“Law and Momarchy in the South"

Hiroshi TAKAYAMA

111

Da宙 d Abulafla,ed。 ,

fraレ 滋 滋ιCθ ″″α′通 酬 eИ gas

(OXfOrd,oxford University Press,2004,

Short Oxford History ofltaly)

pp.58-81,257-260.
Ltt and monarchy
ln the south
Hiroshi ttayama

In inodern scholarshiP,Inedieval southern ltaly(understood here to

mean Sicily and mainland southern ltaly)has been discusscd,flrst
and foremost,in relation tO the formation of Western EuroPc・ TO
some scholars, it was a gate、 vay through which 、 vestern Europe
rece市 ed Byzantine and lslanlic cultures.Translations into Latin of a
number of important Greck and Arabic texts,ranging from phil―
Osophy to natural science, were undertaken hcrc. Knov/1edge of
Byzantine art and architecture 、 vas also translnitted to EuroPc
through medieval southern ltav To other scholars it was the nurtur―
ing placc ofthe Arst rnOdern state in western Europe to have a highly
develoPed rOyal adlninistration and bureaucracy.On the other hand,
sOuthern ltaly has been discussed with a negative connotation in the
context ofthe formation ofltav Regardless Ofhow the Norman and
HOhenstaufen hngdom dominated the ccntral part of the Mediter―
rancan and had so much inauence over the politics,econonlyj and
cultures of this region,it rnight be seen as a glorious historical anec―
dote or even as a serious obstacle to thc unincation of ltaly in the
`history of ltaly).

sOuthern ltaly in the Nliddle Ages should not be treated just as a

,ontier of Europe or a part of the ltalian entity.Both frameworks,
Europe and ltaly as icd geo― political or historical entities,PreVent
us■ om understanding the history of southern ltaly.マ ヽ L could cer―
tainly take different vicwpoints or use different frameworks to see its
histor》 but it should not be forgotten that southern ltaly itself was
not an everlasting geo― political entity either.Many ofthc phenomena
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 59

that happened in southern ltaly lnust be considered and understood

in a far larger cOntext extending beyond its geographical lilnits.A
large part of its history、 vas not sel「 contained at all)but a reflection
of pOwer relationships in a wider context,cven though it sometilnes
became a powerful engine to crcct change further aneld.Although
obvious,it should alsO be nOted that the history of southern ltaly
cannot be fully understood without putting it in the cOntext of the
histOry of the NIcditerranean.The sca cOuld be a serious obstacle to
transPortatiOn,and become a natural border.But,at the same tirne,it
could be a busy road along which goods and people went back and
fOrth. In the case of southern ltal)ら the hinterland of which was
extremely mountainous,IInost of the important cities were located
along the coastline,and were connected to each other and with fbr―
eign cities by sca.In the Middle Ages,southern ltaけ was mOre Often a
part ofthe Mediterranean than a part ofthe European Continent.

Norinan unincation
Fron■ the seventh centurb the Meditcrrancan rcgion consisted of
three n■ aior Cultural zones: Latin― Christian Western Europe, thc
Greek― Christian Byzantine East,and Arab― Islamic North Africa and
SPain.Southern ltaly was located on their borders,and as a result had
a remarkably complicated history. In the eleventh century when
Norman warriors arr市 ed iom Normandy in northern France,
Calabria and Apuha were under the cOntrol ofthe Byzantine Empire.
The three duchies of NaPles,Amaln,and Gaeta were nolninally sub‐
ject to Byzantine authorit"and the three Lombard principalities of
Salerno,Caplla,and Benevento、 ″ere to all intents independent.Sicily
was divided among local》 /1uslim、 varlords.
The Normans flrst lvOrked for Lombard rulers and Byzantine gov―
ernors as mercenaries,but were soOn drawn to A■ 7erSa and Meln,
which became centres for the Norman warriors.By the rniddle ofthe
eleventh ccnturb the Normans in southern ltaly had already become
a strong force affecting international p01itics,and had grown into
perhaps one of the inOst active political elements in western Europe
besidesthe papacy and the German Empire.In fact,they had a strOng
bearing on the papacI They fought with Pope Leo IX and captured
6o l HlROSHITAKAYAMA

hin■ in lo53,While they supported Pope Nicholas II against his rival.

They were to play important roles during the lnvestiture Controversy.
Without their mlitary support the popes could not have fought
against thc German ell■ PCrors so persistently.
In 1059 Richard,a leader Of the Normans at Aversa,and Robcrt
Guiscard,a leader at Meln,received ionl Pope Nicholas II the invcsti―
ture of the princiPality of Capua,and the duchy of Apulia,Calabria,
and Sicily respectively The duchy of APulia rapidly developed into a
powcrhl principality under Robert Guiscard.He conquered the
Byzantine territory in Apulia and Calabria(Bari feⅡ in lo71),and
unifled southern ltaly.Although he faced seriOus baronial revolts,
Robert Guiscard basicauy succeeded in keeping his authority over the
duchy.Hc also played an ittportant role in international politics.He
fought with Pope Gregory｀ /11 at irst,but,after rnkng peace with
him in lo8o,1■ aintained a good relationship thereafter.ヽ hen the
∼
Gerrnan king Henry IV made an expedition to ltaly and besieged
Gregory VII in lo82,Robert Guiscard lnarched on Rome,sacked the
cityp and rescued Gregory VH.He mounted two large expeditions
against the Byzantine Empire. During the Arst in lo81-2,he tOok
Avlona(modern v10rё ),COrfu,and Durazzo(Durrё s,Dyrrachium),
which were lost after his return to ltalァ In the second expedition in
lo84-5,he reconquered Avlona and Cori■ and occupied Butrint,but
he fell ill and died in Cephalonia in lo85・
Aner the death ofRobert Guiscard,the duchy rapidly lost its integ―
rity.His son Roger Borsa(duke from lo85 to llll)and hiS grandson
William(duke frOm llll to l127)failed tO maintain his strong author―
ityp and a1lowed many of the Norman barons within the duchy to
becomc cttcctively independent;this tension between the asPirations
Of thc barons and that of thc rulcrs is a constant in thc history of
medieval southern ltaly.Count Roger l of Sicil"brother of Robert
Guiscard,became the FnOSt powerful ruler in southern ltaly.Prior to
his brother)s death,Roger l had Paticndy been conquering Sicily with
a few hundred knights under his comllland.ヽ hen he took lNotO,the
∼
last city retaincd by theン luslims,in lo91,he had already spent thirty
years in this endeavour since the capturc of Messina in lo61.ben
though technically inirior to the duke Of Apulia,he transformcd
Sicily into a cohesivc and wealt,state,and became one ofthe most
innucntial monarchs in wcstern Europe.An agrecment、 vith Pope
Urban II endowcd hinl with authority over the Church in Sicil"even
 I´ AW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 61

though the exact terms ofthis arrangement gave rise to argument for
the next slx centuries.Powernll princes in EuroPc SOught to make
alliances with him.His daughters were married to King Coloman of
Hungarb the count of■ bulouse,and Conrad,son ofEmperor Henry
Iヽ
″of Germa町 ヽRoger l died in llol,and le■ ●″o boys,Silnon and
Roger II.During their rninority9 their energetic mother Adelasia
(Adelaide),■ Om savona in northё rn ltal"managed to maintain
authority and order in Sicily as regent. In ll12 She lett Sicily for
leruSalem to marry King Baldwin(who befOre long repudiated heち
having only sought to bencllt iom the wealth ofSicily);Count Roger
II began independent rule.
The Norman conquest redrew the political map of southern ltav
The old Political order in this rcgion,balanced among several states
、
vith different cultural traditions,was destroyed,and new political
circulllstances emerged under thc Norman rulers.Some ofthe old
Political units wcre sirnply destroyed,whJe others remained with
their rulers replaced by Normans.Almost all regions in southern ltaly
were placed under Norman rulers.Thus,in a Political sense,one of
the most impOrtant strategic PointS and most iinportant trading
centres in the Mediterranean ccased to be the border region of the
threc cultural zones,and became a part ofLatin― Christian Europe.
Fron■ a demographic point of view・ howevettthe Norinans were a
minority in terms of numbers,and inost ofthe inhabitants remained
almost the same as before.The mttority Of Sicilians were Muslims
and Grecks.ル lany ofthe inhabitants in Calabria and a Part OfAPulia
were Greeks,wh」 e the maiority in Apulia and CamPania were those
with Latin― Christian traditions.Thcse pcoPle with dilferent cultural
backgrounds preserved their own custolns and traditions under the
ne、 v rulers.DesPite the changc of rulers,some of the old Political
units survived the(Norman conquest'as Norrnan political entities or
as regional boundaries within the Norman lnonarchies.However,the
links between Adelaide ofSavona and northern ltaly hclped stimulatc
large― scale rnigration by so― called(Lombards'into Sicily from thc end
Ofthe twelfth century onwards,leading tO the gradual latinization of
the island and thc spread there of ltalian vernacular dialects in Place
of AFabiC and Greek.
62 1 HIROSHITAKAYAMA

