ball sealers are completely
ineffective at lower rates of injection.
Figure 6 illustrates the effect of density contrast (and perforation flow rate) on ball seating
efficiency in laboratory tests that employed a 3-in. ID transparent wellbore model
containing five 3/8-in. diameter perforations. The dashed curves mark the results of tests
conducted with three non-buoyant ball sealers (i.e., balls heavier than the fluid). Clearly,
ball seating efficiency increases as density contrast is reduced and perforation flow rate is
increased.
Several other important facts emerged from these tests. First, the seating of non-buoyant
ball sealers is always a statistical process; therefore, there is uncertainty associated with
non-buoyant ball sealer performance under a given set of treating conditions. Second,
seating efficiency is usually much lower than 100%, even at injection rates approaching 20
gal/min per perforation. Rates in this range are characteristic of fracturing treatments.
Finally, there exists a threshold perforation flow rate required to seat a ball. This threshold
flow rate increases with greater density contrast and was in the range of 3 to 6 gal/min per
perforation under the test conditions described.
These observations demonstrate that non-buoyant ball sealers are often not particularly
reliable in treating wells, even under relatively high injection rates, and they are totally
ineffective in treatments conducted at low flow rates, such as matrix treatments.
The results of laboratory experiments with buoyant ball sealers (having, for example, a
density contrast of –0.02 g/cm3) were entirely different, as is shown by the solid line in
Figure 6. In a vertical wellbore, the buoyant ball sealers were 100% efficient at all flow
rates above 2 gal/min through five perforations (0.4 gal/min per perforation).
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Figure 6. Effect of changes in density contrast (ball density minus fluid density)
on sealing efficiency in laboratory experimentation
18.5.7 Ball Sealer Seating Mechanisms
This 100% efficiency occurs when a buoyant ball is used, because the ball cannot sink into
the rathole. As shown by the solid trajectory in Figure 7, when a buoyant ball is transported
to the perforations in a vertical wellbore, it will either seat on an upper perforation or be
carried to the lowest one accepting fluid, where it must seat. Because of buoyancy, the ball
can never remain in the quiescent fluid in the rathole. Even in the rare case, in which ball
overshoots the lowest perforation because of inertia, the buoyant forces exerted on the ball
will cause it to promptly rise out of the rathole. Once out, the ball is again entrained by the
moving fluid, is transported toward the lowest perforation accepting fluid, and seats. The
result is a 100% efficient process.
By contrast, the non-buoyant balls strictly statistical seating efficiency. As shown by the
dashed trajectory in Figure 7, the heavy ball has two distinct options upon arriving at the
perforated interval – either to seat upon a perforation or to pass all of the perforations
without seating. Because the non-buoyant ball passes the perforations only once, its seating
effectiveness is strongly dependent upon perforation flow rate and its position within the
wellbore as it passes the perforations.
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Laboratory tests have shown that there is also a minimum casing flow rate required for the
buoyant ball sealers to be effective. However, this flow rate is characteristically different
from the threshold flow rate required to counteract the ball’s buoyant force and to transport
it to the perforations. It can be held to very low values by minimizing the density contrast
between the ball and the carrier fluid.
In summary, four major field implications can be drawn from the laboratory tests of the
seating characteristics of ball sealers :
• Buoyant ball sealers can be effectively utilized in treatments conducted at low flow
rates, typical of matrix treatments.
• Extensively perforated intervals can be reliably treated with buoyant ball sealers.
• The 100% efficiency of buoyant ball sealers in laboratory tests with vertical wellbores
establishes the number of balls required for diversion, as simply the number of
perforations desired to be sealed.
• Non-buoyant ball sealers can be effective in those applications where perforation flow
rates are high and/or where viscous drag forces, rather than gravity forces, control ball
transport and seating characteristics (e.g., fracturing treatments).
Figure 7. Schematic representation of ball sealer seating processes
18.5.8 Applicability
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Ball sealers can only be used effectively in perforated completions where the casing is
intact and the annulus behind the casing is sealed.
Ball sealer diversion may be difficult in extensively reperforated intervals. Ball sealers
cannot divert fluids away from overlapping or interfering perforations.
Buoyant ball sealers can be used throughout the range of rates, from matrix treatments to
fracturing treatments. In most instances, buoyant ball sealers should be the engineer’s first
choice. Non-buoyant balls have exhibited satisfactory seating efficiency in high rate
treatments with viscous fluids (i.e., frac jobs).
18.5.9 Wellbore Deviation
Buoyant ball sealers have been effectively applied in vertical or nearly vertical wells.
Deviated wells require special considerations. Your applicable service company can be
contacted for consultation on these special applications.
18.5.10 Size and Composition
There are currently several types of ball sealers available to the industry from the service
companies. They vary in size, specific gravity, core characteristics, and material, as shown
in Table II. Note that the nominal 0.9-g/cm3 ball sealer (phenolic-cored) actually has a wide
range of densities and is compressible. Because of large irregular voids contained within
the ball cores, the balls will unpredictably increase in density as they are exposed to
elevated pressures down hole. Because of this serious deficiency, these balls are not
satisfactory for use in most treatments.
A suite of low-density ball sealers (syntactic foam-cored) suitable for diversion procedures
has been developed. The compressibility of these balls is similar to that of aqueous treating
fluids; hence, changes in density contrast under normal treating pressures and temperatures
do not pose a problem. The dimensions and physical properties of these balls are included
in Table III. These ball sealers are only available from licensed service companies.
Table II
Conventional Ball Sealers
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Ball Diameter Core Diameter

(in.) (in.) Material Specific Gravity
5/8 1/2 RCN * 1.1, 1.3

5/8 None Rubber 1.2
3/4 5/8 RCN 1.3
7/8 3/4 RCP ** 0.9≅
7/8 3/4 RCN 1.1, 1.3
7/8 3/4 RCA ∋ 1.8
7/8 11/16 RCA 1.9
15/16 None Rubber 1.2
1 7/8 RCN 1.1, 1.3
1-1/4 1-1/8, 1-1/16 RCN 1.3
* Rubber-covered nylon
** Rubber-covered phenolic
∋ Rubber-covered aluminum
≅ This is a nominal specific gravity. Actual specific gravity ranges from 0.91 to 1.09 based on lab tests. Also,
these balls are subject to increasing density as pressure on the ball is increased.
Table III
Low Density Ball Sealers
Ball Diameter Core Diameter

(in.) (in.) Material
1-1/4 1-1/8 0.8

7/8 3/4 0.9
7/8 3/4 1.0
7/8 3/4 0.8
* This is a nominal specific gravity. Balls are specially graded to be

X.XXX ! 0.005 g/cm3
18.5.11 Selection Guidelines
Certain guidelines will be help in selecting the proper ball sealer size and material :
• Ball sealers are equipped with rigid inner cores to guard against permanent extrusion
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into the perforations. Therefore, the core diameter should be at least 1/4 in. greater
than the maximum predicted perforation size.
• Nylon balls should not be used at treating temperatures (not reservoir temperatures)
greater than about 250°F, because the nylon core is thermoplastic.
• Syntactic foam-cores ball sealers should not be used at treating temperatures

exceeding 225°F or pressures exceeding 20,000 psi.
18.6 BALL SEALER TREATMENT DESIGN
The proper application of ball sealer technology requires calculation of the forces that
control ball transport down the wellbore to the perforated interval.
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In any stimulation treatment with ball sealer diversion, it is important to consider when the
ball sealers will actually arrive at the perforations. The balls will migrate either upward (if
buoyant) or downward (if non-buoyant) with respect to the fluid element into which they
were injected at the surface. Neutrally, dense balls will not migrate; rather they will be
transported to the perforations at the same rate and in the same direction as the carrier fluid.
18.6.1 Ball Transport
To determine how far the balls have migrated (with respect to the fluid into which they
were injected) during transport to the perforations, one must first calculate the amount of
time required for the balls to make the journey. This is done by considering the relative
velocity of the ball with respect to the perforations. A non-buoyant ball’s settling velocity
is added to the average fluid velocity in the tubulars, whereas a buoyant ball’s rising
velocity is subtracted from it. Appendix A includes the equations for calculating the rising
or settling velocities of ball sealers in Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
For example, a buoyant ball rising at 20 ft/min has a relative velocity (with respect to the
perforations) of 63 ft/min when the average fluid velocity in the casing is 83 ft/min (3 bpm
in 7-in., 32#/ft casing). The same ball would have a relative velocity of 498 ft/min in 2-7/8-
in., 6.5#/ft tubing at an injection rate of 3 bpm. Clearly, the fluid will arrive at the
perforations in advance of the balls under these conditions.
The time required to transport the ball through the tubulars to the perforated interval is
simply the length of each tubular section divided by the ball’s relative velocity in that
section. In our, example, if the setting depth of the 2-7/8-in. tubing was 8000 ft with the top
of the perforated interval at 8100 ft (7-in. casing in between), it would take 17.7 min to
transport the balls to the perforations (i.e., [8000 ft divided by 498 ft/min] + [100 ft divided
by 63 ft/min] = 17.7 min).
18.6.2 Fluid Transport
Evaluation of how far the balls migrate is also dependent on knowing the fluid
displacement time to the perforations. This is calculated by dividing the volume of each
tubular section by the average injection rate in that section. In our example, the capacity of
8000 ft of 2-7/8-in. tubing is 46 bbl and the capacity of 100 ft of 7-in. casing is 4 bbl, for a
total volume of 50 bbl to the top of the perforated interval. Therefore, the time required to
displace the first element of fluid to the perforations at 3 bpm is 50 divided by 3 or 16.6
min. Alternately, one can divide the length of each tubular section by the fluid velocity in
that section (i.e.[8000 ft divided by 518 ft/min] + [100 ft divided by 83 ft/min] = 16.6 min).
18.6.3 Ball Migration
Finally, one calculates the amount of fluid through which the ball has moved during
transport by multiplying the average injection rate by the difference between the fluid
displacement time and the ball transport time, which in our example is
(3 bbl/min) (17.7 min – 16.6 min) = 3.3 bbl
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Therefore, the buoyant ball in this example will rise 3.3 bbl upward out of the fluid in
which it was originally introduced. Similarly, if a non-buoyant ball is used, such
calculations can be made to determine the amount of fluid through which it will sink before
reaching the perforations.
Ball migration data is useful in determining (1) the point during the treatment at which balls
should be introduced and (2) whether the balls will arrive at the perforations in the
designated fluid (or even if they will arrive at the perforations at all).
When designing treatments conducted at low rates with buoyant ball sealers, rising velocity
is a critical is a crucial consideration. It is imperative that the injection rate be sufficient to
cause the balls to be transported down the tubing and casing to the perforations. A
calculation of their relative velocity in the largest casing of the completion will ensure that
the balls are transported to the perforations. Such calculations are especially critical in
treatments conducted at low rates, in large casings, or when the density contrast is
particularly great. Secondly, ball migration is a necessary consideration in designing stage
sizes and determining when the buoyant balls should be introduced so that the balls do not
float completely out of the stage to be diverted.
18.6.4 Ball Migration Control
As mentioned earlier, ball sealer migration may be minimized by reducing the density
contrast. An excellent method of controlling ball sealer migration is to introduce stages of
fluids having densities alternately greater than and less than the density of the ball sealers.
In this fashion, migration will be limited because the balls cannot rise above an upper, less
dense fluid, nor can they sink into a lower, higher density fluid. This technique has been
used successfully on several occasions when injection velocities in the casing were not
sufficient to transport the balls to the perforations.
Generally during such staged operations, the density contrasts between the two stages are
minimized within about 0.0050-0.100 g/cm3, and balls having an intermediate density are
selected. The volume of the low-density fluid stages are usually in the 10-25 barrel range.
These stages are preferably miscible to minimize the possibility of inversion, that is, the
heavy fluid “falling through” the light fluid.
This procedure of confining intermediate density ball sealers between lower and higher
density fluid stages is also very useful as a safeguard against pump shutdowns during the
treatment. In the event that a pump shutdown occurs while the balls are being displaced to
the perforations, the balls’ upward migration in the static wellbore fluids will be confined
below any lower density stages present in the tubulars.
18.6.5 Ball Injection
Originally, ball sealers were introduced in slugs, in which a large number of balls was
injected into the treatment once flow was initiated. It is currently recognized that ball
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sealers should not be slugged into a well, principally because they may bridge in the
tubulars. Tools called “ball injectors” are available from the service companies, and with
these devices, ball sealers can be injected in a controlled fashion. There are two basic types
of injectors in use today – open pot and positive displacement injectors.
Open pot ball injectors consist of a pressure-tight steel container with a crankshaft
mechanism to introduce balls into the flowline. Balls loaded into a large, open reservoir
inside the injector are forced into the flowline one at a time by the action of a star wheel at
the lower end of the crankshaft. The open pot injector relies on the balls’ density to ensure
that balls will contact the star wheel on the bottom of the injector and be forced out of the
tool. When buoyant ball sealers are used, the injector must be fitted with a weight, which
prevents the balls from floating to the top of the injector where they cannot contact the star
wheel. Open pot ball injectors with a circular plate having a series of holes to
compartmentalize the balls at the base of the crankshaft are unsuitable for use with buoyant
ball sealers. The balls cannot drop from the injector base into the flow stream due to their
buoyancy.
The mechanical design of positive displacement ball injectors does not rely on gravity or
pressure differential to eject the balls. Each ball is individually loaded and
compartmentalized within the ball injector. Each rotation of the crankshaft will force a
certain number of balls to be ejected, one at a time. No special precautions need to be taken
with regard to ball density when using these devices.
All ball injectors should be pre-tested to ensure that the balls will be ejected as expected.
Court the ball sealers placed in the ball injector, and open the ball injector after the
treatment to be certain that the required number of balls was injected.
Finally, it is imperative that pumping continue throughout the treatment once the balls have
been displaced to the perforations. Should pumping stop, the balls may unseat. Buoyant
balls will rise quite a distance during an extended shutdown. Non-buoyant balls will sink to
the rathole, and diversion is lost until more balls can be displaced from the surface to the
perforations.
It is recommended that a parallel, independent line be established to the wellhead so that

pumping can be maintained (even at a slower rate) if an emergency shutdown is required to
repair a leak, for example, on the main treating line. When large numbers of balls are
required, the engineer is usually well advised to include spare ball injection capacity on the
parallel line so that the treatment may continue.
18.6.6 Ball Removal or Control
There are basically two to handle ball sealers following a buoyant ball sealer diversion
treatment. One is to remove the balls from the balls from the well, and the other is to cause
the balls to sink to the rathole at the end of the job even though they were buoyant during
the treatment.
Ball catchers have been designed and used to capture buoyant ball sealers produced to the
surface following the treatment. These ball catchers are tee-shaped devices containing a
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deflector grid which prevents the ball sealers from being carried down the flowlines to plug
chokes or to block separation equipment. As shown in Figure 8, they are usually placed
downstream of a full-opening wing valve and upstream of the choke.
Figure 8. Schematic representation of ball catcher installed on wellhead. Detail shows deflector
grid, which serves to separate ball sealers from downstream production equipment
Ball catchers can be designed to accommodate virtually any capacity. Extremely large
(1000 ball capacity) catchers have been used on wells on a temporary basis, where
production was taken from the crown valve and directed through a large free-standing ball
catcher situated upstream of chokes and other production or safety devices.
Ball catchers are not usually needed if the balls are designed to be buoyant in the fluids
used during stimulation operations and are dense enough so that they sink in subsequently
produced or injected fluids. This process, called a controlled density ball sealer process,
has worked extremely well on water or brine injection wells, in which backflowing of
buoyant balls was not feasible. A common example of this process is the use of 1.100
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g/cm3 ball sealers with 28% HCl (1.140 g/cm3). The acid must be carefully mixed and
quality controlled for density, and similarly the ball density must be accurately known. In
this example, the balls are buoyant during acidizing with the 28% HCl, but sink to the
rathole in the presence of produced crude oil, gas, or injected brines.
Whenever such a controlled density technique is performed on a production well, a decision

must be made whether a ball catcher should be supplied on the wellhead in the event that a
few balls are produced back. Also, a ball catcher may be warranted if the produced fluid
density is expected to increase enough to float ball sealers at some later time (e.g., an
increase in water production).
18.7 PERFORATION BALL SEALERS – FIELD RESULTS
Numerous field treatments have been conducted with buoyant ball sealers. Results have
confirmed that significant benefits are realized by using these improved ball sealers and
procedures. Five field examples will be briefly discussed to point out the merits of
applying buoyant ball sealer diversion to a wide variety of treating situations. Two of these
are examples of diversion during acid fracturing treatments; the last three concentrate on
matrix acidizing applications. These field examples were selected on the basis of
diagnostic production logs, which were run to evaluate diversion effectiveness.
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18.7.1 Acid Fracturing – Injection Well
Injection well M, shown schematically in Figure 9A, had five extensively perforated zones
containing 568 perforations spread over a 280 ft gross interval. This well had previously
been both matrix acidized and acid fractured using rock salt and paraformaldehyde flakes
for fracture diversion. A temperature survey run in conjunction with the earlier fracturing
treatment indicated that only the upper zone had been stimulated. This conclusion was
further confirmed by a noise log, shown in Figure 9B.
Figure 9. (A) Wellbore schematic showing perforated intervals and permeability of water injection well M.
(B) A pretreatment noise log indicates that injected fluids are entering the uppermost zone alone
(also note wellbore fill). (C) Following the treatment utilizing buoyant ball sealers for diversion,
radioactively-tagged sand is observed in each perforated interval.
After the wellbore fill discovered during noise logging was removed, another acid fracture
was conducted. This time buoyant ball sealers were employed to divert the treating fluids
away from the upper thief zone and to promote stimulation of the lower, less permeable
intervals. A total of 400 ball sealers were used in this job.
As shown in the treatment log (Figure 10), significant bottom-hole pressure responses were
observed as the acid and balls reached the perforations. Indications of ball sealers seating
on a sufficient number of perforations to cause pressure increases are apparent at four times
during the treatment. Following this treatment, a gamma ray log was run to locate the
presence of radioactive sand that was used to “tag” the hydrochloric acid used during
stimulation. The gamma ray log (Figure 9C) clearly indicates that the radioactively tagged
acid has entered each of the five intervals.
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Figure 10. Pressure increases observed on the treatment log from injection well M were
attributed to buoyant ball sealers sealing on perforations and diverting fractures
(note breakdowns) into the lower, less permeable intervals.
18.7.2 Acid Fracturing – Production Well
Production well H (shown schematically in Figure 11A) had 296 perforations, 104 in the
upper zone and the remaining 192 in the lower zone. These two 30 ft zones are separated
by about 100 ft, a portion of which may be “watered-out” because of waterflood
breakthrough. Previous fracturing treatments using staging techniques and employing
conventional density ball sealers had been unsuccessful in completely opening both zones.
The radiotracer survey, which followed this earlier treatment (Figure 11B), indicated that
over 30% of the upper interval and at least 70% of the lower zone had not received
treatment. Furthermore, production response was disappointingly low for the permeability
development present.
In an effort to increase the productivity of this high potential well, an acid fracturing
treatment was conducted using buoyant ball sealers to attempt to open the entire interval.
The hydrochloric acid was tagged with radioactive sand. At the time during the treatment
when the balls were at the perforations, the pressure rose to well above the bottom-hole
pressure required to initiate a fracture. The pressure then decreased, presumably as a result
of opening new intervals.
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Figure 11. (A) Schematic of production well H showing perforated intervals, permeability, and the location of
potential water zones. (B) Production data & radiotracer survey indicate that a previous treatment using non-
buoyant ball sealers failed to completely open both intervals. (C) Following the treatment utilizing buoyant ball
sealers for diversion, production has improved. Also, increased treatment coverage is evident on the radiotracer
log that was run following acidizing.
The radiotracer survey (shown in Figure 11C) that was run following this buoyant ball
sealer treatment exhibited well-developed radioactive anomalies in each of the two zones,
indicating that the buoyant balls had enhanced the diversion of acid over the producing
interval. From a productivity standpoint, the results were very good. Production rate
increased from 1700 BOPD at 425 psi flowing tubing pressure to 3800 BOPD at 390 psi.
18.7.3 Matrix Acidizing – Production Well
Following the acid fracturing treatment described in the previous example, the operators of
production well H elected to perforate two additional carbonate intervals located between
the two previously fractured intervals shown schematically in Figure 12A. Prior to
production, these two new zones required acidizing to remove damage which
characteristically occurs during drilling this formation. Matrix acidizing was required to
prevent fracturing into potentially watered-out zones nearby.
Treatment of these new intervals was conducted under matrix acidizing conditions using
hydrochloric acid and buoyant ball sealers to provide diversion away from the previously
fractured zones. Throughout the entire treating sequence, the bottom-hole treating pressure
rose, indicating that the balls were acting to distribute the treatment over all four zones. A
post-treatment diagnostic log, consisting of a combination fullbore spinner and high-
resolution temperature survey (Figure 12B), established conclusively that all zones were
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stimulated and were contributing to overall production. The outstanding success of this
treatment under such difficult conditions for successful diversion (i.e., matrix acidizing
between two previously fractured intervals) was extremely encouraging.
Figure 12. (A) Completion schematic of production well H prior to matrix acidizing the two interior
zones which are flanked (above and below) by previously fractured intervals.
(B) After acidizing using buoyant ball sealers for diversion, a flowmeter survey clearly shows all
four zones open and contributing to production.
18.7.4 Matrix Acidizing – Disposal Well
In this example, a matrix rate mud acid treatment was required on three commingled
sandstone intervals in a brine disposal well. As depicted in Figure 13A, the intervals were
roughly 20 ft long, perforated at two shots per foot, and separated by about 15 ft. a
pretreatment injectivity test, coupled with a temperature survey, showed that most of the
fluids were entering only the uppermost interval (Figure 13B).
Buoyant ball sealers were selected as an optimum diversion technique for this matrix
treatment. The treatment was conducted in three stages utilizing 12-3 mud acid, 15% HCl,
and 94 buoyant ball sealers. The decrease in bottom-hole pressure at 50 bbl, shown in
Figure 14, is attributed to damage removal beginning when mud acid arrived at the
perforations. Subsequent pressure increases occurring at 90 bbl and 210 bbl were attributed
to ball action.
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Figure 13. (A) Completion schematic of disposal well MG. (B) A pretreatment temperature survey
(following an injection test) shows fluid entering only the upper interval.
(C) After matrix mud acidizing using buoyant ball sealers for diversion, temperature anomalies
observed in each interval indicate that all zones have been stimulated.
Results were again very encouraging. Injectivity increased to 6500 BPD at 1700 psi
bottom-hole treating pressure from 2200 BPD at 2400 psi. Results of a temperature survey
run the following day showed significant temperature anomalies in each of the three
intervals (Figure 13C), indicating that acid had been diverted.
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Figure 14. Pressure increases observed on the treatment log of disposal well MG were attributed to ball
sealers seating at matrix rates and diverting treatment to unstimulated perforations.
18.7.5 Matrix Acidizing – Production Well
This final example is included to illustrate the benefits that may be achieved using buoyant
ball sealers during matrix acidizing of an original completion. This high potential well,
shown schematically in Figure 15A, required that the entire interval be opened to provide
maximum productivity from two perforated intervals. The well was matrix acidized using
regular hydrochloric acid and diverted using buoyant ball sealers to help ensure complete
coverage of the pay. Following treatment, a spinner survey (Figure 15B) clearly showed
that both zones had been entirely opened. Furthermore, the survey also indicates that
production contributions were roughly proportional to the calculated kh products for each
zone, resulting in a truly ideal production situation.
18.7.6 Conclusions
From both an operational and a technical point of view, the field case histories establish
buoyant ball sealers as a reliable, operationally sound, diversion method. In certain cases,
such as diversion during matrix acidizing, it has considerably improved our ability to treat
large intervals.
Several general conclusions are drawn from these case histories :
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• Buoyant ball sealers have been used to provide reliable diversion at matrix flow rates.
Field treatments established buoyant ball sealer reliability at average perforation flow
rates of less than 1 gpm/perf, where non-buoyant ball sealers are completely
ineffective.
• Controlled-density ball sealers diversion techniques have been used to provide

buoyant ball sealers during treatment while maintaining sufficient ball density to
ensure that the balls sink to the rathole in the presence of produced (or injected) fluids.
• During controlled-density diversion procedures, the density differential between the

ball sealers and the treating fluid has been successfully limited to values as low as
0.020 – 0.030 g/cm3 by employing syntactic foam-cored ball sealers. These balls were
designed to extend the lower density range of available ball sealers so the balls could
be made buoyant in the most commonly used treating fluids. The materials were
selected so the balls would maintain their density at normal bottom-hole treating
conditions.
• Buoyant ball sealers have been used to successfully divert away from previously
fractured intervals to allow matrix treatment of other intervals in the wellbore. This
extremely difficult diversion requirement would likely not have been attempted with
other diversion techniques. Buoyant ball sealers are effective in treating perforations
without undue regard to treating rate and past stimulation history. For example,
matrix treatment of zones within a previously fractured completion has been
accomplished.
• Improved diversion alone can provide sufficient economic basis for the selection of
restimulation candidates and in many cases may result in increased ultimate recovery.
Operationally, several other conclusions can be drawn :
• Large numbers of balls have been injected at high rates without bridging in tubulars
(rates in excess of 30 balls/min have been attained).
• Although evidence of ball action may not be apparent on the surface treating log, some
evidence can usually be found on a plot of bottom-hole treating pressure versus time
(or job volume). This accounts for changes in fluid head and friction pressure as well
as surface pressure.
• Reperforating can somewhat limit ball sealer effectiveness if overlapping or

interfering perforations are present. More ball sealers than perforations have been
used under this condition to increase job effectiveness.
• Ball-out potential is high when buoyant ball sealers are used in wells perforated using
single gun runs where there are no overlapping holes. Fewer ball sealers than
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perforations should be used unless the well will unload the treating fluid or some
contingency plan exists to get the treating fluid out of the tubulars in the event of ball-
out. Balls may not release from the perfs if there is a pressure differential into the
formation due to the hydrostatic head of fluids in the well.
• Ball injectors do not always inject balls as designed. Calibration is necessary.
Figure 15. (A) Wellbore schematic showing perforated intervals and the permeability
log for production well MD. (B) The flowmeter survey run after matrix acidizing using
buoyant ball sealers for diversion shows both zones to be open and contributing to production.
18.8 TREATMENT EVALUATION
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18.8.1 Production Logging
The goal of any diversion operation is to ensure that the treatment is distributed into all
zones in which it is needed. Hence, quantitative evaluation of a diversion technique is best
performed by those diagnostic surveys or logs, which are capable of indicating the amount
of fluid and its flow path. The downhole flowmeter is probably the most quantitative log
for this purpose in either injection or production wells. Noise logs and temperature surveys
can also be used to provide a semi-quantitative indication of diversion effectiveness. A
gamma ray survey of radioactively tagged sand offers another qualitative measure of
treatment coverage. Production surveys can be used to evaluate the reliability of any
diversion procedure and should be used whenever possible to verify that the treating goals
are being accomplished.
18.8.2 Surface Pressure/Injection Rate Response
Monitoring surface pressure/injection rate response during a treatment employing ball

sealers can provide a relatively good indication of diversion – “ball action” as it is
sometimes called. “Ball action” is characterized by an increase in pressure and/or a
decrease in rate
Surface pressure and injection rate response can also be used as qualitative indications of
diversion effectiveness for treatments with gel plugs and particulates.
18.8.3 Bottom-Hole Response
Several field examples presented earlier included examples of ball action as observed on
plots of bottom-hole pressure versus job volume or time. It is important to note that surface
pressure responses are not always indicative of the actual pressures exerted on the
formation face. Therefore, interpretation of surface pressure responses alone can be
misleading. It is recommended that a plot of bottom-hole pressure be used when evaluating
pressure responses during ball sealer treatments. The bottom-hole pressure is estimated by
taking into account surface pressure, friction pressure in the tubulars, and the hydrostatic
head of the fluids. Evaluation of the calculated bottom-hole pressure therefore provides a
clearer indication of what is taking place downhole than does surface pressure alone.
18.9 APPENDIX A : RISING OR SETTLING VELOCITIES OF BALL SEALERS
18.9.1 Newtonian Fluids
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A calculation of the rising or settling velocities of spheres is well established for Newtonian
fluids. The rising or settling velocity for a sphere is determined when body forces (gravity
minus buoyancy) are in dynamic equilibrium with fluid drag forces. Although this velocity
is calculated for a sphere rising or settling in an unbounded, quiescent fluid, the calculated
terminal velocity will be used to approximate the settling or rising component in a moving
fluid. In general, at terminal velocity, Vs, the body forces balance the drag forces when
g(ρB-ρf) 3fbV s2ρf

ρB = 4ρBD (1)
where :
g = gravitational acceleration
ρB = ball density
ρf = fluid density
Vs = ball velocity
D = ball diameter
fb = friction factor
As shown in Figure A1, however, a complication arises because the friction factor is itself a
function of the ball velocity (in the Reynolds number). Friction factors have been
determined experimentally for spheres and they can be expressed approximately as a
function of Reynolds number, NRe, in each of the three regions: the Stokes’ Law region, the
Intermediate region, and the Newton’s Law region.
Figure A1. Experimentally-determined friction factor (drag coefficient for spheres in Newtonian
fluids as a function of Reynolds number).
With these definitions for the friction factors, the settling velocities in reach region can be
established as follows.
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Stokes’ Law Region g|(ρB-ρf)|D2

NRe < 1 Vs = 18µ (2)
Intermediate Region 4g|∆ρ|D1.6 1¼

1 < NRe < 1000 Vs = 3(18.5)µ0.6ρf0.4 (3)
Newton’s Law Region 4gD|∆ρ|

NRe > 1000 Vs = 3(0.44) ρf (4)
Reynolds Number NRe = VsDρf (5)

µ
The use of the above equations avoids the trial-and-error determination for the friction
factor. However, one must still check the Reynolds number resulting from the calculated
settling or rising velocity to be sure that the appropriate equation was used. In general,
most ball sealer settling or rising velocity calculations will be in the Newton’s Law region
and this calculation should be tried first.
As an example, determine the settling velocity for a 1.100 g/cm3 ball sealer in water if the
ball diameter is 0.875 inches. The initial calculation is made with the equation for settling
in the Newton’s Law region :
4gD|∆ρ|
Vs = 3(0.44) ρf
= 4(32.2 ft/s2)(0.875/12 ft)(1.100 – 1.000 g/cm3)

3(0.44)(1.000 g/cm3)
= 0.84 ft/s
= 51 ft/min
Next, the Reynolds number must be checked to be sure that the proper equation was used.
NRe = VsDρf
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= 0.84 ft/s(0.875/12 ft)(62.4 lbm/ft3)

(1 cp)(0.000672 lbm/ft s cp)
= 5687
NRe > 1000
Since the Reynolds number was greater than 1000, the Newton’s Law equation was the
right choice and the calculated Vs is valid.
Note that in all equations the absolute value of the density contrast is used. The
significance of the sign is simply to record the direction of the force (i.e., buoyant balls rise,
non-buoyant balls sink). Since an absolute value is necessary for the calculations, the
engineer must note whether or not the balls used are buoyant or non-buoyant and remember
the direction of the velocity.
18.9.2 Non-Newtonian Fluids
For completeness, equations are presented for the calculation of settling or rising velocities
in non-Newtonian fluids described by the Dodge-Metzner power law model. Most
fracturing fluids can be described with this model in which the apparent viscosity (lbf s/ft2)
is defined as a function of shear rate and is described as :
= Kγ n-1 (6)
where K is in lbf sn/ft2 and n is dimensionless.
For settling of spheres it has been found that the shear rate is equal to the settling velocity
divided by the sphere diameter. With this definition, a non-Newtonian Reynolds number
can be defined as :
n 2-n
NRe = ρfD Vs
K (7)
With these definitions for the friction factors, the settling velocities in reach region can be
established as follows.
Stokes’ Law Region g(|<ρ|D 1/n

Vs ϕ 18K D (8)
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Intermediate Region 1.82(|<ρ|)0.71D0.71 + 0.43n 1/0.57+0.43n

Vs ϕ K0.43ρf0.29 (9)
Newton’s Law Region 4gD|∆ρ|

(Same as Eq. 4) Vs = 3(0.44) ρf (10)
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CHAPTER 19
WORKOVER PLANNING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
19.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….… 3
19.1.1 What Is A Workover? 3

19.1.2 …………………………………………………. 3
Planning A Workover
………………………………………………….
19.2 WELL PROBLEMS REQUIRING WORKOVERS …………………………..… 4
19.2.1 Low Reservoir Pressure 4

19.2.2 …………………………………………….. 6
19.2.3 Low Reservoir Permeability .……………………………………….. 6
19.2.4 Formation Damage 7
19.2.5 ………………………………..………………… 7
19.2.6 Wellbore Restrictions 7
19.2.7 ……………………………………………….. 8
19.2.8 High Viscosity Oil ………………………………………………….. 9
19.2.9 Improper Equipment Sizing/Operation ……………………………... 10
19.2.10 Excessive Water Production 10
19.2.11 ………………………………………… 11
Excessive Gas Production
…………………………………………...
Mechanical Failures
…………………………………………………
Primary Cement Failures ……………………………………………
Non-Problem Wells
………………………………………………….
19.3 WELL ASSESSMENT – DETERMINING THE PROBLEM …………………. 12
19.3.1 Well And Completion Characteristics ………………………………. 12

19.3.2 Well History 13
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19.3.3 ………………………………………………………… 14
19.3.4 Offset Well Performance 14
19.3.5 ……………………………………………. 15
Cross Sections, Maps, Cores And Logs
……………………………..
Diagnostic Procedures
……………………………………………….
19.4 ALTERNATIVE OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES ……………………..… 16
19.4.1 Types Of Workover Operations 16

19.4.2 …………………………………….. 18
19.4.3 Bullhead Technique 18
19.4.4 …………………………………………………. 18
19.4.5 Wireline Workover Techniques …………………………………….. 19
19.4.6 Concentric Workover Techniques 20
19.4.7 …………………………………... 21
19.4.8 Conventional Workover Techniques ………………………………... 21
Auxiliary Equipment ………………………...………………………
Support
Services………………………………………………………
Other Considerations
……………………………………………..….
19.5 EVALUATING AND SELECTING A TECHNIQUE ………………….……... 23
19.5.1 Economic Analysis 23

19.5.2 …………………………..……………………… 24
19.5.3 Capabilities/Limitations …………………………………………….. 24
Other Considerations
………………………………………………...
19.6 JOB EXECUTION AND FOLLOW-UP ……………………………………….... 25
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19.6.1 Workover Procedure 25

19.6.2 ………………………………………………… 26
19.6.3 Field 26
19.6.4 Operations……………………………………………………… 26
Analysis of Results………………………..………………………….
Record Keeping
……………………………………………………...
19.7 WELL ANALYSIS CHECKLIST ……………………………………...……...… 27
19.7.1 Well Completion Characteristics …………………………………… 27

