Professional Cooking Theory

Instructor:
Chef Muhammad Imran
Professional Cooking (Morning)
Session (2017-18)
EVOLUTION OF CHEF
Chef is a French word derived from ―Chief‖ the head of a particular department. The
word was firstly introduced in 17th century. The chef was defined as a person who is highly
expert with the ability to cook food at large levels.

C for Cook

H for Highly

E for Expert

F for Food

In 19th century, the word stands for

C for Cuisine

H for Hospitality

E for Education

F for Food

Whereas Cuisine defines as a style of preparing food based on cultural ingredients and
regional traditions. It is a method of cooking, especially as characteristic of a particular
country or region.

In 21st century, it becomes an essential part of a chef’s duty to know about more than
one particular cuisine at a time and the word abbreviated as,

C for Clean

H for Hygiene

E for Ethnic

F for Food

Who is a Chef:
―Chef is a skilled person who can use raw food to make nutritious dishes with the
maintenance of hygienic environment.‖

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HYGIENE AND PERSONAL HYGIENE
Hygiene is defined as maintenance of germs-
free environment and prevention of contamination of
food from disease producing agents.

Personal Hygiene Checklist

While working in the kitchen, a chef should

keep in mind the following measures in order to
ensure his personal hygiene.

1. Hand wash:

Wash your hands regularly

 Before handling or preparing food

 After using toilet

 Between handling raw and cooked food

 After breaks for eating, drinking and

smoking.

While working, a chef should wash his hands for at

least 40 seconds after every 20 minutes. The water
temperature should be at 43°C which is in
accordance with world food standards.

2. Nails:

Keep your finger nails short, clean and well-scrubbed. Do not wear nail polish or false
nails as these can easily contaminate food. Always remove nail polish if any before starting
work in the kitchen.

3. Bathing:

Take bath everyday as it keeps you clean as well as healthy.

4. Jewelry:

Always remove all the excessive jewelry while you are working in the kitchen as it
can drop in the food. The areas under watches or rings are breeding grounds for germs.

5. Slippers and Sandals:

Do not wear slippers, sandals or other shoes like these because you can hurt yourself
while working in the kitchen. Always use proper safety shoes.

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 6. Hair:

Always cover your hair whether it’s short or long

with chef’s cap.

7. Uniform:

Always wear neat and clean uniform while you are

working in the kitchen.

8. Perfume:

Always use some mild perfume or other body deodorant so that you are able to feel
the aroma of the meal properly.

9. Shaving:

Daily shave should be done.

10. Smoking:

Always try to smoke in a separate area far from kitchen. Do not smoke in the kitchen.

11. Burns, Wounds & Cuts:

If you have any injury like burn, wound or cut, always cover them with a proper
(water proof) bandage or dressing while you are working in the kitchen.

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TYPES OF CUTTING STYLES
There are many different types of cuts and while you may not use all of them, it’s
important that you know and understand them. Having the knife skills and know-how of
different types of cuts, will not only help you improve your knife skills, but also improve the
visual appeal and professionalism of the food you cook. Before get started, one should follow
some knife safety tips,

 Whenever you are cutting food, be sure to use a very sharp knife.

 If you are cutting on a cutting board, place a damp cloth under it to prevent the board
from slipping.

 Use your fingertips to guide the knife along whatever you are cutting.

 Try to avoid walking in the kitchen while holding a knife in your hands but if you
have to, always keep knife tip down wards to the ground so that no one can get hurt.

1. The Slice:

It’s the cutting which makes simple slices of cutting material. It is mostly used for
large vegetables and meat. With the tip of the blade in constant contact with the cutting
board, pull the knife backwards slightly until the blade slices into the food and continue this
process till end.

2. Half Moon Cut:

As the name implies, this cutting shapes like a half moon. Cut vegetable in half
lengthwise. Then slice crosswise and it will give you half-moon cut.

3. Shredding and Grating:

The two terms often use interchangeably has a slight difference between them.
Shredding is usually done with a grater that has bigger holes. The end result is long, smooth
strips that cook or melt slowly because of their size. Whereas Grating create tiny pieces of
food that look like powder.

4. The Julienne Cut:

The julienne is a type of cut that is

stick-shaped and very thin. Cut from a squared
off item, you will then slice that item length-
wise at a thickness of 1-2mm (1/16 in) leaving
you with thin rectangular cuts. The technique
is used on firm vegetables such as potato,
carrot, peppers, turnips, etc. Onion is too
difficult to julienne owing to its layers, and

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soft vegetables such as tomatoes can be done, but are difficult. Items such as citrus peel can
also be julienned.