The Norman kingdom of Sicily

いhen his cousin's son Duke lVilliam of Apulia died without heirs in
l127,COunt Roger Ⅱ of Sicily quickly took over the ducll17 of Apulia.
Having subdued discontented barons,he succeedcd in receiving the
investiture ofthe duchy of Apulia toln Pope Honorius H in l128.In
l130,taking advantagc of a papal schisnl,Roger II obtained froln the
anti Pope Anadetus H the crown ofthe kingdoln of Sic通 ル C」 abria)
and Apulia,the principality of Capua,the honour of Naples,and the
protectorate of the lnen of Benevento.This was the beginning ofthe
Norman kingdom of Sicily a,d marked a watershed in ltalian as well
as Mediterrancan history.Italy had been ruled by a series ofoutsiders
after the fa1l ofthe lVestern Roman Empire,and its southern Part had
been divided into small states with different cultural backgrounds.
This fragmented situation in the south came to an end、 vhen RogerII
unined this region and transfOrmed it into a lnighty kingdom.This
kingdom was a sound Political entiり With a stable governing system,
偽r rnore cohesive than the dominion of Robert C.uiscard,which had
lacked a stable governing systcnl and was dismembcrcd at his dcath.
Its rulers became powerful and influential pla)℃ rs inンlediterranean
and European politics.
Thus,the creation of the new kingdoln in l130 Symbolizes a great
historical change in sOuthern ltaly and the Nlediterranean.But the
actual condition of the kingdom should not be misunderstood.
Roger II's authority,vas notフ Ct recognized in a vast area of the
peninsula,w・ llich was still under the control ofindependent warlords
ヽ
and citics.At this rnoment thc political extent ofthe kingdom was far
sm」 ler than its non■ inal extent.Roger II had to spend alrnost ten
ycars pacl年 ing all the territory Powerhl barons and many cities in
Apulia,supported by Pope lnnocentII,continuously revolted.Lothaち
the German emperoち invaded the kingdom in resPOnse to the pope's
requcst in l136.The pope hilnselfalso lnade an expedition in l139,but
was captured by Rogett son of Roger Ⅱ.As a result,he was forced to
rescind the exconllnunication ofRoger II and to conf■ rn■ his status as

king ofSicI"duke ofApulia,and prince ofCapua.

 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 63

The kingdom as a political entity

By the end ofthe suminerin l140 Roger II restored Pcace and orderin
the kingdonl,and gained alinost complete control over the whole
territor"brhiCh now consisted of thё county of Calabria and Sicil■
the duchies of“ ulia and Naples,and thc principalities of Taranto
and Capua.The gain of land north Of Calabria had multiplicd his
territory and Population.Sicily and southern ltaly were put under
one ruler and to all intents constituted one political entity.The extent
Of the kingdom became the basic framelvork for the history of this
region thereafteち and it remained long in people's lnind as the r`g″ ο
(kingdOlll)par eXCellence.Modern scholarship tends also to take the
c対 stence of the kingdorn as a frante■70rk｀ Vithinル vhich to describe

the society of medieval southern ltaly and Sici撃

No nlatter how important the creation of this Political entity was,
howevett the kingdon■ was not a uniform one, but a complex of
different regions with diftrent traditions.Roger II used the adnlinis―
trati17e units of the old Polities as his largest governmental districts,
and for that reason he kept the duchlr Of Apulia,thc principality of
Taranto,and the principality of Capua as adnlinistrative d市 isions of
the kingdom.Hc appointed his sons as dukes and Princes as ifthe old
p01ities continued to exist under the authority of the king. The
principality of Capua offcrs a good examplc.It fell into thc hands of
Roger II in l135,and was given to his third son Anftlsus.Its unity
vas preserved for a certain period of tilne within the kingdonl;
、
documents were dated by the regnal year OfAnttsus,and he had his
own chamberlain,,vho seems to have been active in the administra―
tion ofthe princiPality as late as l149・ The kingdom wasthus a inosaic
of diftrent political units unined under Roger II.
Within the boundaries ofthc newborn kingdom lived people with
Islamic,Greek― Orthodox Christian,
different cultural traditions:Arab―
Latin Catholic Christian, and チewish. These people did not live
together,but lived in different reglons and districts.The southern and
western parts of Sicily were mostly inhabited by Muslims,and the
north― eastern part by Grecks.The mttori7 0f thC inhabitants of
Calabria and a part of Apulia、 マ
ere Greeks.lb the north of Calabria
lived mainけ SOuth ltalians Of Latin Catholic tradition.Almost all of
64 1 HIROSHITAKAYAMA

the lay landlords、 vere Latin,abovc a11 1ヾ orman,and so were Fllany of

the high clerics.The coenstence of Pcople with differcnt cultural
backgrounds within the kingdom was a siinple result ofthc unincation
ofpolitical entities bclonging to dircrcnt culturcs.
ARer the pacincation of the peninsula in l140,hOWeveち the king―
dom was gradually transformed into a state more cohesively and
)s
systematically governed by new administrative apparatuses.Roger Ⅱ
intent is weu reflected in the so― called`Assizes ofAriano',the laws he
pronlulgated just a■ er the pacincation.The arst article included in
the Vatican manuscript proclairned that because of the variety of
PcOple sutteCt tO thc Norman rule,their usages,customs,and laws
should not be abrogated unless they are clearly contradictory to the
newly promulgated laws.This dearly shows the ruler's will to respect
the existing laws and customs among different people on the one
hand,but on the other it also rnakes clear that his edicts had priOrity
over them.Roger II tried to contr01 the people in much the same
cOndition as they had been,but dennitely under his strong and sole
authority.

Kingship and the royal court

At the centre of the kingdoln there were al、 ″ays Christian Norman
kings,and the governmental centre of the kingdorn was thc royal
palace in Palermo.The royal court ofthe kingdom became ttd at
the royal palace in Palcrmo.Thc character of sovereignty changcd
according to the forrn of central powcら as did the power structure of
the court,Day― to― day powcr was not always hcld by a ldng,butsomc―
times held by a head minister or a group oftheヵ r71′ J'α r`s ragお .These

three forrns of central power appeared in turn at the rOyal court of

Sicily.ヽ hcn a king hirnself did not exercise poweら the court became
∼
thc stage for an intense po、 ver struggle and for a cunning battle for
hegemony.Confrontations among diffcrent groups,such as bureau―
crats,clerics,and feudal lords,between natives and foreigners,and
among different cultural grOups,complicated the situation furtheL
During a large part of the reign of Roger II, the kng hilnself
exercised Powei ln the royal court,Roger II had manv ablc omcials,
most of whom he inherited from his Parents,as、 vell as Norman
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 65

aristocrats and Christian clerics.These omcials bore various titles of

Roman,Frankish,Byzantine,and Arabic origins,such as α″ε
ε ι::α r′ ′島
εα/PIι ″r′ ジ
島たηr′ Jれ静島p“ ′ θο so“ ο
″r′ ッ ″―
ttri′ s(“ ο

ο,19タ ル s,α ′
r′ sり
“ "″ "rios,,4ο
″すs,etc.Thc high omcials who borc the title of
′ which is“
′ :rα ′
`″ “
of Arabic origin,were power乱 1l magnates in the
島
“ with the king's full confldence.They coFllinanded thc army and
court
were concerned with the adnlinistration Of the kingdom.Most of
them were Greek.A po、 verful head ministett George,who also bore
the title of α ′ ′s was a tyPical example ofsuch a Greek.Although
“ `α “
supported by these able rninisters,offlcials,and feudal vassals,Roger II
solved various problems PersOnan)ち and dealt with important matters
hilnsell Thus, Roger II hilnself exercised Power for a prolonged
Period,and he was the real centre ofadnlinistration for a large part of
his reign.
His son Winiam I(1154-66)was cOmpletely different.Once the
unstable situation after the death of Roger II subsided,Winian.I
entrusted the government to the head minister Maio,and decided to
hve an easy life in a secluded Palace.The kingstepped down iom the
centre stage of politics,and the chiefrninister Maio held fun control
over the kingdom. After the death of Maio in l16o, Winiam I
appointed the archdeacon of Catania,the count of Marsico,and the
bishop― elect of Syracuse to beル ′ ras ragis,and entrusted them
“'あ
with the government.From this time,theル /P7′ :′ ′ S ragお came to
have special signincance in the kingdom.Eα ′″′ αris“ragis was a wen―
“
denned title to indicate a member of the rOyal inner council during
the reigns ofWilliam l and his son VVlliam II(1166-89).Although the
holders of this title swelled to tcn people at one stage, they were
usually betwecn threc and flve.As the decision-lnakcrs on policy and
other important mattcrs,they were the rnost powcrni people in the
hngdom.
wiuiam II did not exercise power either.In the early period of his
lninoritァ his mother Margaret entrusted the government to, lrst,
Pcteち an ex Mudiln eunuch,then,Stephen,a son ofthe count of
Perche in France.Both of them ned the kingdon■ in disturbanccs.
Stablity was restored when Walter,one oftheル ″″:'α ″s rggな and the
dean of Agrigento, was consecrated archbishop of Palermo. Hc
changed the composition ofthc inner council,and cstablished a tri―
umvirate consisting of hin■ sell Gentue the bishop of Agrigento,and
the notary Matthev This triumvirate continued for about nfteen
66 1 HIROSHITAKAYAMA

years with changes in rnembership)and、 ″as lnodined by the addition

ofthe archbishop ofMonreale.This archbishopric was created in l183
and its arst archbishopヽVilliam jOined theヵ ″″ ′′ras ragふ The gov―
ernment ofthe kingdom by the fourヵ ″fFfaras ragお lasted until the
death ofWiniam II.