19.7.2 Well History 27
19.7.3 ………………………………………………………… 27
19.7.4 Offset Well Performance 28
19.7.5 ….………………………………………… 28
Cross Sections, Maps, Cores and Logs
….………….……………….
Diagnostic Procedures
……………………………………………….
19.8 REFERENCES…...……………………………………………………..………..… 29
19.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter provides guidelines regarding assessment of well problems, choice of workover
operations for particular well problems, choice of workover techniques for particular
operations, evaluation of alternative techniques, and implementation of workover operations
in the field.
19.1.1 What Is Workover?
During the life of a well, problems such as decreased producing rate, increased water or gas
production, and mechanical failure may occur. After the initial completion, any work done
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on the well that affects the mechanical integrity or flow performance of the well is called a
workover.
19.1.2 Planning A Workover
When planning a workover operation for a well, the engineer should :
• Identify the cause of the well problem.
• Determine which types of workover operations will solve the problem.
• Determine which workover techniques and equipment are available to perform the
workover.
• Evaluate the economics, advantages and limitations of alternative workover techniques.
• Select the appropriate technique for the operation.
• Implement a safe and efficient field operations.
• Analyze, record, and file the workover procedures and results.
19.2 WELL PROBLEMS REQUIRING WORKOVERS
Workover operations are performed for many reasons. Workovers may be required in
problem wells to :
• Increase a declining production or injection rate caused by low reservoir pressure, low
reservoir permeability, formation damage, wellbore restrictions, high viscosity oil,
improper equipment sizing, or inadequate artificial lift.
• Reduce excessive water or gas production.
• Repair mechanical failures.
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• Repair primary cementing failures.
It may also be necessary to perform a workover on a non-problem well to :
• Gain additional production by recompleting or stimulating a well.
• Evaluate the well or reservoir.
• Convert an existing well to an injection or disposal well.
Physical phenomena leading to these well problems and the most commonly used workover
solutions are briefly summarized below. Specific topics are discussed in more detail in other
sections of the text.
19.2.1 Low Reservoir Pressure
In the life of a well, the producing rate will decline as reservoir pressure declines. To
maintain a constant producing rate as reservoir pressure declines, the flowing bottom-hole
pressure must be reduced. The amount of pressure reduction required depends on the
productivity index (PI) of the well.
For example, with a reservoir pressure of 2000 psi, withdrawal of 400 barrels of fluid per day
from a well with a PI of 2 will require a flowing bottom-hole pressure of 1800 psi. If the
reservoir pressure falls to 1000 psi, however, the flowing bottom-hole pressure must now be
drawn down to 800 psi to produce 400 barrels per day. This pressure may be too low to
allow the well to flow.
The reservoir drive mechanism has a direct bearing on how long reservoir pressure can
provide a high flowing bottom-hole pressure. As shown in Figure 1, water, gas-cap, and
dissolved-gas-drive producing mechanisms each exhibit distinct pressure behavior as the oil
in place is produced. Reservoir pressure in dissolved-gas-drive reservoirs drops rapidly and
continuously with withdrawals. Gas-cap and water-drive reservoirs are less of a problem
from a pressure maintenance standpoint.
From a workover standpoint, low reservoir pressure presents a difficult situation. Stimulation
is less effective than in a high-pressure reservoir because there is less pressure differential
to capitalize on the increased permeability. Perforating an additional interval is a temporary
measure, at best, and may complicate future workovers. Installation of artificial lift
equipment is often the only practical approach to increased production.
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Figure 1. Influence of producing mechanism on reservoir pressure
19.2.2 Low Reservoir Permeability
Once the fluids near the wellbore are produced, productivity in a reservoir of low natural
permeability declines rapidly. Wells completed in very low permeability formations are
usually stimulated to increase reservoir permeability away from the near-wellbore region.
Unless formation damage is also present, matrix acidizing is not applicable in this type of
stimulation. A large-volume hydraulic fracturing treatment, designed to yield high
conductivity and maximum drainage area, is usually the most effective approach.
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Figure 2. Effect of damaged zone on productivity
Limited productivity-in reality, low flowing bottom-hole pressure-is in many instances caused
by reduction in permeability around the wellbore. This localized damage is commonly
referred to as formation damage. As shown in Figure 2, any damage in the near-wellbore
region magnifies productivity decline by increasing the pressure drop into wellbore for a fixed
flow rate.
Repair of formation damage requires eliminating or bypassing the damaged zone. Acidizing,
solvent and surfactant treatment, and fracturing are the principal means of damage repair.
Types of formation damage and their diagnosis are discussed in Chapter 12, Formation
Damage.
19.2.4 Wellbore Restrictions
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Restrictions in the wellbore may be the result of sand, paraffin, scale, asphalt, or other
materials that inhibit flow in the tubing, casing, or perforations.
If the casing or tubing is blocked with debris, washout operations using mechanical or
chemical treatments will often restore the well to full capacity. Once tubing, casing or
perforation blocks are diagnosed and removed, an evaluation should be made to see if further
remedial steps are required.
19.2.5 High Viscosity Oil
In a reservoir which contains low-gravity crude, productivity may decrease as reservoir

pressure declines and liberates the gas dissolved in the oil. To facilitate production, oil
mobility near the wellbore and in the drainage area should be maximized.
Oil mobility can be increased by heating the reservoir with steam injection or other thermal
processes. Heat reduces oil viscosity and thus stimulates production.
19.2.6 Improper Equipment Sizing/Operation
The equipment installed in the well may be too small to handle production of the desired
amount of fluid. This can include tubulars, artificial lift, and surface equipment. Equipment
should be sized so that wells are not tubing, pumping, or facilities limited. The only limit
should be the reservoir’s ability to produce.
For example, as water encroaches into a reservoir, production of larger volumes of fluid is
necessary to yield the same amount of oil. Reevaluation of pressure-drop calculations for
tubular goods or review of sucker-rod pump capacities may result in equipment replacements
more closely tailored to the desired rate of production.
Improper design or malfunction of artificial lift equipment can also curtail the producing rate.
If the sucker-rod pump is set too high or is experiencing gas locking, the installation will need
to be modified. Likewise, a gas-lift valve may be open or inoperative, prohibiting maximum
drawdown.
19.2.7 Excessive Water Production
Water production problems can originate from the reservoir itself or from other sources such
as casing leaks and primary cement failures. Water production is costly from both lifting and
disposal standpoints. However, recovery from water-drive reservoirs requires a large influx
of water into the reservoir, which may eventually necessitate producing considerable
quantities of water from the reservoir before the economic limit for oil recovery is reached.
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Water production problems arising from reservoir properties include :
• Water Encroachment – Water encroachment is the rise (decrease in depth) of the

water-oil contact as a reservoir is depleted. Water encroachment is a normal
occurrence in water-drive reservoirs as the aquifer moves into the oil zone to replace
withdrawals. Excessive water production in this instance can usually be controlled by
squeeze cementing or plug-back methods.
• Water Coning and Fingering – High withdrawal rates from individual wells tend to
create abnormally low-pressure areas around the wells. If such wells are located low
on the structure and near the water level, water will tend to be drawn up across the
bedding planes and into the well as a “water cone” (Figure 3) or be drawn up along the
bedding planes of a stratified sand as a “water finger” (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Representation of water coning
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Figure 4. Representation of water fingering
19.2.8 Excessive Gas Production
Gas production form an oil well result from a gas originally dissolved in the reservoir oil or
from free gas that has segregated and become trapped above the oil as a gas cap. Free gas
may also enter the wellbore from a gas zone separate from the oil reservoir through channels
in the primary cement or as a result of casing leaks.
• Solution Gas – In the dissolved-gas-drive reservoir, gas originally in the oil is liberated
from solution as oil production begins and reservoir pressure declines. Further liberation
and expansion of solution gas is requirement for primary oil recovery from a reservoir
of this type. As oil withdrawals continue, the increase in gas saturation permits gas to
be produced along with the oil. As production proceeds, the relative permeability of the
rock to oil diminishes rapidly, and gas becomes the predominant mobile fluid. High-ratio
gas production in this instance is usually not a well problem but a problem of the
reservoir as a whole. Workovers are not generally successful at reducing the gas-oil-
ratio for these wells.
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• Gas Encroachment – If the reservoir is being produced by a gas-cap drive, gas

production may increase as the gas-oil contact advances into the oil column. Excessive
gas production in this instance may be remedied temporarily by lowering the perforated
interval, or by reducing the production rate.
19.2.9 Mechanical Failures
Mechanical failures requiring workovers include :
• Casing leaks – Casing leaks result in both influx of undesirable gas or water into the
wellbore and the uncontrolled loss of reservoir fluids to other zones. Since casing leaks
are usually associated with corrosion, the permeability of their development increases
with lengthening well life.
• Tubing collapse – Collapse of tubulars may result in stuck tools down-hole, as well as
leaks and subsequent influx of undesirable fluids into the wellbore.
• Surface and downhole equipment failures – Mechanical failures are often

associated with installed well equipment such as tubing, packers, and artificial-lift. The
first indication of this type of failure is often an observation of unexpected pressures at
the surface.
When performing a workover to repair a mechanical failure, the engineer should study the
well files to determine if other problems exist, which can be repaired at the same time.
19.2.10 Primary Cement Failures
A poor primary cement job resulting in channels between the formation and the casing can
lead to :
• Unwanted fluid production from water or gas in the zone of interest.
• Unwanted production of water or gas from an adjacent zone.
• Collapsed casing during operations in which high pressures are applied through the
perforations below a packer (squeeze cementing, hydraulic fracturing).
Repair of primary cementing failures is discussed in Chapter 21, Remedial Cementing.
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19.2.11 Non-Problem Wells
Although correction of problem wells constitutes a large part of any workover program,
there are other reasons for conducting workovers, including :
• Recompletions – Recompletions are performed to gain additional production in new

zones or to more effectively drain a developed reservoir. The usual procedure for this
type of workover is to squeeze cement and reperforate into a new zone or reservoir.
However, in other instances, the well could be abandoned either totally or partially then
whipstocked / sidetracked into a new zone from the existing wellbore. It may also be
necessary to deepen or plug back the well or to add additional tubulars and downhole
equipment. Selection of the producing interval for the recompletions should be carefully
considered to prevent premature gas or water production and to minimize future
workovers. This subject is discussed further in Chapter 2, “Types of Well
Completions”.
• Well Assessment – During a workover, it may be necessary to assess the condition

of the well or to evaluate the reservoir. Operations to assess the well include
production logging and well testing. Production logging is discussed in Chapter 20.
• Service Well Installation – When producing wells are converted to water or gas
injection or to water disposal service, a workover must be performed to install the new
equipment such as pumps and filters. When wells are converted from production to
injection, tubing design calculations should be performed. The temperatures and
pressures experienced during injection may differ from those during production,
necessitating redesign of the completion.
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19.3 WELL ASSESSMENT – DETERMINING THE PROBLEM
Prior to performing a workover, the well problem be analyzed to determine the cause of the
problem. It is important important to determine whether the problem is associated with
properties of the reservoir or with the well itself. A through pre-workover evaluation can
increase the cost effectiveness of the entire operation.
• Well and Completion Characteristics
• Well History
• Offset Well Performance
• Geological Data, Maps and Cross Sections
• Open-hole Logs and Core Data
• Well Tests
• Production Logs
• Special Surveys
Each of these areas is discussed briefly below. A checklist, summarizing the factors to
consider in each area is included at the end of this Chapter (Subject 19.7).
19.3.1 Well and Completion Characteristics
The current condition of the well may limit the types operations that can be performed during
a workover. Factors to consider include :
• The completion type and down-hole equipment in place may preclude the use of
certain workover operations or require additional procedures, such as pulling the tubing,
prior to performing the workover.
• The pressure ratings of casing, tubing and wellhead equipment are critical to
operations that require application of pressure – e.g., stimulation treatments, squeeze
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cementing, and sand control. Pressure ratings are also important if the well is being
recompleted to a higher-pressure interval.
• Reservoir characteristics such as pressure, sand consolidation, and susceptibility to

damage can influence the success of workover operations or at least dictate the use of
special procedures.
• Properties of the fluid currently being produced, as well as any new fluids to be
produced as a result of the workover, must be known. These properties are important
because of the potential for hazards, such as H2S, which may require protective
equipment for personnel. In addition, the corrosivity of the fluid is critical in establishing
the quality and cost of equipment to be used in the workover.
• Reservoir considerations such as recovery desired, type of drive mechanism,

relative structure position, current and allowable productivity, forecasted behavior, and
possible recovery by offset wells must be considered when planning the type of
workover operation to perform. These factors must be considered both for the current
producing zone(s) and for alternate or future producing zones.
19.3.2 Well History
The previous history of the well is important because it provides information regarding past
problems and can indicate operational limitations. Records should be researched sufficiently
to indicate whether a problem has existed before, and whether new, less expensive
techniques are available to correct the problem.
The field superintendent and other operations personnel should be consulted to determine if
any well behavior characteristics exist that have not been reported.
Factors to consider when evaluating the well history include :
• Drilling Procedures – What procedures were used to drill the well? Did the fluids
used cause or have the potential to cause formation damage? Were there indications of
lost returns?
• Initial Completion – When was the well completed? The age of the well gives
information regarding the likelihood of corroded casing, weak tubulars, or damaged
down-hole equipment.
What procedures were used to cement the well? Knowledge of cementing procedures,
problems encountered during cementing operations, and post-job cement evaluation will
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indicate non-cemented areas or channels in the cement sheath. If the integrity of the
cement sheath is in question, a precautionary squeeze cement job may be advisable to
ensure that workover fluids are selectively placed in the zones to be treated.
Other questions to be answered include : How was the well completed initially? What
fluids were used during well completion procedures? How was the well perforated?
• Production History – The nature and reservoir pressure of produced fluids (both
current and past0 should be determined. The rates and ratios of gas-oil and water-oil
production, the dates water or gas production first appeared, changes in oil production
capability and trends in surface pressures should also be considered.
• Mechanical History – A good mechanical review may preclude the successful

application of some workover techniques. Factors to consider include wellbore
restrictions, pipe made weak from corrosion, known poor cement jobs, and perforations
sealed by squeeze cement jobs. The corrosion history, including tubular caliper records,
should be consulted if applicable.
• Workover History – The results of past well servicing and workover operations
should be studied, including procedures used. Reasons for, and results of, past
workover operations may give indications of the source of the current problem.
19.3.3 Offset Well Performance
The history, workover experience, and performance of offset wells can be compared to that
of the well in question. These data can give insite into the behavior of the well being
considered. However, it is necessary to be sure that the offset wells being compared reflect
conditions and reservoir properties of the well under considerations.
19.3.4 Cross Sections, Maps, Cores And Logs
Cross sections, maps, cores, and open-hole logs all provide information about the producing
zones of a well and the relationship of the well to the rest of the reservoir. For the most part,
this information is analyzed by the reservoir engineer who then relays the resulting decisions
to the completion or subsurface engineer.
• Geological data, such as stratigraphic cross sections and structure maps, show the
position of the well in the current reservoir or in a potential recompletion zone.
• Open-hole logs and core data can be used, in conjunction with geological data, to
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define the current gas-oil or water-oil contact, to determine if the well is needed for
reservoir depletion in a particular zone, and to evaluate the quality of the pay zone.
Reservoir characteristics such as permeability, porosity, water saturation, relative

permeability, and down-hole pressures can be determined from open-hole logs and core
data. Log and core data also show lithology changes, including continuity of barriers to
vertical permeability and the character of the reservoir rock.
• Reservoir maps such as isopachous, isobaric, water percentage, and gas-oil ratio maps
are also useful in determining reservoir characteristics to be expected.
19.3.5 Diagnostic Procedures
Diagnostic may be performed to evaluate the well performance.
• Well tests such as pressure buildup, pressure falloff, and injectivity tests should be run
where applicable. Review the decline curves for an indication of formation damage.
The current static subsurface pressure and temperature should be determined.
For a dead well that has been shut in for some time, a new production test may be
justified. For example, gas or water fingering or coning may have dissipated, or the
reservoir pressure may have increased.
• Production logs should be consulted to check for indications of wellbore

communication and mechanical failures. Additional logging surveys should be run to
detect the source of wellbore communication, as necessary. For pumping wells, check
the fluid level with sonic devices and make dynamometer surveys. For gas lift wells,
consider checking valve operation with flowing subsurface pressure and temperature
surveys.
• Special surveys or analyses, which can be run, include wireline gauge surveys to
check for plugging or sanding. Water samples may be analyzed and compared to
samples taken after the initial completion. Bottom-hole sludge samples may be
analyzed for scale, paraffin, or asphaltenes. Scale can also be analyzed from pumps,
tubing, and other down-hole equipment.
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19.4 ALTERNATIVE OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES
After assessing the well condition and determining the cause of the problem behavior, the
subsurface engineer must choose the workover operation best suited to return the well to
production. The choice of workover operation will influence the workover technique,
equipment, and support services necessary to perform the workover. Other factors which
must be considered include personnel, safety, and contingency planning.
19.4.1 Types Of Workover Operation
Types of workover operations performed to remedy or repair well problems include :
• Stimulation – Hydraulic fracturing, acid fracturing, matrix acidizing, ball-outs, solvent

and surfactant treatments, thermal stimulation.
• Well Clean-out or Blockage Removal – washing with water, acids, solvents or

other chemicals.
• Sand Control – Gravel packing, chemical sand consolidation, resin coated sands.
• Perforating
• Remedial Cementing – Setting plugs, squeeze cementing perforations or channels,

casing repair.
• Equipment Replacement and Repair
• Production Logging – While not a workover itself, production logging is often

included as part of a workover procedure to provide additional well data.
These operations are discussed in more detail in other sections of the next. The operations
most commonly used to treat the well problems previously discussed in this Chapter (Subject
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19.2) are summarized in Table 1.
Implementation of various workover operations involves many techniques and procedures.

However, all workover techniques can be classified into four major categories.
• Bullhead Technique
• Wireline Workover Techniques
• Concentric Workover Techniques
• Conventional Workover Techniques
Each of these techniques is briefly discussed below. More detailed information on these
techniques is included in Chapter 22, “Wireline Operations,” and Chapter 23, ”Rig Workover
Operations.”
Table 1
Workover Operations Used to Remedy Well Problems
PROBLEM WORKOVER OPERATION
Low Reservoir Pressure Installation of Artificial Lift

Perforation of Additional Interval
Stimulation
Low Reservoir Permeability Hydraulic or Acid Fracturing
Formation Damage Acidizing

Fracturing
Solvent or Surfactant Treatment
Wellbore Restriction Washing Operations

Chemical Treatment
Sand Control
High Viscosity Oil Thermal Stimulation
Improper Equipment Sizing/Operation Replace/Modify Equipment
Excessive Water/Gas Production Remedial Cementing/Reperforate

Decrease Production Rate
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Mechanical Failure Replace Equipment

Remedial Cementing
Primary Cement Failure Remedial Cementing

Recompletion/Perforating
Non-Problem Wells Recompletion/Perforating

Production Logging
Equipment Installation
19.4.2 Bullhead Technique
The bullhead technique is also referred to as a pump-down or pump equipment technique.

The pump lines are usually connected directly to the Christmas tree at the crown valve. The
treatment fluid is pumped through the tree, down the tubing, and into the formation.
Advantages of using this technique are low cost (compared to other techniques) and the
ability to perform the workover without removing the tree or tubulars from the well.
Limitations of this technique are the potential for formation damage, lack of control over
placement of the fluid down-hole, and necessity for good casing and tubing integrity.
19.4.3 Wireline Workover Techniques
Workover operations may also be performed using a wireline. The wireline is run from a
reel on the wireline unit into the well through a lubricator on the christmas tree. Three types
of wireline are available.
• Slick Line – The wireline is solid, single strand of wire diameter up to 0.092 in.
• Braided Line – The wireline is a stranded wire, stronger than the slick line.
Commonly used diameters are 3/16 in. and 9/16 in.
• Conductor (Electric) Line – The wireline is a stranded wire capable of transmitting a

signal to the surface.
Advantages of using wireline units are low cost, ability to perform the workover without
removing tree and tubulars, and, since the lubricator allows the operations to be performed
under pressure, the ability to perform the workover without killing the well. Limitations of
using wireline techniques include limitations on the size of tools which can be run and risk of
breaking the wirelline.
Wireline techniques are used for operations such as well completion, well clean-out, down-
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hole equipment installation and retrieval, mechanical repairs, logging, fishing, swabbing, and
depth measurement.
19.4.4 Concentric Workover Techniques
A concentric workover is one in which small diameter tubing used as a workostring is run
inside production tubing to perform down-hole operations. Concentric workover techniques
are performed by three types of units.
• Concentric Rig – Concentric rigs use small diameter tubing for the workostring.
These rigs are smaller than convrntional workover rigs and thus can be operated at
lower cost.
• Coiled-Tubing Unit – Coiled-tubing units use a reel of thin-walled tubing for the
workstring. This tubing is fed into the well through an injector head mounted on the
tree.
• Snubbing Unit – Snubbing units are self-contained, portable systems that are mounted
on the christmas tree and used to push or pull tubing through the rig well control
equipment.
For many operations, concentric workovers techniques are more efficient than the bullhead
or wireline techniques and more cost effective than conventional workover techniques. In
addition, both coiled-tubing and snubbing units will perform workover operations under
pressure, so it is not necessary to kill the well. Concentric workovers are limited with
respect to the diameter of down-hole tools which can be run. In addition, since higher
pressures are required to pump through the small tubing diameter, higher surface pressures
are encountered than when performing conventional workover operations.
There are few workover or servicing needs that cannot be accomplished using concentric
techniques. Typical workovers include well clean out, remedial cementing, recompletion,
sand control, fishing, and stimulation.
19.4.5 Conventional Workover Techniques
Conventional workover techniques are performed with a heavy-duty rig. In some cases, a
drilling rig may be used. For conventional workovers, the christmas tree is removed, and the
production tubing and down-hole equipment are removed from the well.
The main advantage of using a conventional workover rather than one of the other
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techniques is flexibility. The main disadvantage is cost.
Conventional workovers can be used to perform any of the operations performed by the
other techniques described above. However, some operations can only be performed by a
conventional rig. These include tubing repair or replacement, down-hole tool repair or
replacement (unless the tool can be run or retrieved on wireline), production casing repair
above a packer, recompletion to a higher zone above a packer, and side track drilling.
19.4.6 Auxiliary Equipment
A detailed cost survey will usually reveal that auxiliary rig tools and equipment cost
approximately as much as the rental rate of the basic workover rig. Thus, as much attention
should be given to the choice of auxiliary equipment as is given to the choice of workover
technique and rig rate.
Contractors vary widely with respect to the tools and equipment furnished with the rig. An
inventory of the equipment provided with a rig will make comparisons of hourly rig rates
more meaningful. In addition, use of an inventory will ensure that all necessary equipment is
on-hand and extra equipment is not ordered.
Some of the more commonly used auxiliary equipment include :
• Workstrings and Handling Tools – These are high-cost items. If in poor condition,
they can be responsible for many failures and delays because of fishing or well
problems.
• Blowout Preventers – Contractors usually furnish some type of blowout preventer.

However, the equipment provided may not be rate to handle a potential problem on the
well to be reworked. In addition, the age and testing history of these preventers should
be established to ensure that the preventers are adequate to handle any hazardous
situations which might occur during the workover.
• Swab Line – Some rigs include a swab line, which can reduce the cost of completion
operations, if the rig is intentionally kept in place until the zone is evaluated. However,
using a rig-provided swab line can be a disadvantage if using it means that the rig is
kept in place at workover-rig rates when it could be replaced by a lower-cost swabbing
unit. In addition, keep in mind that swabbing is a specialized operation. The workover
rig supervisor may not have expertise in swabbing operations comparable to that of a
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regular swabbing unit operator.
• Circulation Pumps – Use of the rig pumps for workover operations can eliminate the
cost of units rented from service companies. However, in some cases, the rig pumps
may not have sufficient capacity and pressure rating to perform the necessary
operations.
• Tankage – Workover rigs sometimes include tankage. The amount of tankage needed
depends on the quantity of circulating and treating fluids needed for workover
operations. The quantity of fluid which must be premixed and on-hand for well control
must also be considered.
• Air Slips and Tongs – Use of air slips, air tongs and speed equipment allows rig
crews to operate for longer periods of time without fatigue. Proper utilization of this
equipment can double the speed of tripping operations and thus save rig time.
• Electrical Equipment – Good lighting and generator equipment is fundamental if night

operations are to be conducted.
19.4.7 Support Services
Support services on a workover operation may cost as much as, more than, the basic rig
rental. Control over support services is often the key to keeping costs within projected goals.
It is false economy, however, to settle for lower cost services if this means sacrificing the
quality of the services provided.
Support services used for workovers include :
• Wellsite preparation and rig transportation
• Cementing and well treating
• Stimulation
• Removal of paraffin, sand etc.
• Fishing tools and service
• Equipment rental (Accessory equipment, packers, tubing, artificial lift equipment)
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• Wireline operations
19.4.8 Other Considerations
Other factors which should be considered when selecting workover techniques and
equipment include safety, personnel and contingency planning.
• Safety – In any operation, safety of the personnel is the most important factor. Every
employee has the responsibility to properly use equipment, to maintain it in good
condition, to observe the established working rules at all times, and to practice the
principles taught in safety training.
In addition, company personnel at the rig site should be sure that the rig and service
company personnel are aware of and observe the established safety rules. This can be
facilitated by holding pre-job meetings to inform all on-site personnel of safety hazards,
safety equipment location and use, and established safety rules.
• Personnel – Rigs are often chosen on the strength and capability of the equipment. In
practice, personnel and supervision on a particular rig are often of equal importance to
the equipment brought to the rig site. The number of men in the rig crew often dictates
the efficiency of operations. The quality of contractor supervision is extremely
important on a workover rig.
The relief schedule of a contractor is also important. Contractors who work men for
longer periods of time without providing relief penalize the operator with lower
efficiency during the latter part of the tour of duty.
Associated with this concept are the employment practices of a contractor during slack
periods. Some contractors maintain key supervisors on a full-time basis but pay rig
crews only when work is available. This can result in rig crews with low experience
levels.
• Contingency Planning – Although extra, non-used equipment on-site may represent

additional cost to the workover operation, enough back-up equipment should be on hand
to plan for contingencies. When planning the workover, consider what could go wrong
with the operations and plan accordingly. Pre-planning and availability of critical back-
up equipment can save time and money in the long run.
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19.5 EVALUATING AND SELECTING A TECHNIQUE
After assessing the problem and reviewing alternative techniques, the engineer should
evaluate the best alternative techniques with respect to economics, limitations and
capabilities of the technique, and other factors such as safety, expedience, and reliability.
Often, the least expensive workover is not the best workover when factors other than cost
are considered.
19.5.1 Economic Analysis
When evaluating the economics of a single proposal or comparing economics of competitive

proposal, the following questions should be considered :
• Cost – What is the relative cost of alternative workover techniques, including rig time,
auxiliary equipment rentals, and support services.
• Current Income – What will be the effect of performing the proposed workover, or
possible alternative workovers, on current income?
• Increased Recovery – Is the well needed for optimum ultimate recovery in the
present completion interval or in possible new completion intervals? If well stimulation
is contemplated, would successful stimulation increase recovery?
• Payout – What is the direct payout, i.e., the length of time required for the total cash
outlay to be recovered through the new cash inflow generated by the project?
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• Rate of Return – How much additional income is expected to result from the
workover after the payout period? How soon can this be realized?
• Loss in Deferring Workover – If the workover is postponed, what would the cost
be? Would impending additional recovery programs render workover of this well more
attractive in the future?
• Risk – What is the risk factor? The degree of risk should be weighed against
anticipated gain from a successful job. The degree of risk should be assessed through
past experiences in areas with similar type of work or in the same or comparable
reservoirs and wells, plus individual judgement based on available data concerning the
well and reservoir.
19.5.2 Capabilities/Limitations
As discussed earlier in this Chapter (Subject 19.4), the choice of workover technique is
sometimes limited by the capabilities and limitations of the workover rig units. For example,
treatment operations, such as remedial cementing, matrix acidizing, and corrosion treatments,
sometimes require that the treatment fluid selectively placed into a single zone or portion of a
zone. While wireline and concentric techniques have some flexibility in this respect, use of a
conventional workover rig allows use of the full casing ID and thus a wider range of down-
hole tools and packers can be used.
On offshore locations, the compactness of wireline and concentric units is a premium. In

addition, wireline units are the quickest and most efficient, thus reducing rig time, a major
expense on offshore locations.
Conventional rigs are slow and cumbersome; however, they are not as limited by factors
such as operating depth, high bottom-hole temperatures and pressures, and severe ID
restrictions. All of these factors must be considered before selecting a particular workover
technique to perform the desired workover operation.
19.5.3 Other Considerations
Well or reservoir safety, lease obligations, government regulations, reliability of a particular

workover operation in the area, and the ease with which a particular operation can be
performed may justify a decision to perform a workover even when economics do not.
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19.6 JOB EXECUTION AND FOLLOW-UP
In addition to selecting the best technique and equipment to perform the workover, a
successful workover operation depends on correct and efficient implementation of the
workover procedure in the field. Successful field operations can be facilitated by a well
written workover procedure and sufficiently supervised field operations. In addition, future
operations can be improved by the experience of past operations if workover results are
analyzed and proper records maintained.
19.6.1 Workover Procedure
A well written workover procedure will communicate all details of the procedures planned
for the workover operation, especially when non-routine procedures are being used. It
should not be assumed that the field personnel will automatically perform a certain step in a
procedure because “the procedure has always been done that way”. Lack of details can
lead to costly mistakes such as stuck tubing, lost tools, and misplaced treating fluids.
Essential components of a well written workover procedure include :
• Well Sketch – A sketch of the wellbore before and after the workover.
• Procedure Steps – A step-by-step description of the workover procedure, pointing out

steps at which problems may arise.
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• Alternative Procedures – Alternatives for procedures where problems are

anticipated.
• Calculated Values – Values of parameters such as treatment depths, displacement

volumes, treatment volumes, maximum treating pressures and rate are essential to the
proper implementation of the workover. Including values for parameters such as casing
and tubing capacities, fracture and fluid gradients, and other parameters used in the pre-
job calculations can be helpful if last minute checks or changes are needed in the field.
• Safety Hazards/Rules – Any safety hazards, rules, or regulations should be clearly

described and emphasized.
• Contingency Plans – Contingency plans in case of unexpected events such as

encountering H2S, lost circulation, or well control problems should be included as
attachments to the procedure.
• Contracts – A list of person to contact, with phone numbers, in case of problems or

emergencies should also be attached.
19.6.2 Field Operations
Field operations should be supervised by competent personnel. For routine workovers,

adequate supervision can often by provided by the rig supervisor. However, for non-routine,
hazardous or critical well operations, a company representative should be on hand.
The importance of good communication between engineering and field personnel cannot be
overemphasized. Even the best planned workover procedure will not be successful if the
importance of critical steps and procedures are not communicated to, and understood by, the
field personnel.
Safety rules, precautions, and emergency procedures should be explained to all personnel on-
site during the workover operation. This is best achieved by pre-job meetings of all persons
involved. It should not be assumed that personnel will follow safety precautions just because
they have been informed. It is necessary to observe operations and enforce rules.
19.6.3 Analysis of Results
The success or failure of operations used on a workover are often valuable information to
help plan future workovers. The procedures used in the field should be noted and compared
with the planned procedure. Results should be recorded along with unexpected problems or
behavior. If the workover fails, or is unexpectedly successful, the procedures used should be
analyzed to determine the cause, if possible.
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If the results are to be useful for future workovers, as many details as possible regarding the
actual procedures used should be recorded.
19.6.4 Record Keeping
The workover results, field procedures (both planned and actual), logs, and service lab
records are all valuable components of the history of the well. These records should be
placed in the well file and stored in the company office. As mentioned above, these records
are a valuable source of information for planning future workover operations.
When available, records should be entered into a computer database to facilitate comparison
of results from a large number of wells. However, the information which can be obtained
from a computer database is only as useful as the data entered. When establishing a
database management system, keep in mind the types of data which will be used for future
workover planning.
19.7 WELL ANALYSIS CHECKLIST
19.7.1 Well Completion Characteristics
1. a. Completion type
b. Pressure ratings of casing and tubulars and wellhead equipment
c. Producing zone characteristics – permeability, porosity, consolidation
d. Producing zone fluid properties – density, salinity
e. Reservoir considerations – reservoir pressure, drive mechanism, structure

position, current and allowable productivity, ultimate recovery desired,
forecasted behavior, recovery from offset wells.
19.7.2 Well History
2. a. Drilling procedures – fluids, problems, lost circulation
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b. Initial completion – when, how, cement job data, problems during completion,
initial fluids, perforation pattern
c. Production history – pressure, fluids, rates, gas-oil ratio, water-oil ratio, dates of
initial gas or water production, trends
d. Mechanical history – corroded pipe, poor cement jobs, squeezed perforations
e. Workover history
19.7.3 Offset Well Performance
3. a. Relative structural position
b. Comparison of behavior
19.7.4 Cross Sections, Maps, Cores and Logs
4. a. Stratigraphic cross sections
b. Structure, isopachous, isobaric, water percentage and gas-oil ration maps
c. Open-hole logs
d. Core data
19.7.5 Diagnostic Procedures
5. a. Well tests – pressure buildup, pressure decline, injectivity, production test
b. Production logs – noise, temperature, sonic, flow-meters, pressure bombs,

tubing calipers
c. Water analyses
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d. Wireline depth or gauge surveys
e. Bottom-hole sludge samples
f. Scale samples
19.8 REFERENCES
1. T.O. Allen and A. P. Roberts, Production Operations, Vol.2, Chapters 1 and 12,
Oil & Gas Consultants International, Inc., Tulsa, 1978.
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COMPLETION PRODUCTION LOGGING Page 1 of 42
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CHAPTER 20
PRODUCTION LOGGING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
20.1 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………. 5
20.1.1 Definitions ……………...…………………………………………… 5

20.1.2 Functions ……………………………………………………………. 5
20.1.3 Chapter Objectives …………………………………………………... 5
20.1.4 Implementation ……………………………………………………… 5
20.2 TEMPERATURE LOGS ………………………………………………………….. 6
20.2.1 Subsurface-Recorded Log …………………………………………... 6

20.2.2 Surface-Recorded Log ………………………………………………. 6
20.2.3 Departures From Geothermal Gradient ……………………………... 6
20.2.4 Use With Injected Fluids ……………………………………………. 6
20.2.5 Differential Temperature Curve …………………………………….. 7
20.2.6 Radial Differential Temperature Log ……………………………….. 7
20.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT LOGS ……………………………………………. 9
20.3.1 Bottom-Hole Pressure ………………………………………………. 9

20.3.2 Fluid Gradient Logs ………………………………………………… 9
20.4 SONIC LOGS ………………………………………………………………………. 10
20.4.1 Noise Log …………………………………………………………… 10

20.4.2 Single Phase Flow ………………………………………………….. 10
20.4.3 Two Phase Flow …………………………………………………….. 10
20.4.4 Cement Bond Log …………………………………………………... 11
20.4.5 CBL Principle ……………………………………………………….. 11
20.4.6 CBL Presentation …………………………………………………… 12
20.4.7 Factors Affecting CBL Recording ………………………………….. 13
20.5 ELECTRICAL LOGS …………………………………………………………….. 15
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20.5.1 Capacitance Meter …………………………………………………... 15

20.5.2 Resistivity Meter ……………………………………………………. 15
20.6 MAGNETIC LOGS …………………………………………………………….… 16
20.6.1 Collar Locator ………………………………………………………. 16

20.6.2 Electromagnetic Inspection Tools ………………………………….. 16
20.6.3 Magnetic Orienter 16
……………………………………………………
20.7 NUCLEAR PRODUCTION LOGS ……………………………………………… 17
20.7.1 Classifications ………………………………………………………. 17

20.7.2 Gamma Ray Log ……………………………………………………. 17
20.7.3 Fluid Density Analyzer ……………………………………………... 17
20.7.4 Neutron Logs ………………………………………………………... 17
20.7.5 Radiotracer Logs ……………………………………………………. 18
20.7.6 Fluid Velocity Determination ………………………………………. 18
20.7.7 Channel Location …………………………………………………… 19
20.8 SPINNER FLOWMETERS ………………………………………………………. 20
20.8.1 Principle …………………………………………………………….. 20

20.8.2 Packer Flowmeter …………………………………………………… 20
20.8.3 Continuous Flowmeter ……………………………………………… 20
20.9 MECHANICAL SURVEY LOGS ……………………………………………….. 21
20.9.1 Microscopic Caliper ………………………………………………… 21

20.9.2 Open Hole Caliper …………………………………………………... 21
20.9.3 Freepoint Indicator ……………………………………………….…. 21
20.10 RUNNING PRODUCTION LOGS ……………………………………………… 22
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20.10.1 Tool Selection …………………………………………………….… 22

20.10.2 Responsibilities of Company Representative ……………………….. 22
20.10.3 On-site Equipment ………………………………………………….. 25
20.10.4 Tool Inspection ……………………………………………………… 25
20.10.5 Well Sketch …………………………………………………………. 26
20.10.6 Handling Radioactive Sources ……………………………………… 26
20.10.7 Depth Correlation …………………………………………………… 27
20.10.8 Running Program …………………………………………………… 27
20.10.9 Log Presentation …………………………………………………….. 28
20.11 CEMENT EVALUATION ………………………………………………………... 29
20.11.1 Top of Cement ………………………………………………………. 29

20.11.2 Cement Channels ……………………………………………………. 30
20.12 FLOW DISTRIBUTION INSIDE CASING …………………………………….. 31
20.12.1 Production Flow Profile …………………………………………….. 31

20.12.2 Injection Flow Profile …………………………………………….… 32
20.12.3 Type of Fluids ………………………………………………………. 33
20.12.4 Formation Damage Problems …………………………………….…. 33
20.12.5 Gas-lift Problems ……………………………………………………. 34
20.12.6 Bubble Point Depth …………………………………………………. 34
20.13 PRODUCTION FROM UNPERFORATED ZONES ………………………...… 35
20.13.1 Source of Flow ……………………………………………………… 35

20.13.2 Entry Into Casing …………………………………………………… 36
20.14 EVALUATING STIMULATION TREATMENTS …………………………….. 37
20.14.1 Identifying Stimulated Zones ……………………………………….. 37

20.14.2 Channels After Stimulation …………………………………………. 37
20.14.3 Hydraulic Fracture Height …………………………………………... 37
20.15 TUBULAR OR EQUIPMENT EVALUATION ………………………………… 39
20.15.1 Locating Leaks ……………………………………………………… 39
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20.15.2 Assessing Corrosion ………………………………………………… 39

20.15.3 Casing Recovery ……………………………………………………. 40
20.16 RESERVOIR MONITORING …………………………………………………… 41
20.16.1 Gas/Liquid Contact …………………………………………………. 41