5. Dicing:
Cut vegetable into rectangles. Then slice into uniform sized cubes. The cubes may
have any of these sizes small, medium or large.

 The Small Dice: A small dice is cube cut measuring about ¼ inch square.

 The Medium Dice: A medium dice is a cube cut measuring about ½ inch square.

 The Large Dice: A large dice typically refers to a vegetable or item cut into ¾ inch
square.

6. The Cube Cut:

This cutting refers to the squares of about 1 inch.

7. Star/Flower Cut:

This cutting method usually use for presentation purposes. The cutting yields star or
flower shaped items.

8. Diamond Cut:
As the name implies this cut results into diamond shaped items usually used for
garnishing purposes.

9. Chopping:

This method is simple and only adds an additional step to the Julienne method. Take
your julienne cuts and bunch them up with your hand. Then cut the julienne into equally
shaped dice but the shape or size of dice doesn’t matter.

10. Fine Chopping:

It’s the finest form of chopping. It yields items so small in size that are not able to
chew with teeth and usually used for soups.

11. Stick Cutting:

Everyone is well aware of finger chips. This style of cutting is called stick cutting. We
can say that this cutting style is like julienne cutting but with larger size and more precision.

12. Strip Cutting:

This style of cutting is mostly used for meat rather than vegetables.

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MEASURING GUIDELINES
There are some measuring guidelines which would be helpful for accurate
measurements of ingredients as well as conversion of different measuring units as per
requirement,

For Liquid;

1 tsp. = 5ml

1 tbsp. = 3 tsp. = 15ml

1 Cup = 16 tbsp. = 48 tsp. = 240ml = 8oz

¾ Cup = 12 tbsp. = 36 tsp. = 180ml = 6oz

½ Cup = 8 tbsp. = 24 tsp. = 120ml = 4oz

¼ Cup = 4 tbsp. = 12 tsp. = 60ml = 2oz

Whereas 1oz = 2 tbsp.

For Items in Powder Form;

1 tbsp. = 12 grams

1 tsp. = 5 grams

Salt; 1 tbsp. = 22 grams

Sugar; 1 tbsp. = 25 grams

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ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHY OF A RESTAURANT

Food and Beverages Manager

Executive Chef

Executive Sous Chef

Assistant Chef (In a restaurant) Sous Chef (In a hotel)

Junior Chef (Chef 'de' Partie)

Butcher Chef

Bakery Chef

Cook 1 (Commis 1)

Cook 2 (Commis 2)

Cook 3 (Commis 3)

Helper

Trainee

Steward

Dishwasher

Sweeper

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MAIN PARTS OF A SALAD
A salad consists of four basic parts base, body, dressing and garnishing.

1. Base of Salad:

The base of a salad is usually a layer of salad greens that line the plate or bowl in
which the salad will be served. It is what we use as a base in a salad i.e. lettuce.

2. Body of Salad:

The body of the salad consists of the main ingredients. For example in a Russian salad
if we use only fruits it will be a fruit salad. But when we use vegetables along with fruits it
will become a Russian salad so vegetables are the body of Russian salad.

3. Dressing of Salad:
Salad dressings are liquids or semi-liquids used to flavor salads. These dressings may
be simple, Creamy/ Cheesy, French or Italian etc.

4. Garnishing of Salad:

The eatable presentation of a meal is known as garnishing. Garnish enhances the

appearance of the salad while also complementing the overall taste.

The three keys to ensuring a quality salad are:

 The freshness of ingredients.

 Having all the ingredients blend together in harmony.

 Making sure the salad is appealing to the eye.