Norinan adnlinistration
With regard to adnlinistrative organizations,we should underline the
iinportance of chronological developments,because so lnany previ‐
ous scholars have treated omces belonging to different periods as if
they were contemporaneous,and have thereby created a cOnhsed
image ofthe Norman administration.In order tO examine the struc―
ture of the Norman administration,we must clearly speci"the
tilrnc Period,which should be lilnited within a sumciently narro、 v
tlme― iamc.
Roger II introduced the flrst important administrative changes
atter his Paciflcation of the peninsula in l140・ HC installed local
chamberlains and 10caljusticiars wstematiCany all over the kingdom.
Then he created a new Ottice with the Arabic title of′ 初ar α
′_″
夕 a″
α:― ′̀ A This ofnce was created arOund the remaining Arab
′
“
“ "′
documents,which included informatiOn On land and its inhabitants,
in order to keep and to revise these useful documents.Itsoon came to
be called ′′αr7α ′ιs`ι r`′ is in Latin・ Under Maio, roya1 0mcials
advanced in specializatiOn and hierarchization;this change was espe∼
cially marked in the Organization of chamberlains and justiciars in
the central government.A chamberlain working in the central gov―
ernmentcame to be called(chamberlain Ofthe royal palace'(“ r77`″ r―

′s″ gα Iな
′ p′ 腸′
′′
),While anOther title of`master chamberlain of the
royal palacc)(″ agiSた r ε α ri′ S rag′ ′pα レク
′′
)appeared a litde late■
“`″
This lnaster chamberlain ofthe rOyal palace came to take a signiflcant
rolc in the central adnlinistration.The presence of justiciars in the
central government also disPlayed the increased level of specializa―
tion and hierarchization under Maio.Atthe beginning ofWilliam II's
reign,a new ofnce called′ ′″αbarο ″ ″ was created for the gOvern―
ment of the peninsula.This “
ne、 v Omce“was located in SalernO,per―
haps in the castle of Terracena,and had competence over the wh01e
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 67

peninsula except hr Calabria,carrying out various adnlinistrat市e

dutics needed there.
After the creation of the′ αれαbarο 夕″ り
,we Can See the structure
“ developed stage.In this
of the Norman adlninistration“at its lnost
period,the royal inner councl ofル ″′
′′
αras ragお held the highest
authority in the government and rnade decisions on important issues
of the ldngdom Or on matters concerning the king's interests.The
master chamberlain of the royal palace and his hvo subordinate
chamberlains of thc royal palace directed the executive and adminis―
trative hnctions of the central gOvernmcnt.Most of the holders of
these Omces were Muslims Or ex― Muslims.For special duties concern―
ing the administration ofland,howevett thcre was the special omce
called′ F″ ′″″―
″れ2″ α ″ὰ“ ′r in Arabic(or′ ′′
J― 4α ′ ′
おin
`s``″
Latin,or“ s`た ″rο ″,s`た ″ゎ″in Greek),WhiCh was located at the
royal palace`g′
in Palermo and under the direction of one of the two
chalnberlains of the royal palace.It had high omcials caned″ agis′ r′

グι″ r`′ ,sin Latin,α ,れ ′

♭′F″ ′″α
ま―″れ
η 7-“ 〆 ′
fa α rin Arabic,
′η′わ,s“ ″わ ),Or“
`′ `s`ε
04`わ タ
`α
ん ο′η′わ ′
ο ′s`た lo′ (み ο ακみ
"″ `gα “ “
s`た ′οι
rι ⅣFuslims.1
`in Greck,rnost ofwhom were also Muslims or ex―
Their primary duty was land administration within Sicily(later pos―
sibly Calabria too),but they were among the most powerhl omcials
ofthe ldngdOm.For the government ofthe peninsula a branch offlce
called theグ 4α bα Ю in Latin(Or s激 ″ め″ Fpο たOp04 in
"α
Greek)had been created at“Salerno
““ "たoflocal adminis―
to lneet a variety
trat市 e needs.It had high o“ cials calied“ %お ま
″′′タク″ αrο ッ″ in
`ι
atin orた ο:`p′ s`た ″ゎ たopo4 in Greek,who were“also
"め “Fpο
Iフ

"′
among the most powerful omcials of the kingdom. Local omcials
such as 10cal chamberlains,local justiciars,magistrates of towns
(“ ク ″ ′′gο ′
),and ι α′ι
`ri,worked forthe king's interest under
the `p′ 'or sr″
direction ofthesc high omcials.
One of the most important characteristics is the adnlinistrative
difた rencebetween Sicily together with Calabria,and the rest of the
peninsula.In Sicily and Calabria the king had more iml■ ediate con―
tro1 0finhabitants and lands by lneans of registers oflands and v五 ―
leins.Vassals and churches were not havc such strong obstacles to the
royal administration.Here eⅢ sted a more valid and stable adlninis‐
tration ln Pcninsular adnlinistration, howeveち the vassals 、
vere

l olCπ
tτ oも με
γttλ oυ oε Kρ 6τ 00(ol ё
πtτ oう σε
Kρ Oυ );こ ρχoVτ ε
qτ o6 oε Kp`τ Oυ
`τ
68 1 HlROSHITAKAYAMA

indispcnsablc.Thc kng could control and govern the inhabitants and

the land only through vassals.Thc adlninistrative organization ofthe
kngdom was based on the existing adllllinistrative institutions of the
forl■ er rulers,or was created to control the direrent e対 sting offices.

The tiine lag in absorbing direrent regions,cach ofヽ ″hich had its
OWn P01itiCal and historical integritン Ъlllade it difncult t。 。rganize a
homogeneous administrativc systcnl over thc whole kingdonl,and,as
a result,led to the cocxlstencc of different adlninistrat市c systcms.
Although some scholars have seen in this kingdom an advanced
degree of ccntralization of government,and even the origin ofrnod―
crn statcs,its administrative systellll was in fact a mixture of different
systerns.

The kings'ambitions and diplomaγ

Through the decadc-long Paciflcation, Rogcr II consolidated his
authority M7ithin the kingdom and exPandcd its Power base.This
inncr solidarity made possible his remarkablc naval exPanSiOn into
Africa and Greece.His lleet repeatedly attacked northern Africa and
analけ established mastery in the area beい veen Tripoli and B6ne.He
also lllade an exPedition against the Byzantine Empire,takng Corf■ l

and Neapolis.By his death in■ 154,Rogcr II had gained dominance

Over important comlnercial routes in thc central Mediterranean,
vhich was to be lost underヽ riuiam I.
ル
∼
ヽrillianl l,aftcr expelling the invasions of thc papal and German
∼
arHlies at thc beginning of his reign,increased his influence over the
papacン Ъand,at the death of Hadrian IⅥ sucCeeded in establishing his
candidate as Pope Alexander III(1159-81).In l158 he concluded a
peace with the Byzantine emperor and remained on good terlns
thcreatter.During the reign of Winialn II the kingdorn lnaintained
good and peacc■ 1l rclationships with many forcign statcs.A treaty
with Genoa in l156 pro宙 ded Siciけ with an assured market for its
grain and cotton.PoPc Alexandcr III was its best alり Aner aね iled
attempt by the German emperor to gain control of both northern
and southern ltaly in the l■ 6os,the Peace ofVenice of■ 177 established
a truce with the Ccrlllan Empire for flftcen)℃ ars;and the marriage of
Constance,aunt ofヾ｀liam II,to Henr"son Of Emperor Frederick
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 69

Barbarossa,Lrther improved the relationship bct、 ″een theぃ vo mon―

archics.The kingd6111 111ade alliances with Genoa and、 rith Venicc,
and even retained a peacen■ l relationship with the normally trouble―
some Byzantine Empire for quite a while.Furthermore,the rnarriage
of King lVilliam II to Joanna)daughter of King Henry II of England,
in l176, COnsolidated the close connection bebveen the two most
powerttll Nornlan kingdoms inぃ veltth― century Europe.ヽ 11lle keep―
∼
ing on good terms、 ″ith foreign PowcrS,｀ rilliam II also showed grcat
∼
military adventurousncss. Taking advantage Of the dispute over a
successor to Emperor Manuel,he attacked the Byzantine Empire in
l185・ The Norman flcet took Durazzo and Thessalonica in the same

℃aら and FnarChed on ConstantinoPle,resulting in a、

ツ var that lasted
for several ycars.Hc also sent expeditions against the Ⅳluslims,espe―
cially those in Egypt.The Norman neet attacked Damietta in l169)
Alexandria in l174,and Tinnts twice between l175 and l178;alld he
attacked Mづ Orca to the west as wellin■ 81/2.William Ⅱalso sent his
neet to join the Third Crusade in l189.But he died before knOwledge
ofthe successes of his α
/4′ rα ′
′s Margarito in the East reached him.

llansition

William II died childless atthc age of36 in l189.His aunt Constance,a

daughter of Roger II,、 vas the legitirnate heiress to the crown of Sicil"
but her marriage with IIenry VI,king ofGerman》 caused fear amOng
Sicilian magnatcs of Sicily 10sing its independence to the German
Empire.Eventually・ Tancred,count Of Lccce and illegitimate son of
Duke Roger)and therefore grandson of Roger II)was elected king in
l190・ But his reign was f1lled with difnculties frOm the beginning.He
had tO flght against his opponents and enernies.An opposition party
revolted in the peninsula)、 ″hile the Muslims rose in Sicily. King
Richard thc Lion― Heart of England arr市 ed inン Iessina with his cru―
sading army and created havOc. In l191 Hcnryヽ たI, now empero島
invaded the kingdom and established his authority in Salerno.
Although Tancred succeeded in rccOnquering the peninsula, the
kingdont had lost its integrity and the cohesiveness PreserVed under
his Predecessors.It、 vas on the way to dismemberment and disordcr.
Tancred died in l194,leaving his child Willialn III as successoL
70 1 HIROSHlTAKAYAMA