20.16.2 Oil/Water Contact 41
……………………………………………………
20.17 REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………. 42
20.1 INTRODUCTION
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20.1.1 Definition
The term production logging refers to any survey run to evaluate the manner in which a
borehole produces fluids. Often referred to as cased-hole logging, production logging most
frequently consists of those logs run after a well is cased and cemented. Especially in
difficult or hazardous wells, however, production logging has also assumed increasing
importance as part of the drilling process.
20.1.2 Functions
The most common function of production logging is to document the movement of fluids.
This movement can consists of the flow up the production tubulars, unwanted flow in the
annular space between the pipe and the wellbore, or the movement of fluid contacts within
the reservoir itself. The fluids of interest may be hydrocarbons, formation water, or fluids
injected for disposal or well stimulation. Various production logs are employed to
determine what fluids are flowing, and the source, magnitude, and path of flow.
Production logs are also used to evaluate conditions in the wellbore and the mechanical
integrity of the completion. Subsurface measurements as diverse as temperature
determinations for cement slurry design, bottom hole pressure surveys, and corrosion or
leak detection are all obtained from production logs.
20.1.3 Chapter Objectives
The purpose of these notes is to provide an overview of the various types of production logs
and to discuss the considerations involved in planning and executing a production logging
survey. Following this introduction, the physical measurements and types of logs that can
be obtained from the various logging tools are surveyed. Considerations that are important
when running production logs, such as depth correlation and running speed, are then
discussed. Finally, typical applications of production logs are overviewed. The Chapter
objectives are to impart an understanding of principles, an appreciation of tool selection
options, and a basic knowledge of production logging procedures.
20.1.4 Implementation
Two important points1 should be kept in mind when using the information contained in this
Chapter. First, production-logging surveys are best run in suites of complementary logs –
one log alone seldom provides complete information. Second, it is often the subtle features
of a log, rather than the obvious characteristics that contain the desired information.
Together, these two considerations give rise to much detail and sophistication that beyond
the scope of the Chapter. Ultimately, the fully effective implementation of production logs
requires experience and familiarity with the particular well being surveyed.
20.2 TEMPERATURE LOGS
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20.2.1 Subsurface-Recorded Log
The oldest form of a temperature log is obtained with a subsurface recording bomb run on
slick line (piano wire). A Bourdon tube containing a volatile liquid detects the temperature
of the well fluids. The vapor pressure of the filling liquid, a function of temperature, is
measured and recorded by movement of a stylus on a coated metal chart. (The same type of
chart is used in subsurface pressure bombs). The tool must remain at a given depth long
enough to achieve temperature equilibrium. This temperature-measuring apparatus is
available from local companies, or it may be owned by the operating company in some
areas.
20.2.2 Surface-Recorded Log
Today, the most common temperature logs are continuous surveys run on electric wireline.
The electrical resistance of a small probe in the tool changes with temperature, and this
change is converted to an electrical signal. Temperature logs are normally run as they are
lowered into the hole in order to minimize disturbance of the wellbore fluid. Logging speed
depends on the time constant of the temperature probe, but it is commonly in the range of
30-50 ft/min. The sensitivity of the tool is varied from the surface, and results are recorded
on a chart.
20.2.3 Departures From Geothermal Gradient
In the majority of production logging applications it is the temperature departures from the
earth’s geothermal gradient that are of interest. The geothermal gradient is reflected by
steadily increasing temperature with depth, while phenomena such as flow behind casing
are characterized by local temperature “anomalies”. Although quite variable with location,
a geothermal gradient of 0.017°F/ft can be considered “typical”. Ordinarily, a precise prior
knowledge of the local gradient is not required. The gradient for a typical well is usually
apparent from the temperature log.
20.2.4 Use With Injected Fluids
Temperature logs are often run in conjunction with fluid injection. Since the injected fluid
(usually field salt water) is cooler than the formation, those regions of fluid entry behind the
casing (open perforations, leaks, cement channels) show up as “cold” anomalies. A
sequence of successive logs is commonly run to measure the rate of return to geothermal
temperature. Temperature recovery is slowest in those regions that have received the most
fluid.
20.2.5 Differential Temperature Curve
As part of the temperature log presentation, most logging companies also calculate the
slope of the temperature curve with respect to depth. The resulting plot of ∆T/ft is then
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presented adjacent to the temperature curve as a “differential temperature” log. Differential

temperature is useful only when very slight changes in temperature need be detected.
Generally, the differential temperature curve is of limited utility.
Examples of temperature logs are given in Subjects 20.11, 20.12, and 20.15.
20.2.6 Radial Differential Temperature Log (RDT)
The radial differential temperature tool was developed to operate on the principle that, at a
given depth, flow behind casing will slightly change the temperature of that portion of the
casing wall that is immediately adjacent to the flow. By measuring temperature differences
at different azimuth angles inside the casing, the location of flowing channels can be
detected.
Two versions of this tool are currently being used. In the older version, two rigid sensing
arms positioned 180° from each other are extended and rotated inside the casing. The
newer version of the tool (Figure 1) has only one sensing arm, which is retracted when the
tool is run into the well. At the depth at which flow outside the casing is suspected, the arm
is extended to press a temperature sensor against the casing wall. The tool then rotates, and
the difference in temperature between the arm and a sensor on the tool itself is recorded at
the surface. The maximum sensitivity is 0.05°F/in. of chart deflection.
Figure 1. Radial differential temperature tool
The RDT tool is normally run with a perforating gun attached below the sensors. When
flow outside the casing is detected, rotation of the tool is stopped. The tool is picked up
about 6 ft, and the perforating gun is fired toward the flow channel. This feature is
particularly useful when remedial cementing is required.
An example of the use of the RDT tool to detect flow behind casing is given in Subject
20.11.
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20.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT LOGS
20.3.1 Bottom-Hole Pressure
For many years the standard device for measuring bottom-hole pressure has been the
Amerada gauge. This instrument is a downhole recording device run on slick line. The
motion of a Bourdon tube in response to pressure changes is recorded by a stylus on a clock
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driven chart. Although still in common use, the Amerada gauge is today being increasingly
replaced by the surface-recording Hewlett-Packard (quartz) gauge. The accuracy of this
gauge is very high if simultaneous temperature measurements are obtained to compensate
the gauge reading.
High-accuracy pressure measurements find most application in well testing operations such
as pressure buildup tests. Well testing topics are beyond the scope of this Section.
20.3.2 Fluid Gradient Log
A distinct production logging application of pressure measurement is a tool called a

gradiomanometer by Schlumberger. The gradiomanometer measures the pressure
difference between points two feet apart. In a vertical well where the viscous pressure drop
between the two points is negligible (typical in casing), this pressure difference reflects the
local specific gravity of the fluid. For a two-phase system where the fluids are known, the
fractions of each phase can be calculated.
20.4 SONIC LOGS
20.4.1 Noise Log
Noise logs measure the sonic characteristics of fluid flow. The noise logging device
consists of a submersible microphone (hydrophone) positioned at a particular depth to
record the sound level generated by the turbulence associated with moving fluids. The
frequency distribution of the signal is used to identify the type of fluids that are flowing and
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the nature of the channel or leak from which the noise is generated.
Typically, signal amplitudes are measured at frequency cuts of 200, 600, 1000 and 2000 Hz.
For example, at the 200-Hz cut, the amplitude of all signals with a frequency greater than
200 Hz is recorded, and, at the 600-Hz cut, the amplitude of all signals with a frequency
greater than 600 Hz is recorded. Thus, the reading at the 200-Hz cut always has the highest
amplitude.
20.4.2 Single-Phase Flow
The type of output obtained from a noise log is shown in Figure 2. If flow through a
channel or a leak consists of a single phase (gas or liquid) or a mixture of liquids, then the
turbulence generated by the flow has a high frequency, 1000 Hz or above. At locations
where flow occurs, high amplitude readings are obtained for the 200-600, and 1000-Hz
readings. The readings below the 1000-Hz cut are close together, because not much sound
is generated at frequencies between 2000 and 1000 Hz.
20.4.3 Two-Phase Flow
If the flow consists of gas flowing through a liquid (two-phase flow), the frequency of the
sound is lower, and the readings are spread out. For two-phase flow, the difference in
amplitudes between the 200 and 600-Hz readings generally exceeds the amplitude of the
1000-Hz reading because two-phase flow generates considerable sound in the 2000-Hz
range.
20.4.4 Noise Log Examples
An example of the use of a noise log to detect a behind-pipe channel is given in Subject
20.11.
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Figure 2. Noise characteristics of flow through a leak or channel
20.4.5 Cement Bond Log (CBL)
Another application of sonic measurements is the cement bond log. The CBL is an acoustic
logging technique used to measure the coupling between the pipe, cement, and formation.
The tool measures the relative acoustic energy that is conveyed from a transmitter to a
receiver. It consists of an acoustic transmitter and one or two receivers separated by an
acoustic insulator, which prevents sound wave transmission through the tool.
20.4.6 CBL Principle
The principle of the cement bond log is analogous to the ringing of a bell. When the bell
housing is struck by the clapper, the housing resonates, generating sound waves. When the
housing is clamped, only a dull thud is heard. In a cement bond log, the clapper is the
transmitter, the bell housing is the casing, and the clamp is the cement sheath around the
casing. Responses of the detector to the transmitted signal are illustrated in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. Characteristic CBL signals
If the pipe is not firmly bonded to the cement (free pipe), the pipe vibrates and creates a
strong signal with a transit time of 57 sec/ft (characteristic of steel). Little, if any, signal
arrives from the formation.
If the cement is firmly bonded to the pipe and to the formation, the signal does not show
any pipe vibrations but is characteristic of the surrounding formation. The CBL can be
compared with an open-hole sonic log to verify formation signals.
If the cement is bonded to the pipe but not to the formation, little, if any, signal is received
from the formation. Because the pipe is not free, the characteristic pipe signal is not
observed either.
20.4.7 CBL Presentation
An example of a fully presented cement bond log is given in Figure 4. In the right-hand
track is a full wave train recording of the entire signal received by the detector. Analogous
to seismic recordings, the full wave train signal can provide information about bond
between the cement and the formation. The dark regions are the positive portions of the
wave train. The middle track records the time of arrival of the first return (dotted line) and
its amplitude (solid line). In most (but not all) cases, that portion of the signal that travels
through the casing is received first. The left-hand track is used for depth correlation. It
records the formation gamma ray signal and the location of casing collars.
This particular CBL recording locates the top of cement at 2390 ft. Above 2390, in
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uncemented pipe, the first (casing) return is strong. Below 2390, in cemented pipe, the
casing vibrations are damped. Hence, the amplitude of the casing signal is small.
20.4.8 Factors Affecting CBL Recording
Though the cement bond log is useful in qualitative evaluations of cement behind the pipe,
care should be taken when making quantitative judgements. The recorded signals depend
on several factors unrelated to the final cement bond, such as :
• Tool calibration
• Tool gain settings
• Tool centralization
• Length of time after cementing
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Figure 4. Cement bond log recording
20.5 ELECTRICAL LOGS
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20.5.1 Capacitance Meter
Measurements of electrical properties can be used to determine the type of fluid flowing in
the wellbore. Because water has a much higher dielectric constant than hydrocarbons,
electrical capacitance is a measure of the fraction of water present. A capacitance tool
transmits the output of an oscillating circuit, whose frequency decreases in response to an
increasing dielectric constant. Capacitance measurements are usually obtained in
association with a flowmeter tool (Subject 20.8).
An example of the use of a capacitance tool to determine the type of fluid as a function of
depth is given in Subject 20.12.
20.5.2 Resistivity Meter
A simple resistance measurement of wellbore fluid is sometimes used to determine the

water level in a wellbore when flow is not occurring. The resistivity of oil or gas is high,
while the resistivity of brine is very low. As the tool is lowered into the wellbore, a sudden
drop in resistivity the position of the water level.
20.6 MAGNETIC LOGS
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20.6.1 Collar Locator
The location of casing collars is an essential element of depth control (Subject 14.10). A
casing collar locator section (CCL) is run with most production logging tools. The locator
consists of a coil of wire placed between two cylindrical magnets of opposite polarity. As
the locator moves past a collar between joints of pipe, the increase in metal thickness
distorts the magnetic field through the coil. The resulting changes in magnetic flux induce
successive voltages of opposite polarity as each end of the detector passes through the
collar. These voltages are recorded at the surface as “tic” marks. Collar locators are
sometimes not effective in large diameter casing or when the logging tool is run slowly
(less than 20 ft/min). In these cases, other correlation methods must be employed (see
Subject 20.10).
20.6.2 Electromagnetic Inspection Tools
Similar induction measurements are used to determine the thickness of casing and to detect
pitting corrosion. Electromagnetic inspection tools contain generating coils that operate at
either a low frequency (16 Hz) or a very high frequency (25 kHz). Eddy currents are
induced that are in turn detected by the tool and transmitted to the surface. The low-
frequency signal measures wall thickness; the high-frequency signal detects small
imperfections in the wall.
20.6.3 Magnetic Orienter
To avoid perforating other strings in a multiple-string wellbore, it is necessary to determine

the relative orientation of each string. A magnetic orienting tool operates by rotating a
magnetic field generator. The presence of other strings distorts the magnetic field, thereby
indicating a direction that is recorded by a compass. The tool is often run with a
perforating gun attached.
20.7 NUCLEAR PRODUCTION LOGS
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20.7.1 Classifications
With respect to production logging, logs that detect radioactivity can be divided into two
general categories. Nuclear evaluation logs are used to locate bypassed producing zones, to
determine fluid contacts, or to assess formation lithology. Radiotracer logs detect
radioactive “tags” that can be injected into the wellbore.
20.7.2 Gamma Ray Log
A certain percentage of the atoms in any material are constantly undergoing nuclear
disintegrations, and thereby ejecting gamma rays as a disintegration product. Gamma rays
are high frequency bursts of electromagnetic energy that can penetrate casing. A gamma
ray log records gamma rays emitted by the formation, formation fluids, or an injected
tracer. A gamma ray detector consists of a tube lined with a sodium iodide crystal. As
gamma rays strike the crystal, flashes of light are generated. These flashes are detected by
a photomultiplier, converted into electric pulses, and transmitted to surface.
Gamma ray logs find major applications in reservoir monitoring (Subject 20.16). When run
with a magnetic collar locator, gamma ray logs are also frequently used for depth
correlation (Subject 20.10).
20.7.3 Fluid Density Analyzer
The fluid density analyzer operates on the same principle as the radioactive densitometer
used in cementing. Fluid flowing through a measuring chamber passes between a gamma
ray source and a detector. More dense fluids absorb a higher percentage of gamma rays and
reduce the intensity at the detector. This tool is usually run in conjunction with a flowmeter
(Subject 20.8). An example of the use of a fluid density analyzer is given in Subject 20.12.
20.7.4 Neutron Logs
All neutron tools contain a source of neutrons, which bombard the formation. When a
neutron is captured by an atom in the formation fluid, a gamma ray is emitted. The gamma
ray count rate will be higher for gas sands than for oil or water sands. Therefore, the widest
application of conventional neutron tools is for gas-liquid contact monitoring.
A compensated neutron log (CNL) uses two detectors to improve discrimination between
low hydrogen density in gas sands and low hydrogen density in low porosity formation
zones. This tool can be used to estimate porosity behind pipe.
Pulsed neutron capture (PNC) and induced gamma ray spectroscopy (IGRS) logs use high
energy, pulsed neutron sources. The logs can be used to estimate water saturations, identify
fluid contacts, and to estimate formation porosity. Variations of the PNC log include the
Neutron Lifetime Log (NLL), the Thermal Decay Time Log (TDT), and the Thermal
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Multigate Decay Log (TMD). Variations of the IGRS log include the Carbon-Oxygen Log
(C/O), the Shale Compensated Chlorine Log (SCCL), and the Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
Tool (GST).
Applications for the determination of fluid contacts are described in Subject 20.16.
20.7.5 Radiotracer Log
Radiotracer logging involves delivering of small amounts of radioactive tracer to a target

interval or flow location, and then detecting the subsequent location or movement of the
emitted gamma rays.
A typical radiotracer injector tool is shown in Figure 5. The tool consists of a collar
locator, a reservoir and ejector assembly for the tracer, and two gamma ray detectors. The
tracer most often used is iodine-131, which has a half life of 8.1 days. Radioactive iodine
and other tracers are available in water-soluble, oil soluble, or gaseous form.
20.7.6 Fluid Velocity Determination
The direction and magnitude of flow in casing can be measured by timing the transit of the
ejected tracer between the two gamma ray detectors. This is one of the best methods for
determining fluid movement in water injection wells. Tracers are less effective in
producing wells where multiphase flow is present. In producing wells care must also be
exercised to avoid returning excessive radioactivity levels to surface.
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Figure 5. Radiotracer injector
20.7.7 Channel Location
Radioactive tracers can also be injected into the fluid just above the perforations, then
forced through the perforations by pumping from the surface. If injection causes flow
through a channel to another zone behind the casing, the radioactive tracers will follow the
channel. By logging around the perforations after different amounts of injection, the path
of communication can be detected. This technique is very effective in determining fluid
flow outside the casing, either above or below perforations.
The use of a radiotracer log to track flow behind pipe is illustrated in Subjects 20.13 and
20.14.
20.8 SPINNER FLOWMETERS
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20.8.1 Principle
Spinner flowmeters record the movement of a shaft-mounted propeller as fluid moves past
or through the tool. The rate of rotation is measured by an optical phototube or by magnetic
pickup coils. For single-phase flow, the relationship between spinner speed and fluid
velocity is usually higher for gas than for liquids. Wellbore turbulence and multiphase flow
can greatly complicate the spinner record. Spinner surveys in deviated wells can also be
difficult to interpret.
20.8.2 Packer Flowmeter
The oldest type of spinner tool is the packer, or diverting flowmeter. An inflatable packer
is filled at the chosen measurement location, diverting all the wellbore flow past the
spinner. The advantages of this tool are sensitivity at low rates and the ability to measure
multiphase flow. The advantages are operational inconvenience, excessive pressure drop at
high rates, and the inability to obtain flow measurements in the perforated portions of the
casing.
20.8.3 Continuous Flowmeters
Continuous spinners are run continuously at a constant logging speed. Both “down” and
“up” logging runs are required to eliminate the tool movement component of the measured
velocity. The tool is run centralized, and thus detects only a portion of the radial velocity
profile. Various calibration constants are used as correction factors. Fullbore spinners
improve this cross-sectional sampling by using larger blades. The blades collapse while
running through tubing.
20.9 MECHANICAL SURVEY LOGS
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20.9.1 Microscopic Caliper
The microscopic caliper survey makes it possible to detect corrosion as well as to

distinguish corrosion from other defects in the pipe. The caliper is a mechanical device that
contains a large number of arms held against the wall of the pipe. Calipers are available for
pipe sizes ranging from 1.5 to 7-in. Some tools use 30-arm calipers for tubing and 40-arm
calipers for casing inspection. The presence of mineral scale deposits inside the pipe can
complicate the interpretation of corrosion effects.
20.9.2 Open Hole Caliper
Although technically not a production log, the open hole caliper is also valuable for
assessing wellbore problems. In particular, the hole geometry at any point indicates the
probability of a good cement seal. Field studies in primary cementing have shown that mud
displacement is usually very poor from washed out sections of the hole. These overgauge
regions, therefore, are likely areas of investigation for behind-pipe flow.
20.9.3 Free-Point Indicator
A free-point indicator is a tool used to determine the depth at which pipe is stuck or
anchored in the wellbore. Strain gauge elements are attached to two points of the pipe wall
by friction springs or magnets, enabling detecting of the relative movement of the two
points as the pipe is pulled or torqued. The free-point indicator is normally run with a
string shot so that the pipe can be backed off at the coupling above the free point.
20.10 RUNNING PRODUCTION LOGS
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20.10.1 Tool Selection
In selecting production logs it is important to remember that one log alone seldom provides
complete information. As mentioned previously, production logging surveys are best run in
suites of complementary logs.
Table 1 was developed to provide general guidelines for tool selection. The various
techniques are organized according to their utility in the lifetime of a well, from initial
completion to abandonment. For each well situation, the applicable tools are classified as
primary or secondary. Primary tools are those that are considered most efficient in normal
operations. Secondary tools provide complimentary information, or in many cases can be
used as alternates should the primary tools not be available. The various well situations in
Table 1 are discussed further in Sections 20.11-20.16.
20.10.2 Responsibilities of Company Representative
Given the complexity of modern production logging tools, it is almost always necessary to
rely heavily on the service company operator for correct technical execution. Logging
companies strive to provide trained personnel who are familiar with logging applications
and the details of the tools being run. Final accountability for the job, however, rests with
the company representative.
Responsibilities of the company representative include :
• Assuring job safety and well control;
• Verifying that the proper logging tools and associated equipment are brought to the
job site, including backups;
• Certifying that all of the equipment is in good condition;
• Checking tool configuration and settings;
• Ensuring that appropriate and correct job information is recorded on the logs,
including elevations, tool settings and calibration information;
• Confirming tool operation during the entire logging run;
• Obtaining the desired log presentation format;
• Making sure that the well is left in the proper configuration after the job.
It is important to remember that the logging company is paid to deliver technically valid
logs, not simply to show up at the wellsite. Acceptance of a log is indicated by the
signature of the company representative. Therefore, any suspected technical deficiencies
should be noted on the field invoice. Appropriate comments at this time allow for later
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charge adjustments should the log prove not fully usable.
Table 1
Selection of Production Logging Methods
APPICABLE TECHNIQUES
WELL SITUATION PRIMARY SECONDARY
CEMENT EVALUATION
1. Top of Cement Temperature Log Gamma Ray

(detection of radioisotope)
Cement Bond Log
2. Channels Behind Casing Noise Log Temperature Log

RDT Log Cement Bond Log
FLOW DISTRIBUTION INSIDE

CASING
1. Production Flow Profile Spinner Profile Temperature Log

Noise-Temperature Log Radiotracer Flowmeter
2. Injection Flow Profile Spinner Flowmeter Temperature Log

Radiotracer Flowmeter
3. Type of Fluid Fluid Density Survey Noise Log

Capacitance or Resistivity Log Temperature Log
4. Formation Damage Problems Bottom-hole Pressure Survey Spinner Survey

Temperature Log
5. Gas Lift Problems Pressure Profile Survey Temperature Log

Noise Log
6. Bubble Point Depth Pressure-Temperature Survey
Table 1 (Con’t)
Selection of Production Logging Methods
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APPICABLE TECHNIQUES
WELL SITUATION PRIMARY SECONDARY
PRODUCTION FROM
UNPERFORATED ZONES
1. Source of Flow Noise-Temperature Log RDT Log

Radiotracer Log
2. Entry into Casing Noise-Temperature Log Spinner Survey

Capacitance or Resistivity Log
Fluid Density Survey
EVALUATION OF STIMULATION
TREATMENTS
1. Identifying Stimulated Zones Spinner Survey Noise Log

Temperature Log
Radiotracer Log
2. Channels After Stimulation Temperature Log RDT Log

Radiotracer Log
3. Hydraulic Fracture Height Temperature Log RDT Log

Radiotracer Log
TUBULAR OR EQUIPMENT
EVALUATION
1. Locating Leaks Temperature Log Radiotracer Log

Noise Log
2. Assessing Corrosion Electromagnetic Inspection

Mechanical Caliper
3. Casing Recovery Free Point Indicator Cement Bond Log
RESERVOIR MONITORING
Gas/Liquid Contact Neutron Log Pulsed Neutron Log

Carbon-Oxygen Log
Chlorine Log
20.10.3 On-Site Equipment
In addition to the logging tool and its associated surface electronics, equipment typically
required for a production logging operation includes the following :
• Wireline unit
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• Lubricator
• Wireline BOP
• Pressure test equipment
• Wireline derrick, should a rig not be present
This equipment is discussed in Chapter 22, “Wireline Operations”.
20.10.4 Tool Inspection
A quick inspection of the tool before it is run into the hole can preclude many difficulties.
Frequently, logging problems are caused by oversights that could have been identified by
cursory examination. Routine inspections should include :
• General condition of the tool,
• Presence and correct location of any required centralizers,
• Extension and retraction of any arms or pads,
• Correct positioning of tool sections, such as the location of a tracer injector relative to
the gamma ray detectors.
The correct setting and calibration of the surface electronics is generally beyond the
expertise of a non-specialist. However, for certain logs some knowledge may be necessary.
One example is the cement bond log, where experience has shown that certain critical
electronic settings are not always provided by the operators.
20.10.5 Well Sketch
A well sketch should be present and consulted frequently during the logging run. Items
indicated on the well sketch should include :
• Suspected location of the problem being investigated,
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• Setting depths of the various casing strings,
• Top of cement (if known),
• Well deviation and kickoff points,
• “Pup joint” locations,
• Location of any radioactive marker strips attached to the casing,
• Location of any previous workover operations, such as squeeze cementing,
• Packer and tailpipe location,
• Location of other subsurface equipment such as safety valves, gas-lift valves, etc.
• Location of perforated zones,
• Pore pressures of the various intervals (if known).
20.10.6 Handling Radioactive Sources
The use of radioactive sources in logging operations is now a routine procedure that is
performed with an outstanding safety record and minimal restrictions by the various
regulatory agencies. However, several points must be kept in mind.
• The transportation, handling and use of radioactive material requires a license. The
license is typically held by the service company.
• The company representative is usually required to sign a form releasing the logging
company from any liability arising from the loss of a radioactive source. Depending
on the material lost, failure to recover a lost source might require the wellbore to be
plugged and abandoned. Those regulations generally apply to sources in neutron
logging tools, rather than low intensity, short half life tracers.
• Exposure to radioactive material can be dangerous. Because of this hazard, service

company personnel are trained in handling procedures and equipped with personal
exposure monitoring equipment. Unauthorized personnel should not be present during
handling operations.
20.10.7 Depth Correlation
For any log it is essential to know the well depth at which measurements are being made.
Although the counters on modern logging units can measure cable to one foot in 1000, in
many cases an error of a few feet is unacceptable. Cable measurement errors are increased
by direction reversals, so after several repeat passes the depth indicated by the counter may
be only an approximation of where the tool is actually located.
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For more precise depth control it is necessary to correlate the measured information to fixed
features of the wellbore or the completion. A new well is usually completed from a
perforation depth control (PDC) log. This is a neutron or gamma ray log run with a
magnetic collar locator. By matching the cased hole nuclear log to the corresponding open-
hole log, the casing collars can be used to calibrate the open-hole depth scale. Similarly,
the collar signals on any subsequent production log can be used to tie the log to this
absolute depth scale.
In some cases, such as a tool run centralized in large diameter casing, it may not be possible
to obtain a good collar record. In these situations, it may be necessary to run a separate
nuclear log prior to the production logs, marking the cable itself at distinctive formation
reference points. These marks can then be used for depth correlation of the following
production logs.
20.10.8 Running Program
In most production logging applications the goal is to detect the location of some anomaly
or to determine the conditions in the wellbore at some particular depth. Consequently, the
logging run is often somewhat of a “searching expedition”. It is prudent, therefore, to
establish a systematic running procedure prior to entering the hole.
• Logging Direction
Due to mechanical requirements or the location of sensors, some tools operate only in
one direction. Certain measurements are also best made in a particular direction. The
temperature log, for example, is most accurately recorded on the first downward pass.
• Logging Speed
A recommended running speed is usually given for each tool. In general, slower
running speeds enable more given for each tool. In general, slower running speeds
enable more precise and detailed measurements.
• Multiple Passes
Multiple passes are sometimes required, as in the case of a continuous spinner survey,
and sometimes necessary to locate a particular anomaly. Depth correlation is
particularly important where direction reversals have been executed.
• Stopping Locations
For measurements where the tool must be stopped, such a noise log or an RDT log,
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stopping points should be systematically planned in advance. Drilling and reservoir

information, as well as any previous production logs, can be used to establish the most
likely locations for the problem being investigated.
• Repeat Log
The timing of repeat logs depends on the measurements being made. For example,
repeat logs following the injection of cold fluid should be spaced long enough to allow
for distinct temperature changes, but not so long that the entire wellbore returns to a
geothermal state.
• Running Charges
Unless bid at a fixed price, running charges usually include a per-foot depth charge
and a per-foot logging charge. The use of a predetermined, systematic running
program, therefore, also minimizes the cost of the log.
20.10.9 Log Presentation
The formats by which logs are presented vary among logging companies, and a number of
different presentations may be acceptable. Certain features, however, are common to all
well-presented logs :
• All measured information is recorded.
• All relevant well information is present.
• All scales are labeled.
• Scale magnitudes match the full scale magnitude of the recorded signal.
• Recordings in various tracks are compatible.
• Reproduction quality is good.
Many logs are now recorded digitally and stored on tape. For these logs it is a simple
matter to obtain any type of special presentation.
20.11 CEMENT EVALUATION
20.11.1 Top of Cement
It is often necessary to locate the top of the cement (TOC) in the annulus to ensure that the
appropriate zones have been covered with cement or to verify that the cement coverage is
sufficient to satisfy government regulations. The TOC can also be used to give indirect
information about how well the cement was able to displace the drilling fluid. The top of
cement can be identified by a temperature log, a cement bond log, or a gamma ray log that
detects radioactive tracer added to the lead portion of cement. Figure 6 gives examples of
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these three logs as run following the same cement job.
Figure 6. Top of cement measurements
NOTE : Please refer to the PCSB Drilling Operations Manual, Section 8.7 CEMENT EVALUATION
for our standards.
Figure 7. Flow between two gas zones
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20.11.2 Cement Channels
When permeable zones at different pressures exist outside the wellbore before the well is
perforated, flow can occur between zones after the primary cement is pumped into place but
before the well is perforated. Tools used to detect flow behind casing prior to perforating
include noise logs and radial differential temperature logs. A temperature log may be
useful if the flow rate is high. A cement bond log can identify uncemented portions of the
casing that may include channels. In general, however, a cement bond log cannot
distinguish flow channels from other regions of undisplaced mud.
Figure 7 illustrates a channel between two gas zones as detected by a noise log and a radial
differential temperature log. The noise log indicates communication between 6650 and
6900 ft. The high amplitude and the closeness of the readings below the 1000-Hz cut
indicate single-phase flow. The RDT log shows a temperature difference at 6700 ft, but not
at 6640 ft, indicating that the channel is not present above the flow pressure gas zone.
20.12 FLOW DISTRIBUTION INSIDE CASING
20.12.1 Production Flow Profile
The spinner flowmeter is often the best technique for determining the production profile,
particularly where the flow rate is high and where the produced fluid consists of only a
single phase. Semiquantitative information can be obtained from a noise-temperature
combination, especially if gas is present. The temperature log can indicate the lowest well
depth from which fluid is produced. In low rate wells, a radiotracer flowmeter can be used
to determine the velocity of fluids up the wellbore.
A typical spinner presentation is shown in Figure 8. The tool is calibrated at 100% flow
above the producing interval. The spinner is then logged up and down across the
perforations, and the flow relative to the 100% calibration is recorded by the solid curve.
The rectangles represent successive differences from this curve, giving the percentages of
the total flow that can be attributed to various portions of the interval. It can be seen that
there is no production from the bottom perforations of the illustrated well.
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Figure 8. Spinner survey
20.12.2 Injection Flow Profile
The spinner flowmeter is generally quite successful in injection wells, where the flowing
fluid typically consists of only a single phase. It can be used to provide quantitative
information on the amount of fluid leaving the wellbore at each depth. The radiotracer
flowmeter is also useful in injection wells where disposal of radiotracer material is not a
problem. The simplest and most common technique for determining injection profiles is
the temperature log. When run during a shut-in period following injection, the temperature
log identifies the depths at which fluid leaves the wellbore as “cool” anomalies.
Figure 9 shows injection temperature surveys run on a salt water disposal well before and
after an acid treatment. The pretreatment log indicates that only the top set of perforations
was taking fluid. The post-treatment log indicates good injectivity into the top two
intervals, and some injectivity into the bottom perforations.
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Figure 9. Injection well temperature surveys
20.12.3 Type of Fluids
It is frequently necessary to know which perforations are producing which fluids, especially
unwanted fluids. Useful surveys include fluid density or gradient logs and electrical
capacitance or resistivity logs. Noise logs can also be useful, especially when gas is
produced.
Figure 10 shows a gamma ray fluid density log and a capacitance log obtained in a well
producing oil and water. Both logs indicate that practically all of the oil is coming from the
top set of perforations.
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Figure 10. (a) Capacitance and (b) Gamma ray fluid density logs
20.12.4 Formation Damage Problems
If the production rate of a well is lower than expected, the problem can be partially
analyzed by measuring the pressure at the perforations while the well is being produced and
for a time after production ceases. From this measurement, a productivity index can be
calculated. The pressure buildup curve can be analyzed to determine any decrease in
formation permeability near the wellbore, and to determine formation permeability at a
greater distance around the well. Pressure gauges are often run with other production
logging tools to perform such analyses.
Information regarding formation damage can also be obtained from flow profile surveys.
20.12.5 Gas-Lift Problems
If gas-lift valves are not functioning properly, a pressure profile of the wellbore can
indicate the problem. Temperature measurements or noise logs can identify gas leaks.
20.12.6 Bubble-Point Depth
Pressure and temperature measurements can also be used to assess the point at which gas
begins to come out of solution from produced oil. Such information may be useful in
solving problems of paraffin or asphalt deposits in tubing.
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20.13 PRODUCTION FROM UNPERFORATED ZONES
20.13.1 Source of Flow
It is not unusual for a zone that was judged to contain oil or gas to be perforated and
produce large amounts of water. Or, the pressure after perforating may prove to be much
higher or lower than expected. The difficult question at this point is whether or not flow is
occurring outside the casing between another zone and the perforated zone.
The most common technique used to detect communication with unperforated zones is a
temperature log. Various pieces of information can be obtained by running a temperature
log under flowing conditions, after shut-in, or after a cold fluid has been injected into the
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perforations (Subject 20.2). The temperature log is frequently run in combination with a
noise log. The RDT log can also be useful.
Figure 11 illustrates the use of a radioactive tracer to track production from a channel
behind casing. Iodine 131 was spotted at the perforations with a tracer injector tool. Fluid
injection at the surface then pushed the tracer into the formation. The gamma ray log
obtained after 5 bbl of injection shows that some of the tracer fluid has moved up to 9000
ft, indicating communication with the gas sands at this depth.
Figure 11. Use of a radiotracer log to track production from behind casing
20.13.2 Entry Into Casing
The point of entry into the casing can be determined by evaluating the flow profile and the
type of fluids present at various depths. Whether the flow in question is through the
perforations or a casing leak is often self-evident from the position of entry. Leaks can also
be distinguished by noise and temperature logs.
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20.14 EVALUATING STIMULATION TREATMENTS
20.14.1 Identifying Stimulated Zones
Production logs are frequently run before and after acid or fracturing treatments to evaluate
success in stimulating particular zones. Frequently run logs include spinner surveys,
radiotracer logs, and noise logs. The use of a temperature log to assess an acid treatment
was illustrated in Figure 9.
20.14.2 Channels After Stimulation
An undersirable consequence of stimulation treatments can be the opening of

communication channels to unperforated zones. Production logs can be run to check for
penetration of the injected fluids above and below the treated interval. Temperature logs
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run following treatment will show cool anomalies where the stimulation fluids have
penetrated. Alternately, fluids tagged with radiotracer tracers can be detected by gamma
ray logs.
20.14.3 Hydraulic Fracture Height
Figure 12 shows a log that detects radioactive tracer added to the sand used in a hydraulic
fracturing treatment. The radioactive tracer is used to give an indication of fracture height.
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Figure 12. Gamma ray log after fracturing with radioactive sand
20.15 TUBULAR OR EQUIPMENT EVALUATION
20.15.1 Locating Leaks
Mechanical leaks in the tubular goods or subsurface equipment can cause unwanted fluid
production or unusual pressures in the wellbore. The simplest method of locating a leak is
a temperature log. Figure 13 illustrates a temperature a temperature anomaly in a gas well
with a tubing leak. Cooling occurs as the gas expands through the leak. A packer leak, or a
leak in a sliding sleeve, can also be located with a temperature log. If gas is flowing, a
noise log is particularly useful for determining the source of a leak. Radiotracer injection
can also be used to locate leaks.
Figure 13. Temperature log showing tubing leak in gas well
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20.15.2 Assessing Corrosion
The condition of tubular goods can be assessed with various electromagnetic inspection
tools. These tools indicate the thickness of the pipe or the presence of corrosion, pits, or
other defects. A variety of mechanical calipers can also locate holes in the pipe or detect
pitting on the inside surface.
20.15.3 Casing Recovery
When a well is abandoned, it is often desirable to recover as much of the casing as possible.
At the point at which the casing is free to be pulled from the well, it is cut. To determine
this point, a free-point indicator can be used. As stress is applied at the surface, the
rotational or upward movement of the casing is indicated by the tool. These stretch
measurements indicate the depth to which the pipe is free, and hence the depth at which it
can be cut.
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20.16 RESERVOIR MONITORING
20.16.1 Gas/Liquid Contact
Information on the position and movement of fluid contacts is necessary for general
reservoir surveillance and for detecting undepleted wellbore zones. The position of the gas-
liquid contact is usually determined by a conventional or compensated neutron log.
Interpretation is made easier if logs are run over a period of time as the gas-liquid contact
moves. The well should be shut in for at least 24 hours before the neutron log is run to
allow any gas cone to disappear and the contact to become nearer to horizontal.
20.16.2 Oil/Water Contact
The pulsed neutron log (PNL) is the primary means of distinguishing water and oil behind
casing. As in the location of gas-liquid contacts, interpretation is easier when logs are run
periodically over the lifetime of the reservoir. The Chlorine Log and the Carbon-Oxygen
Log indicate reservoir saturations by detecting the presence of specific elements. Both can
be used to distinguish between oil-bearing and water bearing zones behind casing.
The gamma ray log is useful in certain reservoirs to identify zones that have been depleted
by water encroachment. It has been observed that water production can cause a buildup of
mineral scale that is high in natural radioactivity. Again, this scale is most easily identified
when logs are run at different stages of well life.
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20.17 REFERENCES
1. McKinley, R.M., “Production Logging”, SPE 10035 (1981).
2. Cooke, C.E., Jr., “Radial Differential Temperature (RDT) Logging – A New Tool
for Detecting and Treating Flow Behind Casing”, SPE 7758 (1978).
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COMPLETION REMEDIAL CEMENTING Page 1 of 52
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 21
REMEDIAL CEMENTING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1 INTRODUCTION …………………….……………………………………………. 4
21.1.1 Design Considerations ………………………………………………. 4

21.1.2 Typical Drilling Applications ………………………………………. 5
21.1.3 Typical Production Applications ……………………………………. 6
21.2 WELLBORE FLUIDS ………………...…………………………………………… 7
21.2.1 Solids Content ………..……………………………………………... 7

21.2.2 Chemical Compatibility …………………………………………….. 8
21.2.3 Recommendations ..…………………………………………………. 8
21.3 BOTTOM-HOLE TEMPERATURE ………….……….………………………… 10
21.3.1 BHCT …..……………................……………………………….….. 10

21.3.2 BHST …………………...…..…….......................…...………….…. 12
21.3.3 Determination of Temperature ……...............………………………. 12
21.3.4 Recommendations …………………………………………………... 13
21.4 BOTTOM-HOLE PRESSURE …………………………………………………… 14
21.4.1 Well Control ….…...………………………………………………… 14

21.4.2 Fracture Pressure …….……………………………………………… 14
21.4.3 Recommendations ……...…………………………..……………….. 15
21.5 EXAMPLE : DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE PRESSURE ...….……….. 17
21.6 EXAMPLE : BHP DURING CEMENTING OPERATIONS ……..….………... 19
21.7 FORMATION TYPE …………………………………………………....….......… 22

21.7.1 Not Easily Fractured …….…..…….……………….……………..… 22
21.7.2 Easily Fractured …………………………………………...………… 22
21.7.3 Recommendations .………………..………………………………... 23
21.8 BULLHEAD TECHNIQUE ……………….....………………………………...… 25
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21.8.1 General Procedure …........................................................................ 25

21.8.2 Advantages ……………..…………………….................................. 26
21.8.3 Disdvantages ….………..…………………….................................. 26
21.9 CEMENT PLUGS ……………………………....……………………………....… 27
21.9.1 General Procedure …….................................................................... 27

21.9.2 Plug Stabililty ……….….…………………….................................. 27
21.9.3 Placement Guidelines ……………………….................................... 28
21.10 BRANDENHEAD TECHNIQUE ……………………....…………….……….….. 30
21.10.1 General Procedure ….…................................................................... 30

21.10.2 Advantages ……………...…………………….................................. 30
21.10.3 Disadvantages .…….…………………............................................. 30
21.10.4 Operational Guidelines …..………………..………………………… 31
21.11 RETRIEVABLE PACKER TECHNIQUE .…………....……………………...… 32

21.11.2 Advantages ……………...…………………….................................. 32
21.11.3 Disadvantages .…….…………………............................................. 33
21.12 DRILLABLE PACKER TECHNIQUE ..……………....……………………..…. 34

21.12.2 Advantages ……………...…………………….................................. 35
21.12.3 Disadvantages.................................................................................... 35
21.13 CIRCULATION TECHNIQUE ...……………………....……………………...… 36

21.14 JOB OBJECTIVE ……………….……………………....……………………...… 38
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21.14.1 Perforation Squeeze ...…................................................................... 38

21.14.2 Channel Repair ….……...…………………….................................. 38
21.14.3 TOC Augmentation …….……………….......................................... 39
21.14.4 Casing Leak ……….…..………………..…………………………… 40
21.14.5 Liner Top Repair ……………………………………………………. 40
21.14.6 Plug And Abandonment …………………………………………….. 41
21.14.7 Kickoff Plugs ……………………………………………………….. 42
21.14.8 Casing Shoe Repair …………………………………………………. 42
21.15 ONSITE OPERATIONS ………...……………………....……………………….. 44

21.15.1 Prejob Testing …..….…................................................................... 44
21.15.2 Postjob Testing …………..………………..………………………… 46
21.16 EXAMPLE : CALCULATION OF BALANCED PLUG ..…………………...… 47
21.17 JOB DESIGN GUIDELINES …...……………………....……………………...… 48

