Leah York

Dr. Hazen

GEOG 3755

28 May 2020

The Extensive Impact of Endocrine Disruption on Fetal and Infant Health and

Development

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals have a vast and egregious impact on human health in

many facets; from cancerous tumors, to disturbances in how our immune and neurological

systems function, and perhaps most frighteningly, how we develop in utero. When a chemical

can so severely impact not only the way that we live, but how our children grow, one would

think that we would have a very comprehensive understanding of these substances, yet,

endocrine disruptors largely remain a mystery to both the public and scientific communities. Yet

considering the uncertainty of a causal effect of endocrine disruption in the adult human body,

there remains one solid consensus about these chemicals; even small disturbances in endocrine

function at highly sensitive stages of life such as fetal development and infancy can cause severe,

lifelong effects. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC’s) have been proven to present a massive

threat to human development, and significant measures need to be taken in order to protect the

children of today and the generations of tomorrow.

Endocrine disruption is a form of hormone mimicry within the human body. It is

important to note the difference between an endocrine active and an endocrine disruptive

chemical. According to EndocrineScience.org and the American Chemistry Council, chemicals

that interact with the endocrine system are “endocrine-active” and can be completely harmless to

our bodies, as our systems can naturally adjust to having this chemical present. However, a sub-
group known as “endocrine-disruptors” can directly alter the endocrine system in the body and

result in significant negative health impacts. Hormones within the human body work as chemical

messengers to trigger various biological processes in nearly every system. In the female

reproductive system, for example, hormones such as estrogen and progesterone work to maintain

a healthy menstrual cycle, fertility, and pregnancy. The quantities of these hormones fluctuate

significantly over the course of a month. Ensuring that accurate quantities of these hormones are

present in the body across this time frame is essential to making sure that all parts of a women’s

reproductive system are prepared simultaneously for pregnancy or menstruation. For example,

the hormone estrogen causes the uterine lining to grow and thicken in preparation for

implantation of a fertilized egg and then a surge of luteinizing hormone synchronously signals

the final maturation and release of an egg at the time of the thickest uterine lining. The efficacy

of hormones is critical in this process, for if the mature egg is fertilized, if it does not have a

healthy uterine lining to implant itself in, then this zygote cannot begin to divide and progress to

becoming an embryo. Humans can effectively manipulate hormones with medication such as

birth control to prevent fertilization and pregnancy, and this form of hormone disruption is

widely researched and recognized as safe. However, other endocrine disruptors are not regulated

in the same way as a birth control pill would be, and we do not have an understating of the types

or quantities of endocrine disruptors in our ambient environment creating a huge risk for

exposure in our daily lives (Cooper and Kavolock 1997). The National Institute of

Environmental Health Sciences warns that people may encounter endocrine disruptors through

diet, skin, water, and the air. Even low doses of exposure can cause significant developmental

and biological effects.

 Endocrine disruptors are not a new phenomenon. DES is one of the most famous

examples of an endocrine-disrupting chemical. It has been linked causally to epigenetic changes

in mice, which alter the way that certain genes are turned on and off (Jefferson et al 2018). The

CDC recognizes DES was the first manufactured form of estrogen and was widely prescribed to

prevent pregnancy loss, premature labor, and make bigger stronger babies. It was sold with over

200 different brand names. Even with controlled studies showing DES did not lead to healthier

pregnancies, it had widely successful marketing campaigns and continued to be prescribed until

1971. In 1971 DES was found to cause a rare form of cancer, and taking DES caused a 40 times

greater risk in getting this cancer. The FDA banned DES from that point on, but its effects are

still changing the lives of people today. Women and men whose mothers took DES while

pregnant have been found to have higher rates of structural differences in their reproductive

systems. This includes irregularities such as vaginal adenosis, cervical irregularities, a t-shaped

uterus, and increased other genetic abnormalities. DES daughters have also been found to have

an increased risk of infertility than those who were not exposed to DES in utero. This is just one

example of how an endocrine-disrupting chemical can lead to horrible effects on both pregnant

mothers and their children. However, endocrine disruptors exist far beyond just DES. They are

found in many facets of our day to day life. Plastic products, herbicides, fireworks, cosmetics,

children’s toys, medical devices, flame retardants, and carpets are just a few examples of places

we can find these destructive chemicals in our daily environments.

The in-utero human is widely recognized as the most delicate phase of any person’s life,

and the delicate hormone balances that foster development are key to ensuring that the fetus

develops to a healthy functioning baby. Hormones are used to trigger various developmental

phases and regulate how many systems within the body are formed. However, due to the strong
biological connection between a pregnant mother and her fetus, exposure to an endocrine-

disrupting chemical can result in a variety of adverse side effects for the baby.