Hcnryヽ ″
I, having again Put thc peninsula under his authorityЪ
marched on Palermo, removed the child― king William III from
poweら and had hilnself crowned ldng of Sicily on Christnlas Day
l194,One day before his wife,who had only reached leSi in central
ltaly9 gave birth to an heiら the ftture Frederick II.The coronation of
Henry marks a change in the royal dynasty ofthe kingdom frorn the
Hauteville Norman house to the Gerlnan Hohenstaufen,although
Norman blood was transmitted to Frederick II through his mother
Constance. But no less important was the creation of the ltalo―
German Political zone in which Political elements closely interacted.
Thereafter,the history of southern ltaly cannot be fully understood
without considering German factors. Henry VI soon returned to
Germany9 1eaving the government to Constance.The kingdorn was
aner all a pr市 ate foreign domain for him,no matter how wealt,
it was.He died in l197,f01lowed by Constance in l198.Although
Constance had chosen the pope as guardian of her son,the kingdom
was submerged in Political conftlsion.The king's authority withered,
and warlords came to flght onc anOther forlands and hegemony.Thc
kingdom lost its integrityp and was no longer a single political entity

FredericIく II

ARer the death of Henry VI the kingship ofSicily wasinheritcd by his

son Frederick II.He was crowned at Palerino at the age of 3 in his
rhen his mother died in the same ycar,
mOther's arms in May l198.恥
he was omcially put under the guardianship of Popc lnnocent III.In
ねct,howevcち he was just lc■ in Palermo,and was raised there.
During his minority the kingdom became immersed in ever deeper
disorder.In Germany the succession to Henry VI caused serious con‐
缶ontation be● Ⅳcen two parties, and prOduced two kings, Philip
(Frederick's uncle)and OttO IV the Well After the assassination of
Philip in 1208,Otto rV was re_clected as sole king of Germany and
was crowned emperorin Rome in 1209.
In 1208 Frederick II camc of age at 14,and undertook a dificult
task, the restoration of order and royal control in the kingdom.
During his lninorit■ disorder had Prevailed throughout the king―
dom. ンlany barons had bccome independent, and usurped their
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 71

neighbouring lands including the royal demesne.Castles had been

built here and there without royal permission.Many cities had also
rid themselves ofroyal control.In 1209 Frcderick II gathered his army
and subducd rcbellious barons by lorce.Butthere was a long way to
go to ftllnll this task.In the f0110wing few ycars,his lit and fortune
drastically changed.In 1210 the pope excomlnunicated Emperor Otto
IV who had marched into ltaly and invaded the ldngdom of Sic五 ル
and in 121l the supporters of the HOhenstaufen in Germany elected
Frederick H as king of German■Otto lv who had already marched
deep into the southern end of the peninsula, turned back to
Gerinanヌ and Frederick II also left Sicily for Gerrnany.Frederick II
occupied Constance without inuch difnculty and was crowned at
Mainz in 1212.Thereafter he was engaged in subduing the opposing
barons and restoring orderin Germany for twelve years.It wasin 1220
that he nnally Came back to Sicily.

Restoration of royal authority

ヽhen he returned to the kingdom of Sicilb Frederick II 、

″as not
∼
simply a king of Sicily He had already established himselfas the ruler
of GermanyЪ lea宙 ng his young son Henry(VⅡ )as king in Germany.2
Hc had even had himself crowned as emperor at Rome on his way
home.With these titles and PoweL he resumed the difflcult task,
interrupted during his absence,of restOring order and royal control
in the kingdom.His strong willto do so is well shown in the`Assizes
of Capua',which were promulgated in December 1220,juSt aner his
rcturn to thc kingdom.In the prologuc,hc PrOclairned that hc would
restore the state ofthe kingdom to the g00d cOndition ofthe reign of
William II,ordered that those castles uttustly built during the periOd
of disOrder should be destroyed or delivered to royal authorit)Ъ and
that thOse charters and privileges issued during this period should be
examined and conflrmed by the royal chanccry.ヤ Vithout doubt,the
king's tOp priority、 vas to restore royal authority within the kingdom.
Thercaftet he energetically fought against powerflll indcPendent

2 Henry is known as Henry(VH)tO avOid conision with Hcnry VH of

Luxembourg,cmpcror carly in the fourteenth ccntury.
72 1 HIROSHITAKAYAMA

barons in thc PeninSula)and subiected theln to royal authoriぃ r IIe

crushed the rebelllous.Mushrns in Sicil"and transferred a large part
Ofthe Musliln population in Sicily to Lucera in the peninsula.
Aner working hard at the consolidation of royal authority in Sicily
and southern ltal)ら Frederick II took up the cross lor the crusade in
1228.HC had taken the crusade vow at his coronation in Germany2but
the unstable condition of the kingdom obliged hirn to put off his
departure,to the intcnse ire ofthe pope;excomlnunicated by Pope
Gregory IX because ofthe constant delays,he flnally lei the kingdom
for Cyprus and the Latin kingdonl ofJerusalem in lune 1228.Hc had
taken as his second wife the heiress to leruSalem,so he wentthere as
crusadett as emperor, but also as king of lerusalem in right of
lsabella.He succeeded in obtaining leruSalern by negotiation with al―
Kalnil,sultan of EttPt)and celebrated his diplomatic victory、 vith a
crown― wearing in the Church Ofthe Holy Sepulchre in∼ larch 1229.
This remarkable success M″ ithout shedding blood、 vas not appreciated
by the pope,howeveL On the contrarル the papal army invaded the
kingdorll of Sicily in what was a Papal h01y war against a crusadcち an
odd event by any standards. Frederick II inlinediately came back
home and expelled the papal arnlv.IIc rnade a generous peace treaty
with the hunliliated Pope at San Gerl■ ano in lune 1230・
Thereatter he devoted hilnself again to consolidating the kingdom.
In October ofthe same yeaち he sulninoncd`old good people)from
various regions of the kingdon■ and lnade enquiries about local laws
and custorns.Then,hc presentcd the edicts of his constitutions at thc
rOyal court ofⅣ Ieln in lunc 1231,and promulgated therrlin the follo、 v‐

ing September A large part ofthen■ are concerned with crinles and
legal procedures, which suggests that their main purposc was to
attain and kecP peaCe and order in the killgdorn.Fronl this time to
his death in 1250 he continued to issue additional nc、 v laws(ltο ツarlα
`)
in order to consolidate the kingdonl, although distracted by the
、
vars againstthe Lombard Leagues and the papaq/;and his successors
continued this Practicc.

The Norinan inheritance

TO what extent the Norman adrninistrative systeln functioned during
the period ofdisorderin the late t、 veltth and early thirteenth centuries
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 73

is a question over which sch01ars'Opinions differ widely.Some seethe

evidence fOr continuity in the e対 stence of Norman titles and
admlnlstrative districts in documents,while others think the Norinan
adnlinistration came to a standstill in the political confusion aner the
deaths Of Henry VI and Constance. But, as many scholars have
pointed out,there is certainly a conspicuous siinilarity and colnmOn
character bemcen the Norman kngdom and that of Frederick II,
including the idea of kingshiP, cultural activities at court, and
administrative organization.
ヽhen restoring royal authOrity2 Frederick II obviously had an
∼
ilnagc ofthe kingdom Of his Iゞ Orman predecessors in his lnind.He
intendcd to revive the governmcntal systenl ofhis lヾ orman ancestors,
and tO bring abOut a rebirth ofthe strong authority of thc Norman
kings.Such an intent is clearly shown in the assizes of Capua of1220.
In the assizes of Capua)he proclaimed his wish to restore the institu―
tions of the Norl■ an pcriod,and ordered that his justiciars'dutics
should be the same underヽ rilliam II,and that the divisions of duties
∼
between hisjusticiars and b″ ι′
(bailiffs)should be the samc asin the
`′
Norman period.His wil is also renectcd in the COnstitutions of
Mcin of 1231,Which included the edicts Of his Norman predecessors.
His key omcials in the administration were in fact justiciars,cham―
berlains,あ ク′
′I′ as in the Norman period.And,like his Norman pre―
decessOrs,he tried to exclude the power負 11 lay magnates frorn the
government,and created a corps of professional burcaucrats. One
innovation in this rcspect was the foundation Of the university of
Naples,as a training centre for hture bureaucrats. A number of
bureaucratic fanlilies emerged,many ofthenl drawn frOm the AIInaln
peninsula and thc lands around Naples, and some of thesc)for
instance the RuliDlo farlliv would COntinue to serve later kings as wcll
even after the violent change of dン ■
lasty that was to occur.