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COMMON SPICE NAMES
Salt ‫ومک‬

Turmeric ‫ہلذ ی‬

Red Chili Powder ‫پسی ہو ئ ال ل مر چ‬

Red Chili Whole ‫ثابت ال ل مر چ‬

Red Chili Crushed ‫کٹی ہو ئ ال ل مر چ‬

Black Pepper ‫کا لی مر چ‬

White Pepper ‫سفيذ مر چ‬

Coriander Whole ‫ثابت د ھىيا‬

Carom Seeds ‫ا جو ا ئه‬

Cumin Seeds ‫ثابت ز یري‬

Green Cardamom ‫سبس( چھو ٹی) ا ال ئچی‬

Black Cardamom ‫بڑی ا ال ئچی‬

Mace ‫جلو تر ی‬

Pomegranate Seeds ‫ا وا ر د ا وہ‬

Nutmeg ‫جا ئفل‬

Dry Plum ‫خشک آ لو بخا ر ي‬

Tamarind ‫ا ملی‬

Bay Leaves ‫تيس پا ت‬

Sesame Seeds ‫تل‬

Mustard Seeds ‫را ئی د ا وہ‬

Fennel Seeds ‫سو وف‬

Poppy Seeds ‫خشخا ش‬

Clove ‫لو وگ‬

Cinnamon Stick ‫د ا ر چيىی‬

Star Anise ‫با د یا ن ختا ئی‬

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Dry Mango Powder ‫آ مچو ر‬

Nigella Seeds ‫کلو وجی‬

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KITCHEN EQUIPMENT AND APPLIANCES
Kitchen Salamander BOT (Beverage Order Ticket)

Deep Fryer Chinese/Thai Burner

Four/Six Stove Burner Prep Table

Candy Stove Burner Baking Oven

Barbecue Pit Dough Machine/Mixer

Grated Pit Blender Machine

Clay Oven Gas Cylinder

Pick Up Table Cooking Range

Hot Plate Grill

KOT (Kitchen Order Ticket) Refrigerator/ Freezer

PREPARATION TOOLS & ESSENTIALS

Colander

A colander is a bowl-shaped kitchen utensil with holes Potato Masher

in it used for draining food such as pasta or rice. A
colander is also used to rinse vegetables.

Garlic Press Pin roll

Sauce Pan Can Opener

Salad Spinner Measuring Cups & Spoons

Peeler Frying Pan

Chef’s Knife Strainer

Cutting Board Grater

Hand Whisk Knife Sharpener

Kitchen Scissors Prep Bowls & Dishes

Wooden / Silicone Spatula Cutlery

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 Citrus Juicer Pastry Brush

Mortar & Pestle Aluminum Foil & Cling Sheet

COOKWARE & BAKEWARE

Stainless Steel Skillet Saucer

Frying Pan Pakistani & Chinese/Thai Wok

Steamer Cast Iron Skillet

Grill Pan Baking Sheets & Pans

Broiler Pan Stock Pan

Double Boiler Sauté Pan

COOKING TOOLS

Wooden/ Silicone Spatula Oven Mitts

Stirring Spoon Tongs

Slicer Curry Spoon

Ladle Tongs

Kitchen Thermometer Spider

Splatter Guard Lids

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TEMPERATURE MEASURMENTS
There are temperatures of certain elements which are important to remember while
working in restaurant industry;

Room Temperature: 20°C (18°C-23°C)

Body Temperature: 37°C

Kitchen Temperature: 25°C

 30 °C is hot

 20 °C is nice

 10 °C is cold

 0 °C is ice

Beach Temperature: 30°C

Freezing Point of Water: 0°C

Boiling Temperature of Water: 100°C

Water Temperature for Hand Washing: 43°C

Food Serving Temperature: 70°C - 75°C

Baking Oven (Maximum) Temperature: 500°C

Temperature of Oil for Deep Frying: 177°C - 191°C

Temperature of Oil for Shallow Frying: 44°C – 80°C

Temperature for Simmering: 85°C

Temperature for Steaming: 110°C - 120°C

Temperature for Poaching: 71°C-82°C (160°F-180°F)

Temperature for Pot Roasting: 65°C – 95°C

Temperature for Stewing: 55°C – 60°C

Temperature for Braising: 450°C

Temperature for Baking: 180°C

Temperature for Grilling: 71°C – 74°C

Danger Zone Temperature: 4°C - 60°C (40°F - 140°F)

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 Leaving food out too long at room temperature can cause bacteria to grow to
dangerous levels that can cause illness. High risk foods are foods where bacteria may
multiply if the food is stored at the wrong temperature. They include meat, chicken, sea
foods, eggs, small goods and dairy products. They also include salad vegetables and any
prepared food containing combinations of these products. Generally bacteria grow and
multiply most rapidly in the range of temperatures between 4°C to 60°C, doubling in number
in as little as 20 minutes. This range of temperatures is called the "Danger Zone."

Keep Food Out of the "Danger Zone":

Never leave food out of refrigeration over 2 hours. If the temperature is above 90 °F,
food should not be left out more than 1 hour.