21.17.1 Formulation and Technique Recommendations ................................ 48
21.18 REFERENCES …………………...……………………....…………………..…… 52
21.1 INTRODUCTION
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Remedial cementing consists of those operations performed to repair a well or to alter its
configuration. This usually involves the placement of small volumes of cement with
delivery techniques designed to target specific locations. Remedial operations generally
fall into two categories :
• Cement squeezes involves placing cement under pressure to seal perforations or

defects in the primary cement sheath.
• Cement plugs are set to isolate all or part of the wellbore.
The purpose of this section is to discuss both the well conditions that affect the performance
of a remedial cementing operation and the techniques that have been developed to place the
remedial cement slurry. Because of the broad range of this Chapter, the subjects are
presented in a general fashion. Where applicable, however, specific recommendations and
guidelines are also presented.
21.1.1 Design Considerations
Design considerations that must be evaluated when planning remedial cementing operations
include :
• General Well Parameters
Typical factors to consider include the type of completion, the well age, the type of
fluid in the wellbore, and the depth of the workover operation. These factors affect
the choice of the cement slurry formulation, cement volume, workover equipment, and
placement technique.
• Bottom-hole Temperature
The bottom-hole circulating temperature (BHCT) and the bottom-hole static

temperature (BHST) both affect cement properties. The BHCT affects the slurry
properties during placement and initial set; the BHST affects the rate of strength
development and the long-term stability of the hardened cement.
• Bottom-hole Pressure
The BHP during a remedial cementing operation should be greater than the reservoir
pore pressure and less than the formation fracture pressure. This insures that the BHP
is sufficient to keep the well under control and that the cement is contained in the
desired location in the wellbore.
• Formation Type
The type of formation at the repair location in the wellbore influences the choice of
fluid-loss rate, rheological properties, and required volume of the cement slurry.
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• Cementing Technique
Four basic techniques are used to place cement in a specific wellbore location:
bullhead, bradenhead, packer, and circulation. Each of these techniques has particular
characteristics that must be considered when deciding which to use for a remedial
cementing task.
• Job Objective
The choice of cement properties, cement volume, and workover technique is made by
considering all of the preceding factors : wellbore fluid, bottom-hole temperature,
bottom-hole pressure, formation type, and technique. Each workover presents a
unique situation in which the relative importance of these factors changes. A key to
successful workover planning and execution is the identification of the elements that
are most important for the job objective at hand.
These parameters are discussed in more detail in subsequent sections of this Chapter.
Tables summarizing recommendations for performing remedial cementing jobs are located
in Section 21.17. These tables can be used ad reference guidelines for choosing cement
properties and techniques when designing a cementing workover.
21.1.2 Typical Drilling Applications
Remedial cementing operations are performed during all phases of a well’s life. Typical
operations carried out during drilling are used to restore pressure integrity to the wellbore
or to alter the direction of the wellbore. Typical drilling applications are :
• Repair of lost circulation
• Repair of casing shoe
• Repair of liner tops
• Kickoff or whipstock plugs
• Plug and abandonment
21.1.2 Typical Production Applications
Remedial cementing operations carried out during production are used to control the fluid
ratios entering the wellbore or to restore pressure integrity. Common production
applications are :
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• Recompletion or perforation squeeze
• Repair of channeling
• Repair of casing leaks
• Augmentation of cement top
• Plug and abandonment
21.2 WELLBORE FLUIDS
For the purpose of this discussion, a wellbore fluid is any fluid that may contact either the
cement slurry or the location, where the slurry is to be placed. Examples of wellbore fluids
are fresh water, brine, diesel oil, water-based mud, oil-based mud, and some specialized
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fluids.
The properties of a wellbore fluid that affect the performance of remedial cementing
operations are
• Solids content
• Chemical compatibility
Other wellbore fluid properties must be considered in terms of the complete workover;
however, the preceding properties are most important when considering the cementing
operations.
21.2.1 Solids Content
The solids content of the wellbore fluid affects are
• Injection rate
• Location of cement slurry
During injection, solids in the wellbore fluid may form a filter cake on the permeable
formation faces of the target interval. The consequences of the filter cake formation are
either
• Formation fracture
• Increased job time
As the filter cake forms, the pressure necessary to maintain a given injection rate will
increase. If the pressure exceeds the fracture pressure of the target interval, the interval will
break down. If the target is fractured, the cement slurry may not be placed in the desired
location. To avoid fracturing the target, the injection rate must be reduced. However, if the
injection rate is reduced too much, the designed thickening time of the cement slurry may
be exceeded.
An additional problem can result if the solids content of the wellbore fluid is very high or
the target location is filled with debris. In these cases, the cement can be prevented from
reaching the desired locations. For example, if perforations or channels are filled with filter
cake or debris, they cannot be sealed with the cement.
21.2.2 Chemical Compatibility
The physical properties of a cement slurry can be altered if it is contaminated with wellbore
fluid. The principal physical properties that are affected include
• Thickening time
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• Fluid loss rate
• Compressive strength
Depending upon the composition of the wellbore fluid, contamination of the cement slurry
can result in a thickening time that is either or shorter than designed. A thickening time
shorter than designed may result in premature termination of the cementing operation.
Alternatively, a thickening time longer than design may result in excessive waiting-on-
cement times.
The fluid-loss rate of the cement slurry may also either be increased or decreased by
contamination with wellbore fluid. These changes may affect the outcome of the operation
if the fluid-loss rate was a critical parameter in the slurry design. For example, of the fluid-
loss rate is significantly increased when squeezing a long perforated interval, the cement
slurry may not reach the entire interval due to excessive filter cake formation on the upper
perforations.
The compressive strength of the set cement may be reduced if extensive contamination
occurs. Also, the durability of the cement may be reduced.
To minimize problems with solids and wellbore fluid/cement compatibility, the following
recommendations should be followed :
• Use filtered workover fluids
Filtered workover fluids are particularly important when the cementing operation
depends on maintaining injectivity to place the cement, as in the bullhead and some
packer techniques.
• Clean perforations or channel of excessive solids or debris
Removal of excessive solids and debris can be achieved by :
• Flowing
• Acidizing
• Washing
• Fracturing
Flowing the well should remove debris from perforations and channels. In some
cases, solids build up can be removed by this method; however, if extensive buildup of
solids is suspected, then an acid job should be considered.
Acidizing the target interval dissolves solids and debris, thereby increasing injectivity
and allowing the cement to be placed in the desired location. The type of acid used is
dependent on the nature of the solids to be removes. If the solids are mostly
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carbonates, hydrochloric acid will perform effectively. However, if the solids are
silicate based, such as mud filter cake, mud acid must be used. The volume of acid
used should be the same as that used for stimulation purposes.
In most cases, acid treatments will not damage the cement sheath. Hydrochloric acid
does not affect the cement; however, mud acid will attack the cement as well as the
mud. Normal volumes of mud acid used for stimulation treatments do not pose
problems; however, excessive volumes of mud acid should be avoided.
Debris and solids can also be removed by washing the target interval. Special tools
are available that can used to wash perforations.
Fracturing the target location is not an effective means of removing solids. Once a
fracture has been initiated, the location of the cement slurry cannot be controlled
precisely. Fracturing should be avoided unless it is the only option available.
• Minimize cement contamination
Cement contamination can be minimized by
• Using spacers
• Using plugs
• Placing tubing properly
Spacers and plugs separate the cement from the wellbore fluid and can be used
separately or in combination. For spacers, sufficient volume should be used ahead and
behind the cement. Unless compatibility with the wellbore fluid or well control is a
problem, fresh water should be used as the spacer fluid. Special spacer fluids are
available for use with oil-based wellbore fluids.
The drift diameter of the workstring should be checked when using wiper plugs. If an
undersize joint is encountered, the plug may get stuck resulting in premature
termination of the cementing operation.
The end of the tubing should be located within 25 ft of the target. This position
minimizes the distance that the cement must travel through the wellbore fluid, thereby
reducing the amount of contamination that occurs.
21.3 BOTTOM-HOLE TEMPERATURE
The temperatures that a cement slurry is exposed to affects its physical properties. Two
temperatures are important when designing cement slurries for remedial cementing
operations :
• Bottom-hole circulating temperature (BHCT)
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• Bottom-hole static temperature (BHST)
The BHCT affects the cement properties during placement and initial set; the BHST affects
the early and long-term compressive strength of the cement.
21.3.1 BHCT
The two important physical properties of a cement slurry affected by the BHCT are :
• Thickening time
• Fluid-loss rate
The thickening time of a cement slurry design is specific for the BHCT at which the testing
was performed. If the actual temperature is different, the thickening time will be altered. In
general, if the actual wellbore temperature encountered is greater than the test temperature,
the thickening time will be shorter than the design. Likewise, if the temperature is lower
than the test temperature, the thickening time will be longer than the design. Figure 1
shows the variation of thickening time with BHCT for several API cement classes.
Figure 1. Dependence of thickening time on BHCT
Large variations in thickening time can cause problems in remedial cementing operations.
Shorter than expected thickening times can result in premature job termination; longer than
expected times can cause excessive waiting-on-cement times.
The fluid-loss rate of a cement slurry is also specific for a given temperature. The
sensitivity of the fluid-loss rate to temperature variations depends on the particular cement
system being considered. For some systems, a difference in temperature of a few degrees
can result in a large difference in fluid-loss rate. For other systems, very little difference in
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fluid-loss rate is observed over a large temperature range. Table 1 presents some examples
of the effect of temperature on the fluid-loss rates of several cement formulations.
TABLE 1
Effect of Temperature on Fluid-Loss Rate
CONCENTRATION CONCENTRATION WATER TEMPERATURE HT/HP FLUID

OF FLA, OF CaCl2, REQUIREMENT, OF FLUID-LOSS LOSS RATE,
% bwc % bwc gps TEST, °F ml/30 min
89 329
0.0 (27)* (57)≅
0.4 4.3
116 386
100 387
0.5 (9) (23)
0.9 4.3
109 410
134 471
0.6 (2) (29)
0.2 4.6
136 500
115 100
1.2 (6) (25)
0.6 4.8
121 125
90 94
1.0 1.3 4.6 (2) (121)
92 215
* Increase in temperature
≅ Increase in fluid-loss rate
21.3.2 BHST
The two principal properties affected by the BHST are
• Strength development
• Durability
For a particular slurry formulation, a higher compressive strength will result at a given time
when the cement is cured at a higher temperature. Figure 2 shows the difference in the rate
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of strength development for a cement slurry cured at two different temperatures.
Figure 2. Dependence of compressive strength development on BHST
The long term durability of a hardened cement slurry is important since it must withstand
exposure to hydraulic and mechanical forces over a long period of time. Most
uncontaminated cement slurries gradually increase in strength as time passes; however, if
the BHST is greater than 250°F, the strength may decrease. This phenomenon is called
strength retrogression and is discussed in Section 4.6.
21.3.3 Determination of Temperature
The BHST and BHCT can be determined by a variety of methods. A discussion of several
methods can be found in Section 4.4.
To obtain desired slurry properties under field conditions, the following recommendations
should be observed :
• Accurately determine BHST
For development wells, field experience is sufficient unless consistently unsatisfactory

cement performance is observed.
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• Use API Schedules to determine BHCT under normal conditions
The API Schedules should provide a reasonable estimate of BHCT for most onshore
wells with a temperature gradient around 1.5°F/100 ft.
• Use a wellbore temperature simulator to determine BHCT in special situations
A temperature simulator should be used for offshore, artic, and high/low temperature
gradient wells.
21.4 BOTTOM-HOLE PRESSURE
A remedial cementing job should be designed around the BHP at the target location by
considering two factors :
• Well control
• Fracture pressure
The bottom-hole pressure (BHP) at the target location in the wellbore is defined as
BHP = Surface Pressure + Hydrostatic Pressure – Friction Pressure
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The surface pressure is the pressure measured at the outlet of the pumps; the hydrostatic
pressure is the gravity pressure of the fluids contained in the wellbore. The friction
pressure is the estimated pressure required to move the fluids in the system. In most
situations, this factor is small relative to the other pressures and can be neglected.
However, when small diameter tubing is being used, as on a coiled tubing unit, the friction
pressure may be large and must be considered.
The BHP is controlled by four parameters :
• Cement slurry density
• Cement slurry volume
• Workstring capacity
• Surface pressure
21.4.1 Well Control
The BHP should be greater than the pore pressure of any interval in communication with
the wellbore. Maintaining well control is usually not a problem in remedial cementing
operations. However, when using large volumes of lightweight spacers, the lower limit of
the BHP must be known so that well control is no lost.
21.4.2 Fracture Pressure
Fracturing the target location by excessive BHP during a remedial cementing job is
undesirable for two reasons :
• Location of the slurry cannot be controlled
• Fractures may extend to nearby zones
The wellbore fluids, including the cement, will flow through fractures since they are the
path of least resistance. If this occurs, the cement will not be efficiently placed in the target
location. Further, research has shown that when subsequent cement jobs exceed the
fracture pressure, the cement will be located in the same fractures as the previous jobs.
Fractures may extend to nearby zones, thereby creating communication between them. If
these zones contain unwanted fluids, additional problems may be created by the fractures.
The orientation of included fractures depends on the stress field present in each individual
formation. However, in general, a fracture in a formation deeper than 2000 ft is oriented
vertically. At depths less than about 2000 ft, the fracture may be either vertical or
horizontal (Figure 3).
HORIZONTAL FRACTURE VERTICAL FRACTURE
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• DOES NOT OCCUR EXCEPT • ACTUAL FRACTURE PLANE

AT SHALLOW DEPTHS, IN SQUEEZE JOBS
<2000 FT
Figure 3. Fracture orientation as a function of depth
The following recommendations should minimize the potential for fracturing the target
location during a remedial cementing operation :
• Estimate the current fracture of the target
This estimate can come from experience in an area, testing, drilling records, or
calculation. In general, the fracture pressure of a reservoir decreases as reservoir
pressure declines. The empirical equation introduced in Section 17.3 relates reservoir
pressure to the fracture pressure. This method assumes that the fracture pressure was
known at one time. If an actual value for the initial fracture pressure is not known, a
good estimate of the original fracture gradient is 0.65 psi/ft. Section 21.5 presents an
example of the determination of formation fracture pressure.
• Establish the Maximum Allowable BHP
The maximum allowable BHP for design purposes is the fracture pressure minus a
safety factor. Reasonable safety factors are in the 300 to 500 psi range. This pressure
is the upper limit for the BHP during all phases of the remedial cementing job.
• Keep the hydrostatic BHP less than the maximum allowable BHP throughout the
job
The BHP may be controlled by adjusting two parameters:
• Fluid hydrostatic pressure

• Tubular capacity
The fluid hydrostatic pressure depends on the densities and volumes of the fluids in
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the wellbore. The contribution to the hydrostatic pressure from the cement column
can be reduced by lowering the density of the cement slurry. Several methods to
lower the density of the cement slurry are given in Section 4.6. The degree to which
the density can be lowered, however, may be limited by the compressive strength
required in the set cement.
Another method of reducing the contribution of the cement slurry to the hydrostatic
pressure is to reduce the volume of cement used. The volume of cement required for
most remedial cementing operations is small. As a practical matter, the minimum
volume of cement that can be mixed is about 10 bbl. This volume is sufficient for the
majority of production type remedial cementing operations.
The hydrostatic pressure of the cement can also be reduced by using a larger
workstring. For a given volume of cement, a larger workstring lowers the BHP by
decreasing the height of the cement column. Therefore, the largest workstring that can
be safely run should be used.
In practice, it may be necessary to use a combination of these techniques to achieve a

BHP that is within established limits throughout the job.
• Establish the maximum allowable surface pressure throughout the job
Once the hydrostatic pressure for the various phases of the job has been determined, a
surface pressure can be specified. At a given point in the operation, this pressure is
equal to the maximum allowable bottom-hole pressure minus the hydrostatic pressure.
The maximum squeeze pressure is the difference between the maximum allowable
BHP and the hydrostatic BHP with the cement in place.
21.5 EXAMPLE : DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE PRESSURE
Before a workover on producing well, the current fracture gradient is needed for planning.
Information available on the well includes the following :
• Original reservoir pressure : 2500 psi
• Original fracture gradient : 0.7 psi/ft
• Depth of reservoir : 5354 ft
• Current reservoir pressure : 1800 psi
The empirical equation (see Section 17.3) that relates the fracture gradient, <f, to the
reservoir pressure and rock properties is
P
<f = αβ + (1- α)
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where α is an empirical factor describing the reservoir rock strength, P is the reservoir
pressure, D is the reservoir depth, and βis the overburden stress gradient which is generally
assumed to be 1.0 psi/ft.
To determine α, measure or assume the original fracture gradient. In this example, the
original fracture gradient is known to be 0.7 psi/ft. The above equation may be solved for α
and the values of the parameters substituted as shown below.
P 2500
∆f – 0.7 −
D 5354
α = = = 0.44
1– P 1 – 2500
D 5354
Once determined, α is usually assumed to be constant for a given formation. This α is then
used with the current reservoir pressure to give the current ∆f.
∆f = 0.44 + (1 – 0.44) 1800 psi

5354 ft
= 0.63 psi/ft
Therefore, the fracture pressure is
Pfrac = ∆f
= 0.63 psi/ft x 5354 ft
= 3373 psi
This represents a decrease of 375 psi from the original fracture pressure of 3748 psi.
Planning a remedial cementing operation involves the determination of the BHP during
various stages of the job. Before the specification of a procedure, the following
information was available :
• Production casing : 5 ½-in. OD, 14-lb/ft,

4.887-in. drift diameter
• Planned work string : 2-3/8-in. OD, 4.7-lb/ft,

1.901-in. drift diameter;
3.063-in. OD at couplings
• Capacity of casing : 0.00244 bbl/ft
• Capacity of work string : 0.0039 bbl/ft

• Current reservoir pressure : 1800 psi
• Current fracture gradient : 0.63 psi/ft (see Section 21.5)
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• Current fracture pressure : 3373 psi (see Section 21.5)
• Reservoir depth : 5354 ft
• Density of workover fluid : 8.7 ppg
• Planned volume of cement : 10 bbl
• Planned density of cement : 16.2 ppg
The maximum allowable BHP during the cementing operation is the formation fracture
pressure minus a safety factor. A safety factor of 500 psi is used in this example.
BHPmax = Pfrac - Safety factor

= 3373 psi – 500 psi
= 2873 psi
Conservatively, the maximum pressure exerted on the bottom of the hole occurs when all
the cement is in the work string. This number should be compared with the BHPmax
determined above.
21.6 EXAMPLE : BHP DURING CEMENTING OPERATIONS
Height of cement in work string = Volume of cement

Capacity of tubing
10 bbl
=
0.0039 bbl/ft
= 2564 ft
BHP = 0.052 x [Height of cement x Density of cement

+ Height of fluid x Density of fluid]
= 0.052 x [(2564 x 16.2) + (5354 – 2564) x 8.7]
= 3422 psi
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A comparison of the BHP during the operation with the maximum allowable pressure
shows that the BHP must be reduced by 549 psi to minimize the possibility of fracturing the
formation.
The simplest method to reduce the BHP is by decreasing the amount of cement used. First,
the maximum-allowable volume of cement, Vc (max), is determined by calculating the
maximum-allowable height, hc (max), of the cement based on the BHPmax.
hc (max) =
= 1156 ft
The maximum allowable volume of cement, Vc (max), is :
Vc (max) = hc (max), x Capacity of work string
= 1156 x 0.0039
= 4.5 bbl
The estimated volume of cement necessary to perform the squeeze job should then be
compared with Vc(max). In this example, the objective is to squeeze about 18 ft of
perforations. As shown below, the amount of cement necessary for this operation is
Estimated amount of cement = Capacity of casing x Interval length
= 0.0244 bbl/ft x 18ft
= 0.44 bbl
Thus, Vc(max) is more than enough cement to perform the operation and the planned
slurry volume of 10 bbl can be reduced. As a practical matter, however, it is difficult
to mix quantities of cement smaller than about 10 bbls. However, it may be desirable
To pump a slurry volume of 5 bbl and use a second slurry-reduction method to lower
the BHP further.
An alternative to reducing the amount of cement is to reduce the density of the cement
slurry being used.
BHPmax/0.052 – Tubing length x Workover fluid density
Max. cement density =
Height of cement
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+ Workover fluid density
= + 8.7
= 11.7 ppg
A cement of this density could be formulated; however, it might not develop the
requisite strength.
The final method to reduce the BHP is to use the largest work string that can be safely
run in the casing size. For the 5 ½-in. casing in this example, a 2-7/8-in. OD work
string could be used.
Height of cement =
= 1724 ft
BHP = 0.052 {(1724 x 16.2) + [(5354 – 1724) x 8.7]}
= 3095 psi
This pressure is 222 psi greater than the BHPmax. Thus, this technique alone could not
be used to reduce BHP within the required limits.
For this well, then, the BHP could be reduced by either decreasing the volume of
cement to about 4 bbl or by decreasing the density to 11.7 ppg. Neither of these
solutions is entirely satisfactory and it is likely that some combination of volume
reduction, density reduction, and increase in tubing capacity would provide the best
solution.
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21.7 FORMATION TYPE
Remedial cementing operations attempt to immobilize the cement slurry in the target
location. Two physical properties of a cement slurry can be adjusted to aid in the
immobilization:
• Fluid-loss rate
• Rheology
The selection of the particular physical properties in the cement slurry are dependent on the
characteristics of the formation at the target interval. For this discussion, formations will be
grouped into two general categories :
• Not easily fractured
• Easily fractured
21.7.1 Not Easily Fractured
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Formation that are not easily fractured can be further broken down into two classifications :
• Permeable
• Impermeable
Filter cake forms when a cement slurry is placed across a permeable formation. This filter
cake immobilizes the slurry. However, the rate of formation of the filter cake can be
important. If the filter cake builds very rapidly, the wellbore can be filled with filter cake.
This may result in a pressure increase which incorrectly indicates a successful squeeze.
Alternatively, the workstring may be stuck in the hole. On the other hand, if filter cake
does not build rapidly enough, the cement slurry remains mobile. A mobile slurry may
migrate away from the target interval or be removed by subsequent operations.
Filter cake does not form when a slurry is placed across an impermeable formation.
Therefore, other methods must be used to immobilize the slurry in the desired location.
The slurry can be immobilized by properly adjusting the thickening time or by building
thixotropic properties into the slurry. In most instances, adjustment of the thickening time
is preferable.
21.7.2 Easily Fractured
When a slurry is placed across an easily fractured formation, the slurry tends to move away
from the wellbore in fractured that are either induced or natural. The cement slurry can
move for considerable distances through the fracture system. Unless the cement slurry can
be immobilized relatively rapidly, large volumes of cement can be pumped into easily
fractured formations. Several methods for achieving rapidly immobilization are discussed
below. In general, the volume of cement required to perform a remedial cementing
operation in an easily fractured formation will be greater than that required in a strong,
permeable formation.
The following recommendations define the fluid-loss rate and rheological properties
desired for particular situations :
• Use a fluid-loss rate 150 ml/30 min strong, permeable sandstones
This fluid-loss rate allows the cement slurry to reach all the repair locations by
preventing the excessive buildup of filter cake in the most conductive areas. Figure 4
illustrates the amount of filter cake buildup as a function of fluid-loss rate when
squeezing perforations. It can be seen that a high fluid-loss rate results in excessive
filter cake formation. Also, a fluid-loss rate that is too low does not fill the target
location, in this case, the perforation tunnel.
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Figure 4. Filter cake buildup
• Use neat cement slurries for strong, impermeable formations
Fluid-loss additives serve no purpose when the target location is an impermeable

formation. When using a neat slurry, if the formation should fracture, the slurry is
more likely to immobilize rapidly, keeping the slurry contained in the near wellbore
region.
• Use two stage slurry systems for easily fractured formations
A two-stage slurry system is made up two cement slurries having different physical
properties. The first stage of the system is designed to immobilize rapidly in the easily
fractured formation. The second stage is a restricted fluid-loss rate slurry to control
filter cake formation in the near wellbore region.
The first stage slurry is usually neat or thixotropic. Both of these slurry types
immobilize rapidly in the fracture system, although by different mechanisms. A neat
slurry will rapidly form filter cake that fills the fracture system. A thixotropic slurry
will build a very high gel strength within a short time after it becomes quiescent. The
high gel strength will then prevent the slurry from moving further into the formation
fracture system.
Once the first stage has been immobilized in the fracture system, squeeze pressure can
be applied to the second stage to build filter cake in the target location. Low squeeze
pressures should be used since it is possible to break down the blockages formed by
the first stage.
An alternative to using either a neat or thixotropic slurry as the first stage is a sodium
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silicate system. When using this technique, a preflush of calcium chloride brine is
pumped, followed by a fresh water spacer. A solution of sodium silicate is then
pumped after the spacer. When the sodium silicate contacts the calcium chloride in
the fracture system, a precipitate is formed that seals the fractures. A cement slurry
with restricted fluid-loss rate can then be squeezed in the target location.
• Consider reducing the hydrostatic pressure of the cement column in easily

fractured formations.
See Section 21.4.
21.8 BULLHEAD TECHNIQUE
The bullhead technique is defined as any method that displaces the workover fluid in the
wellbore into a formation as the cement is being pumped into place. The volume of fluid
displaced can range from a full tubing or casing volume to a friction of a tubing or casing
volume, depending on the procedure used. This technique should only be considered when
all others have been ruled out.
21.8.1 General Procedure
The procedure for performing a bullhead squeeze can be separated into five stages. These
are :
• killing the well
• determining the injection rate
• mixing the slurry
• displacing the slurry
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• monitoring the displacement volume for slurry displacement
After killing the well with a clean, filtered, completion fluid, perform an injectivity test to
determine the maximum surface pressure at which fluids can be pumped into the formation
without fracturing. This pressure is used to determine the maximum allowable surface
pressure during the various stages of the job. This pressure must be less than the burst
rating of the casing.
The cement slurry should be batch mixed to achieve the most homogeneous mixture
possible. This insures that the slurry is more resistant to the effects of contamination and
that the desired physical properties are present downhole.
For a bullhead operation, the cement slurry should have fluid-loss control. This is
necessary to avoid the buildup of filter cake nodes, which could cause increases in surface
pressure and give a false indication of a successful job.
The slurry should be displaced into the well at a rate less than or equal to that determined
from the injectivity test. The surface pressure should also be monitored, and the pumping
should be slowed so that the predetermined maximum, chosen so that the bottomhole
pressure does not exceed the formation fracture pressure during the job, is not exceeded.
Calculations of the bottomhole pressure during the cement displacement may indicate that
the increased hydrostatic contribution of the cement exceeds the fracture pressure. In these
instances, consideration should be given to a reduction in the volume of cement to be
pumped, thereby reducing the increase in bottomhole pressure during cement placement.
21.8.2 Advantages
The primary advantages of this it is inexpensive to perform. The only equipment necessary
is that for mixing and pumping the cement.
In addition, production equipment does not need to be removed from the well. Equipment
such as gas-lift valves can be left in the hole during the operation if desired. However, any
in-line valves, for example, subsurface safety valves, must be removed. This is necessary
because they may either plug during the operation or be abraded to the extent that they are
inoperable.
Bullheading may be the only technique available in 2-7/8-in. OD casing. Although packers
are available for this small casing size, they are not universally available, and reliability
problems have been reported. In addition, if the casing is constricted for any reason, it may
be impossible to put a work string into the well.
21.8.3 Disadvantages
When trying to achieve desired displacement rates, the fracture pressure of the target zone
may be exceeded. This is the primary disadvantages to the bullhead technique. If
displacement is slowed to prevent fracturing the zone where the cement is to be placed, the
job time may exceed the thickening time of the slurry.
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The pressure integrity of the casing must be good to prevent bridging problems. If a leak is
present in the casing, cement filter cake begins to form around the leak. If this filter cake
bridges the casing, the job must be shut down prematurely. Because the bullhead technique
has no provision to test the casing, the potential for this problem may not be realized before
the job.
Cement contamination is a potentially serious problem with the bullhead technique. Use of
spacers ahead and behind the cement slurry should help to minimize problems because of
contaminated cement. Wiper plugs cannot be used in this method. The effect of
contamination can range from premature set to severe overretardation, depending on the
volume and nature of the fluid mixed with the cement.
The potential exists for the overdisplacement of the cement slurry if the slurry is pumped at
a BHP that exceeds the formation fracture pressure. The operator should carefully monitor
the amount of displacing fluid pumped and should shut down when the predetermined
amount has been used. If the cement is overdisplaced, the wellbore will not pass a postjob
pressure or swab test. Depending on the degree of overdisplacement, the injectivity may
even be reduced so much that another bullhead operation cannot be performed.
The bullhead technique should only be as a method of last resort. This technique may be
used when it is impossible to put a work string into the hole. If a work string can be used,
the bradenhead or packer methods should be considered first. Although the initial cost of
the bullhead is low, failure can result in significantly increased expense.
21.9 CEMENT PLUGS
The balance method for setting a cement plug is probably the most versatile as well as the
most widely used. Other methods include using a dump bailer and bullheading. These
methods are limited by the amount of cement that can be placed and by potential
contamination, respectively.
When spotting a balanced plug, cement is pumped around the workstring until the height of
cement in the annulus is equal to the height of cement left in the workstring (Figure 5).
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Figure 5. Setting a balanced plug
The plug is hydrostatically balanced at his point, and the work string can be with-drawn,
leaving the plug in the hole. The equation used to calculate the height of a plug is :
Height of plug = Cement slurry volume

Annular capacity + Tubing capacity
The use of this equation to determine the necessary fluid volumes is illustrated in Section
21.16.
21.9.2 Plug Stability
Because the cement slurry used in a plug is normally more dense than the workover fluid,
the cement tends to swap places with the lighter fluid below the plug. This instability can
take several forms. If the casing is large enough, the whole plug may distend any migrate
down the wellbore. In other circumstances, small portions of the plug may break off from
the bottom and fall down the wellbore. If this latter process is carried far enough, the plug
disintegrates and cannot be found.
The length necessary for any given plug varies; however, allowance must be made for
cement contamination on the top of the plug and instability on the bottom. When practical,
100 ft should be added to the top and bottom of the plug to compensate for these factors.
For example, if 400 ft of plug is required, a 600-ft plug should be set.
Instability of the bottom of the cement plug can be avoided or minimized by :
• Using a cement basket or inflatable bridge plug
• Using a standard bridge plug
• Placing the plug on the bottom of the hole
• Adjusting the cement density to be the same as the surrounding wellbore fluid
• Designing the thickening time to be the job time plus 30-45 minutes
21.9.3 Placement Guidelines
Guidelines for proper procedures for placing a cement plug are given below.
The plug should be placed in a gauge portion of the wellbore if it is placed in the open hole.
This is preferable because displacement can be optimized in these regions. If a plug is
placed across a washout, it is difficult, if not impossible, to displace all the mud.
Pipe movement and centralization should improve the displacement of the workover fluid
by the cement, the particularly when drilling mud is in the hole. One centralizer per joint
through the length of the plug can be used. In conjunction with centralization, the pipe
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should be rotated. Reciprocation should be avoided because of the potential of cement

contamination. Movement should be stopped after the plug is balanced, and the tubing
string should be withdrawn slowly. Fast removal of the work string is to be avoided
because cement contamination may result.
A diverter tool sub can be used on the end-of-tubing (EOT). This sub has ports on the side
rather than the end. The purpose of this sub is to reduce the amount of cement
contamination because of mixing that occurs at the EOT.
Conflicting factors influence the optimum rate for pumping a plug into place. Because the
cement volume is not great, the rate should be low to minimize mixing effects. However,
displacement is better if the pump rates are high. A moderate pump rate sufficient to give
about 90 annular ft/min seems to be a good guideline.
Overdisplacement of the balanced plug should be avoided because it increases the
contamination of the cement slurry. The usual practice is to underdisplace the plug, that is,
to pump less displacement fluid than calculated. When the work string is broken out, it
should not back-flow. If back-flow of the work string occurs, this indicates that the cement
was overdisplaced.
An accurate method of preventing overdisplacement is to use the two-plug method. This

method employs one or two plugs and a plug-catching mandrel. The only essential plug in
this method is the top one, which is caught in the mandrel.
The mandrel is placed in the string at a point that is above the projected top of the plug.
When the top plug is caught in the mandrel, pressure in the work string increases. This is a
definite indication of where the cement is located. By increasing the pressure, pins in the
mandrel are sheared, and circulation through the string is reestablished. This method is
particularly useful if the pumps are not well calibrated.
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21.10 BRADENHEAD TECHNIQUE
The bradenhead technique is a two-stage procedure involving the placement of a balanced

cement plug across the target zone, followed by the application of pressure to squeeze the
slurry into any voids and to accelerate filter cake formation (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Bradenhead procedure
21.10.2 Advantages
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For the bradenhead technique, contamination is less than when using the bullhead technique
because the tubing diameters are smaller. Contamination of the cement slurry can also be
limited during placement operations by the use of spacers or wiper plugs.
Because no downhole tools, that is, packers, are required to perform a bradenhead
operation, the remedial cement job can be done without the removal of most subsurface
production equipment. The only equipment that must be removed is in-line valves,
downhole pumps, or any other device that blocks the tubing. Production tubing, gas-lift
valves, and packers can be left in the hole.
A potential disadvantage of the bradenhead technique is the exposure of the well casing or
production tubing to squeeze pressures. If the design recommendations given here are
followed, this concern should be minimized because high pressures are not encountered.
However, leaks in the casing or tubing pose potential problems because of filter cake
buildup sticking the work string or bridging.
21.10.4 Operational Guidelines
A bradenhead operation is normally performed using a concentric or conventional

workover. In the concentric method, a small-diameter workstring, usually 1-in. OD, is
placed inside the existing tubulars. An alternative to the use of a conventional rig and small
diameter tubing is the use of a coiled tubing unit. Use of this unit may reduce the workover
costs. Special care must be taken when performing reversing operations with coiled tubing.
The work string should be run in to a depth so that the end of the tubing (EOT) is at least 25
ft below the target interval when possible. This distance helps to compensate for any
disintegration that occurs at the bottom of the plug because of instabilities in the
cement/workover fluid interface. If the balanced plug is to be placed on top of a bridge
plug or on bottom, this distance is not critical.
The plug should be intentionally underdisplaced, that is, the amount of fluid necessary to
displace the cement to the balance point should be reduced. The primary reason for this is
to prevent accidental overdisplament which can lead to severe cement contamination. If the
cement was actually underdisplaced, the workstring should go on vacuum when it is broken
out. If the work string backflows when broken out, this indicates that the plug was
overdisplaced.
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21.11 RETRIEVABLE PACKER TECHNIQUE
A retrievable packer technique is a method that uses a sealing element to isolate the upper
region of the casing string from applied squeeze pressure (Figure 7). The packer is an
integral part of the tubing string and is manufactured from materials that are not easily
drillable.
Figure 7. Retrievable packer technique
21.11.2 Advantages
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A principal reason for the use of a packer is that the casing above the packer can be isolated
from the applied squeeze pressure. This is useful if the integrity of the casing suspect or if
the application of high pressure is anticipated.
When used with a bridge plug, selected areas can be treated while others remain untouched.
For example, it is possible to squeeze just the upper portion of a perforated interval by
placing a bridge plug near the bottom of the interval to be treated, setting the packer above
the interval, and performing the squeeze. The cement can then be drilled, the bridge plug
can be removed, and the well can be placed back on production.
With a retrievable packer, several different operations can be performed without tripping
the work string. For example, a zone can be squeezed; the squeeze can be tested; a new
zone can be perforated, and the production can be tested without removal of the work string
and packer.
When any packer is used in a squeeze cementing operation, there is a risk of casing
collapse. This is a potential risk because of the possibility that a channel exists that will
allow the applied squeeze pressure to be applied outside the casing above the packer. If the
casing collapses, removal of the packer is difficult, if not impossible.
Because this procedure depends on a mechanical device to provide a pressure seal, the risk
of mechanical failure is higher than with the bullhead and bradenhead techniques. If the
packer fails to seat, a trip of the work string will be required to replace it.
The sealing elements of the packer should be inspected for damage before installing the
device on the workstring. Also, the mechanical operation of the packer should be checked
as thoroughly as possible. After the packer has been made up on the tubing and run in a
few joints, it should be tested. The packer should be set and the annulus pressured up to
check the integrity of the seals.
The packer should be placed above the location of suspected channels. To reduce the
chance of casing collapse, pressure should be applied to the tubing casing annulus before
squeeze pressure is applied.
The EOT should be as close as possible to the target zone to reduce cement contamination.
Several joints of tubing may need to be run below the packer so that the packer can be set
above any suspected channels. In general, the packer should be set so that the EOT is 25-50
ft from the target interval.
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21.12 DRILLABLE PACKER TECHNIQUE
A drillable packer may be used in place of a retrievable packer to isolate the upper casing
from excessive pressure and to prevent back-flow of the cement. These packers may be run
and set on wire line or tubing. If the packer is equipped with a valve to hold pressure from
below, it is sometimes termed a cement retainer (Figure 8). Packers that hold pressure from
both sides can be used as bridge plugs.
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Figure 8. Cement retainer