A changed kingdom
Still, the kingdom could not be the same, no matter how hard
Frederick II tried tO revive the kingdom of his Norman predecessors.
Indeed,the inner condition of Sicily and sOuthern ltaly had changed
too deeply;there was a conspicuous change in its dcmographI The
74 1 HIROSHITAKAYAMA

ⅣIuslinl population decreased rapidly in Sicily frorn the late bvel■ h

century to the early thirtcenth century.The Saracens continuously
revolted during this Pcriod,and Frederick II decided to transfer them
fron■ Sicily to Lucera,an inland town ofthe peninsula.Thus Luccra
became the colony of Muslims in the kngdonl, and remained so
until 1300・ MOst of them lived a peasant life scParated from Outside
Christian society2 while some served thc king as soldiers Or courtiers.
The cocxistence of Muslims and Christians,one ofthe inore striking
features of the Norinan kingdom,came to an end.ル luslim agri―
cultural skills were lost from Siciし and a large part ofthe land for
iuit,vegetables,indigo,henna,and so on,was converted to grain
producing land,though attempts were rnade to remedy this by bring‐
ing leWiSh Cult市 ators fЮ tt nOrth A■ ica who had the same skills,but
not the same religion,as the dcParted Saracens.
The kingdon■ 's centre of gravity Jso changed.Palerino was no
longer the sole unrivalled capital. Frederick II moved around the
kingdon■ )and resided much more o■ en in the peninsula than his
Norman predecessors,whO usually stay℃ d in PalermO or Messina.
Foggia,an inland town in Apulia,and Naples,a huge port city in
Campania,lvere attaining the status of a capital in the peninsula.
Some omcials gained more poweち while others lost their innuence.
For example,justiciars became more and more active and important
in his adnlinistration,but the rnaster chamberlains of the royal pal―
ace,as well as the omce of′ ι α′ ralis,seemed to have lost their
`′ “ `s`ε
innuence.In his government,we nnd few ofthe Musliln or Greck
omcials,who had been sO consPiCuous and innuential under the
NoHnan kings.The assizes ofCapua,while showing the kng's strong
will to restore Norman institutions,prohibited the custom of the
Norman period that permitted senior ecclesiastics and local nobles to
take charge of judicial matters.The Constitutions of Meln,while
including many edicts ofthc Norman kings,at the same tilne denied
the ettectiveness ofhis predecessors'laws that were not included.
Frederick II's PositiOn as the ruler of the kingdom was totally
different from that of the Norman predecessOrs.He was in a far
more complicated situation than the Norman kings.As Holy Roman
Emperor he was at the centre of European politics and had a difncult
relationship with the more and more assert市 e papacy.He was not
simply a ruler ofjust one kingdOm as his Norman predecessors were,
but a ruler of two largc Political entities,the ldngdoms of Sicily and
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 75

Gerlnany.Unlike the Norman kingsゃ vhO cOuld cOncentrate their

energy and concern on southern ltalル he had tO rule two different
kingdOms with completely diftrent traditiOns and peoples,one a
decentralized kingdom Mハ th POwer■ 1l nObles and cities,the other a
bureaucratic kingdom in the Mediterranean tradition Of Byzantium
and lslam. It can casily be imagined hOw difncult it was for one
person to govern the two kingdOms separated by the strong natural
obstacle of the Alps.Frederick H made his sOn Henry(VII)king of
Germany and entrusted hiln with rule in Cermany9 with the intention
that he hilnselfwOuld concentrate on the ldngdonl ofSicilメ HoweVe島
this did not wOrk out well,becausc Henry alienated the great German
princes by trying to create his own POWer base.Hc had to remOve
his rebelllous son in 1235,and put another sOn,COnrad IW;on the
German throne in 123ア・ All this involved cOaxing, rather than
coercing)the German princes, since it was they who clected the
Cerman king,and they had grave dOubts abOut the inerits of egbct―
ively perlllitting hereditary succession. Based in southern ltaly his
eyes had tO watch troubles and problems be)り nd the Alps.No ll■ atter
how important the kngdom of Sicily was tO hiln)it was aicr all a
mere part of his dolninion.Added tO this were his、 vorries about the
situatiOn in northern ltal" where Lombard rebels, increasingly
encouraged by the papac"drew him intO the bittcr rivalries ofヽ 4ilan,
Cremona,and other towns,and this culminated in the hysterical
denunciation of Frederick at the Council of Lyons(1245)When
lnnocent IV declared hiln deposed as king and emperor.

The dislnemberinent Of
Frederick II's donliniOn

Frederick II died frolll illness in the castle of Florentino on 13

December 1250,With many issucs unresolved,notably the relation―
ship between pope and emperor and the problem of Lombardy.Any
successOr would have di(■ culties in ruling his inheritance.The large
dOnliniOn extendillg frorn Sicily to the Baltic Sea,and even as far as
the 1/1iddle East,was too large to be unincd in any lneaningful sensc,
and allnost impossible to be ruled by a single rulett given the natural
7` I HIROSHI TAKAYAMA

obstacles such as the Mediterranean and the Alps. His successor

wOuld also have to deal with the hOstilc PaPacy.Even that energetic
and intellectual rnonarch Frederick II had great difnculties ruhng his
vast donlinion in the face of papal hostility.It was Conrad)his son
and kng of German" whom Frederick II chose as his successor.
Conrad succeeded to the Gerlnan throne and the kingship of Sicilb
while Manfred,an llegitirnate son,took the position of regent for
ltaly and Sicily.When his hther died,Conrad was at war with
William of Holland,whO was the leader of the anti― HOhenstauFc・ n
Party in Germany.His campaign in Germany turned out to be a
stalemate,but Hohenstaufen inauence rapidly withered there. Hc
returned to ltaly in 1252,but Struggled to secure his inheritance,and
died in 1254,leaving a 2-ycar― old son,COnrad V or Conradin.
This put an end to the large political complex of Germany and
ltaly which had been formed by the crowning of King Henry VI of
Germany as ruler of Sicily and strengthened hrther by Fredcrick II.
Germany and southern ltalb separated into different political
entities,began to take diffcrent courses.Germany experienced double
elections for a new king aner the death ofヽ rillianl of Holland in 1256
∼
and thereafter a troubled intcrregnulll■ until 1273,and became a land
submcrged in PolitiCal conftlsiOn,falling victinl to further decentral―
ization.The kingdon1 0f Sicily alsO fell intO a state of war.Atter the
death of Conrad,PoPc lnnOCent IV tried to control the kingdoIIl,
while Pietro Ruffo,whO hadあ een a faithflllお 110wer Of Frederick Ⅱ
and Conrad,tried to establish his Own donlinion bascd on NIessina.
Manfred detated the papal army at Foggia in 1254,but cOuld nOt
restore order、 vithin the kingdOm.His coronation as the ldng ofSicily
in Palermo in 1258 did not inlprove the situatiOn to any signincant
degree.

ア
Charles ofAttou and theれ 、
o kingdoms
In its hostility to the HOhenstaufen,the papacy searched for an able
pro― papal candidate fOr the throne of Sicil"and,under thc French
POntiff Urban IV (1261-4), ChOse charles, cOunt of Anjou and
Provence and brother Of King Louis IX of France. Charles was
crowned as king of Naples and Sicily in lanuary 1266,in Rome,and
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 7ア

initiated his campaign against ルlanfled 、vith a brcc of French,

Proven,al, and ltalian knights. He Ш ed Manfred at the battle of
Bcnevento,and took contr01 0fa large northern shce ofthe kingdom
He defeated Conradin)the solc desccndant of Frederick II in the
legitilnate nlale line,at Tagliacozzo and mercilessly executed hiln in
1268. He made Naples his effective capital, and began to rule the
kingdOm、 vith great energ,Ъ succeeding in his efforts to restore order
in Sicily and sOuthern ltaly.
The Angevin kingdonl,which appeared as a political entity from
the dust Of p01itical confusion,was in a sense a revival of the 01d
Hohenstaufen kingdom.Although the crOwn was transferred to the
French royal hOuse from the German Hohenstaufen, the basic
framewOrk ofthe kngdoln seemed to reFllain the same.Its boundar―
ies did nOt change much,nOr did its inhabitants Even its govern―
mental system did not appear to show much difference fronl the
former One.It is not clear、 vhether this systeFn SurVived the political
confusion or was revived by Charlcs,but inost historians agree to a
conspicuous continuiり from Hohenstauin to Angevin government.
Charles brought French elements tO the governlnent,but its basic
structure remained the same as the IIOhenstaufen or Norman.Some
of Charles's omcials are knOwn to have served Frederick II and
Manfred.It is also kno、 vn that Charles preserved Hohenstaufen tax―
ation,illcluding the notorious cο ′
ι ltl,despite prolllises to the poPc
`ε
not to lc、 γ it.Hisson Charles H had the Norinan register of mllitary
service known asthe`Catalogue ofBarons'coPied,just asthe Hohens―
taufen had done beli3re,and inserted it into the Angevin registers of
omcial acts,whichッ mbolically shows how strongly the Norman and
Hohenstauten structure ofland distribution remained alive.Charles
continued tO entertain close relatiOns with thc foreign merchants,
ailning to scll Sicilian and Apulian grain to the Florentines and the
Wtnctians among others,and the relationship with the leading banks
in Florence,which provided his court Mrith credit and luxury textiles
in return for tax concessions on grain exports became a mainstay of
Angevin finances fOr the next eighty ycars.
No lnatter ho、 v conspicuously continuous it appears,ho、 veveち the
Angevin kingdOnl、 vas certainly not the same as the Hohenstaufen
one.Its inner condition had changed,and its surrounding situation
was diffcrent.Although thc lnaiOrity Of the population remained
allnOst the same before and after the political confusiOn,there werc a
78 1 HIROSHITAKAYAMA