Neurodegeneration in infants can result from a mother’s exposure to an EDC’s, creating changes

in “rearing behavior, locomotion, anxiety, and learning/memory – as well as neuronal

abnormalities”, leading to both weakened cognitive and memory functions (Masuo and Ishido

2011). Exposures to endocrine disruptors such as mercury, lead, PCB’s and organophosphate

pesticides have all been shown to impact cognitive function and, in some cases, increase risk of

developing behavior disorders in exposed children later in life (Ünüvar and Büyükgebiz 2012). 

However, the effects of neonatal endocrine disruption extends far past just

neurodegeneration. The same study from Ünüvar and Büyükgebiz highlights that fetuses and

newborns are particularly sensitive to environmental toxins, and they cannot “metabolize,

detoxify and eliminate” EDC’s in the same capacity that adults do. Intrauterine exposure to

organophosphate pesticides, for example, has been linked to low birth weight, low height and

low head circumference in newborns, as well as “abnormalities pertaining to the development of

the brain, eyes, ears, teeth, heart, feet and sexual organs (undescended testicles, microphallus,

labial fusion)” in exposed infants at birth (Ünüvar and Büyükgebiz 2012). Many other endocrine

disruptors such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (often found in cigarettes and air pollution),

DDE, and PCDD/PCDF’s have all been linked to low weight, low height and low head

circumference in affected infants at birth (Ünüvar and Büyükgebiz 2012). Smaller sizes at birth

can lead to further risk of both short and long health complications once the baby is born outside

of those associated with endocrine disruption. 

EDC’s that appear more frequency in our lifes such as Chlorpyrifos, which was once the

most common insecticide in the world have linked prenatal exposure to ADHD and impaired
motor skills, as well as extensive animal studies suggesting elements of neurotoxicity (The

Endocrine Society). Even breastfeeding, what is often perceived as one of the safest actions

between a mother and a child has demonstrated great risk at its capacity to transmit endocrine-

disrupting chemicals. An endocrine disruptor called PFAS that can be transmitted through breast

milk has been found to weaken the antibody response of exposed infants to common childhood

vaccinations such as tetanus and diphtheria when the children reached age 5 (Grandjean et al

2017). This poses a huge threat to the overall health and well-being of the exposed child as they

age, as vaccines play a massive role in protecting people from what can often be often fatal

diseases.

Pregnant and post-partum women in the general population have little knowledge about

these chemicals and how they could affect their children, or how extreme the threat of EDC’s

truly is. A study from Rouillon et al aimed to understand women’s knowledge and behaviors to

EDC exposures in a study group looking at 300 women who are currently pregnant or in the

postpartum period. The study found a mean score of knowledge at 42.9 ± 9.8 out of 100, with a

range of scores from 13.5 to 75.5. The research also took into account the change in women’s

anxiety level before they were asked any questions, and found a significant increase in anxiety

after the questionnaire. With chemicals that pose such a significant threat, mothers should be

entitled to the right to knowledge about EDC’s to best protect the health of their children to the

best of their ability, and access to this knowledge should be available more readily to give

mother’s the chance to avoid EDC’s. Most fetal EDC exposure is a result of transmissions from

the mother’s exposure of EDC’s directly to her child, so having this awareness is vital to reduce

the chances of exposure; a role that should fall onto healthcare providers. In educating mothers,
healthcare professionals must be careful to not increase anxiety levels and risk of other issues

with the fetus surrounding high maternal stress levels, as this study shows.

Research surrounding the presence of EDC’s in our environment is still very limited, and

there is still much that needs to be done to gain a more comprehensive understanding of where

these chemicals are in our environments, and what threats they pose to a developing fetus or

infant. Many different chemicals both natural and man-made can work as endocrine disruptors,

so it is difficult to create a standard form of measurement for the quantities of EDC’s in the

environment. The lack of research surrounding EDC’s makes finding a cause/effect relationship

between disease and these chemicals very problematic. Many people who were exposed to

EDC’s in-utero and are currently displaying developmental issues cannot prove a causal effect as

a result of EDC exposure for an individual case without looking at the full history of the

pregnancy which is information that is not always accessible. Due to the prevalence of endocrine

disruptors in our environment, fetal exposure could have come from one or multiple outlets

throughout the duration of the pregnancy. Despite the egregious affects endocrine disruption has

on fetal development, reporting of endocrine disruption as a cause for disease is very rare in the

medical field. Many of the physical effects of fetal exposure to EDC’s are not well recognized

enough by the medical community to establish a relationship between exposure and the existence

of a certain developmental disease, further demonstrating the need for better research and

education about the effects of these chemicals in both the medical and public eyes.