21.12.2 Advantages
When a retainer is used, pressure can be maintained on the cement during other operations.
Also, the cement is prevented from back-flowing. Therefore, pressure can be held on the
cement while a trip is made to get a drill bit.
As with any technique that relies on mechanical downhole tools, there is always a
possibility the packer will not operate properly. In addition, casing collapse above the
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packer is a possibility.
Although packers of this type are made of easily drillable alloys, sometimes parts begin to
spin under the action of the drill bit. When this occurs, additional drilling time is often
required. To reduce the chance for components to spin, a small quantity of cement is
usually dumped on top of the retainer after the tubing is removed.
21.13 CIRCULATION TECHNIQUE
This technique uses a drillable packer set between two sets of perforations to circulate the
cement into the annular space (Figure 9). The basic procedure is to:
• Place a second set of perforations about 25 ft from production perforations
• Place a cement retainer between perforated intervals
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• Establish circulation through the annular space
• Circulate cement into the annular space
• Release from the retainer
• Pull up
• Apply squeeze pressure
As always, the well should be killed with clean brine.
Figure 9. Circulation procedure
When repairing a cement channel using the circulation technique, the engineer should
consider the importance of establishing circulation, fluid-loss rate control, circulation time,
circulation distance, and circulation rate.
• Establishing circulation
For this technique to work, fluid circulation between the sets of perforations must be
established. Establishing circulation is usually the most difficult step in the procedure.
If the channel was caused by mud that has subsequently been removed, circulation
should not be a problem, if the channel is penetrated by a perforation. However, if the
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channel is due to wormholed cement, it may be difficult to circulate at appreciable

rates.
• Fluid-loss Rate
Cases have been reported of stuck tubing after cement placement due to the buildup of
filter cake opposite the upper perforations. To reduce the potential for this problem,
keep the fluid loss rate of the cement in the range of 100 to 150 ml/30 min. The low
fluid-loss rate is also necessary to allow the slurry to fill the entire channel.
• Circulation Time
After circulation has been established, it should be maintained until returns from the
channel are free of debris. This insures that all removable material has been moved
out of the channel. Circulation can be in either the forward or reverse direction. Some
operators alternate direction to break loose all possible remaining debris or mud.
• Circulation Distance
The distance over which circulation can be established varies. In general, experience
indicates that the ability to establish circulation decreases when the perforations are
separated by more than 15 to 20 ft. however, circulation over several hundred feet has
been reported.
• Circulation Rate
The rate at which circulation can be maintained through the annulus depends on the
geometry of the channel. For small channels, a circulation rate of ¼ to ½ bbl/min may
be all that can be achieved without fracturing the surrounding formation. Low
circulation rates are not a problem if the cement slurry has been properly designed.
21.14 JOB OBJECTIVE
Each remedial cementing objective has particular considerations and properties. Some of
these are briefly described below for the basic types of remedial cementing operations listed
in Section 21.1.
21.14.1 Perforation Squeeze
Three important factors should be considered when squeezing perforations :
• Cleaning the perforations
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• Bradenhead technique
• Fluid loss control
Cleaning the perforations is necessary if the interval is drilled through after the workover
since each perforation must be sealed for the job to be successful. However, if a cement
plug is to be left across the interval, cement does not have to enter each perforation. The
plug in the wellbore provides the necessary seal.
A bradenhead technique (see Section 21.10) should be used if the perforated interval is
longer than 25 ft. This technique places cement across the entire perforated interval prior to
application of the squeeze pressure. All perforations have the potential of filling with
cement at the same time. For long intervals, other techniques may not put cement across
the lower perforations on the first try.
The fluid-loss rate of cement slurries used for squeezing perforations should be restricted
to about 150 ml/30 min. This rate gives the cement the opportunity to fill all perforations
and minimizes the chances of stuck pipe. Since this property is highly temperature
dependent, the bottom-hole temperatures should be accurately known and the slurries
thoroughly tested (see Section 21.3).
21.14.2 Channel Repair
Four factors should be considered when repairing a channel :
• Diagnosis of the problem
• Cleaning the channel
• Fluid-loss control
• Circulation technique
Proper diagnosis of well problems can reduce the number of ineffective or inefficient
workovers that are perfomed. Production of unwanted fluid can be due to other problems
besides channeling including incorrect perforation depth, formation characteristics, and
annular fluid migration.
Channels must be clean so that the cement can fill and seal them. High solids content
fluids should be avoided to insure that channels will not be blocked prior to placing the
cement. Circulation of clean fluids or an acid job may help to clean remaining solids from
channels.
Fluid-loss rate of the cement slurry should be restricted to 150 ml/30 min or less. A low
fluid-loss rate slurry is required to minimize the chance that sufficient cement filter cake
will build up and prevent the cement slurry from filling the entire channel.
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A circulation technique (see Section 21.13) is recommended for repairing channels. When
this technique can be used, it provides a high probability that the channel can be successful
repaired. Other techniques, such as bullhead and bradenhead, attempt to pump the cement
into the channel from one end. By circulating the cement through the channel, the entire
length of the channel is filled with cement.
21.14.3 TOC Augmentation
Three factors to consider when augmenting the top-of-cement are
• Cleaning the annulus
• Circulation technique
• Fluid-loss rate
Cleaning the annulus across the zone of interest is necessary to obtain adequate zone
isolation. Once circulation has been established, fluid should be circulated until the returns
are clean. It may be difficult to clean the hole in many instances, particularly when the
portion of the annulus to be cemented is several years old. If this is the case, several
attempts may be necessary to adequately cement the zone of interest.
A circulation technique should be used to place cement across the zone of interest. This
amounts to a mini-primary cement job. If circulation cannot be established, the integrity of
the hydraulic seal is questionable.
The fluid-loss rate of the cement slurry should be restricted to 150 ml/30 min. This rate
will prevent the slurry from bridging off in the annulus prematurely and from sticking the
work string in the casing.
21.14.4 Casing Leak
Casing leaks can be due to corrosion, wear, and improperly made-up couplings. Depending
on the cause of the leak and the expected life of the completion, there are five alternative
repair methods :
• Cementing
• Replacement
• Patches
• Scab liner
• Epoxy cement
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Cementing provides a relatively inexpensive method for repairing minor casing leaks.
However, drilling out the cement plug after a repair can cause new leaks if the casing is in
particularly bad shape. For severe problems, one of the following methods should be used.
Replacement should be considered if the integrity of the casing is severely impaired and the
completion will be expected to have a life of several years. This is usually the most
expensive of the various options. However, it provides the surest and longest lived repair.
Patches can be applied to the leaking area of the casing. These patches are metal liners that
are extruded against the inner wall of the casing. Since they are made of thin metal, the ID
of the casing is reduced and they will restrict the passage of downhole tools.
Scab liners provide a more durable solution than patches. A scab liner is a short liner that
covers the area of the leak. It may be cemented in place or sealed at the top and bottom
with packers. A scab liner will further limit the ID of the wellbore which may affect the
passage of downhole tools and production rates.
Epoxy cement can be used if the problem is an improperly made-up coupling. Since the
epoxy does not contain any solids, it can flow into the spaces between the threads. When it
hardens, the coupling will be sealed. Epoxies are difficult to drill, therefore, the amount of
material left in the casing should be minimized.
If the cause of the leak is corrosion, the source of the corrosion should be identified and
corrective action taken. Failure to eliminate or reduce the cause of the corrosion will result
in future workovers in the same area.
21.14.5 Liner Top Repair
Three methods are available for repairing liner tops :
• Cementing
• Mechanical
• Epoxy
Cementing can be used to repair a liner top when the injectivity is high. If the injectivity is
low, cement will not able to be placed in the liner lap. Cement slurries for this type of
operation should have a restricted fluid-loss rate to minimize the probability of bridging at
any restriction in the liner lap region.
In general, the mechanical methods have a higher success rate for initial repairs.
• Tie back liner
• Liner packer
• Scab liner
However, since they rely on mechanical seals, i.e., packers, they are susceptible to future
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leakage problems.
Epoxy cements can be used to repair liner tops where the injectivity is low since these
systems do not contain any suspended solids. Once in the lap region the epoxy is allowed
to set, providing a seal. Most epoxies have upper temperature limits and cannot be used on
deep, hot wells.
21.14.6 Plug And Abandonment
Plug and abandonment operations require the placing of numerous cement plugs in the
wellbore. Three factors should be considered:
• Contamination of the cement
• Cement slurry properties
• Combination of placement techniques
Contamination of the cement slurry during placement must be minimized so that the
resulting hardened cement will have the necessary durability and strength. The use of
wiper plugs, spacers, or both is highly recommended (see Section 21.2).
The cement slurry properties should be optimized for high early compressive strength and
short thickening time. Control of the fluid-loss rate is not required for plug and
abandonment operations since most of the plugs will be set inside casing.
A balanced plug technique combined with a retrievable packer technique should be used
to efficiently place and test a series of plugs. This is done by placing several joints of
tubing below the retrievable packer. The plug can be set using the balanced plug method,
then, after waiting-on-cement, the packer can be set and the plug pressure tested. If the
plug passes the test, the next plug can be set.
21.14.7 Kickoff Plugs
Three factors should be considered when setting a kickoff plug :
• Cement slurry properties
• Contamination
• Length of plug
Three cement slurry properties are most important :
• Density
• Compressive strength
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• Thickening time
The density of the slurry should be increased by reducing the amount of water in the
system. The increased density results in a slurry that is highly resistant to contamination
and has high compressive strength.
The compressive strength of the cement slurry should be as high as possible since the
hardened cement must be more difficult to drill than the surrounding formation. If
increased density is not a problem, reducing the water content will increase the compressive
strength of a slurry. In addition to using a slurry with high strength, the plug should be
placed across the softest formation available in the region where kickoff is desired.
The thickening time of the slurry should be short to help reduce the waiting-on-cement
time. Also, excessive retardation may allow the plug to disintegrate due to instability (see
Section 21.9).
21.14.8 Casing Shoe Repair
Three considerations are important when performing a casing shoe repair:
• Contamination
• Fluid-loss rate control
• Packer technique
Contamination of the slurry must be minimized by using spacers or plugs since the
wellbore fluid will usually be a drilling mud. Severe contamination can prevent the cement
slurry from hardening to the extent necessary to provide a seal.
The fluid-loss rate does not need to be controlled for a shoe repair since the exposed
formations are usually impermeable.
A packer technique (see Sections 21.11 and 21.12) should be used since fracture pressures
must be exceeded during the operation. The packer will prevent the high pressures from
being applied to the casing and wellhead.
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21.15 ONSITE OPERATIONS
In addition to choosing a placement technique and physical properties for the remedial
cementing slurry, onsite precautions should be taken to improve the chances of success.
These operations can be divided into two general areas:
• Prejob testing
• Postjob testing
21.15.1 Prejob Testing
• Test all surface lines, valves, and manifolds to 3000 psi or the maximum pressure
expected.
Testing the surface equipment reduces the chances that a leak will develop during the
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operation that may cause the job to be shut down. Shutdown should be avoided once
the cement has been pumped because the physical nature of the cement may not allow
the job to be restarted. A restart may fail even though the thickening time of the
cement slurry is sufficient to complete the job. The thickening time is a measure of
the time the slurry can be kept in constant motion; it does not account for quiescent
periods.
• Check proper operation of all mixing equipment
All valves and pumps should be operating properly. The small volumes of cement
usually used on remedial cementing jobs require that the equipment be in good
operating condition to provide a uniformly mixed slurry. Three types of mixers are
available :
• Recirculating
• Batch
• Jet
Recirculating mixers are recommended for remedial cementing operations

because they are capable of efficiently mixing the small volumes of cement
usually used. These mixers consist of a holding tank, agitators, and associated
pumps to mix the slurry to the proper density. Typically, they can mix from 10 to
20 bbl of slurry.
Batch mixers are holding tanks that are equipped with a method for agitating the
cement slurry. The density of the slurry can be adjusted in the mixer until it is
correct. The cement is usually mixed in either a recirculating mixer or jet mixer
and transferred to the batch mixer. These mixers are available in sizes from 15 to
150 bbl.
Jet mixers are not recommended for use on remedial cementing jobs except in
conjunction with a batch mixer. The fluctuations in slurry properties due to
variations in material feed rates are unacceptable for remedial operations.
• Pressure test the workstring prior to pumping the cement
Leaks in the workstring can lead to premature job termination and stuck pipe. If a leak
is present, the cement can flow out around the workstring. If the cement sets, the pipe
will be stuck. Even if the leak is small, filter cake may build and fill the tubing,
terminating pumping. In this case, the string must be tripped out of the hole full of
cement.
A test sub can be used to determine the pressure integrity of the workstring. The test
sub consists of a mandrel, having a smaller ID than the tubing, and a ball. When the
tubing has been run in the hole, the ball is pumped down. The ball will seat in the
mandrel, resulting in a seal. Pressure can then be applied to the workstring. If the
pressure does not bleed off within a predetermined amount of time, the tubing is ready
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to be used.
The ball can be reversed out or pressure can be increased to shear the pins holding the
mandrel in place. If the pins are sheared, the mandrel and ball will fall to the bottom
of the hole.
• Check packers thoroughly on the surface
The sealing rubber on retrievable and drillable packers should be examined before
running in the hole. Also, as much of the mechanical operation of the packer should
be checked as is feasible.
• Test retrievable packers before running to desired setting depth
After the surface check, the retrievable packer should be make-up in the tubing string
and run into the hole several joints. At this point the packer should be set and pressure
applied to the tubing/annulus. A pressure of 1000 psi is usually sufficient. If the
packer operates properly, it is released and run into the hole to the desired setting
depth.
• Test casing and workstring when packer is at setting depth
When the packer is at the desired depth, it should be set and pressure applied to the
tubing/casing annulus. If the tubing and casing are free of leaks, the pressure should
not bleed off. If the pressure cannot be held, a leak is present in either the tubing or
casing.
• Determine maximum injection rate below fracture pressure
After all of the tubulars and downhole equipment have been checked, an injection test
should be run to help verify the estimate of the target fracture pressure.
21.15.2 Post Job Testing
After waiting-on-cement, the remedial cement job must be tested. Three methods are
available to test the integrity of the repair :
• Differential pressure
• Mechanical pressure
• Production test
In general. A remedial cement job should be tested in a manner that is representative of the
environment that it may be exposed to in the future.
Differential pressure is usually applied to liner tops and squeezed perforations to determine
if the remedial cement job was successful. The wellbore may be swabbed down or pressure
applied to achieve the desired differential. Usually the job is termed successful if the test
pressure remains within defined limits over a designated period of time.
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Mechanical pressure may be applied to open hole and cased hole plugs. The drill string
will be set on the plug and a predetermined amount of force applied to the plug. If the plug
does not slip down the hole, the job is considered successful.
Production tests are commonly run for recompletions or channel repair. The target zone is
perforated and the well production tested. If the proportion of unwanted fluids is reduced
to manageable levels, the remedial cement job is a success.
The compressive strength of a cement slurry does not directly correlate with the amount of
pressure that can be applied in a postjob test. The compressive strength that is reported for
a cement slurry is an unconfined measurement. When the slurry is in the wellbore, it is
confined. It is reasonable to expect the slurry to be able to support a greater load than the
conventional test results would indicate. However, in critical situations, the amount of
pressure that a cement slurry can support prior to failure should be taken as the reported
compressive strength.
21.16 EXAMPLE : CALCULATION OF BALANCED PLUG
Determine the spacer volumes, displacement volume, and cement volume to balance a 400ft
open-hole plug from 9,600 to 10,000 ft. The following information is available :
• Hole size : 8-7/8-in diameter
• Work string : 4-1/2-in OD, 20-lb/ft drill pipe
• Spacer size : 500 ft in annulus ahead of cement,

500 ft in drill pipe behind cement
Lead spacer volume = Length of spacer x Capacity of annulus

= 500 ft x 0.0568 bbl/ft
= 28.4 bbl
Cement slurry volume = Length of plug x Capacity of hole

= 400 ft x 0.0765 bbl/ft
= 30.6 bbl
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Tail spacer volume = Length of spacer x Capacity of work string

= 500 ft x 0.0129 bbl/ft
= 6.5 bbl
Length of plug = Cement slurry volume

Capacity of annulus + Capacity of work string
30.6 bbl
=
(0.0568 + 0.0129) bbl/ft
= 439 ft
Displaced fluid volume = (EOT depth – Lplug – Ltail spacer)

x Capacity of work string
= (10,000 ft – 439 ft – 500 ft) x 0.0129 bbl/ft
= 116.9 bbl
21.17 JOB DESIGN GUIDELINES
21.17.1 Formulation and Technique Recommendations
Tables II, III and IV summarize cement formulation technique recommendations for various
remedial cementing situations.
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TABLE II
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Recommended Practices to Control Cement Properties for Different well Conditions
Table III
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Possible Techniques for Use with Specific Remedial Cementing Applications
TECHNIQUE
APPLICATION BULLHEAD BALANCED BRADENHEAD RETRIEVABLE DRILLABLE CIRCULATION

PLUG SQUEEZE PACKER PACKER
Lost Circulation Possible Preferred
Casing Possible Possible
Liner Top Possible Possible Possible Possible
Kickoff Plug Possible
Recompletion Possible Preferred Possible Possible
Channel Possible Possible Possible Possible Preferred
Casing Leak Possible Possible Possible
Augment TOC Possible
P and A Possible Possible Possible
TABLE IV
Cement Properties by Objective
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21.18 REFERENCES
1. Patton, L.D., and Abbott, W.A.: “Well Completions and Workovers – Part 17 –
Squeeze Cementing – The Systems Approach”, Petroleum Engineering International
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(Sept.1981) 116-130.
2. Rike, J.L, and Rike, E.: “Squeeze Cementing : State of the Art”, paper SPE 9755
presented at the SPE 56th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio,
1981.
3. Smith, D.K.: “Cementing”, SPE Monograph Series (1976).
4. Howard, G.C., and Fast, C.R: “Squeeze Cementing Operations”, Petrol. Trans. AIME
(1950) 1891, 53-64.
5. Binkley, G.W., Dunbauld, G.K., Collins, R.E.: “Factors Affecting the Rate of
Deposition of Cement in Unfractured Perforations during Squeeze Cementing
Operations”, Petrol. Trans. AIME (1958) 213.
6. Clement, C. and Beirute, R.M.: “Outline Simplifies Squeezing and Plugging”, Oil and
Gas J. (1977) 75 (17) 108-113.
7. Messenger, J.V.: “Lost Circulation”, Penwell Publishing Co., Tulsa (1981).
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COMPLETION WIRELINE OPERATIONS Page 1 of 57
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 22
WIRELINE OPERATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
22.1 INTRODUCTION …………………….……………………………………………. 3
22.1.1 Applications of Wireline ……………………………………………. 3
22.2 WIRELINE SURFACE EQUIPMENT …………………………………………… 5
22.2.1 Chain and Load Binder ……………………………………………... 5

22.2.2 Gin Pole …………………………………………………………….. 5
22.2.3 Block and Tackle ……………………………………………………. 5
22.2.4 Crown Valve ………………………………………………………… 5
22.2.5 Wing Valve …………………………………………………………. 5
22.2.6 Wireline Valve (Blowout Preventer) ………………………………... 5
22.2.7 Lubricator Assembly ………………………………………………... 8
22.2.8 Stuffing Box ………………………………………………………… 8
22.2.9 Wireline Units ………………………………………………………. 10
22.3 TYPES OF WIRELINES ………….……….………………………....…….….… 11
22.3.1 Slick Line ……………................……………………………….….. 11

22.3.2 Stranded Or Braided Line …..…….......................…...………….…. 11
22.3.3 Conductor Line ……......................…………………………………. 11
22.4 WIRELINE TOOL STRING …..………………………………………………… 13
22.4.1 Wireline Socket …...………………………………………………… 13

22.4.2 Wireline Stem …….………………………………………………… 14
22.4.3 Mechanical Wireline Jars …………………………..……………….. 15
22.4.4 Hydraulic Wireline Jars …………………………………………….. 17
22.4.5 Wireline Knuckle Joint ……………………….…………………….. 19
22.5 LANDING NIPPLES …………………………………………………….……….. 21
22.5.1 Non-Selective Landing Nipples ………….........................…….…... 21

22.5.2 Selective Landing Nipples ………….................……………………. 21
22.5.3 Polished Nipples ……….…………..……………………………….. 22
22.6 REMOVABLE LOCKING DEVICES …...….…………………………………... 24
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22.6.1 Landing Nipple Lock …………..........................…………………... 24

22.6.2 Collar Lock ………….................………………...…………………. 25
22.6.3 Slip Type Lock ……….…………………………………………….. 26
22.7 COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT …………………………………....…......… 27

22.7.1 Sliding Sleeve …….…..……...…………………….……………..… 27
22.7.2 Side Pocket Mandrel ……………………………………...………… 28
22.7.3 Pack-off ……….…………………..………………………………... 29
22.8 PRODUCTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT ...………………………………...… 30

22.8.1 Equalizing Subs …........................................................................... 30
22.8.2 Retrievable Tubing Plugs …………………….................................. 31
22.8.3 Bottom Hole Chokes …………………............................................. 32
22.8.4 Bottom Hole Regulators ………………..…………………………… 33
22.8.5 Wireline Nipples ………………….………………………………… 36
22.8.6 Standing Valves …………………………………………………….. 37
22.9 WIRELINE PULLING/RELEASING TOOLS .……………………………....… 39

22.9.1 Fishing Necks ……........................................................................... 39
22.9.2 Running/Pulling Tools ….…………………….................................. 40
22.9.3 Releasing Tools ………………………............................................. 42
22.9.4 Impression Block ……..………………..…………………………… 45
22.9.5 Wireline Spear …………………….………………………………… 46
22.9.6 Overshot …………………………………………………………….. 46
22.9.7 Go-Devil …………………………………………………………….. 47
22.9.8 Wireline Cutter ……………………………………………………… 48
22.9.9 Wireline Bailers …………………………………………………….. 48
22.9.10 Blind Box …………………………………………………………… 50
22.9.11 Tubing Swage ……………………………………………………….. 51
22.9.12 Paraffin Cutter ………………………………………………………. 51
22.10 FIELD PROCEDURES ……………………....………………………………...… 52

22.10.1 Downhole Operations …................................................................... 52
22.10.2 Surface Operations ……...…………………….................................. 53
22.10.3 Running Speed …….…………………............................................. 53
22.10.4 Depth Measurement …..………………..…………………………… 54
22.10.5 Working Strength Limits ………………….………………………… 54
22.10.7 Corrosive Environments …………………………………………….. 56
22.10.8 Safety ………………………………………………………………... 57
22.1 INTRODUCTION
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22.1.1 Applications of Wireline
Wireline Service is the “running” and “pulling” of tools, subsurface flow control devices,
and other downhole equipment into and out of the well with a small diameter wireline
mounted on a powered reel at the surface. The operations can be conducted with pressure
on the well. In most operations, the tools and wireline pass through previously installed
tubing.
With wireline, measurements of hole depth, pressures, temperatures, and flow profiles are
made; an operator can install, retrieve, and manipulate safety valves, chokes, plugs, gauge
cutters, swagging tools, regulators, and other downhole equipment; bail sand, cut or patch
tubing, scrape paraffin, or swab.
The major limitation of wireline operations is the inability to impart rotational force to tools
downhole. However, this can sometimes be circumvented by the use of downhole
rotational motors run on conductor wireline.
One other limitation is the amount of tensile loading that can be imparted to the wireline
cable. Seven-conductor, improved plow steel, wireline cable has a breaking strength of
about 18,000 pounds, whereas 3/4-in. sandline (no conductors) has a breaking strength of
39,600 lbs. Figure 1 shows specs for some of the more common wireline sizes.
Well Measuring Wire Specifications

(Solid Wireline)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal Diameter (in). 0.066 0.072 0.082 0.092 0.105

Tolerance on diameter (in). 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Breaking strength (lb)
Minimum 811 961 1239 1547 1996
Maximum 984 1166 1504 1877 2421
Elastic limit 492 583 752 938 1210
Elongation in 10 in. (%)
Minimum 11/2 11/2 11/2 11/2 11/2
Maximum 3 3 3 3 3
Torsions, minimum number of 32 29 26 23 20
twists in 8-inch length
Figure 1. Wireline Specifications
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Figure 2. Wireline Lubricator Assembly
The final limitation of wireline techniques is the fact that circulation of well fluids is
impossible. Some other well completion method, such as coil tubing or concentric tubing
operations should be considered, if circulation of fluids is necessary.
To accomplish wireline work against pressure, a way to get the wireline and wireline tool
string into the bore of the tubing is required. Figure 2 illustrates a typical wireline
lubricator assembly that is used to perform wireline work under pressure.
22.2 WIRELINE SURFACE EQUIPMENT
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22.2.1 Chain And Load Binder
Item 1 shows the chain and load binder. Its main function is to attach the gin pole assembly
to the wellhead. It is important that the gin pole be secured tightly and without any
deviation from vertical. Should a deviation angle exist, the cantilevered load would be
greatly exaggerated, possibly causing the gin pole to fail.
22.2.2 Gin Pole
Item 2 of Figure 2 shows the gin pole. It is secured to the wellhead via the chain and load
binder (Item 1). The gin pole usually consists of three, concentric eight-foot lengths of
heavy pipe which are manually telescoped out and pinned to form a pole approximately 20
feet long. The gin pole lifts the wireline tool string up to the wireline valve level.
22.2.3 Block And Tackle
The rope fall, or block and tackle (Item 3 of Figure 2), is attached to the upper end of the
top section of the gin pole. The block and tackle is the pulley system for the gin pole
assembly and is used to lift the lubricator assembly onto the wellhead. It is also used to
maneuver any heavy equipment around the vicinity of the well.
22.2.4 Crown Valve
The crown valve (Item 4 of Figure 2) is the uppermost valve of the wellhead assembly. It
must be closed in order to shut off well pressure to the top of the Christmas tree.
22.2.5 Wing Valve
Item 5 of Figure 2 is called the wing valve. It controls the flow of fluids to the production
facilities. Like the crown valve, it should also be closed to shut off the well flow and to
prevent any back-flow from the flowline.
22.2.6 Wireline Valves (Blowout Preventer)
After the pressure in the tree above the closed crown and wing valves is bled off, the
wireline valve (Item 6 of Figure 2) can be installed. Using the wireline valve, it is possible
to close-in the well with wireline still in the well.
To provide blowout protection even when tools extend through the valve, twin wireline
valves are used. In the twin valve, the upper valve is designed for the wireline or for
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closure when all tools are out of the hole, and the lower valve has circular sealing elements
that are designed to accommodate and close-off against pressure on the tools.
The ram closing handles, as sent from the manufacturer, are slow and cumbersome. On
twin ram sets, the handles interfere with each other. Many operators discard these handles
and use a speed-wrench. A schematic of a single ram type wireline valve is shown on
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Single ram type wireline valve
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Figure 4. Lubricator assembly
22.2.7 Lubricator Assembly
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Items 7,8 and 9 represent the lubricator assembly. The lubricator will have sufficient length
to contain the wireline work string, plus enough room for all tools expected to be retrieved
from the well on the particular run, plus 3-4 feet extra.
Lubricator sections are usually furnished in eight (8) foot pieces connected by quick unions.
Quick unions are designed so that lubricator sections can be put together by hand without
the use of any tools.
For convenience and safety, the height of the lubricator is held to a minimum or just high
enough to handle the longest string of tools between the crown valve and the stuffing box
(Item 10).
On location, the lubricator sections are laid out and joined adjacent to the wellhead. The
lower section (Item 7) usually has a larger diameter than the upper sections. The lower
section contains the larger diameter tools, subsurface control devices etc. to be lowered into
or pulled from the tubing, while the upper sections (Items 8 and 9) provide space for the
smaller diameter wireline tool string.
The lower section will have one or more bleeder valves. When the tool string is pulled up
into the lubricator and the crown valve is closed, the well pressure can be bled off from the
lubricator with a bleeder valve. The lubricator can then be disconnected from the
Christmas tree.
22.2.8 Stuffing Box
Item 10 is the wireline stuffing box or control head. The purpose of the stuffing box is to
allow entrance of the wireline into the tubing bore while sealing off around the diameter of
the wire, preventing the escape of well pressure.
Before the stuffing box is attached to the lubricator, the wireline is threaded through the
stuffing box sheave (wheel), and through the stuffing box packing chamber and gland
assembly. When this is accomplished, the wireline socket (rope socket) is attached to the
end of the wire. This is commonly referred to as “tying the knot”. With the lubricator
sections made-up and the wire threaded through the stuffing box, the rope socket is attached
to the wire, and usually pushed into the lubricator from the top. Now the wireline socket
may be made-up to the wireline tool string. After this connection has been made, the tool
string slides fully into the lubricator so that the stuffing box can be screwed to the top of the
lubricator.
Figure 4 shows a more detailed schematic showing a wireline valve, lubricator, and stuffing
box assemblies.
Figure 5 shows a detailed listing of the various parts of the stuffing box. The internal
blowout preventer plunger (10) sits against the lower packing gland (6), which is threaded
into the stuffing box. The internal blowout preventer plunger is designed to automatically
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seal-off low flow in the event the wireline breaks and is forced out of the packing. To
change the packing, pressure is bled off through the pressure-release valve (8) which allows
the packing to be changed under pressure. With the valve open, pressure causes the
blowout preventer plunger to move up and seal-off against the lower packing gland.
Packing can be tightened and the wire lubricated by a combination gland nut (4) and oil cap
located at the top of the stuffing box.
In the event leakage cannot be prevented by tightening the packing nut, it usually means
that the packing elements needs to be changed, as previously outlined, due to excessive
usage.
Figure 5. Stuffing box component list
22.2.9 Wireline Units
Wireline units are installed on several types of conveyances, such as trailers, trucks, boats,
and barges. For offshore platform operations, wireline units are usually skid mounted.
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The wireline unit is usually complete, in that it carries the wireline reel, power source, the
wireline measuring device, and all the tools and equipment necessary to accomplish
planned operations.
22.3 TYPES OF WIRELINES
22.3.1 Slick Line
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Slick line is commonly used for tool manipulation and mechanical work when electrical
conductors are not required. The most common sizes are 0.082, 0.092, and 0.102 inch. The
small diameter and relatively high strength make slick line ideal for running and setting
plugs, safety devices, sand bailing, routine fishing jobs, and diagnostic work.
22.3.2 Stranded or Braided Line
Stranded or braided line is generally used when greater tensile strength is desired but
electrical conductivity is not required. The core of the line may be soft rope with two
counter-spiral layers of wireline wrapped around the core. Common sizes for braided line
are 1/8 and 3/16 in. The 3/16-in. braided line should be used on heavy duty work like
swabbing and fishing, where loads regularly exceed the capacity of the 0.092-in. slick line.
22.3.3 Conductor Line
Conductor line is manufactured in a manner similar to braided line, except that the counter-
spiral, steer-armor wire is wrapped around insulated conductors which can be used to
transmit electrical power and signals to and from wireline tools. A conductor line may
contain from one to seven conductor wires. The void space caused by the armor requires
that the seal use grease injected into the braid under pressure.
In order to accomplish wireline work downhole, a wireline tool string is attached to a

single-strand steel line. A typical wireline tool string is illustrated in Figure 6 with the
following components :
1. Wireline Socket (commonly called a rope socket)
2. Stem (weight bar)
3. Mechanical Jars
4. Knuckle Joint
5. Pulling or Retrieving Tool
This assembly is the work string of the wireline operation. Depending upon the type of
operation to be performed (retrieving a plug, safety valve, etc.), a pulling (retrieving) tool
(5) may also be attached to the tool string below the knuckle joint.
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Figure 6. Wireline tool string
22.4 WIRELINE TOOL STRING
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22.4.1 Wireline Socket
The wireline socket, Figure 7, is the connection between the wireline and the tools. The
wire is first passed through the stuffing box, then through the wireline-socket body. The
most commonly used socket consists of a body, spring, spring support, and disc. The body
is bored to contain these inner parts and to accept the wireline through the upper end and
the stem from below. Near the upper end is a pulling flange, the body is tapered to make it
easier to engage the top of the tool when left in the hole. The flat on the upper end is a
striking surface to prevent peening the metal and closing the wire hole, should it be
impacted during fishing or other operations.
Figure 7. Wireline socket
The spring acts as a shock absorber to prevent the knot from failing under impact during
jarring operations. The spring support centers the disc and the load so that the force applied
is a straight pull.
The wireline is fastened to the disc which is grooved around its entire circumference. This
groove is sufficiently deep to prevent damage to the line when the disc is forced against the
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spring support. In order to withstand severe shock, the knot fastening the wire to the disc
must be tied with care.
22.4.2 Wireline Stem
The wireline stem, Figure 8, provides the mass (weight) required in jarring operations. The
effectiveness of the impact delivered by the jars may be increased or decreased by
increasing the length of stem used.
Figure 8. Wireline stem
Sometimes called a sinker bar, the stem is really a round rod with pin and box connections
at each end. Wrench flats are provided near either end to accommodate sucker-rod
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wrenches which are strongly recommended for making and breaking the connections.
All connections should be cleaned and dried before tightening. Do not lubricate the threads
of wireline tools. Lubrication would invite “swiveling loose” of connections during hard
downhole usage.
As a general rule, a minimum of five feet of stem is used for pressures of 1000 psi or less.
Use an additional two feet of stem per 1000 psi of well pressure.
Standard stem comes in 2-ft, 3-ft, and 5-ft lengths. A special lead-filled stem is available to
obtain required weight with a minimum length of stem. The stem is also available in
various OD’s. The most commonly used is the 1-1/2” OD stem.
Another rule of thumb to determine the amount of stem weight needed is 30 pounds of stem
(disregard the weight of the jars, rope socket and knuckle joint) for the first 2000 psi well
pressure and about 6 pounds of stem for each additional 1000 psi.
A reasonably accurate formula for determining the weight per foot of a given stem size is:
D2 x 8
= Wt. per foot
3
where : D = stem O.D. (in.)
Another factor to consider regarding stem weight is the effect of friction along the wireline
through the stuffing box. The effect of wireline cross-sectional area, pressure and friction
on wireline operations at various pressures is given by the graph in Figure 9.
22.4.3 Mechanical Wireline Jars
Mechanical wireline jars are composed of two steel members linked together like long
chain-links. They are free to be extended or collapsed by manipulating the wireline at the
surface.
Mechanical wireline jars (Figure 10), sometimes called Spang jars, utilize the weight of the
stem to deliver a running impact by manipulating the line at the surface. These jarring
impacts can be delivered in upward and downward directions. The effectiveness of each
impact is largely dependent upon the weight of the stem and the length of the stroke;
however, the size and straightness of the tubing, size and depth of the tools, density and
viscosity of fluid in the tubing, well pressure, and even wire size also affect the impact
received by the tools.
With the mechanical jars attached below the stem, the weight of the stem is used to jar up
by quickly pulling up on the wireline. This rapidly opens (extends) the jars and creates an
upwars impact. To jar downward, the wireline is pulled up slowly to open the jars and then
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released quickly. This allows the stem to fall closing (collapsing) the jars and creating a
downward impact.
A greater impact can be obtained while jarring upward because the wireline can be pulled
up more rapidly than it will normally fall in the well fluid. The wireline cannot be used to
push the stem downward.
Figure 9. Effects of pressure, friction and x-sectional area on wireline operations
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Figure 10. Mechanical wireline jars
Jars are a key workpiece of a wireline tool string. Use or misuse often makes wireline
subsurface operations either work or not work.
Spang jars should only be used in tubing smaller than 3-in. ID, as the forked sections will
sometimes spread or bend during jarring operations in larger tubing, causing them to
become stuck and/or to damage the tubing walls.
Use of 1-1/2-in. OD x 30-in. stroke jars in pipe larger than 2-1/2-in. ID is not recommended.
The large diameter may permit the jars to bow or bend under heavy impact, causing the two
sections to scissors, and preventing them for entering restricted openings. This is especially
true when jars are used in casing below a string of tubing.
22.4.4 Hydraulic Wireline Jars
Hydraulic wireline jars, Figure 11, provide dependable, controlled, jarring blows when
needed. They can be set to deliver a very light blow, as would be required with 0.092-in.
steel line, or a very heavy impact, as might be required with stranded wirelines.
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Figure 11. Hydraulic wireline jars
Hydraulic wireline jars can be used to drill (with a “star” drill); to set and pull gas lift
valves, chokes and other downhole retrievable tubing equipment; and in conjunction with
capable service equipment used for swabbing, bailing and fishing.
When the hydraulic wireline jar is in the closed position, the integral piston which is part of
the mandrel unit rests within the restricted ID portion of the middle body.
As soon as the integral piston passes into the enlarged portion of the middle body, the fluid
resistance is drastically reduced. The mandrel assembly travels upward until the shoulder
on the piston strikes the middle body insert, transmitting an upward jarring force below to
the attached tools. To increase the intensity of the blow, greater strain is taken on the
wireline.
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The hydraulic wireline jar is made up in the wireline string immediately above the tools or
equipment being run. It is recommended that several sinker bars, having an outside
diameter corresponding to the jar, be assembled above the tool. The weight of these sinker
bars will determine the intensity of the jarring the tool. The weight of these sinker bars will
determine the intensity of the jarring impact. It will also aid in closing the jar with a
minimum time lapse.
22.4.5 Wireline Knuckle Joint
The wireline knuckle joint, Figure 12, is normally screwed on the bottom of the tool string
to allow for angular movement between the tool string and the running or pulling tool with
control devices attached.
Figure 12. Wireline knuckle joint
The knuckle joint is similar to a stem but has a ball swivel in the midsection. It provides the
flexibility in the tool string. This helps take hold of various tools, and enables the tools to
pass through crooked tubing where they might otherwise jam. The knuckle joint is almost
always used immediately below the jars in the string of wireline tools. If crooked tubing is
anticipated, knuckle joints may also be placed between the stem and jars and sometimes
between the individual stem joints.
The knuckle joints should be inspected frequently to make certain that the threads, ball, and
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roll pins are in good condition. If the roll pins become loose, the tool should be sent in for
rebuilding to prevent it from coming apart in the well.
Landing nipples are short, tubular nipples which have an internally-machined profile that
will receive a production flow control device and lock it into the tubing string (Figure 13).
These nipples are made up as an integral part of the tubing string and placed at strategic
locations which are determined before the tubing is installed. Tubing plugs, safety valves,
chokes, regulators, and downhole pressure bombs are some of the flow control and
measurement devices that are installed in landing nipples within the tubing.
Three general types of landing nipples are available: nonselective, selective, and polished.
Figure 13. Landing nipple
22.5 LANDING NIPPLES
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22.5.1 Non-Selective Landing Nipples
Nonselective landing nipples use the no-go principle for locating the locking mandrel of a
flow control device in the landing nipple. The outside diameter of a locking mandrel is
slightly larger than the integral diameter of the nipple. This smaller ID of the nipple, the no-
go, ensures that the locking mandrel will seat in the nipple (Figure 14). If multiple
nonselective landing nipples are run in a tubing string, then a slight decrease in the internal
diameter of the nipple and the outside diameter of the locking mandrel will be required as
one goes deeper in the well. The no-go feature of the nonselective landing nipple is used so
that flow control devices will not fall or go beyond that nipple.
Figure 14. Non-Selective Landing Nipple
22.5.2 Selective Landing Nipples
The more common type of landing nipple is known as the selective landing nipple. The
selective landing nipple has a relatively large internal diameter, as compared to the
nonselective nipple. Multiple, selective landing nipples may be run in the same tubing
string without having to change the internal diameter of each nipple and its associated
locking device (flow control device). This ability simplifies the running and setting of the
flow control devices by eliminating the need to have different internal diameters for each
landing nipple and its corresponding locking device.
The profile-selective landing nipple is built with a varied internal profile. The nipples and
locking devices are designed with compatible profiles. This feature requires that the
locking device match the internal profile of the selective nipple (Figure 15). Therefore,
each locking device may be run through a series of upper nipples with incompatible profiles
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until it reaches its matching profile.
Figure 15. Selective Landing Nipple
A second type of selective nipple, the setting-tool-selective nipple, is built with constant
profiles and constant internal dimensions. In other words, the internal profiles and
dimensions of each nipple in a series are exactly the same. The locking devices are also
designed with constant external profiles. The selection of the setting-tool-selective nipple
is determined by the running and setting operation of the setting tool. The wireline
odometer is used to locate the desired landing nipple, into which the locking mandrel is
placed. An unlimited number of such landing nipples may be run in a tubing string. See
Figure 16 for a picture of a fixed-profile selective landing nipple.
22.5.3 Polished Nipples
A polished nipple is a short section of tubing with tubing threads. It is constructed of the
same materials as the landing nipple. A polished nipple does not contain locking recesses,
but is machined and internally honed to receive a sealing section from a subsurface device.
Polished nipples may be used in conjunction with landing nipples, sliding sleeves, blast
joints, and other completion equipment. For example, in Figure 17, a landing nipple is
attached to the top of a blast joint and a polished nipple is attached to the bottom of the
same blast joint. The landing nipple receives the removable locking and sealing device for
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an attached spacer pipe. The lower sealing section is positioned in the polished nipple.
The removable assembly permits the isolation of this blast joint in the event of
communication caused by erosion.
Figure 16. Fixed-Profile Selective Landing Nipple
Figure 17. Polished Nipple

22.6 REMOVABLE LOCKING DEVICES
22.6.1 Landing Nipple Lock
Landing nipple locks, lock and seal themselves in the tubing string. Various subsurface
production controls may be attached to these devices. This type of lock (Figure 18) is
considered superior to other locking devices in that it :
• Provides a positive lock; the locking dogs are mechanically wedged out into the
machined locking recess provided in the landing nipple;
• Contains high pressure and high temperature sealing rings that are positioned in that
internally machined and honed portion of the landing nipple;
• Is rated normally at 10,000 psi differential;
• Locks and seals pressure differential from either direction, depending upon the
production control attached;
• Is more easily set and retrieved by wireline because of the external dimensions.
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Figure 18. Landing Nipple Lock
The nonselective (no-go) and the profile-selective lock mandrels are run into the tubing on
wireline and automatically lock into their respective nipples. The spring-loaded keys on the
mandrels pop into place. On the other hand, setting-tool-selective tool mandrels are placed
into the appropriate nipple in the following manner.
1. The mandrel and running tool are lowered beneath the nipple.
2. The mandrel and running tool are pulled back through the nipple (this action activates
the locking keys)
3. The mandrel is lowered into the nipple and the two keys automatically fit into the
nipple profile.
4. Bumper jars drive the mandrel down, locking it securely in place.
For all of these locking mandrels, after setting the mandrel the setting tool assembly is
sheared form the mandrel by using the bumper jars to exert a specified upward force.
Each of the locking devices is retrieved in the following manner:
1. The mandrel fishing neck is engaged by the pulling tool.
2. Jars are used to pull up on the mandrel in order to unlock the keys.
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3. The mandrel is then withdrawn from the nipple.
22.6.2 Collar Lock
Figure 19 shows a collar lock mandrel designed to lock in API tubing collar recesses. It is
run to desired depth, and the running tool picked up to locate and lock the mandrel in the
first coupling it encounters as it moves upward. Additional upward jarring serves to expand
the resilient element against the tubing and lock the collar. It can be set in any collar in the
tubing string. It cannot be unlocked with pressure differential from above or below.
Figure 19. Collar Lock
22.6.3 Slip Type Lock
The slip type lock (shown in Figure 20) is also designed to lock and pack off wireline
removable subsurface controls in wells which have not been equipped with landing nipples
as part of the tubing string. The proper running tool is attached to the inside running neck
of the main mandrel. This allows the slips to float in a retracted position while the
assembly is being lowered into the well. When the desired depth is reached, the tool string
is picked up to set the slips. The slips move downward over a tapered mandrel, and expand
against the tubing wall. Upward jarring sets the slips and shears the pin in the lock
mandrel, allowing the main mandrel to move up farther and expand the packing elements
against the tubing wall. Continued upward jarring releases the running tool and permits the
tool string to be retrieved. Both the slip type lock and the collar lock use a sealing element
compressed against the tubing wall to get a seal.
The condition of the tubing may be critical to good setting and holding of this tool. Thus,
the condition of the tubing itself is a prime consideration prior to installation of such a
device. Slip-type locks have held 5000 psi on some occasions, but they may not hold 1000
psi in rough or pitted tubing.
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Figure 20. Slip Type Lock