great number ofilnnligrants ti・ om the peninsula to Sicily in the thir―

teenth century.ヽ hen Charlcs tOok the thrOne,Sicily was no longer
∼
an island of Muslims and Greeks;it had been transfornled into an
isiand of Latin Christians.In addition the Muslim population、 vas
about to disappear from the kingdom.In fact,their last survivors in
Lucera,who had been transported■ oln Sicily by Frederick II,were to
be sold as slaves in 1300 under Charles II.Thus,theldngdom was no
longer a state in whichン luslims,Greeks,and Latins coexisted,but an
alinost solely Christian Latin one.
After the paciflcation Of the kingdonl,Inany foreigners,especially
French and Proven,al Settlers,came to southern ltaly・ Some ofthem
worked for the central gOvernment,、 vhile others reccived lands and
became landlords.They cOnstituted the nc、 v ruling class.This creatcd
a fault line bet、 veen the foreign ruling class,backed by the foreign
king,and the ruled natives.Howevett the native aristocrats,wllo、 ″ere
struggling to gain Positions at the centre of pOweら 、
vcre given a
chance to replace the ruling fOreigners.Furthermore,Charles chose
Naples,not Palermo,as the capital of the kingdorn,which meant a
shift of gravity froln Sicily tO Campania;he only once visited Sicilメ
on his waソ to a Crusade against Tunis. Although Norman and
Hohenstaufen elements surv市 ed strongly in local adnlinistration,as
did their governmental lllethods,the governmental structure subtly
changed.Sicily became a province Sicilians lost their ccntral status,
and their political and cultural innuence at the royal court、 vithered.
The king may well have regarded Sicily silnply as a sOurce of pront
from the grain trade and other natural assets.
The relatiOnship between the king and thc kingdonl alsO changed
greatlメ At his coronation in 1266 Charles was 40 years old and was
already count of An,ou and Of Provence.Hc had inarried thc heiress
ofthe county ofPrOvence in lanuary 1246,and thus had cOme tO rule
this wcalthy county.In August ofthe sameン 3ar he had received Aniou
and Ⅳlaine from his brother Louis IX,and these al、 vays remained
irnPortant nefs to whose government he gavc closc attention even
from afar.For Charies)nO rnatter how important it was,the kingdom
of Sicily was but one part of his dOnlinion.Under the Hohenstauin
there had been alarge and densc ltalo― German zone in which variOus
Political elements closcly interacted.In Place Ofthat,Charles created
an ltalo‐ Angevin zonc that cOnsisted of Anjou,Provence,southern
ltalル and Sicilァ Hc was king of Sicil"but alsO king of Albania and
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 79

1Crusalenl, count of Provence, Forcalquieち AnJou, Maine)and

Tonnerre,overlord of Tunis,and sOmetime Scnator of Rome. His
concern was not limited to the attairs Ofthe ldngdOnl,and his ambi―
tions went far beyond that,crossing over the Mediterranean. I― Iis

agenda included the Tunis Crusade of1270,attacks against the schis‐

matic Greeks in Constantinoplc,the acquisition oflands in Burgundy
and Flanders,the crusade to the East,and interests in Grecce,the
Balkans,and Sardinia.His dolninion was tOo large to control,as was
his ambit10n.

The Sicilian Vespers and arrival ofthe king

ofAragon
On 30 March 1282 a reVOlt broke Out atthe Church ofSanto Spirito in
Palermo.A personal quarrel between a Palermitan and a French sol―
dier was its apparent princiPal cause. The revolt quickly spread
thrOughout the isiand,and many French soldiers tvere killed.The
Sicilians asked Pope Martin IV to give them autOnomy under his
auSPiCes,but the pope rcjccted this request and exconllnunicated all
the inhabitants of Sicily.In August,representatives of the towns and
nobility ofSicily held an assemblヌ and decidcd to look for a protector
outside the kingdom.They chosc Peter III,king of Aragon.He was
the husband of Constance,daughtcr of l■ Ianfred,who herself had
been prOclairned queen of Sicily at the royal court of AragOn atter
the death of Manfred Having accepted their Offeち Peter landed at
Trapaniin late summer,and was crowned king of Sicily following his
electiOn by a parliament held at the ancient Norman church of San
Cataldo in Palermo;he was already awaiting the invitation,having
sailed tO nOrth Africa on a seliproclairned crusade against the Moors,
high in the expectation that Sicily rather than Africa would Prove tO
be his Anal destination.
This revolt,the so― called Sicilian lrespers,has been characterized
by histOrians in various ways.One of the mOst lasting questions is
whether it was a revolt against the French ruler Or against the trad‐
itiona1 0ppressive rule adoptcd by the Normans,the Hohcnstaufens,
and the Angevins.Some sch01ars attribute its cause to the failure of
Charles's government, and insist that the rebels' purPose Was to
8o l HIROSHITAKAYAMA

chminate French and Provcn,a10fficials frOIll the court asヽ vell as

French landlords.C)thers attribute it to econolllic burdens,espccially

that ofthe notorious`ο ″ι α,ftrst levied by Frcderick II.It has been
`す
recently pOinted out that rnany ofthe Amalntan omcials targeted by
the rebels belonged to the farllilies that had served Frederick II and
ルIanfred Some scholars even see a sensc of national identity as Sicil―
ians in this rcvolt,which waslargely conined to thc island Part ofthe
hngdonl,although others qucstion this interprctationt
The most important pOint of this revolt is,ho、 vever)the fact that
Charlcs could not subdue the revolt properly and quicHy.This failure
caused the breakaway of Sicily fronl his kingdoFn,and lnade Sicily a
di∬ercnt political entity.Thc PrOfOund and long― lasting result was
the coexistence of two riVal hngdoms in sOuthern ltalI It long
remained the inost fundamental political feature of southern ltaly
thereafter.The two political entities,cach of、 vhich had its own close
relationship、vith outside pOwers,that is,the houses of Barcelona and
Aniou― PrOvence,opposed each other and brought southern ltaly into
a state of endemic warfare,danlaging to the local econonlies and a
constant distraction to popes planning crusades,nOrth ltalian cities
in scarch of protectors,and so on.

Thc ms kingdonls of Sicily and Naples

The war started in 1282 betWeen the Angevins and the Aragonesc(the
house of Barcelona),and lasted unti1 1302.HOヽ へ rever)after a break it
was renewed on and otti continuing for aboutい vo centuries,and
is justly called the`Two Hundred Ycars'や ヽ 4ar'by David Abulatia.
NIcan、 vhile, Charles died in 1285, and was succeeded by his son
Charles II.In the same yearthe French hng began an anti― Aragonesc
crusade.In 1290 Charles II ceded An,ou andルlaine to Charles of
Valois.The Anjou ttmily cOntinucd to rule the kingdom of Naples
until 1435,While a branch ofthe house of Barcelona ruled Sicily until
the start of the nttcenth centurメ when the island、 /as reintegrated
into the Aragonesc― Catalan pohtical federation.
As stated earlier there、 vas a governmental dit‐ ference bet、 veen Sicily
together、 vith Calabria and the peninsula under the Norrllan kings.
This di“ erence,based on pontical frame、 vorks and traditions predat^
 LAW AND MONARCHYIN THESOUTH 1 81

ing the Norman cOnqucst,was consolidated in the process of the

conquest and the centralization of adlninistration. At rlrst glance
these two fundamental adnlinistrative frame、 vorks appear to have
becn separated into theい vo political entities.Some scholars seeln to
think the Sicilian Vespers activated an inner dividing line and separ―
ated the kingdOnl,but we should not stress these regional differences
石e cannot
too lnuch.The regional lines of division existed in layers.ヽ
∼
totally deny thc unity of the hngdonl,eithett for one and a half
centuries had already passed since the creation of the lゞ orman king―
donl,and the kngdom already had common historical exPericnCes
including the idca of the hngdonl,la、 vs,customs,institutions,and
cultures.M/hat happened here was not an inevitable result of history
caused by regional differences,but a simple incident that changed thc
destinatiOn ofthe history ofsouthern ltalメ Takng the opportunity of
the rev01t,the Aragonese ldng used military force to realize his wife's
claim Ofsuccession to the throne.Thus,the two political forccs based
in Naples and Palermo,both of which clailned their own legitiFnaCy
to the throne,cOnided with each Other and d市 ided thc peninsula and
Sicily.

These twO kingdoms,both sharing thc Norman and IIohenstaufen

traditiOn,came to coe対 st in southern ltaly for an extended Period.
Both ofthem were situated in the geographical framework of ltalル
but they belonged to diftrent political zOnes embracing largcr geo―
graphical areas.The kingdom of Sicily came to be a part of the
Aragonese zone,while the kingdonl of Naples continued to be a Part
of the Angevin.At the Straits of h/1essina the two houses of Aragon
and Anjou confronted cach other and they continucd to do so for
abOutぃO centuries.
 FURTHER READING 1 257

1993)On civic identity see E.Coleman,`Sense ofcommuniサ and civic iden―

tity in the ltalian communes',in,ore Hll and Mary Swan(eds.),Tみ ι
O″ ″′ り r力ケ α″′ ル S″ ″ムル 能 r″ sげ 乃 ″ar′ ″肋 ″
′ ι勁 夕 Mι′ ′
“ “
E“ rop′ (TurnhOut,1998),PP.456o.D.VVebb,Par“ 4s′ ″′ Dψ ″′ ``″
Tみ
`な `
Sク 772ぉ ″Й
′ ′
′′′ (力 F/S″ たs(London,1996),is a Study of ci宙 c PatrOn
`7協
saints and their cults.IC.Maire_vigucur(ed.),IPο ′ ″ ′ι ′′'I餃 ′,α ω″ ″ αIら
“ “
Pt.i(Rome,2000)iS a masslvely researched directorI The thcme oFcities and
communes is exalnined regionaJy in the series Srο rFα ′'I協′ ,′ edited by

Ciuseppe Galasso and published by【 JTET in Turin,the volunles ofParticular

rdevance being vol.i■ 0“ ′″Jι sな た
ο Ca“ ク
rた (1981);vol.■ ″ル ο万￠
`ig″
″ 7′ α
IIα s`rra″ ″ ′
ο αル rl Pた ″。″r`′ ,α Lrgar,α (1986);vol.Vii/1,Cο ″′
`″
stg″ οrた YttJ′ ′″
“
ο″ οrセ ″″ルιε ″ ′
ηル シZ27`た ちIla′ αRο agrt´ ,T♭
J′
“s“
“ 4α`
“ `〃
′“
`″
(1987);V01.宙 i/2,CO″ ′
″:`sな ″
″′ ο
″'rra′ :′ ″
r:ι ο 〃οrf`′ ″ I`.Lα zれ
`aε `″ `″
じ閉br″ ,ル κあらニタ (1987);0“ ′′ιsな ″ οriι ″
ι77'Ira′ ′
αsι 能″ rttο ″α ′
Lο ″ια″′`α
′
`“ “ `.Lα
(1998).Fundamental on documentation for this,as for other
themes in ltalian medieval histor"iS P Cammarosano,IttJ'α ″ j`ν αI′ :