There are many terrifying effects and unknowns surrounding endocrine-disrupting

chemicals, with recent rising concerns about the presence of these chemicals in our environment,

and the threat they pose to developing babies. Increasingly, we are seeing more research on this

topic, yet still, we do not know much. To start, we need to create a more definite causal
understanding of the effects that the chemicals we put into our bodies and environments have to

better understand where endocrine disruption exists. As of now, the policies regarding the

implementation of new chemicals into public life tend to be implemented first, and if those

chemicals have negative side effects, they are later evaluated. A famous example would be

Bisphenol A, more commonly referred to as BPA. This endocrine-disruptor is often used in food

and beverage storage products and was considered to be completely safe for people until

recently. Side effects began to rise with the increased use of the product, and more research

began to pop up. One study for example found that late-term pregnancy exposure has been linked

to behavioral abnormalities and was at an increased risk to the effects of BPA, a frightening

reality for many (Ohtni et al 2018). As more research such as this was done, and the general

population gained more awareness of the effects of this particular endocrine disruptor, people

were able to make active decisions in avoiding this particular endocrine disruptor to protect the

health of both themselves and their children. BPA has also now been banned in all children’s

products designed for 12 months and under, along with many outside organizations pressuring

for the chemical to be banned altogether. The fight against BPA serves as an example of success

in the uphill battle against EDC’s and pouring the same level of research into understanding the

effects of other EDC’s would be a monumental step in helping protect the safety of pregnancies

and infants. The American Chemistry Council has developed a thorough protocol to evaluate the

safety of and identify the potential for endocrine disruption across different types of chemicals to

help maintain a safer and better-understood standard for where these chemicals persist in our

society. They suggest that characterizing the chemicals through credible testing and thorough

investigation with transparent decision making as well as a few other standards for chemical

evaluation create a comprehensive overall understanding of whether and to what extent a

substance can be endocrine disruptive. An important note to their planning strategy is

establishing where a safe level of exposure is. With so little known about these chemicals and

their effects, it is important to determine at what levels endocrine chemicals are active and at

what levels they are disruptive and cause an adverse effect or effects. I fully support this

approach as it creates a holistic understanding of the overall impacts of these chemicals and

provides people with an understanding as to what is safe for their pregnancies and what is not.

Another huge factor in increasing awareness and understanding of EDC’s comes from

education. This works in tandem with having more research, as the more comprehensive research

we have, the more generalizable the information that can be shared with people is. However,

even with the research and understanding we currently have, awareness surround endocrine

disruptors is significantly lacking in both the health and public communities. Just as we saw with

BPA, when people understand what these chemicals are, and what their side effects can be, they

often will transition to a lifestyle that avoids interacting with that chemical to protect the safety

of their pregnancies and their infants. It should be considered a basic right for people to

understand the effects of what could be going into their body, especially through these extremely

sensitive stages where the child is going through vital developmental phases that rely on

hormone signaling.

The final key step to curbing the infiltration of EDC’s into our children ties back to the

source of many endocrine-disruptors; man-made production of the chemicals. Incorporating

more research into understanding what each chemical is, and what its effects may be should be a

critical step before releasing the chemical out into products for consumption by the general

public. On top of research for these chemicals from the scientific community, corporations need

to be held responsible for the product they are releasing into society, especially if it can result in
such extensive damage to humans at their most vulnerable phases of life. Introducing more

comprehensive policies or certifications for approval before releasing a new potentially

endocrine-disruptive chemical into the public would help to protect millions from the negative

effects associated with exposure.

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals poses a massive threat to the health of

maturing fetuses and infants, and the effects of exposure at these particularly vulnerable phases

of life can be detrimental to achieving healthy development. Understanding the effects these

chemicals can have is vital to preventing these adverse effects from occurring. Through research,

education, and accountability, we can shift to a world that is healthier, safer, and provides

environments where our pregnancies and infants have the capability to develop into capable,

healthy adults.
 References

ACC. “Endocrine Active Chemicals.” ACC Is Engaged with the Scientific Community to

Enhance the Understanding of Chemicals, American Chemistry Council,

www.americanchemistry.com/Endocrine-Active-Chemicals/.

CDC. “The History of DES.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention, www.cdc.gov/des/hcp/nurses/history.html.

Cooper, R L, and R J Kavlock. “Endocrine Disruptors and Reproductive Development: a

Weight-of-Evidence Overview.” The Journal of Endocrinology, U.S. National Library of

Medicine, Feb. 1997, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9071972.

Endocrine Society. “What EDC's Are.” Endocrine.org, www.endocrine.org/topics/edc/what-

edcs-are/common-edcs/neurological.

Grandjean P, Heilmann C, Weihe P, Nielsen F, Mogensen UB, Timmermann A, Budtz-

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University Press, 20 June 2018, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29648668.

Masuo, Yoshinori, and Masami Ishido. “Neurotoxicity of Endocrine Disruptors: Possible

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NIEHS . “Endocrine Disruptors.” National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, 22 May 2020,

www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine/index.cfm.

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Rouillon, Steeve, et al. “Endocrine Disruptors and Pregnancy: Knowledge, Attitudes and

Prevention Behaviors of French Women.” International Journal of Environmental

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www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5615558/.

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www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3386773/.

“What Is Endocrine Disruption?” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 22 Feb. 2017,

www.epa.gov/endocrine-disruption/what-endocrine-disruption.