22.7 COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT
22.7.1 Sliding Sleeve
A sliding sleeve (see Figure 21) may be located any place in the tubing string where it is
desirable to communicate between tubing and tubing/casing annulus. The sliding sleeve is
essentially full-opening. It has an inner sleeve that can be opened or closed, using standard
wireline tools. The selection of a specific sliding sleeve is determined by intended use, the
size and weight of tubing, and the bore of the landing nipples to be made up in the tubing.
The sliding sleeve includes a selective landing nipple profile above and a polished pack-off
area below the inner-sliding sleeve. With the inner sleeve in the closed position, sealing off
the side ports, the lower zone can be produced through the tool. To open the sleeve ports
and close off the lower tubing, the inner sleeve is opened to provide communication
between the annulus and tubing string, and a separation tool is set across the open ports.
This tool plugs the tubing below the ports and brings the annulus fluid into the tubing
through the mandrel. Should the sliding sleeve not seal (due to sand, excess shifting or
malfunction), the landing nipple profile and lower pack-off area provide setting and packing
facilities for a side-door choke. The landing nipple profile in the sliding sleeve is also
available for other flow control devices when the sleeve ports are closed.
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Figure 21. Sliding Sleeve
22.7.2 Side-Pocket Mandrel
The side-pocket mandrel is a circulating device made up as an integral part of the tubing
string. The side-pocket mandrel was initially designed for gas lift equipment. However,
since it is constructed similarly to the ported nipple and sliding sleeve, it can also be used as
a circulating device (Figure 22). The side-pocket mandrel uses flow control devices that
can be set and retrieved on wireline using a kickover tool to position the device in the side-
pocket mandrel.
The side-pocket mandrel offers the advantages of both the sliding sleeve and the ported
nipple.* The flow control device is removable and repairable without having to trip the
tubing string. The mandrel itself allows unrestricted flow through a full bore opening (ID).
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Figure 22. Side-Pocket Mandrel
* Ported nipples are similar to conventional nipples, except they have one or several radial holes, or ports, drilled around
their circumference.
A disadvantage of the side-pocket mandrel is that it has a large OD and therefore requires
significant clearance for running into the casing. Another disadvantage of the side-pocket
mandrel is that well debris may tend to accumulate in the side pocket and make retrieving
and setting of the flow control devices difficult.
22.7.3 Packoff
A packoff is a downhole sealing tool designed to be run and set on electric wireline.
Packoffs are utilized to straddle and seal off holes which have developed in a tubing or
casing string, thus permitting continued production of the well without having to pull and
repair the tubing or casing string. (Figure 23).
The major disadvantage of packoffs is that they significantly restrict the inside diameter and
tend to choke off the flow. They are also generally not effective at high pressure, or where
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a long length of packoff is required.
Figure 23. Packoff
22.8 PRODUCTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
22.8.1 Equalizing Subs
Whenever a subsurface device is used that may have a differential pressure across it during
its actuation, an equalizing sub should be run as an integral part of the downhole assembly.
An equalizing sub is usually run in the equalizing ports. Figure 24 shows the location of
the sub in relation to the other subsurface tools. In operation, if a subsurface safety valve
has been actuated and needs to be retrieved, the top side of the safety valve would contain
only wellbore fluid hydrostatic pressure at that depth. Below the valve there would be
reservoir pressure minus wellbore fluid hydrostatic pressure. The locking mandrel has seals
preventing the latter pressure from coming to the surface. In order to prevent the valve
from being blown up the hole due to the pressure difference, the equalizing sub is opened,
allowing wellbore fluids to equilibrate on either side of the closure mechanism of the safety
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valve.
Figure 24. Equalizing Sub
22.8.2 Retrievable Tubing Plugs
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Retrievable tubing plugs (or plug chokes) are run to plug the tubing for : (1) testing packer
leakage, (2) removing the wellhead, (3) testing the tubing, and (4) separating zones during
remedial workovers. Chokes are designed to hold pressure from above and below, and can
withstand a pressure differential as high as 10,000 psi.
A plug choke, Figure 25, must be located in the appropriate landing nipple. An equalizing
prong is built into the tool. When the plug choke is set below a sliding side door to plug off
a lower zone while working on an upper zone (in dual or alternate zone completion), the
two zones are never commingled.
Figure 25. Plug Choke
To use a plug choke, the proper running tools are fastened to the running neck (similar to a
“fishing” neck) of the carrier mandrel (1) by means of one or two tangential shear pins.
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The running tool and plug choke are then attached to a conventional wireline tool string and
lowered to the landing nipple. The locking mechanism includes a short, tapered,
combination locking, packing, and carrier mandrel, on which are mounted a dog carrier (2)
suspending four locking dogs (3) and a set of fully supported packing rings (7). When the
choke reaches the landing nipple, it stops. Several sharp downward strokes of the wireline
jars will lock the mandrel in the nipple and shear the pin in the running tool. This releases
the choke assembly from the wireline tool string. The tool string is then removed from the
tubing and the well is plugged. It is not necessary to flow the well to set the packing (7).
In order to retrieve the plug choke from the landing nipple, two operations are required.
1. The proper pulling tool is attached to a standard wireline tool string and lowered to the
depth of the plug choke. When the pulling tool contacts the choke assembly, it
engages the prong. An upward stroke of the jars shears the pin in the prong assembly,
thus releasing it from the choke body. The differential pressure will then equalize.
2. The pulling tool for the prong is detached and laid aside. Pulling the plug requires a
shear-down pulling tool. This tool is lowered into the well until it makes contact with
the choke assembly. Several downward strokes of the jars will unlock the mandrel and
the pulling tool will engage the fishing neck. Note: The pulling flange cannot be
engaged by the pulling tool until the mandrel assembly is forced down to the unlocked
position. Several upward strokes of the jars will release the choke assembly from the
nipple. The choke is then retrieved to the surface.
22.8.3 Bottom-Hole Chokes
Bottom-hole choke beans (Figure 26) are attached to the lower end of mandrels to be set in
landing nipples or anchored to the tubing wall. Two types of choke beans are available.
Type A, Figure 26, is a spring-loaded, ground seat bean recommended for high pressure or
heavy fluid wells. The bean is mounted inside a cage and seats against the lower end of the
mandrel. The bean is held on seat by the spring inside the bean cage.
Figure 26. Bottom-hole Choke Beans

Type B, Figure 26, incorporates a positive orifice and will accommodate any size choke up
to the internal diameter of the mandrel. This bean is also available with carbide inserts
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where highly abrasive fluids are encountered.
Bottom-hole chokes are susceptible to erosion. They are also rate sensitive. However, as a
well produces without sand at a fairly constant rate, a positive choke assembly is superior to
a bottom-hole regulator (discussed below) in economy, simplicity, and lower maintenance.
Bottom-hole chokes (and regulators) should be set in the lower portion of the wellbore.
Increasing the setting depth reduces the length of tubing exposed to full flowing pressure
and permits additional time for reheating the fluids (after experiencing a pressure drop)
before they reach the surface.
There are several other types of production control devices that fall under the title of
“chokes” in that they redirect or choke flow. The side-door choke, Figure 27, locks into a
ported nipple and seals off above and below the ports of the nipple. This choke isolates the
annular zone by sealing off the ports and allowing the lower zone to flow through the
assembly. The separation tool of Figure 28 performs the opposite function to that of the
side-door choke. It allows flow through the port in the ported nipple and seals off a lower
productive zone.
The crossover choke is used in two-packer completions to produce the hydrocarbons from
multiple zones. Two, ported nipples are placed above and below the top packer. The
crossover choke extends from the upper nipple to the lower nipple diverting flow from the
upper zone through the tubing. The lower zone is produced through the tubing-casing
annulus (Figure 29). The straight flow choke (Figure 30) causes the opposite flow pattern
from the crossover in that the lower zone is produced through the tubing, while the upper
zone is produced through the tubing-casing annulus. One application of the crossover or
straight flow choke is to produce the lower pressure zone up the tubing and the higher
pressure zone up the annulus, permitting periodic swabbing of the weak zone.
22.8.4 Bottom-Hole Regulators
Bottom-hole regulators are designed to reduce up-hole and/or surface flowline pressure.
This helps prevent freezing and maintains tubing pressure at a safe and workable level.
Regulators are applicable in any well where hydrates or high surface pressure presents
problems. The regulator consists of a valve and a spring-loaded seat, like common gas
regulators. A predetermined spring tension is loaded against the valve depending on the
amount of pressure differential to be carried across the regulator. When this predetermined
differential is reached, the seat will move up and off the valve to allow the well to flow. An
equalizing sub is made up between the locking mandrel assembly and the regulator to
facilitate equalizing pressure across the tools for retrieving.
A bottom-hole regulator, Figure 31, differs from a bottom-hole choke in that it maintains a
constant pressure differential across the valve, regardless of the flow rate. As the pressure
above the regulator decreases or increases, the regulator tends to open or close,
respectively. Well production is adjusted at the surface by a conventional choke. A
regulator should not be relied on to reduce the surface shut-in pressure however. The
sealing mechanism is not sufficiently reliable, particularly after the regulator has been
installed for an extended period.
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Figure 27. Side-door Choke
Figure 28. Separation Tool
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Figure 29. Crossover Choke
Figure 30. Straight Flow Choke
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Figure 31. Bottom-hole Regulator
Regulators can be installed in all sizes of tubing, on any kind of mandrel, like other wireline
tools. Pressure differentials up to 15,000 psi can be taken across a single regulator. If a
larger reduction in surface pressure is desired, two regulators can be connected in tandem or
several separate regulators can be set at various depths in the tubing string.
22.8.5 Wireline Nipples
The retrievable pump-seating nipple (Figure 32) is designed to be used to land a sucker rod
(insert type) pump in wells not previously equipped with conventional pump seating
nipples. The tool may be run in and set with regular wireline tools. It consists of a tubing-
locking device (some in collar recesses, some on the tubing wall), a packoff section that
seats against the tubing wall, and a receptacle attached to the bottom of the pump to receive
a stinger. Advantages in the use of the retrievable pump-seated nipple are :
• It eliminates the necessity of killing the well or pulling the tubing in order to put the
well on the pump.
• It can be set or reset at any desired depth.
• It can be retrieved without pulling tubing.
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Figure 32. Retrievable Pump-Seating Nipple
22.8.6 Standing Valves
Standing valves (Figure 33) are used primarily in intermittent gas-lift wells for the purpose
of containing fluid in the tubing string during an injection cycle. They are sometimes used
in subsea completions as a means of isolating the formation from tubing pressure developed
during TFL (through-flowline) work.
Standing valves can be set in landing nipples and pump-seating nipples, and on tubing-ID
locking devices. In construction, a standing valve is equipped with a sealing section and a
ball-and-seat or valve-and-seat check, allowing upward flow of fluid and checking or
preventing injection. Most standing valves are equipped with equalizing features for
retrieval, and are available with or without holddowns.
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Figure 33. Standing Valve
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22.9 WIRELINE PULLING/RELEASING TOOLS
22.9.1 Fishing Necks
Pulling tools are used to retrieve subsurface locking devices (lock mandrels) and other
downhole equipment from the tubing. These subsurface devices all provide a place, near
the upper end, for the pulling tool to engage and latch. When latched on, the subsurface
device may be unlocked and retrieved from the tubing. This part of the subsurface device is
called the fishing neck, the pulling neck, or the pulling flange.
Some subsurface devices (lock mandrels, etc.) are constructed with an external fishing
neck, Figure 34, and other subsurface devices are constructed with an internal fishing neck,
Figure 35. Therefore, some pulling tools are designed to engage external (outside) fishing
necks and other pulling tools are designed to engage internal (inside) fishing necks.
Figure 35. Internal Fishing Neck
Figure 34. External Fishing Neck
Various subsurface devices have different “reaches” on their fishing necks. Therefore,
before selecting a pulling or releasing tool for a particular downhole device, the proper
reach requirements must be known. The reach of a fishing neck is schematically illustrated
in Figure 36.
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Figure 36. Fishing Neck Reach
22.9.2 Running/Pulling Tools
All standard running/pulling tools are constructed so that they may be released from the
subsurface device in the tubing in the event that the device is stuck and cannot be readily
retrieved with the tool string latched on. The release of the running/pulling tool is usually
accomplished by shearing a metal pin installed in the pulling tool. The shearing of the pin
is accomplished from the surface by manipulating the wireline to create a jarring action on
the running/pulling tool. Certain running/pulling tools are designed to shear and release by
upward jarring action, other types of pulling tools are designed to shear and release by
downward jarring action.
Shear-up tools are always run for routine pulling operations, because they are most
dependable. However, sand on top of a subsurface control device may prevent downward
movement and therefore keep a shear-down tool from shearing loose.
The shear-down pulling tools are seldom used for several reasons:
• If the fishing neck on a device in the hole is off-centered, a solid downward blow
cannot be achieved to grip the fishing neck or to cause release.
• Excessive downward beating will damage fishing necks on devices, and thus prevent
latching.
• If the device is a slip-type lock mandrel, downward jarring (when the pulling tool core
is not resting on the tapered mandrel, or running neck, of the slip type lock) will tend
to set it more tightly.
The bottom line: whenever possible, use a shear-up type pulling tool.
The reach of a pulling tool should be determined for each subsurface device to be pulled.
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The reach of a pulling tool is determined by the length of the core or dogs and is the
distance from the lower end or face of the core down to the engaging shoulder at the lower
end of the pulling tool dogs, as illustrated in Figure 37.
Figure 37. Pulling Tool Reach
The reach of a pulling tool can be changed by changing the core or dog (long, intermediate,
or short). All other parts of pulling tools are identical. Since various devices have different
types of fishing necks, reach requirements depend upon the type of device being pulled.
Notice in Figure 36 the difference in neck profile of a plug choke and a lock mandrel. The
lock mandrel requires a deeper (long) reach to engage the shoulder.
The type of downhole device to be retrieved determines the type of pulling tool required.
An external pulling tool, Figure 38, is designed to engage an external fishing neck and shear
release by upward jarring action. This pulling tool includes a core, shear pin, and a
cylinder containing three or more dogs. A sub attached to the upper end of the core
connects to the wireline tool string. By changing the core, this pulling tool can be
converted to latch on to the proper downhole device. The core determines which fishing
neck the pulling tool will properly engage.
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Figure 38. External Pulling Tool
The internal pulling tool shown on Figure 39 is designed to unlock and retrieve a variety of
lock mandrels and control devices with internal fishing necks. It is a sheardown release
tool.
The pulling tool with proper equalizing prong (a device for opening an equalizing valve), is
attached to a standard wireline tool string. The tool string is lowered into the well to the
lock mandrel. The equalizing prong shifts the valve in the equalizing sub to the “down-
open” position.
22.9.3 Releasing Tools
A releasing tool, Figure 40, is designed to manually release the pulling tool on the surface
when the recovered tools have been brought out. This tool is placed around the pulling tool
so that the wedges engage the dogs at point “A” (Figure 38). A squeeze on the tool handles
force the dogs upward to release the pulling flange.
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Figure 39. Internal Pulling Tool
Figure 40. Releasing Tool
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Another type of releasing tool (used downhole), called the self releasing positioning tool,
Figure 41, is used to shift the sleeve of a sliding sleeve, and to position sleeves in other
assemblies.
Figure 41. Self Releasing Positioning Tool
The engaging and disengaging mechanism of the releasing tool, called keys, are shaped so
that when travelling in one direction (upward in the illustration, Figure 41), their sloped
surface at one end allows them to pass through the sliding sleeve. In the opposite direction,
the square shoulder near the center of the key engages a corresponding shoulder inside the
closing sleeve. Further movement of the positioning tool moves the closing sleeve to the
fully open, closed, or equalizing position. When either the fully open or closed position is
reached, standard keys are released by means of an inclined shoulder inside the sliding
sleeve which forces the keys inward and disengages them from the sleeve. The fact that the
shear pin does not shear is an indication that the closing sleeve is fully repositioned.
To position a sleeve open, the bottom of the positioning tool is screwed into the knuckle
joint of the wireline string. This positions the keys so that the shoulder engages the closing
sleeve only when the positioning tool is moved upward. This causes the sliding sleeve to
open.
To position a sleeve closed, the top sub of the positioning tool is screwed into the knuckle
joint of the wireline string. This positions the keys so that the shoulder engages the closing
sleeve only when the positioning tool is moved down. This causes the sliding side door to
close.
22.9.4 Impression Block
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
The impression block, Figure 42, provides a picture or impression of hard or metallic
objects in a tubing string to ascertain shape or relative position of what is uppermost in the
hole. The tool uses lead as a soft material that will easily take an impression when dropped
on the item in the well. The impression tool is of particular importance in fishing
operations since the size, shape, and relative positions of objects have much influence on
the fishing tools and tactics to be utilized. Some models use a cap screw to hold the lead.
In other models, a steel pin is used through the lead section to prevent losing the lead in the
well.
Use of the tool in a typical fishing operation is as follows :
1. Make certain that the face of the impression tool is clean, smooth, flat, and free of
scratches, impressions, etc. A hammer and rasp are usually used for this objective.
2. Attach the impression tool to a standard string of wireline tools and lower into the
well.
3. Approach the object to be defined with caution. Contact is slowly and easily.
4. Open the jars; then strike only one downward blow upon the object. (The striking of
more than one blow will result in multiple impressions which may be interpreted
incorrectly).
5. Pull the impression tool to the surface for interpretation. Examine the face carefully
for all indentations, including scars on the outer cylindrical surface. Try to visualize
what tool and what part of that tool could cause that impression. If the impression is
circular, determine both OD and ID of the circular part. Does the impression indicate
that the circular top is a complete circle, or is the object split lengthwise?
Figure 42. Impression Block

22.9.5 Wireline Spear
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 22
MANUAL Issue 1
The wireline spear, Figure 43, consists of a housing with one, two, or three prongs with
pointed barbs welded to the inner side. Two or three fingers approximately 3-in. long are
placed between the prongs to form a closed section of the housing. This tool is used to fish
wireline that has been broken in the well. Wireline spears are available in all sizes for all
tubing ID’s. It is run in on a standard wireline tool string.
Figure 43. Wireline Spear
22.9.6 Overshot
The wireline overshot, Figure 44, is a nonreleasing pulling tool. It is designed to fish
cylindrical necks or tools that have no standard fishneck or flange looking up. It should
only be used in a final effort to retrieve subsurface devices when other releasing tools have
failed since it will also be left in the hole if the fish does not come loose.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 44. Wireline Overshot
22.9.7 Go-Devil
When a wireline socket becomes sanded-up or otherwise inaccessible during fishing

operations, some means of simulating the socket’s exterior profile is needed. A go-devil
performs this function. A go-devil is a slotted stem with a fishing neck (Figure 45). A
small strip is pinned in the slot to prevent the wireline from coming out. Its use is usually
limited to fishing operations where a wireline socket is inaccessible to cut off line.
Occasionally tools may be sanded up or wire balled up above the wireline socket. In order
to cut the line, a wireline socket must be simulated. If the wire has not been broken, a go-
devil is threaded on the line above the wireline and dropped in the tubing. A cutter bar can
then be dropped to cut the wire or cable.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 22
MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 45. Go-Devil
22.9.8 Wireline Cutter
The Kinley wireline cutter, Figure 46, utilizes a small cylindrical knife section within a
slotted body to cut any line up to 0.092-in. diameter. To use the wireline cutter, the slotted
assembly is attached around the line and dropped into the tubing. The line is cut within or
below the tubing as the tapered knife and slipper move together upon impact against the
wireline socket, go-devil, or other solid object.
22.9.9 Wireline Bailers
Wireline bailers are used to transport gravel or a cement slurry to a predetermined depth in
a well, and to remove sand or other debris above a subsurface device. When bailing sand in
straight holes, sand bailers with a length of 30 ft can bail 5 ft or more of tubing per trip.
In highly deviated holes, bailer lengths are often limited to about 10 ft. In this case, bailing
operations can be performed with a hydrostatic bailer (Figure 47). This device consists of a
cylinder or barrel with a shear disc mechanism on bottom. The cylinder is sealed off from
well pressure with O-rings, and is lowered into the well at atmospheric pressure. When the
obstruction is reached, the shear disc is broken by downward jarring allowing full well
pressure and hydrostatic head to enter the cylinder with a sudden surge. The sand or debris
is sucked into the bailer and prevented from falling out by a check valve.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 46. Kinley Wireline Cutter
Figure 47. Hydrostatic Wireline Bailer
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MANUAL Issue 1
22.9.10 Blind Box
The blind box is a cylindrical wireline tool similar to a stem, except it is shorter and
composed of hardened steel. Its purpose is to impart heavy downward blows to any
subsurface device that may need jarring to become unstuck. Figure 48 shows a schematic
of a blind box.
Figure 48. Blind Box
Figure 49. Tubing Swage

22.9.11 Tubing Swage
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 22
MANUAL Issue 1
Prior to running or pulling a subsurface device, it is good practice to ensure that the tubing
ID is to gauge. If it is not, a tubing swage is run prior to running or pulling the subsurface
tool. This swage is sized for the tubing size of interest and is designed to swage out tight or
mashed places in the tubing string. A tubing swage is shown on Figure 49.
22.9.12 Paraffin Cutter
There are many methods to clean paraffin deposition from a wellbore. The mechanical
techniques involve lowering a tool on a wireline and scraping the paraffin from the tubing
walls. The paraffin scratcher shown on Figure 50 is used when the tubing diameter is
completely filled with paraffin. The sharp point initiates an opening while the protruding
barbs enhance its diameter. After removing the bulk of the blockage with the scratcher, the
paraffin cutter (Figure 51), is used to clean the tubing ID to its drift diameter.
Figure 50. Paraffin Scratcher Figure 51. Paraffin Cutter
22.10 FIELD PROCEDURES
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 22
MANUAL Issue 1
22.10.1 Downhole Operations
The following is a list of general guidelines for running or pulling wirelines.
• Check drag on tools at least every 1000 ft while going in the hole.
• A gauge run should be made before attempting to run or pull any downhole equipment
such as valves, plugs, packoffs, calipers, bailers, BHP bombs, etc.
• To prevent the tools from being blown up the hole, pressures must be balanced across
sand bridges before bailing and across subsurface safety valves and plugs before
pulling. This can be accomplished by pressuring up the tubing for sand bridges and by
using an equalizing sub for safety valves.
• Take precautions against tools wrapping around the tubing between packers. By
lowering the tools in 25-30-ft intervals, followed by pulling back up a few feet, signs
of extra tension can be seen if wrapping is occurring.
• If tools are stuck in the hole during slick line operations and jarring fails to free them,
be sure that the hole is full of fluid before dropping the cutter bar to cut the line at the
rope socket. If this isn’t done, the line may get cut at the fluid level.
• Do not exceed a recommended pull of 800 lbs with the .092-in line or approximately
3000 lbs with the 3/16-in. line.
• Reduce the running speed of the wireline reel when tools get within 500 ft of the
surface. This will prevent severing the wireline at the rope socket should it enter the
lubricator too fast.
• Uncontrolled slack in the wireline should always be avoided. It results in kinked line,
lost tools, fishing time, and lost production.
• Cut off 50 ft of wireline every 4-5 hours when working at the same depth.
• The odometer should be set at a distance between the casing head flange and rotary
drive bushing of original drilling rig, as shown in the well records, with the bottom of
the tools at the casing head flange.
22.10.2 Surface Operations
The following is list of some general guidelines to be used during surface operations of
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wireline work:
• Prior to rigging up, the pressures should be checked on the pipe string to be worked in,
the casing, and all adjacent strings in the same wellbore, whether tubingless or
conventional.
• An operational check should be made of the wing valve, master valve, and crown
valve.
• Ensure that all pressure is bled from the lubricator if it becomes necessary to climb
onto the Christmas tree.
• Always open and close the lubricator needle valve a couple of times after the pressure
has been bled down to ensure that ice or other foreign matter is not plugging the small
opening in the needle valve.
• The lubricator must be of adequate pressure rating and size to perform the work
required. The following requirements apply for all through-tubing wireline work :
For service to 5000 psi, all components must be 5000 psi working pressure.
For service above 5000 psi, all components must be 10,000 psi working pressure or greater
as appropriate for the desired pressure service.
• A valve outlet must be installed in the lower section of the lubricator above the
blowout preventer rams for testing and for bleeding off pressure.
• On conductor-line jobs, the blowout preventer must have a valve outlet located below
the rams to allow for testing from below.
• On through-casing wireline work, casing size blowout preventers and blind rams must
be installed.
• On through-casing wireline work, the wellbore must be loaded with fluid of sufficient
weight to provide an adequate overburden on the formation pressure.
22.10.3 Running Speed
Wireline running speeds vary depending on the type of operation being performed. Tools
will generally be lowered faster than they are retrieved; therefore the limitation on speed is
that of the wireline reel. A reel-out speed of 4000 ft/min is considered the maximum for the
most wireline units when the tool string is at the surface. As the tool string progresses
downhole, the line speed decreases since the spool diameter gets smaller (lower tangential
velocity for a constant RPM). At 20,000 feet for example, the line speed may only be 1400
ft/min.
As mentioned previously, line speed is a function of the operation being performed. Most
logging operations are done while reeling wireline upwards to avoid severing the line on
obstructions at high speeds. As a rule, nuclear tools are logged at speeds not exceeding 60
ft/min. Sonic tools are run at a maximum of 84 ft/min, as are open hole electric logs.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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Tubing casing caliper logs are performed at speeds ranging from 50-75 ft/min. Swabbing
operations, however, are run at high speeds due to the greater strength of braided line; 3000
ft/min for 1/4-in. swabline is not uncommon. Speeds of course will vary depending on the
type of fluid being swabbed; swabbing gas-entrained fluids will result in higher velocities.
If logging is being performed in internally coated tubing, speeds should not exceed 100
ft/min.
22.10.4 Depth Measurements
One of the most important wireline accessories used when performing wireline work is the
depth measuring device. The reason for its importance is twofold: first, the operator must
know at all times the location of his tool or instrument with relation to the wellhead or
reference, so that meaningful measurements can be made; second, knowledge of the tools’
location will allow the operator to control the speed of ascent and bring it to a stop before
running it into the wellhead sheave or stuffing box.
Depth measurement implies depth control. The basic problem in depth control is to
precisely position the wireline tool in reference to open hole logs. This cannot be done
simply using direct line measurements. Cables stretch to varying degrees, depending on
tool, weight, hole deviation, etc. Stretch corrections can only provide approximate depths.
To properly position the tool string, a through-casing log is required to correlate with open
hole measurements. A gamma ray or neutron logs (or both) are typically used in
conjunction with a casing collar locator to relate location of productive intervals to casing
collars.
The measuring device is usually designed so that the wireline is held in slippage-free
contact with an accurately ground, hardened measuring wheel. The measuring wheel drives
a counter or odometer line which registers in linear units (meters, feet) the length of
measuring line that has contacted the measuring wheel. The measuring device is normally
mounted on movable supports so that it is free to move vertically and laterally, guided by
the measuring line as it is unspooled from a reel on its way to the wellhead.
22.10.5 Working Strength Limits
The most common diameter sizes of solid measuring line currently in use are : 0.066, 0.072,
0.082, 0.092, and 0.015 inch. Larger diameter line, 0.108 and 0.125 inch, are being used to
some degree in wells with tubing strings larger than 2.1/2-in. ID. Measuring lines are
available from the mills in standard one-piece lengths of 10,000, 12,000, 15,000, 18,000,
20,000, and 25,000 feet. The most popular material, because of its ultimate tensile strength,
good ductility, and relatively low cost, is improved plow steel. Cold-drawn, improved
plow-steel measuring line has an ultimate tensile strength of approximately 230,000 to
240,000 psi.
API Specification 9A, Specification for Wire Rope, contains a section on well-measuring
wire specifications. Table No. 1 contains some requirements form API Spec 9A.
Table 1
Well-Measuring Wire Specifications
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
(Solid Wireline)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal Diameter, in. 0.066 0.072 0.082 0.092 0.105

Tolerance on diameter, in. 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Breaking strength, lb
Minimum 811 961 1239 1547 1996
Maximum 984 1166 1504 1877 2421
Elastic limit 492 583 752 938 1210
Elongation in 10 in. percent
Minimum 11/2 11/2 11/2 11/2 11/2
Maximum 3 3 3 3 3
Torsions, minimum number of twists in 8 in. 32 29 26 23 20
The following pressure considerations should be followed on any wireline job :
• After the lubricator assembly has been connected to the wellhead, close the bleeder
valve (on the lubricator) and open the uppermost valve on the wellhead (not the master
valve, except in emergency) very slowly until the pressure has equalized into the
lubricator. Check carefully for any leaks, then open the valve fully.
• At this point, the wireline valve should be tested. Close the rams of the valve and
release the pressure form the lubricator through the bleeedoff valve. There should be
no leaks through the valve rams or the equalizing valve.
• Close the bleeder valve and open the equalizing valve. When the pressure has been
equalized in the lubricator, close the equalizing valve, open the wireline valve rams,
and lower the wireline tool string into the tubing.
In through-tubing work, when a small loss of fluid can be tolerated, flow tubes are used to
allow well entry and exit under pressure. The flow tube assembly connects where the
stuffing box normally sits. The flow tube assembly contains orifices just big enough to
permit passage of the wireline. The internal arrangement of the flow tubes causes a
pressure drop so that fluid passage is reduced to a minimum. The fluid that does pass
through the flow tube is drained off to the reserve pit. This equipment has a working
pressure of 5000 psi and 10,000 psi test pressure. When no loss of fluid can be tolerated, a
high pressure grease injector control head is used. With this injector, grease or high
viscosity oil is injected into the well as the wireline tools are raised and lowered in the
wellbore.
22.10.7 Corrosive Environments
One of the major problems encountered in wireline operations and associated equipment is
corrosion. The most common form of corrosion is called weight-loss corrosion. It is
characterized by loss of weight, pitting, and general roughening of the surface. A second
form of corrosion is called stress corrosion cracking. This latter form of corrosion is
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
usually of more concern since it can cause metal failure within a very short time. Ordinary
plow-steel wireline has been known to fail overnight when exposed to this form of attack.
Some of the techniques used to protect wireline tools include painting, nickel plating,
galvanizing, anodizing, and material selection. The most widely used technique is the
selection of the proper material for a given environmental condition. The most widely used
wireline material is improved plow steel. It is the least expensive; however, it is not
suggested for use where traces of hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) exists in wells containing
water at a pH of 10 or lower.
Some of the more common steels used for wirelines are :
• AISI 304 and 316

- Good for all H2S services
- Good for moderate halides below 150°F
- Not for use with halides above 150°F
• U.S. Steel 18-18-2

- Good for all H2S services
- Good in halides of moderate concentrations
- Not for use in environments with both extreme halide concentrations and high
temperatures
Although NACE MR-01-75 suggests the use of several high-alloy materials, a technique
that has worked successfully in the past is the use of standard plow-steel measuring line in
conjunction with a suitable corrosion inhibitor. The procedure calls for placing the plow-
steel line in a 55 gallon drum and completely covering it with an inhibitor. It is spooled
onto the reel just before the job and is unspooled and returned to the inhibitor drum after
the job. A wiper-oiler is used at the hay pulley which is also full of inhibitor. Also, the
rope socket and all of the boxes on the tool string are filled with inhibitor before they are
made up. This will treat the threads and prevent corrosion and stress cracking of the
wireline tool joints.
When using internally-coated tubing, wireline speeds should be closely controlled so as to

not damage the coating due to tool flutter and rattle. Many operators and coating
applicators recommend that wireline speeds be kept below 100 ft/min in coated tubing.
Damage of course can be further reduced by tool design. Sharp edges on the tools should
be rounded or covered with thick non-metallic coatings.
22.10.8 Safety
The following safety and environmental tips should be considered on every wireline job :
• All wireline units should be equipped with at least one 30-lb dry chemical fire
extinguisher.
• Engines should be equipped with emergency shut-off devices on air intake (butterfly
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
valve) and with spark-arrester type mufflers.
• Drip pans should be installed under all engines, pumps, oil reservoirs, and reel of skid
mounted units. Drip pans should be provided for trucks on barges.
• Oil from the lubricator control head and oil from the line should not be permitted to
drip onto land or into canals, streams, or the sea.
• Pieces of cut-off wireline or cable should be carried off by the wireline crew for
disposal.
• Bleeding of gas and oil into metal buckets should not be done. Use of a plastic bucket
rather than a metal one, will minimize the danger of a static electricity spark.
• Truck-mounted units should not be positioned over tall grass in such a way that
mufflers or power generator engines could ignite the grass.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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COMPLETION RIG WORKOVER OPERATIONS Page 1 of 45
MANUAL Issue 1
CHAPTER 23
RIG WORKOVER OPERATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
23.1 INTRODUCTION …………………….……………………………………………. 3
23.1.1 Definition …………………………………………………………… 3

23.1.2 Types of Rig Workovers ……………………………………………. 3
23.1.3 Planning ……………………………………………………………... 3
23.2 WELL KILLING AND WELL CONTROL ……………………………………… 4
23.2.1 Reasons …......…...………………………………………………….. 4

23.2.2 Bullhead ………….........………...……………………………….…. 4
23.2.3 Lubricate and Bleed …............................…………………………... 4
23.2.4 Circulate …………………....................……………..……………... 4
23.2.5 Snub and Circulate ………………………........................................ 5
23.2.6 Pumps ……………………………………………………………….. 7
23.2.7 Blowout Preventers …………………………………………………. 7
23.2.8 Choke Manifold …………………………………………………….. 7
23.2.9 Other Well Control Equipment ……………………………………... 7
23.3 CONVENTIONAL WORKOVERS ………….…………...................…….….…. 10
23.3.1 Derrick or Mast ………................……………………………….….. 10

23.3.2 Drawworks …..…….........................…………………………….…. 10
23.3.3 Rotating Equipment ......................…………………………………. 11
23.3.4 Pipe ………………............…………………………………………. 11
23.3.5 Circulating System ......…….……………………………………….. 11
23.3.6 Well Control Equipment ….............................................................. 13
23.3.7 Depth Capabilities ………................................................................ 13
23.4 CONCENTRIC WORKOVERS …………………………………………………. 14
23.4.1 Hoisting Equipment ………………………………………………… 14

23.4.2 Rotating Equipment ………………………………………………… 15
23.4.3 Workstring ………………………………………………………….. 15
23.4.4 Workstring Selection ……………………………………………….. 18
23.4.5 Circulating System ………………………………………………….. 18
23.4.6 Well Control ………………………………………………………… 19
23.4.7 Depth Capabilities …………………………………………………... 21
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
23.5 COILED TUBING WORKOVERS …………………………………….………... 22
23.5.1 Surface Equipment …………..............................…………………... 22

23.5.2 Pipe ……………...........………...…………………………………... 22
23.5.3 Rotating Equipment …................………………...…………………. 23
23.5.4 Circulating System ................……………...……………………… 24
23.5.5 BOP Equipment …………………………………………………….. 24
23.5.6 Depth Capabilities ........……………………..………………………. 24
23.6 SNUBBING UNIT WORKOVERS ……....….…………………………………... 26
23.6.1 Advantages …........…………………………………………..……... 26

23.6.2 Surface Equipment …..............…..……..………………..…………. 26
23.6.3 Pipe ………….…............……..…………………………..………… 28
23.6.4 Circulating System …...................................................................... 29
23.6.5 Well Control System ....................................................................... 29
23.6.6 Auxiliary Equipment …................................................................... 30
23.7 FISHING OPERATIONS …………………………………....……….………...… 32
23.7.1 Reasons for Fishing …..……...…………………….……………..… 32

23.7.2 Planning ………………………….…..…………………...………… 32
23.7.3 Retrieving Tools …………………..………………………………... 33
23.7.4 Washover Tools ………………….................................................... 35
23.7.5 Cutting Tools …………………….................................................... 36
23.7.6 Milling Tools ................................................................................... 38
23.7.7 Other Tools ………………………………………………………….. 39
23.8 WORKOVER RIG SELECTION ……………………………………………...… 40
23.8.1 Drilling and Milling ......................................................................... 40