`′
伽″ βα′ι far″ S`月 能 (Rome,1991).T Dean,勧 ″″sげ
`″ 喀拗
s′ r″ IIθ

Lα たr Mc′ Jι ッ
`動
αI IraJ/(ManChCSteち 2000),PrOvides English translations of
sclected documents relevant to the history ofthe city commune.R.Bordone)
ιαsο め γルα″′″ J7よ′I′ αω綱夕′αrι β′
ι。′
colectiOn Ofltalian translations ofdocuments 'XI pl(Turin,1984)iS a uSemin
`fι `′
Recent book― length studics
English of particular citics include:G.BrucklleL Hο ″″鴫 ″ ″ι″Aga
`Gο
I138司 刀7(London,1984);S・ A.EPstein,G`″ οα′ ′ 滋 ηοぉら 958‐ 628
“ `Gι
(Chapel Hil,NC,1996);C.Lansing,Tみ ′た ′′
`ル`′ ″ 'Li“ `α
/1ri“ l弾
`Fra“
ЛαεFiO″ :“ α Meaセ ッ′Ic。 ″″″ ey9 Siι ″αα“4′
“ `(PrinCetOn,1991);Danicl Sヽ
ル ″Й ,″ たθ″rll C`“ F“ r/(London,1991)・ For ttrther biblio―
`Sf`″ “`′ `7カ
graphical references see E.Coleman,`Thc ltalian communesirccent work and
currcnt trends',ル ンr″ α′げ M`′ た″ I Hisゎ r/125(1999).

Chapter 2
There is a steadily growin3 1iterature here A readable narrative is Providcd
by).).No酎 th)勧 r″ α
″sЙ ″ι ル(London,196ガ ,and勧 ピ(″ノο
Sο ン
`М
′″ЙιS′ ′ (London,1970);repr as rみ ιN。 ″ α″si“ SIε ′ 1/(London,1992)“
“
A nne anal)tical study encompassing thc PcriOd Of the conquest and of
the kingdom is〕 .― M.Martin,Ira′ セs“ ο″
771α ″ s,XI`り gル
′′ s,`σ :。 (Paris,1994)
For the eleventh centur"G.A Loud,TЙ ιムg`げ Rο レrF ″r Sο 所ιr″ G“ iscα

α Cο ″aツ “
r″ 1/α 4グ ル (Har10wi 2000))is excellent sce t00 G.A.
`Nor“ “ `S′
Loud and A.Mctcalfe,Tみ ′ Sο ッ げ Nο r″ α″ IttJ/(Lciden,2002),fOr
`セ
rccent work on all aspects of Norman ltalメ I.Dreu,ん ″5Й っ α″′ Cο ″ ′
“
(Ithaca,NM 2002),100kS at salerno at thc time of the Norman conquest `ク

FOr Cacta see the ine work Of P Sknner,ル :1/勁 ″ar i″ Sο ″泌 ″ I″ 1/

“ `″
(Cambridge,1995)・
258 1 FURTHER READING

D.MattheL ttι Nο rlllα ″ん 77gJο ″ げ Sた f1/(Cambridge,1992))haS some

rather quirky views;better is H.Houben,Rogerri A Rι ル r ιιんν Eα sr´ れ′
``′
Wasr(Cambridge,2002)On administration,see H.Takayama,rみ ′″′s―
`A′ “
r″ ′
′ο″げ ″ r“ α′(″ g`Jο ″ げ Sた ♭た
`Nο '1/(Lciden,1993);also r.Johns,A″
1/(Cambridge,2002),and
Aノ ″j″ fsま ″riο ″ :″ r`ο r777α ″ Siε ′ L.― R.M6nager,
A″ ′ ″ιsh融,′ 。 I■ J″ r`′ ′ οrな レι s′ И7711″ ι (PariS,■ 96o),with―
“ “ “ and very `′
“ substantial `彪
out forgetting the classic work of E. IamiSOn,(The
Norman administration of Apulia and Capua')Papι rsげ 古
み ぉみS“ οοr α′
`Bri′
Rome,6(1913),repr in her SFッ ル sο ′助 f′ ッ
ク′Iri∫ Sた ゥ ′れ′Sο rた
`Ma′
″′E暉
fFa1/(Aalen,1992).On POhtics and culture,sec E.M Iamison,A′ ″′
"r/げ “―
`″
ルSO/SiCF1/(London and Oxford,1957),thOugh with reservations.On PolitiCS
and art,sec E.Borsook,Mcssス ysi″ ハイ
οs′ ′
α T力 ιR9/′ ′Prag″ ″ げ Nο ″ ″α″
Siι ウ Iり ο‐ 187(OxfOrd,199o),and w Tronzo,動 “ “
rasげ た (22g′ ο ,∫
`Cr/1′ “ “
(PrinCeton,1997),WhiCh iOoks atthe Palatine Chapelin Palermo.On the wars
in Africa,sce D.Abulana,`The Norman kngdOm of Africa',A′ lg′ ο― Nο r“ α″
srlz′ :`島 7 (1985), PP・ 26-49, repr with other studies of Norman and
HohenstauFen Sicily in D.Abulana,Iraヶ
sfε i1/α ″′rlt`MeaFた r″ ″ ,1100-
“
“′
ェィοο(London,1987)・ On the ecOnOmylsee D.Abulana,TII`hof麟 ′ ●:Eε ο―
″ο″た R`レ ο″5ι グ ι″ Fllι 」
l′ VO″ ″′4κ ″ ♂ ο げ SICr1/α ′′ rた Nο rlll`r″
“ “
Gο 解′′o(Cambridge,1977)・
“
On Frederick II,sce the mystical work of E.Kantorowicz,Fre′ ιrf`た Fll`

S``ο ″′,119ィ ■2D‐ 0,trans.E.0.Lorimer(London,1931),On Which consult

David Abulana, `Kantorowicz and Frcderick II', His"っ ち62(1977),
Pp‐ 193-210,rep■ in I放 ケ Sた ″″rみ θ九 ′′ た′ ″ ι ´″(Cited abOve),and the
'1/α
excelent study of〕 /1.Ruchl,`In “ emPcrOrs:the politics of
this tirne、`′ vithout
Ernst Kantorowicz's Kα お Frた ′′
jι
力′ ν たReconsidered',ゎ r“ ′′げ Fみ ι
`″ `rzル `′ “
ヽ″hル ι α″′ Cb“ rrα ″ ルs′ :`ッ ras,63(2000),PP.18ァ ー242.SCe D.Abulana,
`rg “
F″ ′′ritt I A F77`′ たソα′EFIP`″ οr(London,1988,3rd edn.,2002),fOr a re宙 _
sionist viewPoint｀ l Sturner,Frセ ′rた 力I)2 VOIS.(Darmstadt,1992-2000))is
∼
でry lcarned.■ C.Ⅵ n Cleve,1カ Erlpι rο r Fraル rた た IIげ Hο ル 45す ′ι
r/a″

(OXford,1972),iS diSappointing.On intellcctual lift・ and」 so the widcr back―

gpund,sce ttL Tronzo(cd.),I17た ′ ′ α′Ltt αr rル G,“ rrげ F″ ル rた た II
`ε `“
″s″
Ifoみ ι ル4(Studies in the HistOry of Art,44,Center for Advanced Study
“ Arts,Symposium papers xⅨ ュ National Callery ofArt,ヽ rashing―
in the Visual ち
∼
ton DC,1994)・ On the church,H.IP"uS,(The Emperor Frederick H and
the Siclian Church',Cα ″ル″ ′花 ′IfiSゎ ′′
εαrヵ α43(1929/30),PP】 34-63,iS
"r″
still worthwhile;sce also I.M Powell,(Frcdcrick II and thc Church in the
Kngdom of SicI“ 1220-40', C力 ι 力 H,srο r/,30(1961),PP 28-34, and
`κ
`Frederick II and the Church:a revisionist vicw',CaFl10′ ′
εH,srο ″
′εα′R`ッ f`ν ι
44(1962/3),PP・ 487-97;P Herde,`Literary activities of the innPcrial and Papal
chanceries during the struggle bet、 vecn Frederick II and the paPacy', in
Tronzo(ed.),ル セ′
′ ′′′
■7/F αF Fll`⑭ ′rrげ F″ ′ι
riょ rr(sce above),PP.227■ 9・
``″
 FURTHER READING 1 259

For the era of Charles of Alll,ou,a classic narratⅣ e is that of S.Runciman,

Tル Sた ″Jα ″砕 _sp`“ :A HIs"ryげ ″ヽ ヤbr″ j″ ″
rr・ た Tみ irた ι″Fll
,た r″ ″
`M`′ “
Ca″ r″ r/(cambridge,1958);there is a sober accountin German by P Herde,
Karι ο″Aづ οι
l ν ι(Stuttgart,1979),WhiCh Can also bc found in ltalian in the
DJzJο ″ariο BIOg切 οI″ ′ ,α ′ο,s.v`Car10 1 d'AIngiё '.A good thematic study is
that OfI Dunbabh,0´
`ε ″の Iげ AllJο ゐ ″ ちん llgsた ゎ ′″′S″ た Mα ttPIg:″
_C`71′ “
rた J″ ″ Fみ ァ E“ rapι (London,1998).The Angevin― Aragonese feud is
′
`″
“
the theme of D.Abulana,Tllι Wesた r′ 並 aFた r紹 ″ ″ん ″gノ οF775,12ο Oヨ 500」
`α
動′S′ ″
ι ルrD。 ″,f″ ″(London,■ 997)・ For an approach emPhasizing
fο

continuit"see
`gr′ L.Cadicち Essα l s′ r′ '´ グ IPIIstraF'0″ ′ r9/′ ″ ″7`α ″″ ν′ ″′
“ “ `
(PariS,1891;ncw ltalian cdn prepared by R Giunta)L物 71t″ f″ Is′
SIε II′ ″
`zfο `
′ α Sic″ ′ α α′giο i17′ , PalermO, 1974) On thC Wider Pohtical setting,
`″
N HOusleb TII`rrar′ ´′ cr夕 sa′ ●:T」 lι Papα J A″ g`ν レ A′ ′ ′α″ ′′′′ 力ιCr″ ―
`ι
Sα ′
均ζ αJ″ S′ G"ris′ :′ ″Lク Pa″ ι rs9 1_254=じ 4J(OXfOrd,1982),iS Valuable.On
“ see the items listed under Chapter ll,which now indude I.Taメ
Lucera 。ち
M“ s″ sI「 7ハイ たt/aF Iraヶ :ル ク′二 ″ (Lanham)Md.,2003)・ A
`0あ ッ
superb“study of a later Angcvin ldng is S.Keu卜““ IIι s、″ Sο lο ″ο″(Leiden,
`″

「
2003),Which looks at ideas of hngship undcr Robcrt theヽ ヽ risc(1309-43)・ A

great exPloSiOn of贔 gevin studies in France has resulted in several volumes
of conference proceedings that addrcss the period flom thc thirteenth to the
ntteenth century in AnJou, Provcnce, Italb and beyond,beginning with
二暫畝rα ″rソ j″ (Rome,1998),and COntinuing with L´ Nbι レ5S`′ ′S′ お
eα ′ XVl “
α4g′ νf″ s(Rome,2000);alSO L6 Prf7tras α″g`ν IPIs′ ′ m■■ `″ ル
s'2ε
(Renncs,2003)‐ On Charlcs l and the Greek worid,see D.I.GcanakoPlos,
ttfrε みαaJヾmFbF′ s,″ グ rrtι 、
νを,ち 1258■ 282(Cambridge,Mass.,1959),
`ο
`%`′ Charles,an important book is that ofL.Catalioto,
pp_92-115 0n Sicily under
■ r`ι αЮ′iι σ
:敏)'″ SIι :′ j′ ″ ′′c′ ″。f′ И gJう (MeSSina,1995)Several
“`rr'ι “ 7ル ′
intriguing articles of the French sch01ar H Bresc are reprinted in Pο ィン
`
ar sο ε
姥彪ι
れslr iル ,Xfra― χンをsfaダ o(Aldershot,199o),and there is a wealth of
precious material in his vast study けれ η70″ ′ι ″ ′
た″″″ι .Ёι
Oれ ο :ι
`″ “
f`だ Sf`′ 74 13ο οヨづ 0)2 VOIS.(Rome and Palermo,1986).On
`′
the
``50ε `″
economy of inainland southern ltal"an influentiJ older、 vork is that of
G_Yver,L`Cο 777″ α ″′″法 ″′4s II″ 7た 7P2`ri′ ′
ο″αセ (Paris,19o3);
`r````Io″ “
sec also D Abulana,`southern ltaly and the Florentine economb 1265-1370',
Eε οれο771た IIsゎ r/R`ッ ′ ι%se■ 2,VCl1 33(1981),pp.37た 88,rep■ in I″ ヶ Siε ′ ケ
´ll′ rみ α71`´ 17.On Aragonese Sicill see C.Bachan,■ ha Dι ε
fr`″ ″ ′
′″′αれ′
`Me′
｀
ル ″げ コイ たИ ISを l1/f ttI′ ′ Eω ″ο″/1″ III`R′
ICS,Rι ′
lglο ″α″′ げ F″ ′ar,ε た
`′ =″
Irt 1296■ 337(Cambridge,1995)・ R.EPstein,A“ お″′′ル r rFsι
S・ チ Eε ο″οttj`
D`ν ι
′q′ 722`″ ″′′
:′ SOε i′ ′Cた allgFレ [α セ McaFι ッαl stciJ/(Cambridge,1992)
challenges the work of Bresc but is lnainly concerned witll later centurics.
R Gricrson and L.Travaini,Me′ たνα′E′ ropι α″cο i″ 響 、17′ 滋 ,C′ ″o蓼ι
げナ
ル O172S i4`た レ″ 麟″lM“ s`“ ″1,0771br,々 ら 対 Iraヶ Part l,Sο ″
fr′ V・

`Fブ `み
 26o l FURTHER READING

r/α ″′ sα ″f″ ′
I″ 夕 S'ι ′ ′ (Cambridge,1998),containsexcelent surveys Of
politicaland econonlic deve10Pmentsthroughoutthe Norman,Hohenstaufen,
and Angevin periods

Chapter 3
The background to,and car01ingian context ol PaPal ltaly is best established
byT EX.Nobに ,動 ′
f`げ Srル 診″動 げЙ ι 。■ %
`Rψ "ι `BIrЙ `Papar s″
(Phiadelphia, 1984)・ TWO complementary and vital studics are thOse
“ by
R Partnett TII`二 α″渚 0/s=ル たrf Tル Papα l s″ た れ ル ル 々 α″′Flla
`Mi′
E′ rf/R`″ αfssa″ (London,1972),and D Wale"The Papα l s放 た レ“″ ′
r_
“ `Tみ
tee″ F17 G`″ ′
′r/(London,1961).Turning to literature mainly in Other lan―
guages:older but stil valuable is G.Falco,`I comuni deua Campagna e dela
Marittima nel MediO Evo.I.Le origine e I Primo COmunc(sec.XI― XII)',
Arc″ ν:ο ′″″ R.Sο α″α′iSゎ r′ αPはriα ,42(1919),pP 537-6o5;G.
`:`"Rο
Falco,`I comuni della Campagna
“ e della Marittiina nel MediO Evo.11.La
maturita del cOmune(seC.XIII)',ibid.,47(1924),PP・ 117-87・ The indispens―
able wOrk for tllc eleventh and melfth centuries are the magisterial volumes
of R TOubert,L6Srrι ras′ I′ ″ ″″ ルレ′ム2V01S.(Rome,1973)・ Itiner_
``r′
“ “ Bagliani's,
ation is dcalt M′ ith in A. Paravicini― `グ `La mobilita dela curia
Romana nel sccO10 xIII. Rinessi locali', sο ε セ ′z′ οllf ′′
″ha′ ,α
ω″ ″クセ:′ '`s`771P'0′ ′ル r喀′ ′ β′ ω′ " ` Isrl′
I XII Xrり ,A″ ′′ ε ο4grFssο sわ rた 0
′ “αziο ″´
″たr″
`′
れ nar′ g'α , 6っ ″ονι ″ι″ 1985(Perugia, 1988),pp.155-278.
A much shorter English versiOn is A.Paravicini― Bagliani,Tみ ιPop`七 Bο ′%
trans.David S.Peterson(Chicago,2000).Also valuable)PartiCularly for the
early thirteenth ccnturb are:M・ T CaciOrgna,Mari″ :″ α″ f`″ ′ αたrriゎ ″ ち
`′
ため,Pο たri(Rome,1996):M.Maccarrone,S′ ァ′Isク ル″ο ″ω lri ltalia
ε
`ο
“ altung des
Sacra, 17 (Padua, 1972); Christian Lackne島 `Studicn zur Ven″
Krchenstaates unter PaPst lnnOCenz IH.',R∂ おε 71a Hお ゎrisル ′ ち
29(1987),pp.127-214;B・ B01ton,```Except the“ Lord keep the `MIttf′
city'':tOwns
“
in the papal states at the turn of the ぃveltth century), in D AbulaFla,
M Rubin,and M.Franklin(eds.),C力 ′′ α″′ cjッ∵s′ ′:“ :“ IIa“ ο r

οたι (Cambridge,1991).A.COrtonesi,lLa “
`あ
げ C力 rお rap力 s,ル αcOntesa. “
`r BЮ
Uonlini e boschi nel Lazio del Duecento',in B.Andreolli and M.MOntanari,
(eds.)II Bの ε
ο″ ″θ
″′ο ο,Biblioteca di StOria Agraria Medievale,4
`′ `ッ
(B。 10gna,1989),PP.305-19,is an excellent study ofa neglected subiect.There
is also Cortonesi'sル r″ asな ″οr'4ι ′Lα zfο ″ ′ο r`じ ″0″ fa r“ ′
`′ `″ "'`ω `れ `′
sι J XIII Xy(NaPles,1988).See alsα
ω″ B B。 ltOn,`Nο ″ ル ″″,α ι″′ “
:ル Fri
Adrian IV and the Patrilnony',in B.B0110n and Anne J.1)uggan (cds.),
A′ ′″ fyル 力 POpι ttI解 ● 69,(AldershOt,2003),Pp.15た
7%
“ `E4g7お
B BOlton, `Carthusians at san Barto10meO di Trisulti: Innocent IIrs
troublesOme gi食
),in P De Lco)(ed.),I'0″
れ ゎsf″ ο,2 VOIS(Rende,
`G`″
2003),V01.i,PP.235-6o.