23.8.2 Squeeze Cementing ……………………........................................... 40
23.8.3 Recompletion …………………........................................................ 41
23.8.4 Repair/Replace Downhole Equipment ……………………………… 42
23.8.5 Sand Control ………………………………………………………… 43
23.8.6 Stimulation ………………………………………………………….. 45
23.8.7 Clean-Out …………………………………………………………… 45
23.1 INTRODUCTION
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 23
MANUAL Issue 1
23.1.1 Definition
A rig workover is defined as any operation performed on a well subsequent to the initial
completion which requires a rig. Such workovers are usually required to repair or service
the completion, to enhance the well productivity, to remove obstructions within the
wellbore or to correct a problem for safety reasons.
23.1.2 Types of Rig Workovers
There are two main categories of rig workovers which are discussed below.
• Conventional Workovers – A conventional worker can involve (1) removal of tubing
and most of the other retrievable downhole equipment; (2) repair or alteration of the
permanent downhole well configuration; (3) adding perforations or completion
intervals; and (4) the revamping of the retrievable downhole equipment to suit current
and future production plans or artificial lift requirements.
• Concentric Workovers – A concentric tubing workover is one in which a small
diameter workstring is run inside the permanent tubing string. Concentric tubing
methods offer a means of minimizing workover costs whenever wireline techniques
are not feasible because of the need for fluid circulation. Savings occur as a result of
(1) reduced workover time; (2) lower equipment costs realized by avoiding the
necessity of retrieving the installed well tubing; and (3) use of smaller workover rigs.
Each of these workover types will be covered in detail in this Chapter.
23.1.2 Planning
Thorough workover planning is essential to the execution of a profitable workover. The

subject of workover planning has been covered in a previous section, where we saw that
some of the principal items to be considered when planning a workover technique are :
• Well Considerations – This includes the mechanical integrity of the completion and its
past history. The characteristics of the producing zone and the nature of the fluids
involved must also be considered.
• Workover Rig Considerations – The type and size of the rig can influence the success
and payout period of a proposed workover.
• Personnel – Experiences supervisors and crew can greatly improve workover
efficiency and success ratios.
• Auxiliary Tools and Services – Rental charges and support services can be a
significant portion of the workover cost.
Chapter 19, “Workover Planning”, contains detailed information on this and other subjects
pertaining to workover planning.
23.2 WELL KILLING AND WELL CONTROL
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
23.2.1 Reasons
To run or remove tubing or a work string from a wellbore with open perforations (without
using a snubbing unit), the well must be “dead”. A dead well is one with zero surface
pressure and zero flow rate. A well is killed by loading the tubing and/or casing with a
fluid of sufficient density so that the hydrostatic head of the fluid exceeds the formation
pressure, thus preventing the well from flowing.
One of the following methods is normally used in killing a well: bullheading, lubricating
and bleeding, circulating with pipe in the hole, or snubbing and then circulating. The
particular method chosen will depend upon well conditions and costs. Each method has
advantages and disadvantages which are discussed below.
23.2.2 Bullhead
The bullhead method (Figure 1) is used when the wellbore is free of obstructions and
injectivity can be established into the formation. In this case, a fluid of sufficient density to
kill the well is pumped (bullheaded) into the tubing and/or casing without any returns to
surface. Because gas is compressible and a shut-in well normally has a gas column above
its liquid column (owing to gravitational segregation), it is easy to visualize the high surface
injection pressure which can develop from a bullhead squeeze approach. Also, if there is
debris in the tubing (sand, pipe dope, scale), it will automatically be squeezed into the
perforations, thus introducing potential damage.
23.2.3 Lubricate and Bleed
The lubricate and bleed method (Figure 2) is used when the wellbore or perforations are
plugged and the formation will not accept the kill fluid, or in wells where the bullhead
method results in excessive wellhead pressures. A high-density fluid is pumped into the
well until the maximum allowable surface pressure is reached. Operations are then stopped
for a short period (one hour) to permit the high-density fluid to fall, because of gravity,
down the wellbore. The master valve is then opened and tubing fluid (gas and/or oil) is
bled off until some of the high-density fluid is recovered. This operation is repeated until
the full length of tubing has been filled and the well has been killed.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 1. Well Killing (Bullhead Method)
23.2.4 Circulate
In some cases when injectivity into the formation cannot be established or a functioning
retrievable packer is not in the well, it may be necessary to punch a hole in the tubing or
open a circulation device at some point above the packer to circulate the kill fluid down the
tubing and up the casing-tubing annulus (see Figure 3). Circulating with pipe in the hole is
the simplest, fastest, and least damaging way to establish control, if it is feasible.
23.2.5 Snub and Circulate
Snubbing is required when the other methods of killing a well cannot be successfully
applied. In this operation a concentric tubing string is forced into the wellbore under
pressure with hydraulic jacks through a pack-off device. After the work string has been run
to the desired depth, workover fluid can be circulated to load the tubing and kill the well.
The surface equipment used for well control and killing operations consists primarily of
pumps, blowout preventers (BOP’s), a choke manifold, and other special items. Each of
these are covered below.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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MANUAL Issue 1
Figure 2. Well Killing (Lubricate and Bleed)
Figure 3. Well Killing (Circulating)
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23.2.6 Pumps
Most oilfield pumping units are of the triplex, positive-displacement variety. They are
usually driven by diesel or turbine engines which have a rating of 400-700 bhp.
23.2.7 Blowout Preventers
Blowout preventers are used to seal around pipe or openhole whenever an unwanted influx
of fluids enters the wellbore. They come in three general varieties.
• Strippers (Figure 4) – these are low-pressure elements which constantly seal against
the pipe as it is being raised or lowered in the hole.
• Annular (Figure 5) – These preventers consist of an elastomer-rubber element that is

actuated by increasing the pressure in the hydraulic fluid around the element. The
increase in pressure causes the element to move radially inward to seal against any
size or shape pipe. A BOP stack should always contain at least one annular preventer.
• Ram (Figure 6) – Ram preventers are composed of two “rams”, 180° apart, which
move toward each other to effect a seal. Rams are made to seal around a particular
size of pipe (grooved “pipe” rams) or across the open hole (flat “blind” rams). A
variation of the blind ram is the ‘shear” ram, designed to first cut the pipe and then
seal across the open hole.
The number and arrangement of BOP’s is dependent on well pressure and the nature of the
produced fluids (sweet or sour, oil or gas).
23.2.8 Choke Manifold
A choke manifold is a special arrangement of pipe, valves, and chokes which facilitates the
safe, controlled discharge of well fluids. An example of one possible choke manifold
arrangement is shown in Figure 7. From a well control standpoint, a choke manifold is
essentially a sophisticated way of maintaining a controlled back-pressure in the discharge
line for the purpose of circulating out unwanted wellbore fluids. This is especially
important if gas has come into the wellbore, because if not circulated out properly, the gas
will expand as it rises, causing serious well control problems.
23.2.9 Other Well Control Equipment
Due to more severe operating conditions, other pieces of equipment may be specified. For
example, a mud/gas separator is often specified when working in a sour well or with
weighted workover fluids (abnormal pressured formations). This is necessary because if
the tendency for heavier, viscous fluids to entrain more gas. Another item used under sour
or abnormal pressure conditions is a trip tank. A trip tank is used to detect the flow of
fluids into or out of the well. This is useful as a monitoring device for both fluid influx
(trip tank gain) as well as loss of circulation (trip tank loss).
An item incorporated into almost all conventional workovers is the back-pressure valve or
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BPV. The BPV is installed in a specially machined recess in the tubing hanger, effectively
plugging the tubing during the interim period when the christmas tree is removed and the
BOP’s are not yet installed. It provides the last means of defense if the well has not been
completely killed. The BPV should always be used as a safety precaution even when the
well is dead.
Figure 4. Stripper BOP
Figure 5. Annular BOP
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Figure 6. Ram BOP
Figure 7. Typical Choke Manifold
23.3 CONVENTIONAL WORKOVERS
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A conventional workover is loosely defined as a workover in which the well is killed and
the tubing is removed from the well. Using this definition, we see that many different rig
types can be used to perform a conventional workover, including drilling rigs, conventional
workover rigs, and snubbing units. The following section will discuss the primary rig used
for conventional workovers, which is the conventional workover rig. Figure 8 is a
schematic drawing of a conventional workover rig showing some of the items discussed
below.
23.3.1 Derrick or Mast
The mast is a telescoping arrangement which forms the final load-bearing structure of the
workover rig. The mast is telescoping for portability considerations. Typical dimensions
for the mast are an extended height of 100 ft and a maximum hook-load capacity of 230,000
lbf.
23.3.2 Drawworks
The drawworks has a revolving drum around which the drilling line is spooled. The
drawworks is operated with a clutch and a chain-and-gear drive, powered by a diesel engine
or an electric motor in the case of some drillings rigs. A main brake is used to stop the
drum and is assisted by a hydraulic or electric brake when heavy loads are being raised or
lowered.
The drilling line is a wire rope ranging from 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches in diameter. The drilling
line is strung through a series of pulleys (or sheaves) in the crown block and travelling
block. One end of the drilling line is attached to the drum in the drawworks. This line is
called the fast line. The other end of the drilling line, called the deadline, is anchored to the
rig and does not move. A sandline is sometimes included which can be used to hoist
equipment or swab the well.
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Figure 8. Conventional Workover Rig
23.3.3 Rotating Equipment
On most conventional workover rigs the rotating equipment consists of the swivel, the
kelly, and the rotary table. These items are briefly discussed below.
• Swivel – The swivel supports the weight of the workstring, provides a passageway for
fluids to enter the workstring, and permits rotation of the workstring by virtue of its
seals and bearings. In short, it is the item which permit simultaneous circulation and
rotation.
• Kelly – The kelly is a 4 or 6 sided joint of pipe which is connected to both the
workstring below and the swivel above. It fits into a kelly bushing, with a
corresponding shape, in the rotary table, which then provides the rotation. The sharp
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angles of the kelly allow torque to be transmitted to the pipe so that it can be rotated.
• Rotary Table – The rotary table is set in the rig floor and driven (rotated) by the rig’s
engines. It imparts rotation to the workstring via the square-or hexagonal shouldered
kelly.
• Power Swivel – On some smaller rigs the rotary table–kelly arrangement is replaced
by a power swivel. The power swivel is a motor driven by pressurized hydraulic fluid.
It is lighter and more portable than the rotary table method, but it is not made for
heavy-duty milling operations such as milling up permanent packers or drilling deeper.
23.3.4 Pipe
The type and size of workstring used is dictated by the requirements of the job and the
dimensions of the production casing string or liner. In many case 2-3/8-in. EUE tubing has
been found to offer a good compromise between strength, derrick load, and ease of
handling. On occasions when extensive milling or drilling is anticipated, a string of small
diameter drill pipe such as 2-7/8-in. is often run because drill pipe connections are
shouldered connections having a much higher allowable torque rating than ordinary tubing.
23.3.5 Circulating System
The circulating system is composed of the pumps, fluid mixing tanks, fluid treating
equipment, and the standpipe and rotary hose.
• Pumps – The pumps used in conventional rig workovers are triplex plunger pumps.
Usually, two pumps are used, each having the capacity of pumping roughly 3 BPM at
a maximum pressure of 3000 psi.
• Tanks – Typically, a 150 bbl compartmented tank is used for conventional workover
operations. The tank contains mixing sections, measuring sections, and a fluid storage
section.
• Treating Equipment – Although one of the primary means of cleaning the completion
fluid is to allow solids to settle out in the tanks, additional equipment such as filters,
shale-shakers, desanders, or gas separators may be added, depending on the nature of
the fluid and the workover being performed.
• Standpipe/Rotary Hose - The standpipe is a vertical pipe mounted to the rig mast
which carries fluid up to the rotary hose, a flexible piece of high pressure hose
connected to the swivel. The rotary hose is required so that circulation may be
maintained while the workstring is being lowered or raised.
23.3.6 Well Control Equipment
The general types of well control equipment and their functions were given in the “Well
Killing” section of this chapter.
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23.3.7 Depth Capabilities
Conventional workovers are usually only limited in depth of operation by the strength of
the workstring and the rated hookload of the mast. This is not as simple as it may sound,
however, because it can be difficult to calculate the exact load present on the workstring
during the workover. However, one place to begin is by calculating a theoretical maximum
depth for non-tapered string. We do this by the following equation :
wt Yield strength (lbf)

X L (ft) =
ft S.F.
For safety factors in the 1.5-1.8 range and N-80 grade tubulars, the maximum depth (L) is in
the range of 13,000-16,000 ft. Beyond this depth, a tapered string must be run, using
heavy-walled tubing in the upper portion of the hole.
23.4 CONCENTRIC WORKOVERS
As stated previously, a concentric workover is one in which a small diameter workstring is

run concentrically through the production tubing. this saves considerable time and money
since :
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• the well need not be dead,
• costs associated with pulling the existing completion are by-passed,
• concentric workover rigs are generally smaller and cheaper than conventional
workover rigs.
There are very few workover or servicing needs that are not now accomplished with
concentric tubing units in most areas of PSCB operations. In fact, concentric tubing
practices are the only means of servicing tubingless/monobore completions. The
experience and confidence gained from utilizing small-diameter tubing in tubingless
completions has influenced the expanding and frequent use of concentric tubing workovers
in conventional wells.
Concentric tubing techniques are particularly popular in expensive offshore and parallel-
string conventional wells. Other advantageous applications include those wells in which it
is difficult or inadvisable to move a packer, such as when gelled mud is in the casing-tubing
annulus and when packers have been installed to isolate casing leaks or squeezed
perforations.
23.4.1 Hoisting Equipment
The hoisting system on a concentric workover rig consists of the derrick, drawworks, and
drilling line (Figure 9). The hoisting system is used for running pipe into or pulling pipe
out of the well. Depending on the size of the rig, the hoisting system may handle one, two,
or three pipe joints at a time.
Derrick – Concentric rigs have either pole masts or structural mast derricks. Hook load
capacities range from 50k pounds for the smallest rigs to about 150k pounds for larger,
skid-mounted offshore concentric rigs.
Drawworks – The drawworks consist of a revolving drum around which the drilling line or
work line is spooled or wrapped. It also includes a shaft on which the catheads are mounted
(small spools to which other hoisting lines may be wrapped), along with several other
shafts, clutches, and chain-and-gear drives for speed and direction changes. It also contains
a main brake, which has the ability to stop the drum from turning. When heavy loads are
being raised or lowered, the main brake is assisted by an auxiliary hydraulic or electric
brake, which helps absorb the momentum created by a heavy load.
The drawworks for a concentric rig are driven by a diesel engine with ratings normally
ranging from1 150 to 250 horsepower.
The drilling line is made of wire rope that generally ranges from 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter.
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Figure 9. Concentric Workover, Hoisting System
The most popular and satisfactory means of pipe rotation is a hydraulically operated power
swivel. Other methods of pipe rotation include a kelly and power tongs equipped with kelly
jaws, and a kelly and small hydraulically operated rotary table.
23.4.3 Work String
Small diameter (“macaroni”) tubing strings of various diameters and with many different
types of joints are applicable to concentric work. The choice of work string will depend on
such considerations as necessary clearance, required tensile strength and torque limits,
desired hydraulics, frequency of use, retirement and salvage aspects, and availability.
Strings in common use include 3/4-in., 1-in., 1- 1/4-in., and 1- 1/2-in. nominal, and 2-1/16-
in. OD tubing. Tubing is J-55 or N-80 grade with upset, non-upset, special clearance, and
tool-joint connections. Heavy-wall 1-in. and 1- 1/4–in. nominal tubing with special
clearance or tool-joint connections is also in service. Some 2-3/8-in. drill pipe has been
used.
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• Tubing Joints – Popular special clearance joints are Hydril “CS” and Atlas Bradford
“DSS”. Common tool joints include American Machine and Iron Works “MT” and
Atlas Bradford Modified. Figure 10 pictures two of the joints commonly used with
concentric tubing service strings.
• Working Clearances – The small clearances involved in concentric tubing workovers

will not usually permit the use of fluids with appreciable amounts of solids without the
danger of stuck pipe. Table I lists some of the typical clearances currently employed
during the concentric operations. These clearances can be compared with the 1-in., or
more, clearance that is often stipulated in routine drilling and well workover
operations.
• Physical Properties of Macaroni Tubing – The data on the 1- 1/4–in. tubing and drill
pipe typically used in concentric tubing work shown in Table II illustrate the
capabilities and dimensions of macaroni tubing.
Figure 10. Common Connections used with Concentric Workstrings
Table I
Typical Clearances
Concentric Tubing Servicing
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Outer
Tube Inner Tube
Application Clearance
Drift Coupling
Tubingless 3-1/2” Casing

2-1/16” Integral Joint 2.867 2.330 0.537
Installed Gas Lift

1-1/2” N.U. inside 3-1/2” 2.867 2.200 0.667
1-1/4” N.U. inside 2-7/8” 2.347 2.054 0.293
1-1/2” N.U. inside 2-7/8” 2.347 2.110 0.237
1-1/4” N.U. inside 2-3/8” 1.901 1.880 0.021
Concentric Work Operations

1” inside 2-7/8” 2.347 1.552 0.795
1-1/4” inside 3-1/2” 2.867 1.883 0.984
1” inside 2-3/8” 1.901 1.552 0.349
1-13/16” DP inside 2-7/8” 2.347 1.813 0.534
All of the above combinations have also been used in directional wells with angles up to 30°- 45°.
Table II
Characteristics of 1-1/4-in. Nominal Tubing and Drill Pipe
Yield Torsion
Weight, Tube OD Tube ID Coupling Strength Yield
Connection Grade
lb/ft in. in. OD in. lb ft-lb
NU API J-55 2.3 1.660 1.380 2.054 21,360 700

EUE API J-55 2.4 1.660 1.380 2.200 36,770 1,080
EUE API N-80 2.4 1.660 1.380 2.200 53,480 1,560
CS HydriL N-80 2.4 1.600 1.380 1.883 53,480 1,560
“MT” Tool Jt. N-80 2.3 1.600 1.264 1.750 72,800 2,290
23.4.4 Workstring Selection
The most economical approach to pipe costs, when straight, shallow wells are involved, is
to use J-55 grade API upset and non-upset connections on standard weight tubing.
However, when time and fishing costs are at a premium, as in offshore operations, N-80
seamless tubing with special clearance connections is usually used.
At moderate depths, J-55 non-upset tubing will satisfy strength requirements. At deeper
depths, where the tensile strength of the non-upset joint insufficient (usually below 6,000
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feet), external upset tubing can be used. API couplings can also be turned down (i.e.,
reduced outer diameter) without sacrificing tensile strength. Below 9,000 to 10,000 feet, N-
80 tubing or drill pipe is needed. Heavy-wall tubing or macaroni drill pipe is usually a
necessity on fishing jobs requiring high tensile loads to assist in pulling the fish free.
Tubing selection is often dictated by the frequency of use and the alternatives available that
permit maximum salvage value. If the string is to be used infrequently and cannot
subsequently be employed as a gas-lift string or for other purposes, it would probably be
best to rent a workstring from the rig contractor. If the string will be in constant service and
can be retired to other uses before it reaches a junked condition, low-cost tubing such as the
J-55 with API connections would be the most economical. The disadvantage of a premium-
priced workstring is the care and maintenance required, which is difficult to provide in the
field.
Pumping System – Because of the relatively high friction losses and small fluid volumes
encountered, concentric tubing workover rigs require high-pressure, fairly low-volume
pumps. The Gardner-Denver PE-5 triplex plunger pump is an excellent selection for this
type of service and is standard rig equipment in many areas. This particular pump is
capable of discharging about 1/2 bbl/min at 5,000 psi and 2 bbl/min at 3,000 psi. By
contrast, maximum pressure obtainable with a conventional mud pump approximates 2,000
psi. the higher pressure rating of the Gardner-Denver pump has many economic advantages
over the mud pump :
• It can be used to kill wells, thus avoiding a pump truck charge for well killing.
• It can be equipped to perform the small-volume, low pressure squeeze cementing

normally associated with concentric tubing operations.
• It can also be utilized for general oil field pumping applications.
Pumping Pressures – Table III presents examples of the pressures required to circulate salt
water through macaroni strings and back up the annulus in 2-7/8-in. casing.
Table III
Pressure Required to Circulate Salt Water
(Small Tubing in 2-7/8-in-OD Casing)
Nominal Tubing Size, Depth, Circulating Rate, Circulating Pressure,

in. ft bbl/min psi
3/4 EUE 4,000 1/2 1,000

8,400 1/2 1,700
12,600 1/3 2,500
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1 Integral Joint 7,000 1/2 1,200

11,900 3/4 1,500
1-1/4 NU 1,800 2/3 250

3,000 2/3 400
1-1/4 Drill Pipe 5,000 3/4 1,100

10,000 1/2 1,600
Circulation Rates – Low circulating rates are usually use din all concentric tubing
applications to minimize the circulating pressures. The low rates nevertheless permit
returns off bottom in reasonable times due to the small capacity of the pipe. For instance,
1-in. tubing can have cement circulated off bottom at 10,000 feet in 20 minutes when
circulating at 1/2 bbl/min. This circulating rate gives a linear velocity of about 500 ft/min.
Rates of 300 ft/min, or lower, are effectively used to wash sand in many instances.
Tankage and Mixing Facilities – A typical compartmented tank often used with a concentric
rig is shown in Figure 11. Included are a 40 bbl salt-water or return compartment, a 20 bbl
mixing compartment with rotary jet mixer, and two 10 bbl tanks. Dual return lines and full
suction manifolding permit circulation on the well with one pump while mixing is done
independently with another pump, when available. Circulation is controlled through a
conventional squeeze manifold.
23.4.6 Well Control
Workover operations with concentric pipe are conducted through the Christmas tree, which
simplifies rig-up and rig-down procedures. A twin-ram, manually operated preventer
containing two sets of manually operated pipe rams is generally sufficient for anticipated
surface pressures of less than 3,000 psi. For pressures above 3,000 psi, a hydraulic
actuating unit should be connected to the upper ram. When necessary, a stripper-type
preventer operated by hydraulic pressure can be included. Reverse circulation is possible
with either version, but stripping is not recommended with the twin-ram type. Figure 12
illustrates the composite blowout preventer assembly. Blank rams are not required in
concentric tubing work because the Christmas tree master valve serves in this capacity.
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Figure 11. Compartmented Tank
Figure 12. Blowout Preventer Equipment for Concentric Tubing Workover
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The two most popular types of workstrings currently used are 1-in. and 1-1/4-in pipe. The
1-in. weighs 2.25 ppf, is N-80 grade, and routinely comes with a Hydril CS connection.
The 1-1/4-in. workstring weighs 2.40 ppf, is usually J-55 grade, and comes with a standard
8-rd. EUE connection.
As we saw in the conventional workovers chapter, we can calculate a maximum depth

based on tension by taking the joint yield strength and dividing by the weight per foot of
workstring and a safety factor, usually 1.5-1.8. If this is done for the two grades of pipe
mentioned above, we see that the 1-in. (OD = 1.313-in.) N-80 pipe has a maximum
operating depth of 12,600 – 15,100 ft while the 1-1/4-in. (OD = 1.660 in.)
J-55 pipe can reach 8,500-10,000 ft. If it necessary to reach deeper depths one can either
use stronger materials (such as P-105) or run a combination string with a larger diameter
pipe for the upper section of the hole and the smaller diameter pipe for the lower section.
Remember that if the latter course id followed, it is necessary to have an additional set of
pipe rams in the BOP stack since a given pipe ram is only good for one size of pipe.
23.5 COILED TUBING WORKOVERS
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Coiled tubing units (CTU) hav ebeen used for numerous types of well operations. They are
most commonly used for well clean-out, washing sand, acidizing, well kickoff, and sand
consolidation treatments. For the most part, coiled tubing techniques are not suited to
heavy-duty service because of the tensile capacity of the tubing, the hoisting capacity of the
rig, and the inability to rotate the tubing.
In operation, the coiled tubing is fed from the reel to the injector head and then pushed
down through the tree-mounted, hydraulically-operated BOP stack (Figure 13). The tubing
is run into and pulled from the well at speeds of up to 120 feet per minute by means of a
continuous chain-driven, traction-operated tubing injector which is driven by two hydraulic
motors. The tubing is gripped on each side by a series of contoured metal blocks in the
endless chain mechanism while the injector head exerts a pushing or pulling force of up to
about 12,000 pounds. In this manner, the tubing is run in and out of the hole under
pressure, without killing the well. Adjustable, grooved sheaves guide and straighten the
tubing as it leaves the reel and approaches the injector head. The inner end of the tubing is
connected to a rotary joint in the hub of the reel so that fluids or gas can be pumped through
the tubing as it is being run into or out of the well. CTU’s should circulate fluids
continuously while running in the hole to avoid sticking or collapsing the pipe. A level
wind mechanism similar to that on a fishing reel guides the pipe for spooling on the storage
reel.
23.5.2 Pipe
The pipe use in coiled tubing operations is a single welded string – no threaded connections
are used. Typical sizes are 3/4, 1, 1-1/4-in. In addition, both light (thin-walled) and heavy
(thick-walled) and heavy pipe are available. Yield strengths of the steel used in the tubing
vary from 60,000-80,000 psi. Typical dimensions and performance properties for 1-in. and
1-1/4-in. pipe are given in Table IV.
Table IV
Typical Coiled Tubing Specifications
Size Maximum
OD (in.) ID (in.) Weight (ppf) Yield (psi) Depth (ft)
1.000 0.935 0.65 75,000 13,000

1.000 0.917 0.81 75,000 16,500
1.250 1.185 0.82 75,000 16,900
1.250 1.167 1.03 75,000 21,000
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Figure 13. Coiled Tubing Pulling and Running Unit
Pipe rotation is not possible with coiled tubing since part of the pipe is always wrapped
around the spool. Nonetheless, it is possible to rotate a bottomhole assembly using fluid
circulation down the tubing and a positive displacement motor. Another device which is
sometimes used is a rotating jet sub, which can be used to radially divert acid during a
matrix stimulation treatment. These devices are not widely used.
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Circulation equipment is basically the same as for concentric workovers.
23.5.5 BOP Equipment
A blowout preventer stack for coiled tubing units is shown in Figure 14. This configuration
will allow the tubing to be packed off, supported, cut, and isolated from the rest of the
tubing on the reel should a leak at the surface occur. The BOP side outlet gives access to
the production tubing for pumping or bleeding operations.
Figure 14. Coiled Tubing Unit BOP
Coiled tubing units are capable of working to 15,000-18,000 ft depending on the size of
tubing and the amount of normal and heavy wall tubing that is run. Normal tubing is
usually good to about 12,000 ft, after which heavy-wall is welded to the normal tubing to
achieve greater depth capabilities. It is considered prudent practice to leave at least 400 ft
of tubing on the spool at all times.
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There are certain special pressure considerations which need to be considered when
planning for a coiled tubing unit workover. These are discussed below.
• The wellhead pressure limitation for coiled tubing units is 5,000 psi, but many
operators restrict their use to 3,000 psi maximum.
• Reverse circulation is not permitted because thin-walled tubing is very susceptible to

collapse. As forward circulation is the only mode available, it becomes imperative to
take all necessary precautions to minimize the chance of sticking the tubing due to
solids accumulating in the annular space between the coiled tubing and the production
tubing.
• Pumping pressures can be quite large even for work at shallow depths because the
fluid must pass through the entire length of tubing on the reel, often as much as 16,000
ft. For this reason circulation rates are usually held to a maximum of a few barrels per
minute.
23.6 SNUBBING UNIT WORKOVERS
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Snubbing is the procedure whereby pipe is inserted or withdrawn from a well under
pressure. There are three essential elements to the snubbing process:
• A means to force the pipe through a sealing element at a controlled upward or

downward rate.
• An effective sliding-type sealing element around the exterior of the pipe
• A means for plugging the inside of the pipe
These three elements of snubbing unit workovers are discussed below.
23.6.1 Advantages
For workovers, several advantages are offered by the use of hydraulic snubbing equipment
rather than conventional equipment.
• The work can be done under pressure and, in some cases, while the well is producing.
This means that formation damage due to well killing operations is eliminated.
• The well can be placed back on production quickly because cleanup time is less.
• Hydraulic workover equipment is more portable than conventional equipment and can
be set up and torn down easily. This aspect is important in offshore or other remote
locations where transportation of heavy equipment is difficult.
• Hydraulic workover equipment is flexible. Lifting capacities can be made high and
currently range to 340,000 pounds. It is possible to handle, pull, and run large OD
downhole tools of moderate length under pressure. Rotary capabilities have been
incorporated that enable the units to perform light drilling and milling work.
Figure 15 shows a typical hydraulic workover rig on a land location. BOP rams are visible
below the vertical hydraulic cylinders. Above the cylinders is a work platform on which is
located the operating control console. The hydraulic oil supply tank, pumps, and engine
driver are at ground level. Numerous hydraulic hoses connect the assemblage.
The pipe-handling assembly consists of travelling slips, stationary slips, and hydraulic
cylinders (Figure 16). The hydraulically-powered slips are used to grip the workstring as it
is pushed into or pulled out of the well. In a snubbing operation where pipe is pushed into
the well under pressure, the travelling slips grasp a joint of pipe, and are driven downward
by means of the hydraulic cylinders, forcing the workstring into the well.
At that point, the stationary slips are closed, holding the pipe in place. The travelling slips
are released and lifted to their original position, then closed. When the travelling slips have
grasped the joint of pipe once again, the stationary slips are opened. This cycle is repeated
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for each stroke of the hydraulic cylinders.
Figure 15. Conventional Snubbing Unit
This snubbing action is powered by a set of four hydraulic cylinders. These cylinders
utilize pressure supplied by hydraulic pumps to drive the pistons housed within each of the
four cylinders.
The size of the piston in each hydraulic cylinder determines the units’s push and pull
capabilities.
Separate “power packs” (diesel engine and pumps) are commonly provided to power the
mast lift cylinders, rotary table, power tongs, fluid pumps, or other auxiliary equipment in
use. Proper pump sizing thus creates one or more on-site spares in the event of failure of
the power equipment.
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Figure 16. Pipe Handling System for a Multi-Cylinder Snubbing Unit
23.6.3 Pipe
Pipe sizes from 1-in. OD to 7-in. OD can be handled with hydraulic equipment, with lifts
ranging up to 340,000 capacity. The capability for handling larger sizes of pipe makes
feasible the retrieval or insertion of well tubing under pressure in addition to concentric
tubing work. This capability is the most recent extension of the hydraulic workover
technique. As such, the scope of potential applicability is significantly broadened in both
initial completion and workover activities.
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The circulating system (pumps, tanks, lines, etc.) is the same as for other workovers with
the exception of a one-way check valve installed in the bottom of the workstring or tubing.
This check valve allows fluid to flow down from above but will not let fluid up from below.
This allows tubing to be inserted under pressure without fluid exiting the string.
23.6.5 Well Control System
Two basic devices are used for sealing the outside diameter of the tubing during work under
pressure. These are ram-type blowout preventers and solid rubber element tubing strippers.
Stripper elements (Figure 17) are generally considered adequate for control of pressure up
to 2,500 – 3,000 psi. These elements are constructed of solid synthetic rubber compounds.
They can stretch as couplings pass so that some downhole tolls can be stripped through
them. The useful life of the stripper element depends largely on the external condition of
the tubing, and will range from 10,000 to 20,000 linear feet at pressures of 3,000 psi or less.
With three BOP elements in a stack, and with piping to create an equalizing chamber,
higher pressure operations are feasible. Figure 18 (a-h) shows the sequence of operations
when entering the hole using the ram BOP stack. The stack operation is summarized below
• With the top rams open and the lower rams closed on the pipe, the joint can be
lowered.
• After the connection passes the top rams, the top rams close and chamber pressure
equalizes with casing pressure before the lower rams open.
• High pressure thus admitted to the chamber between the two rams is held by the top
rams as the joint is again lowered.
• After the connection passes the lower rams, the lower rams are closed and pressure is
then released for the equalizing chamber between the rams through a vent line.
• The top rams are then opened and the cycle is repeated.
• The third set of pipe rams is located below the two working sets and is for basic well
control. They serve as safety devices by not being subjected to wear in the snubbing
process.
One can easily see that many maneuvers are required of an operator in stripping tubing with
the use of working-ram-type preventers. In contrast, the simple stripper requires no action
to operate.
A stripper is also more economical to use than working rams. Working rams are
nevertheless useful in many circumstances, and should be included in the BOP stack to
facilitate running downhole tools in order to accommodate the higher pressures sometimes
encountered.
Clearly, the well pressure acting on the cross-sectional area of the plugged pipe will be
lifting it upward while gravitational pull on the pipe mass will be acting downward.
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Frictional resistance of the sliding seal will be an additive force to the net buoyant effect
from the vertical forces described. Depending on how much pipe is in the well below the
seal, the pipe movement must either be continuously forced or restrained.
Figure 17. Operation of the Stripping Rubber
23.6.6 Auxiliary Equipment
In some case, power tongs are used to make up or break out pipe, and are powered by air or
hydraulic pressure. When circulating through the workstring or rotating the pipe, power
swivels or power subs are normally made up onto the top joint of pipe. In some cases, a
hydraulically powered rotary table is mounted on top of the travelling slip assembly. The
controls for all the unit’s functions are located in the detachable workbasket, which is
mounted at the top of the hydraulic cylinders.
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Figure 18. The Snubbing Process
23.7 FISHING OPERATIONS
Fishing can be defined as any operation to remove undersirable objects from the wellbore.
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Almost every fishing job presents special problems requiring proper analysis, creative
thinking, and the exercise of good judgment to successfully accomplish the objective.
Often fishing jobs require many tools and frequent trips with the work string, which
consume much rig time and can result in a high-cost operation.
23.7.1 Reasons For Fishing
Tools and equipment are lost in the hole for variety of reasons. A very common example is
seen during drilling operations, when part of the drill string may get stuck in the hole. In
workover operations, common causes of fishing are wireline tools which are left in the hole,
screens and slotted liners used in gravel-packed completions which need to be retrieved,
stuck packers, parted workstring, and tools which inadvertently fall into the wellbore
(wrenches, slip dies, etc.). Each of these different types of “fish” require special tools and
techniques for retrieval.
23.7.2 Planning
The costs and inherent risks when fishing make it imperative that the operations and
engineering personnel involved communicate freely. Predicted additional cost and risk in
certain types of fishing operations may make it necessary to change the whole job plan and
objective.
Factors that must be considered in planning a fishing job are :
• Mechanical condition of the wellbore tubulars and the fluids or solids that they contain
• Knowledge of the size, amount, and type of fish (all dimensions are important)
• Location of fish
• Tools and method to be used for recovery
• Predicted cost, probability of success, and risks of failure
For relatively simple, straight forward fishing jobs such as the recovery of pipe
inadvertently dropped or left in the hole, an overshot can be used for fast, inexpensive
recovery. For a more complicated job-such as recovery of stuck, cemented, or plasticized
pipe, ore recovery of several wireline tools with wireline on top of them – special fishing
tools and skills will be required. When cases such as these arise, an experienced fishing-
tool operator should be used.
There are many types of fishing tools which can be grouped into categories according to
how they are used.
• Catching or retrieving tools
• Washover tools
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• Cutting tools
• Milling tools
• Other
23.7.3 Retrieving Tools
The following tools are designed for engaging the fish either externally or internally.
Overshot – Probably the most popular and versatile catching or retrieving tool, this tool
(Figure 19) engages the outside of a tubular fish by means of slips or grapples that ride a
tapered surface inside the overshot bowl. It can be released by right-hand rotation.
Figure 19. Overshot
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Die Collar – This tool (Figure 20) catches the outside of a tubular fish by cutting threads
into the fish when the tool is rotated to the right. The die collar is seldom used because its
hold cannot be released except by left-hand rotation, which is seldom practical.
Taper Tap – Used to engage a tubular fish internally, this tool (Figure 21) screws into the
fish and cuts threads as it goes. The pin tap is similar to the taper tap and is used for
screwing into a threaded box. Cutting new threads is a more positive engagement than
attempting simply to screw on or into existing threads on a fish that may be damaged,
misaligned, or incomplete. New threads can also be cut on blank pipe.
Spear – Grips the inside of the fish by means of slips. Spears (Figure 22) are not as widely
used as overshots, because it is usually harder to enter the bore of a fish than it is to slip
over its exterior. Since a spear must have a smaller diameter to penetrate the fish, its shaft
has a smaller cross-sectional area for applying pull than is available in tools that grip the
fish externally.
Figure 20. Die Collar Figure 21. Taper Tap
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Figure 22. Spear
23.7.4 Washover Tools
Very often it is enough merely to catch hold of the fish and pull. In those cases, washpipe
and a rotary shoe (Figure 23) can be used to rotate over the fish to remove annular material
that may be causing it to stick. The outside diameter of the washpipe must be small enough
to run in the casing, and its inside diameter must be large enough to fit over the fish.
Washpipe is therefore thin walled and the length of it run in the well must normally be
limited to a few hundred feet. The rotary shoe is placed on the end of the washpipe to drill-
up and circulate out any material around the fish.
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Figure 23. Washover Pipe and Rotary Shoe
23.7.5 Cutting Tools
Cutting tools are needed to remove the upper (unstuck) portion of a stuck string to permit
the use of other devices to recover the remainder of the fish.
Until the advent of the string shot technique, discussed in Chapter 22, “Wireline
Operations”, internal cutting (Figure 24a) was the best way to free either drill pipe or
tubing. String-shot, back-off procedures have almost completely replaced inside cutting,
but the latter is still used to recover large-sized casing. External cutters (Figure 24b) enable
mechanical cuts to be made when the inside of a fish is plugged, precluding the use of
string shot, shaped charges, or chemical cutters. An external cutting tool can be run below
washover pipe and a rotary shoe, allowing several hundred feet of fish to be washed over
prior to making a cut. With an overshot on top of the washpipe, single-trip recovery is
feasible. This eliminates pulling out of the hole to lay down the cutting assembly and
subsequently making another trip with an overshot to recover the separated section of fish.
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Figure 24a : Internal Cutter Figure 24b : External Cutter
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23.7.6 Milling Tools
Sometimes a fish cannot be removed from the wellbore intact. It is then necessary to
reduce the fish to small pieces that can be circulated to the surface. Mills dressed on the
bottom with tungsten carbide have been used extensively for this purpose and with good
results. These mills are available in a number of sizes and design shapes for various
applications. These are basically three types :
Junk Mill (Figure 25a) – This type is used for grinding up junk metal and is constructed
with either a flat or wavy bottom.
Cement Mill (Figure 25b) – This type is used for drilling up cement, plastic, or hard sand.
It is normally designed with three points of contact on its base, and has an irregular or
offset watercourse to prevent coring.
Tapered Mill (Figure 25c) – This type is used for removing metal burrs in tubing or
working through tight spots in casing. The tungsten carbide is placed on the tapered body
of the mill.
(c) (a) (b)
Figure 25. Typical Mills
23.7.7 Other Tools
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Some of the other tools used frequently in fishing efforts include :
String Shot – This tool consists of an explosive primacord and a detonator that can be run
inside the fish on an electric conductor line. For a string shot to be effective, the fish must
be held in left-hand torque while the explosive is fired at or near the collar. Detonation
pressure swells out the box connection far enough to permit the residual left-hand torque to
unscrew the threaded connection.
Free-point Indicator – This tool is run into the fish on an electric conductor line. When the
tool is set, a strain is taken on the fish so that the length of pipe above the stuck point is
held in tension. The free-point indicator senses the presence or absence of movement in the
fish to locate the free point. Once this has been located, the fish can be cut or backed off
with a string shot at or near the free point.
This tool eliminates errors formerly made in calculating the amount of free pipe by placing
the string in tension and using stretch measurements at the surface.
Bumper Sub – this toll is run to deliver either upward or downward impact blows to the fish
by raising and lowering the work string. It has no hydraulic assist mechanism.
Hydraulic Jars (oil jars) - This tool is used to deliver upward impact blows only. It has the
advantage of having the fishing string in tension when the impact blow the struck, which
results in a more effective blow downhole. Oil jars depend upon hydraulic action for
tripping. An upward pull tends to compress a trapped fluid (oil) within the jar. As the fluid
pressure reaches a sufficient level, or when the piston reaches a certain position, the jarring
action is released, causing the upward impact blow. The tool can be reset and operated
over and over again by alternately lowering the tool and pulling upward.
Left-hand Pipe – Left-hand threaded pipe is normally used to recover an unbroken

threaded-connection fish that was not recovered by pulling or by string-shot back-off.
Catching tools are run on the bottom of the left-hand pipe to engage the fish. The string is
then rotated to the left in an attempt to break a right-hand threaded connection in the fish.
23.8 WORKOVER RIG SELECTION
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The final part of this section deals with workover rig selection criteria. Typical workover
operations are listed as keywords in the left-hand margin, and the different factors affecting
rig selection for that particular operation are discussed.
23.8.1 Drilling and Milling
Most major drilling and milling operations are conducted with conventional workover rigs.
Such operations include milling up packers, drilling cement, sidetracking, deepening, etc.
conventional rigs are preferred for a number of reasons. For drilling it is often necessary to
use a high weight-on-bit in order to achieve reasonable penetration rates. This requires a
larger workstring. High torque requirements are another reason for using larger tubular
goods. In many cases where drilling is required, a new downhole completion configuration
will be required, which requires a conventional rig anyway.
Concentric rigs are suitable for some light milling operations, however. In particular, they
can be used to mill up very hard sand bridges that cannot be washed through. They are also
used for removing deposits such as paraffin or plastic consolidation materials from inside
the tubing string. Of course, they offer the only means for milling and drilling inside
tubingless completions.
23.8.2 Squeeze Cementing
All three categories of rigs (conventional, concentric, and coiled tubing) can be used for
squeeze cementing operations, although the first two types perform the vast majority of jobs
Whether a conventional or concentric rig is used depends to a large degree on the specific
requirements of the well and the job.
Concentric rigs can and do perform a large percentage of routine squeeze cementing
operations, especially when an entire set of perforations are to be squeezed. For these
applications a balanced-plug technique is used to spot the cement across the interval, then
the workstring is pulled above the cement top and squeeze pressure is applied. An example
of this procedure, covered in detail in Chapter 21, “Remedial Cementing”, is shown in
Figure 26.
A fairly recent technique that has proved successful in some areas is the use of a concentric
workstring and inflatable packer to squeeze channels in the cement sheath behind the
casing. The workstring and packer are run through the tubing into the casing where the
packer is inflated between the two sets of perforations that connect the channel. Then,
cement is pumped down the workstring, through the channel, and back out above the
packer. The cost savings over using a conventional rig can be significant.
Conventional workover rigs are also used for squeeze cementing operations. One example
of where a conventional rig would be used is where holes that can be sealed with cement
develop in the production casing above the packer. There may be other times when
concentric techniques are not applicable, such as when a squeeze packer is required to keep
pressure off the casing or when cement needs to be milled out of large-diameter casing
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following a squeeze. In these cases, a conventional rig is required.
Figure 26. Squeeze Cementing with Concentric Tubing
23.8.3 Recompletion
The kind of rig used for the recompletion depends on wellbore specifics. If the intended
interval after the workover is above an existing retrievable packer (Figure 27), then a
conventional workover rig must be used to unseat the packer, pick up the tubing, etc.
If the new completion interval is below the existing perforations, however, (Figure 28), the
option theoretically exists to recomplete using concentric techniques or a conventional rig.
The decision then is based on such factors as depth, hole angle, casing and tubing size, etc.,
and their effect on the ability to mill out cement a cement plug to perforate the lower zone.
Usually, a conventional workover scheme is selected.
If the new completion interval is higher than the old interval, yet still below the packer
(Figure 29), then concentric work usually becomes very attractive. In this case the old
perforations can be squeezed and a cement plug left in the casing.
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It is a very common practice when completing a wellbore that intersects a number of

distinctly different zones to complete from the bottom up. The lowermost zone is produced
first, then it is squeezed and the next higher zone is perforated. This procedure is repeated
until all the zones are depleted.
Figure 27. Recomplete Above Packer
23.8.4 Repair/Replace Downhole Equipment
The type of workover rig that is required for repair or replacement of downhole equipment
depends on what downhole equipment is involved. If the equipment is suspended in the
tubing string, then a wireline unit can be used. Examples of this type of workover are
pulling subsurface safety valves, repair of gas-lift valves, installation of tubing patches, etc.
For other repair/replacement operations, however, a conventional rig usually be required

since retrieval of the entire completion string becomes necessary. Examples in this
category include repair of replacement of the packer, retrieval of the screen in a gravel-
packed completion, retrieval of corroded tubing, etc.
Perhaps the only time that concentric methods could be used would be when cement is
squeezed through a hole in the casing string below the packer for repair of a casing leak.
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Figure 28. Recomplete Lower
23.8.5 Sand Control
As we saw in an earlier chapter, sand control can really be sub-divided into three different
classifications:
• Mechanical (Screens and Gravel Packing)
• Chemical (Plastic Consolidation)
• Resin Coated Sand
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Figure 29. Recomplete Higher (But Below Packer)
Many gravel-packs (mechanical retention) are performed during the initial completion,
often with the drilling rig. If performed at some later time in the well’s history, it is
necessary to use a conventional workover rig to pull the tubing, run the screen and gravel-
pack packer, and re-run the completion.
The exception to this is the rare occasion when a gravel-pack is designed for a tubingless
completion. In this case a concentric rig can be used to run the small diameter screen.
However, gravel-packing with 1-in. screens is seldom advisable because of operational
problems during the pack and also due to poor performance thereafter.
Chemical consolidation treatments have been pumped both through a concentric workstring
and bullheaded down the existing completion string. The advantage of using the small 1-in.
or 1-1/4-in. workstring for placement is that fluid mixing and contamination problems are
minimal due to the small capacity of the workstring. The disadvantages of the concentric
string approach are the cost of the rig and the chance of sticking the pipe in the hole if a
leak develops while pumping the consolidation chemicals. In general, however, placement
with a 1-in. workstring has been the preferred method in the majority of such jobs that have
been performed.
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Placement of resin-coated sand is, in most cases, best made with a concentric rig. As
discussed in Chapter 11, “Sand Control”, the success of resin-coated sand treatments
depends to a great deal on filling each perforation with sand. This is best done by packing
with a small workstring until a “sand-out” is achieved, reversing clean to bottom, and
repeating the procedure again until no more sand can be injected. This can most easily be
accomplished by means of a concentric rig and pipe.
23.8.6 Stimulation
Stimulation treatments are so varied that each of the general workover categories, bullhead,
concentric, and conventional, can be the optimum solution. Each one of these is discussed
below.
• Bullhead – Bullhead methods are often used for injection of small volumes of
chemicals such as solvents, surfactants, and small acid jobs. They work best if the
treating interval is fairly short, but special fluid diversion techniques can be used to
improve coverage of longer intervals. Large hydraulic and acid fracturing treatments
can also be bullheaded if the tubing is fairly large (for low friction pressure) and if the
downhole equipment, especially the packer, can withstand the forces induced by high
pressure injection of a cold fluid.
• Concentric – Many matrix acid treatments are pumped through small diemeter
workstrings and coiled tubing because reciprocation of the workstring through the
treating interval improves coverage of the zones by the acid. Coiled tubing is
especially useful because it can be reciprocated over long lengths while maintaining
fluid injection. Scale deposits are also often removed using concentric techniques.
• Conventional – A conventional workover rig is primarily required when a well is to be

fractured and the existing completion must first be pulled either because the tubing is
too small to permit high injection rates or because the packer mechanism was not
designed to withstand the tensile forces generated during fracture treatments.
23.8.7 Clean-Out
Both conventional and concentric techniques can be used for wellbore clean-out operations.
The choice depends to a large extent on the size of the casing, the material to be washed
out, and the fluids available. In general, reverse circulation is preferred because of the
higher velocities through the tubing which improve solids transport. This in general rulees
out the use of coiled tubing because it has no collapse resistance. Concentric strings can
often be used, and their applicability should always be investigated since they are much
cheaper than conventional rigs.
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COMPLETION GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR COMPLETION Page 1 of 23
MANUAL AND WORKOVER OPERATIONS Issue 1
CHAPTER 24
APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR COMPLETION AND

WORKOVER OPERATIONS
-A-
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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Acidize The treatment of oil-bearing or other formations, using a chemical reaction

with acid, for the purpose of increasing production. Hydrochloric or other acid
is injected into the formation under pressure. The acid etches the rock,
enlarging the pore spaces and passages through which the reservoir fluids
flow. The acid is held under pressure for a period of time and then flowed
back and the well is placed on production. Chemical inhibitors combined with
the acid prevent corrosion of the pipe.
Adjustable Choke A choke in which the position of a conical needle in a seat can be used to vary
the rate of flow through the choke.
Annulus The space-surrounding pipe suspended in the well bore. The outer wall of the
(Annular Space) annulus may be the wall of the borehole or it may be larger pipe.
API American Petroleum Institute. Founded in 1920, this national oil industry
trade association maintains a headquarters office in Washington, D.C. and a
Production Department office in Dallas, Texas. Standards for many items of
drilling and producing equipment are produced by industry committees of the
Production Department, including specifications for wire rope and solid wire
line.
API RP - 14B Design, Installation and Operation of Subsurface Safety Valve Systems.
API - SPEC 14A Subsurface Safety Valve Equipment.
Apparent The gel viscosity established using a Fann V - G Meter Model - 34 rheometer.
Viscosity(AV) The viscosity in centipoise = 600 rpm reading/2.
Artificial Lift Any method used to raise oil and gas to the surface after reservoir energy has
declined to the point at which the well no longer produces by natural flow.
The most common methods of artificial lift are sucker-rod pumps, hydraulic
pumps, submersible pumps, and gas lift.
Assistant Drilling Second highest ranked Company representative on drilling site.

Supervisor (ADS)
- B-
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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Bakerlok Baker Oil Tools trademark for a commonly used thread locking compound
Barrel (BBL or bbl) - A common unit of liquid volume measurement in the petroleum
industry. One barrel (1 bbl) is equivalent to 42 U.S. gallons (158.97 liters).
BBL/D Barrels per day.
B/D Barrels per day. (Alternate for BBL/D usually used in drilling reports).
BHP Bottom hole pressure.
BHT Bottom hole temperature.
Blind Rams integral part of the blowout preventer stack. Rams whose ends are not
intended to close around drill pipe, but to seal against each other and shut off
completely the space below.
Blowout A temporary uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, or other well fluids from a well to
the atmosphere. A well blows out when formation pressure exceeds the
pressure being applied to it by the column of drilling fluids and measures are
unsuccessful in rectifying this situation. Early day gushers were blowouts.
Blowout Preventer Equipment installed at the surface, below the drilling floor on land and
(BOP) platform rigs and on the seafloor of floating offshore rigs to prevent the escape
of pressure either in the annular space between the casing and drill pipe or in
an open hole during drilling and completion operations. Also used during
some workover operations.
Bomb A thick-walled container, usually made of steel, that is used to receive samples
of oil or gas under pressure or to measure and record the pressure at a point in
the well. (see "bottom hole pressure").
BOPD Barrels of oil per day.
Bottom hole Descriptive of the lowest or deepest part of a well.
Bottom hole Choke A device with a restricted opening placed in the lower end of the tubing to
control the rate of liquid or gas flow to the surface. (see "choke").
Bottom hole The pressure in a well at a point opposite the production formation, usually
Pressure recorded by a bottom hole pressure instrument popularly called a "bomb".
The "bomb" houses a precision gage and is usually lowered on a wireline.
(see "bomb").
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Brine Water that has a large quantity of salt, especially sodium chloride, dissolved in
it; "salt water".
Bringing in a well The act of completing a well and bringing it into actual production status.
- C-
Capital This is an investment or a cash outflow for a project in the expectation of
Expenditure future profits.
(CAPEX)
Casing Steel pipe placed in an oil or gas well as drilling progresses. The function of
casing is to prevent the wall of the hole from caving during drilling, provide
control of the well if it tries to blow out, and limit oil or gas production to the
zone perforated or open.
Casinghead A heavy, steel, flanged fitting that connects to the surface string of casing and
provides a housing for the slips and packing assemblies by which intermediate
strings of casing are suspended and the annulus sealed off.
Casing Head A heavy steel fitting that connects to the first string of casing and provides a
(Land Operations) housing for the slips and packing assemblies by which subsequent strings of
casing are suspended and the annulus sealed off. Is used offshore in
conjunction with mudline suspension wellhead systems as used by jack-up
drillings rings.
Casing Pressure The pressure built up in the annular space between casing strings, casing and
tubing, or casing and drill pipe.
Choke A type of orifice installed in a line to restrict flow and control the rate of
production. Surface chokes are a part of the "Christmas tree" and contain a
choke nipple, or bean, with a small-diameter bore (an orifice) that serves to
restrict the flow. Also, chokes are used to control the rate of flow of the
drilling mud out of the hole when the well is closed in with the blowout
preventer and a "kick" is being circulated out of the hole. (See adjustable
choke, bottom-hole choke, and positive choke).
Christmas Tree The valve, pressure gages, and chokes assembled at the top of a well to control
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
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the flow of oil and gas after the well has been completed.
Clam Blender The CLAM blender (Halliburton trademark) processes a constant level of even
low concentration gravel/proppants. This blender is very accurate and
economical.
Clean Out To remove sand, scale, and other deposits from the well to restore or increase
production.
Close In To temporarily shut in a well that is capable of producing oil or gas; to close
the blowout preventers on a well that is being drilled in order to control a
"kick". The blowout preventers close off the annulus so that pressure from
below cannot flow to the surface.
Closed-in Pressure (See “formation pressure”).
Collar Locator A logging device that detects casing or tubing collars for depth-correlation
(CCL) purpose. It may be operated mechanically or electrically to produce a log
showing the location of each casing collar or coupling in a well. When
properly interpreted, this log provides an accurate way to measure depths in a
well.
Collet A locking and sealing device for latching the short string (SS) into the RDH
packer of a dually completed well.
Compensated This tool is used to evaluate gravel pack integrity when the GPPT is not
Neutron Tool available.
(CNT)
Completion see Well Completion.
Corrosion A complex chemical or electrochemical process by which metal is destroyed

through reaction with its environment. For example, rust is corrosion.
-D-
Density The weight of a substance per unit volume. For instance, the density of
drilling mud may be described as “10 lbs. per gallon” or “70 lbs. per cubic
foot”.
Differential A difference in quantity or degree between two measurements or units (as the
pressure differential across a choke - i.e., the pressure on one side of the choke
compared with the pressure on the other side). (see differential pressure).
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Differential The difference between two fluid pressure (e.g., the difference between the
Pressure pressure in a reservoir and the pressure in a wellbore drilled into the reservoir;
the difference in pressure on either side of a restriction in a pipeline; the
difference between the atmospheric pressure at sea level and at 10,000 ft.,
etc.) (see differential).
Dope A lubricant for the threads of oil field tubular goods.
Double A section of drill pipe, casing or tubing consisting of two joints screwed
together. See Thribble; Fourble.
Drift The action of passing a pig or drift of known dimensions through a tubular
product in order to ascertain that the tubular product has the required internal
dimensions. This is done on casing and tubing strings in order to guarantee
passage of drilling bits or downhole tools.
Drilling Supervisor The highest ranked Company representative at the drilling site.
(DS)
Dummy A blank tool installed in a side pocket gas lift mandrel landing nipple and/or
sliding sleeve.
-E-
Elevators Latches which secure the drill pipe or other tubulars; attached to the travelling
block which raises and lowers the drill pipe in the hole.
- F-
Fault A geological term denoting a break in the subsurface strata. Usually the strata
on one side of the fault line has been displaced upward or downward relative
to their original position.
Field Development This is a study document, mostly put together by DPE, and requiring input
Plan (FDP) from DDR, outlining the life cycle of a field.
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Filter Cake A compacted solid or semisolid material remaining on a filter after pressure
filtration of mud with the standard filter press. Thickness of the cake is
reported in 32nds. of an inch. Filter cake may also refer to the layer of
concentrated solids from the drilling mud that forms on the walls of the
borehole opposite permeable formations. Also called mud cake.
Fish Any object accidentally left in the wellbore during drilling or workover
operations and which must be recovered before work can proceed.
Fishing An operation to recover from a wellbore any equipment accidentally left there
during drilling operations. Also, an operation to remove from an older well
certain items of equipment in order that the well may be reconditioned. In a
well being drilled, the most common fishing operation is that required by the
loss of a bit, one or more drill collars, or a part of the string of drill pipe. In
reconditioning a well it is often necessary to fish for packers, liners, screen
pipe, etc.
Flare An open discharge of fluid or gas to the atmosphere. Often the gas is ignited
to dispose of unwanted gas around a completed well.
Float Collar A collar inserted one or two joints above the bottom of the casing string, and
which contains a check valve that permits fluid to pass downward through the
casing but prevents it from passing upward. The float collar prevents the
drilling mud from entering the casing while it is being lowered, thus allowing
the casing to “float” during its descent, and decreasing the load upon the
derrick. The float collar also prevents the back flow of cement after the
cement has been displaced to the required position.
Float Shoe A short, heavy, cylindrical steel section with a rounded bottom, which is
attached to the bottom end of the casing string. The float shoe contains a
check valve and functions in the same manner as the float collar, but in
addition, serves as a guide shoe for the casing.
Formation A bed or deposit composed throughout of substantially the same kind of rock;
a lithologic unit. Each different formation is given a name, frequently as a
result of the study of the formation outcrop at the surface and sometimes
based on fossils found in the formation.
Formation Damage Often the productivity of a well is decreased by a zone of reduced

permeability around the wellbore. This zone of high resistance is referred to as
wellbore damage, or "skin". If the presence of this damage can be recognized,
appropriate remedial measures can be used in an effort to restore the well's
productivity.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Formation Fluid Fluid (such as oil, gas, or water) that exists in a subsurface rock formation.
Formation The pressure exerted by fluids in a formation, recorded in the hole at the level
Pressure of the formation with the well shut in. Formation pressure may also be termed
"reservoir pressure", or "shut-in bottom-hole pressure".
-G-
Gamma ray-casing This is an electric log, normally run inside casing or tubing during a
collar locator log completion, for correlation purposes prior to perforating and to confirm tubing
(GR-CCL) seal assembly space-out when running the tubing. The Gamma ray is like a
Geiger counter which measures natural radiation of the formations that it
passes through. The natural radioactivity is high opposite shales and low
opposite sands or limestones. Depth control is the primary function of the
collar log (CCL). The CCL tool consists of a coil of wire, with many turns,
placed between two cylindrical magnets. As the locator is pulled past a collar,
the increase in metal thickness distorts the the magnetic fields cutting the coil.
This induces opposite polarity voltages in the coil that are recorded as a "tic"
on the log.
Gas Cap The free gas phase overlying an oil zone, occurring within the same producing
formation as the oil.
Gas Lift The process of producing fluid from a well by means of gas injected down the
well through tubing or through the tubing-casing annulus. Injected gas aerates
the fluid to make it exert less pressure than the formation pressure.
Consequently, the higher formation pressure forces the fluid out of the
wellbore. Gas may be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on
the producing characteristics of the well and the arrangement of the gas-lift
equipment
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Gas Lift Mandrel A device run in the tubing string into which a gas-lift valve is installed. The
(GLM) two most common types of mandrels are the conventional mandrel and the
sidepocket mandrel. The gas-lift valve is installed in the conventional gas-lift
mandrel as the tubing is placed in the well. To replace or repair the valve the
tubing string must be pulled. On the other hand, the gas-lift valve is installed
and removed from the sidepocket mandrel by wireline while the mandrel is
still in the well, eliminating the need to pull the tubing to repair or replace the
gas-lift valves.
Gas Lift Valve A device installed on the tubing string of a gas-lift well that is sensitive to
tubing and casing pressures, which cause the valve to open and close. The
functioning of the valve is to allow gas to be injected into the fluid in the
tubing in order to cause the fluid to rise to the surface.
Gas Well A well that primarily produces gas.
Gel A semisolid, jellylike state assumed by colloidal dispersions at rest. When

agitated, the gel converts to a fluid state.
Gel Strength A measure of the ability of a colloidal dispersion to develop and retain a gel
form, based on its resistance to shear. The gel strength, or shear strength, of a
drilling fluid determines its ability to hold solids in suspension.
Glossary A list of items peculiar to a field of knowledge with explanations.
Gravel Packing Gravel packing is a method of well completion in which a wire wrapped
screen is placed in the well and surrounded by a very fine-mesh gravel.
Gravel Pack This electric logging tool is a nuclear measuring device that evaluates the
Porosity Tool integrity of the gravel pack and identifies the gravel top. It is normally run
(GPPT) immediately after the gravel is pumped and before the tubing string is run.
This is a Schlumberger trade name.
Gravity, Specific The ratio of weights of equal volume of two substances, one of which is taken
as a standard. Water is taken as a standard of comparison for liquids and
solids. For gas, air is usually taken, although hydrogen is sometimes used.
Guide Shoe A short, heavy, cylindrical steel section, filled with concrete and rounded at
the bottom, which is placed at the bottom end of the casing string. The guide
shoe prevents the casing from hanging up on irregularities in the borehole as it
is lowered. A passage through the center of the shoe allows the drilling fluid
to pass up into the casing while it is being lowered and the cement to pass out
through the shoe during cementing operating.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
-H-
Hydrate A hydrocarbon and water compound which forms in gas gathering,

compression, and transmission facilities or well bores under reduced
temperature and pressure. In appearance, hydrates resemble snow or ice, and
can plug equipment.
Hydraulic Operated, moved, or effected by liquid (usually water).
Hydrogen Sulfide A gaseous compound, commonly known by its chemical formula, H2S,
(H2S) frequently found in oil and gas reservoirs. It has a distinctive "rotten-egg"
odor. It is extremely poisonous and corrosive and quickly deadens the
olfactory nerve so that its odor is no longer a warning signal.
Hydrostatic Head The pressure exerted by a body of water at rest. The hydrostatic head of fresh
water is 0.433 psi per foot of height. Those of other fluids may be determined
by comparing their gravities to that of water. See pressure gradient.
Hydrostatic The force exerted by a body of fluid at rest; hydrostatic pressure increases
Pressure directly with weight and depth of the fluid. In completions, the term refers to
the pressure exerted by the completion fluid in the well.
-I-
Incentive contract This is a drilling contract awarded on the basis of monetary incentive to the
contractor to get the well drilled in the shortest possible time without
sacrificing HSE and the quality of the well.
IGP Abbreviation for internal gravel pack.
Injection Well A well into which fluid is pumped to increase reservoir pressure or to push
reservoir fluids toward a producing well.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
-J-
Jar To apply a heavy upward or downward blow to the drill stem, or a heavy
upward or downward blow to wireline tools, by use of a jar.
Junk Debris lost in the hole. To junk a well : to abandon a well due to an
impossible fishing operation or one that would be too expensive.
-K-
Kick An unintended entry of water, gas, oil, or other formation fluid into the
wellbore. A kick occurs because the pressure exerted by the column of fluid is
not great enough to overcome the pressure exerted by the fluids in the
formation drilled. If prompt and proper action is not taken, a blowout may
occur.
Killing a Well The act of bringing under control a well which is threatening to blow out; also
applied to the procedure of circulating water and mud into a completed well
before starting well-service operations.
-L-
LCM Abbreviation for lost circulation material. The most common LCM that is
used during a completion is HEC (Hydroxy-ethyl-cellulose) mixed at 100 to
120 lbs/1000 gallons.
Liner Any string of casing whose top is located below the surface. A liner mat serve
as the oil string, extending from the producing interval up to the next string of
casing or to surface.
Liner Hanger A slip type device which suspends the liner in the casing.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Log A systematic recording of data, as the driller’s log, electrical log, radioactivity
log.
Logging Usually referred to as the recording of downhole data, when using

Schlumberger or other well-logging companies tools. These tools or sondes
are lowered on armored electrical cable and measure physical properties of the
formation through which the well has been drilled. The surveys are recorded
on film related to depth and include data on electrical resistivity, temperature,
radioactivity, acoustic properties of the penetrated beds, and the diameter of
the drilled hole.
Long String The last string of casing set in a well; the string of casing that is set through
the producing zone, often called the oil string.
Lost Circulation The loss of quantities of fluid to a formation, usually in permeable beds,
evidenced by the complete or partial failure of the fluid to return to surface as
it is circulated in the well. Lost circulation can lead to a blowout.
LS Abbreviation for long string, production tubing, of a dually completed well.
Lubricator A specially fabricated length of pipe with union connectors and bleed-off
valves that is temporarily placed above a valve on top of the casing or tubing
head. Lubricators afford a method of sealing of pressure yet still allow the
passage of a device, usually on a wireline, or substance into the well without
having to kill the well.
-M-
Master Valve A large valve located on the Christmas tree. It is used to open or close the
well.
Monobore A 'monobore' completion is a completion with fullbore access across the

payzone, without diameter restrictions.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Multiple An equipment arrangement for producing two or more oil or gas formations
Completion from one wellbore. Multiple completions may use parallel tubing strings, each
packed off from the other to prevent commingling of tht production from
different formations, or concentric strings, each packed off from the other, for
the same purpose.
-N-
NACE Standard Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Material for Oil Field Equipment.
MR - 01 - 75
Net Present Value This is the net present value of money to be received in the future from a
(NPV) project if this money is discounted at a given interest rate. Net present value
recognizes that funds received "today" have more value than a like amount
received "tomorrow" because "today's" funds can be invested immediately. but
"tomorrow's" funds cannot be reinvested until they are received.
Nipple The term applied to short lengths of tubing or casing which are threaded male
at both ends.
Non-Productive Any additional work beyond that identified in the completion programme.
Time (NPT)
Normal Formation Usually considered as formation pressure equivalent to 0.465 psi per foot of
Pressure depth from the surface.
-O-
Oil Sand A sandstone that yields oil.
Oil String The final string of casing set in a well after the productive capacity of the
formation has been assured. Also called the long string or the production
casing.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Oil Zone Formation or horizon of a well from which oil may be produced. In any given
reservoir the oil zone is usually immediately under the gas zone and on top of
the water zone if all three fluids are present and segregated.
Open Hole Wellbore in which casing has not been set.
Operating The pressure at which a flow line or system is operated at any given time.
Pressure May also be used as wellhead flowing pressure.
Overshot A fishing tool attached to a wireline tool string, tubing, rods, or drill pipe that
is lowered over the outside of a "fish" lost or stuck in the wellbore. A friction
device in the overshot, usually a basket or a spiral grapple, firmly grips the
fish allowing it to be pulled from the hole.
-P-
Packer Downhole equipment, consisting essentially of a sealing device, a holding or

setting device, and an inside passage for fluids. It is used to block the flow of
fluids through the annular space between the tubing and the wall of the
wellbore (or between tubing and casing) by sealing off the space between
them.
Paraffin A hydrocarbon having the formula CnH2n+2 (e.g., methane, CH4; etc.).
Heavier paraffin hydrocarbons (i.e., those of C18H38 and heavier) form a
waxlike substance that is called paraffin. These heavier paraffins often
accumulate on the walls of tubing and other production equipment, restricting
or stopping the flow of oil.
Paraffin Inhibitor A chemical that, when injected into the production string prevents or
minimizes paraffin deposition.
Paraffin Scraper Any tool used to remove paraffin from inside tubular goods.
PDO Procedures for Drilling Operations
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Perforate To pierce the casing wall and cement to provide holes through which
formation fluids may enter the or to provide holes in the casing so that
materials may be introduced into the annulus between the casing and the wall
of the borehole. Perforating is accomplished by lowering into the well a
perforating gun, or perforator, that fires electrically detonated bullets or
shaped charges.
Permeability A measure of the ease with which fluid can flow through a porous rock.
Petroleum Oil or gas obtained from the rocks of the earth, usually by drilling down into a
reservoir rock and piping them to the surface.
Petroleum Person/representative from the Department of Petroleum Engineering.

Engineers (PE’s)
pH (pH value) A unit to measure the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance. A neutral
solution (as pure water) has a pH of 7; acid solutions are less than 7; basic, or
alkaline, solutions are above 7.
PIP tags These are weak radio-active markers placed at well defined locations in a well.
Often they are installed in a tubular connection or behind a set screw at the top
of a packer and are used for depth confirmation. Each PIP tag consists of 1
microcurie Co 60 which has a radiation level of 0.014 mrem/hr (at 1 ft) and a
half life of 5.2 years.
Plug and Abandon To place a cement plug or plugs in a dry hole or uneconomic producing well
(P & A) to abandon it.
Plug back To place cement or other material at or near the bottom of a well to exclude
bottom water or to perform another operation such as side tracking or
producing from another depth. It may also be used to denote the setting of a
mechanical plug by wire line, tubing, or drill pipe.
Polished bore The polished bore receptacle is usually run above a liner or packer where
receptacle (PBR) maximum through bore is required. This allows for a floating seal to
compensate for tubing elongation or contraction.
POOH Abbreviation for pull out of hole.
Pop Assembly A sub or device ran on the bottom of a tubing string to catch a seal ball when
setting a hydraulic packer and/or pressure testing the tubing string.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Positive Choke A choke with a fixed orifice size. To change the size of the orifice the choke
bean or choke nipple is changed.
Pressure gradient A scale of pressure differences in which there is a uniform variation of

pressure from point to point. For example, the pressure gradient of a column
of water is about 0.433 psi/ft of vertical elevation. The normal pressure
gradient in a formation is equivalent to the pressure exerted at any depth by a
column of 10 percent salt water extending from that depth to surface (0.465
psi/ft).
Primary cement The application of a liquid cement slurry of cement and water to various
job points inside and outside the casing.
Productivity index The productivity index of a well can be defined as the stock-tank barrels of oil
(PI’s) that can be produced in a day per psi of pressure drawdown. Normally
drawdown is the difference between the pressure at the external radius of
drainage and the flowing bottom-hole pressure for the well.
PSI Pounds per square inch.
PSIA Pounds per square inch absolute. (see absolute pressure).
PSIG Pounds per square inch gage. (see gage pressure)
-Q-
QA/QC Quality assurance/quality control.
-R-
RDH Abbreviation for retrievable hydraulic packer.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Reservoir A subsurface porous and permeable rock body in which oil and/or gas is
stored. Lithologically, reservoir rocks are either limestones, dolomites, or
sandstones, or their combination. There are essentially three types of
hydrocarbon reservoirs : oil, gas and condensate. The oil reservoir generally
contains three fluids (gas, oil and water) oil being the dominant product. In
the typical variance in their gravities. Gas, being the lightest, occupies the
upper part of the reservoir rocks and water the lower portion, while oil
occupies the intermediate section.
Reservoir Pressure The pressure that exists in an oil, gas, or water bearing formation or reservoir.
Rig The derrick, drawworks and attendant surface equipment of a drilling or

workover unit.
Rockwell Hardness A numerical value which expresses the resistance of a material to indentation
with a small diamond point or a one-sixteenth inch diameter ball. The higher
the number the harder the material.
-S-
Safety Valve An automatic valve designed to close or open when an abnormal condition
exists.
Sand Sand consolidation systems attempt to control sand influx into the well by
Consolidation treating the incompetent formation around the wellbore with a fluid containing
a binding agent, thereby increasing the integrity of the sand without a
significant loss in permeability.
Sand Control The exclusion of sand production from a well.
Scale A deposit formed by chemical action, or temperature and pressure changes on

surfaces in contact with water - i.e., calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate,
calcium sulfate.
Scraper Any device (as a line scraper, paraffin scraper, etc.) that is used to remove
deposits (as scale or paraffin) from tubing, casing, rods, or flow lines.
SCSSSV Surface controlled sub-surface safety valve.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Set Casing To install steel pipe or casing in a well bore. An accompanying operation is
the cementing of the casing in place by surrounding it with a wall of cement
extending for all or part of the depth of the well.
Shale A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of silt and clay sized particles.
Ranges in composition from pure clays to calcareous or siliceous clays. The
most frequently occurring sedimentary rock.
Shut-in Bottom The pressure existing at the bottom of a well when the well is completely
hole Pressure closed. (see formation pressure).
Side-Door Mandrel (see gas-lift mandrel).
Side-Pocket (see gas-lift mandrel).

Mandrel (SPM)
Side Tracking Drilling past a broken drill or casing which has become permanently lodged in
the hole. This operation is usually accomplished by use of a special tool
known as a whip-stock.
Sinker Bar A heavy weight or bar placed in the wireline tool string. The bar adds weight
so that the tool will lower properly through the well fluids.
Slick Line (see "solid wire line").
Sliding Side Door (see Sliding Sleeve).

(SSD)
Slim Hole A special device placed in a string of tubing which can be operated by a
wireline tool to open or close orifices (openings) to permit circulation between
the tubing and annulus. It may also be used to open or shut off production
from various intervals in a well.
Slips Wedge-shaped pieces of metal with teeth or other gripping elements, used to
prevent pipe from slipping down into the hole or for otherwise holding pipe in
place. Rotary slips fit around the drill pipe and wedge against the master
bushing to support the drill pipe. Power slips are pneumatically or
hydraulically actuated devices operated by the driller at his station and which
dispense with the manual handling of slips when making a connection.
Packers and other down-hole equipment are secured in position by means of
slips that are caused to engage the casing by action performed at the surface.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Slurry A plastic mixture of portland cement and water which is pumped into the well
to harden, after which it supports the casing and provides a seal in the
wellbore to prevent migration of underground fluids.
Sonde A logging tool assembly lowered into the wellbore on armored electrical
cable.
Spinder A steel block having a tapered opening therein to permit the passage of pipe
through it when run into or pulled from a well. Its purpose is to hold pipe in
suspension in the well when the slips are placed in the tapered opening and in
contact with the pipe.
Squeeze Job Usually a secondary cementing job where cement is pumped into the
formation through perforations to obtain a shut-off of undersirable fluids.
SS Abbreviation for short string of a dually completed well.
SS plug The Otis 'SS' plug is a straight pull shear release packer plug designed to seal
into a WD packer to isolate a lower perforated zone prior to perforating the
zone above. It is normally made up to the bottom of the gun assembly and run
together with the tubing conveyed perforating (TCP) workstring.
SSSV Sub-surface safety valve.
Stab To guide the end of a pipe into a coupling when making up a connection.
Stand of Pipe Two or three or sometimes four joints of pipe fastened together, called a
double, thribble, or fourble, respectively.
String Refers to the casing, tubing, or drill pipe in its entirety, the casing string etc.
Structure An underground geological feature capable of forming a reservoir for oil and
gas.
Subsurface Equipment put into a well to perform an operation below the wellhead.
equipment
Surface Pipe The first string of casing to be set in a well. The length will vary in different
areas from a few hundred feet to three or four thousand feet. Some states
require a minimum length to protect fresh water sands. On some wells it is
necessary to set a temporary conductor pipe which should not be confused
with surface pipe as described here.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Surface Pressure Pressure measured at the wellhead.
Surface Safety A device mounted in the wellhead assembly that serves to stop the flow of
Valve fluids from the well should damage occur downstream of the well.
Swedge A term used to describe the connecting piece required when joining a smaller
diameter pipe to a larger diameter pipe. Concentric and eccentric swedges are
available and the transition from one bore size to the other is accomplished
with smooth radius curves. Where excessive wear is anticipated the transition
areas will be constructed of considerable heavier material.
Swivel A hose coupling which forms a connection between the slush pumps and the
drill string and permits rotation of the drill string.
-T-
TD Total depth. The maximum depth drilled.
Temperature The rate of change of temperature with displacement in a given direction. As

Gradient the depth of a well increases, so does the temperature; this phenomenon is
known as the temperature gradient. It varies according to geographical
location and geological formations encountered.
Temperature An operation to determine temperatures at various depths in the wellbore.

Survey This survey is used to determine the height of cement behind the casing when
there is doubt as to the height, to find the location of water influx into the
wellbore, and for other reasons. Wire line equipment may be used.
Test Pressure Usually referred to as the static test pressure conducted under shop conditions,
to which new or reconditioned equipment is tested. This test pressure will be
higher than the maximum rates working pressure, to which the equipment has
been rated, according to the applicable API standards. The test pressure in the
field is limited to the maximum rated working pressure of a given piece of
equipment.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Test Stump Is the high pressure test plug to which the subsea BOP stack is locked and
seated when conducting pressure tests and functional tests of the BOP stack of
the drilling vessel prior to running the BOP stack to the sea floor. The test
stump has an external profile identical to the subsea wellhead housing and
usually has an internal preparation to receive a test tool.
Thread Protector A device which is screwed into pipe threads so as protect the threads from
damage when not in use.
Tight Formation A formation of relatively low porosity.
Tong The device used on the rotary floor to ‘break’ (unscrew) or ‘make’ (screw
together) two joints of threaded drill pipe, casing or tubing. The tongs have
jaws which grip the pipe body and torque is applied to the long either
mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically.
Tool Joints A heavy, special alloy steel coupling element for drill pipe. Tool joints have
coarse, tapered threads and seating shoulders designed to sustain the weight of
the drill stem, to withstand the strain of frequent coupling and uncoupling, and
to provide a leakproof seal. The male section of the joint, the pin, is attached
to the lower end. The tool joint may be welded to the end of the pipe, screwed
on, or screwed on and welded. A hard metal facing is often applied in a band
around the outside of the tool joint to resist abrasion from the walls of the
borehole.
Torque A turning force which is applied to a shaft or other rotary mechanism to cause
it to rotate or tend to do so. Usually measured in ft. lbs.
Total Depth (TD) The maximum depth reached in a well.
Tubular Goods Any kind of pipe. Oilfield tubular goods include tubing, casing, drill pipe, and
line pipe.
Two-way check During a completion and before the BOP stack can be removed, when
valve (TWCV) preparing to install the Xmas tree, a two-way check valve must be installed
into the tubing hanger and successfully pressure tested before the BOP stack is
removed and the tree installed. Following installation of the Xmas tree the
TWCV can be removed. This operation should be covered in detail in the
completion programme.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
-V-
Valve A device used to control the rate of flow in a line, to open or shut off a line
completely, or to serve as an automatic or semi-automatic safety device.
Those valves which find extensive usage in the oil industry include: gate
valve, plug valve, globe valve, needle valve, check valve, and relief
valve/safety valve. Many of the valves used on subsea BOP stacks and
production trees are equipped with fail safe close operators.
V-door An opening in a side of a derrick at the floor level having the form of an
inverted V. This opening is opposite the drawworks. It is used as an entry to
bring in drill pipe and casing from the pipe rack.
Viscosity A measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow.
-W-
Waiting on Cement A common term used in drilling reports referring to that time during which
(WOC) drilling or completion operations are suspended so as to enable the cement in a
well to sufficiently set-up or harden.
Wellbore A borehole; the hole drilled by the bit. A wellbore may have casing in it or it
may be open (uncased), or a portion of it may be cased, and a portion of it may
be open.
Well Completion The activities and methods necessary to prepare a well for production of oil
and gas; the method by which a flow line for hydrocarbon is established
between the reservoir and the surface. The method of well completion used by
the operator depends on the individual characteristics of the producing
formation or formations. These techniques include open-hole completions,
sand exclusion completions, tubingless completions, multiple completions and
slim well completions or monobores.
Wellhead The equipment used to maintain surface control of a well. It is formed of the
casinghead, tubing head, and appropriate valves. The Christmas tree is
installed on top of the tubing head.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT
CM 24
Well Servicing Maintenance and repair work performed on an oil or gas well to improve or
maintain the production from a formation already producing in the well.
Usually, it involves repairs to the pump, rods, gas-lift valves, tubing, packers,
etc. Also refers to people who do this work, such as a well servicing
company.
Wire Line A special wire line of very strong steel, usually 0.066 to 0.092 inch in
diameter. (Sometimes referred to as "slick line").
Workover The performance of one or more of a variety of remedial operations on a

producing oilwell to try to increase production. Examples of workover jobs
are deepening, side-tracking, plugging back, pulling and resetting liners,
squeeze cementing, and so forth.
Working Pressure The maximum pressure at which an item is to be used at a specified

temperature.
WWS Abbreviation for wire wrapped screen used for sand control operations.
-X-
XN nipple Halliburton trade name for one of their No-Go Landing Nipples.
DRILLING DEPARTMENT

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CM 0

COMPLETION REGISTRATION CERTIFICATE Page 1 of 14

THIS IS A CONTROLLED COPY AND SHALL BE RETAINED IN THE HOLDER DEPARTMENT

Chapter Title Issue Date

THIS IS A CONTROLLED COPY AND SHALL BE RETAINED IN THE HOLDER DEPARTMENT

1 OVERVIEW OF THE MANUAL

2 TYPES OF WELL COMPLETIONS

3 COMPLETION DESIGN CRITERIA

8 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVES

9 COMPLETION FLUIDS (CONT’D)

13 SOLVENT AND SURFACTANT TREATMENTS

14 MATRIX ACIDIZING OF CARBONATES

21 REMEDIAL CEMENTING (CONT’D)

23 RIG WORKOVER OPERATIONS

24 GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR COMPLETION AND WORKOVER OPERATIONS

1.2 SCOPE ........................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 COMPLETION MANUAL STRUCTURE ................................................................... 4

1.4 TERMINOLOGY .......................................................................................................... 4

1.5 MANUAL CONTROL .................................................................................................. 5

1.6 REVISION ..................................................................................................................... 5

This page is intentionally blank.

1.3 COMPLETION MANUAL STRUCTURE

This manual is intended as a reference document for production technology,

The Completion Manual is divided into five main sections:

The completion process of cementing is outlined next. Primary cementing

Next follows a discussion of subsurface completion equipment. Packers as well as

1.5 MANUAL CONTROL

TYPES OF WELL COMPLETION

2.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….……... 4

2.1.1 Chapter Objective ………………………………………………………….. 4

2.2 WELL CONFIGURATION …………………………………………………….....…… 8

2.3 OPEN-HOLE COMPLETIONS ………………………….…………………………… 11

2.3.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 11

2.4 CASED-HOLE COMPLETIONS ……………………………………………………. 14

2.4.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 14

2.5 SINGLE COMPLETIONS ………………………….……………………………...… 17

2.5.1 Definitions ………………………………………………………………..... 17

2.6 MULTIPLE COMPLETIONS …………………………………………….……...….. 20

2.6.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 20

2.7 HORIZONTAL AND MULTILATERAL WELLS ........................................................ 28

2.7.1 Horizontal Wells …....……………………………………………………... 28

2.8 MONOBORE COMPLETIONS ................................................................................. 28

2.8.1 Definition …………………………………………………………………... 28

2.9 SPLITTER WELLS ..................................................................................................... 34

2.10 SUBSEA COMPLETIONS …....................……………………………………...…… 38

2.11 SMART WELLS ........................................................................................................ 40

2.11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 40

2.12 SELECTING A COMPLETION TYPE ………………………………………...…… 45

2.12.1 Reservoir Drive Mechanism ……………………………………………….. 45

2.13 SPOLLABLE COMPLETIONS ............………………………….……………...…… 51

2.13.1 Candidate Selection ................…………………………………………….. 51

2.1.1 Chapter Objective

2.1.2 Definition of Completion

2.1.3 Objective of Completion

2.1.4 PCSB Completion Strategy

• assist in planning requirements for equipment, materials, studies and expertise in

The focus is on integrating individual factors in well completion including : reservoir

The study will provide definition of objectives, deliverables, participants, resources,

2.1.5 Fluid Flow Considerations

• the reservoir (A)

Figure 1. Fluid Pathway

2.2 WELL CONFIGURATION

Before we discuss specific completion configurations we need to review the general