 Keep hot food hot—at or above 60 °C.

 Keep cold food cold—at or below 4 °C.

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SIX BASIC COMPONENTS OF FOOD
What is Beverage?
Any liquid that can quench the thirst is called beverage. Beverage is the most
important matter in FOOD & BEVERAGE industry. Without beverage restaurant and F&B
section is fully useless.

 Types:

Beverages

Cold Hot
Beverages Beverages

Cocktails

Mocktails

1. Cold Beverage:
The beverage which is served as cold is known as cold beverages. For example: Cold
coffee, soft drinks, Pinna-Colada etc.
Further cold beverages are classified in two types:
 Cocktail
 Mocktail
 Cocktail:

The Alcoholic beverages are known as cocktail. e.g. Wine, Beer, Cider etc.

 Mocktail:
The non-alcoholic beverages are known as mocktail. e.g. Pinna-Colada, Mint Margarita etc.

2. Hot Beverage:

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 The beverage which is served as hot is known as hot beverage. For example: Tea,
coffee, Pink tea, Green Tea etc.

What is Food?
Any nutritious substance that human and animal eat in order to maintain their health
and growth is known as food.
A complete and nutritious food is composed on 6 basic components which are as follows:

i) Fat/Lipid
ii) Minerals
iii) Water
iv) Carbohydrates
v) Proteins
vi) Vitamins

i) Fat/Lipid:

Fat is an essential part of our diet and nutrition and we cannot live without it. Our
body require small amount of good fat to function properly and prevent from diseases. 90
grams of fat is required to human body on daily basis. Some fatty acids like OMEGA 3 may
provide health benefits such as complimenting the cognitive processes of the brain.

 Fat found in:

Fat found in:

 Salmons
 Avocados
 Olives
 Walnuts
 Vegetables oil (soybean , corn)
 Meat
 Dairy Products (cheese ,milk)

 Advantage:

 Unsaturated fat reduce inflammation, stabilize your heartbeat and reduce low density
lipoproteins.

 Disadvantages:

 Eating extra fat rich food multiplies your risk of heart disease.

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  Extra rich fat food leads you to the weight gain.
 Research suggests that eating trans and saturated fat on regular basis may increase
your risk of cancer.

ii) Minerals:

Minerals are essential nutrients that are needed in small amounts to keep you healthy.
Minerals do not give you energy or calories, but can help with other functions in your body.
Your body does not make minerals. To meet your daily need, minerals must be obtained
through your diet. This means choosing foods from all four food groups: vegetables and
fruits, grain products/carbohydrates, milk and alternatives as well as meat and alternatives.
Aim to meet the minimum number of servings for each food group every day.

 Required:
Minerals Recommended Daily Intake

Calcium 1000mg

Chlorine 3400mg (in chloride form)

Fluorine 3,5mg

Iodine 150 µg

Iron 15mg

Magnesium 350mg

Phosphorus 1000mg

Potassium 3500mg

Sodium 2400mg

Zinc 15mg

Minerals found in:

Minerals Found in

Calcium Dairy Products (Cheese, Milk, Yogurt etc.)

Chlorine 3400mg (in chloride form)

Iron Red meat, Fish, beans, Green Vegetables etc.

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 Whole grains, Potatoes, Banana, Chocolate
Magnesium
etc.

Phosphorus Dairy products, Fish, Meat

Potato, Citrus Food(lemon , orange), Green

Potassium Vegetables (spinach, mint, coriander),
Broccoli, Dry fruits etc.

Red meat, Poultry(eggs, chicken), Sea-foods,

Zinc
Nuts etc.

 Advantages:

 Minerals are important for building strong bones and teeth.

 Minerals help us to boost the immune system, treat high blood pressure.
 Disadvantages:

Minerals Over dosage

Calcium Cause stomach problem and kidney stones

Chromium Cause concentration problem and fainting

Iron Cause stomach upset and constipation

Magnesium Cause stomach problem and diarrhea

Manganese Hinder Iron adsorption

Potassium Cause heart rhythm disorder

Zinc Cause anemia

iii. Water:
Water is the most essential part of our live. If we cannot drink water, we can’t stay
alive.

 Required:

On daily basis, human body required approximately 8 Ounce glasses which means half liter
or half gallon of water even when you are thirsty or not.

 Advantage:

 The main advantage of water is that, it is the source of our life.

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  Disadvantages:

 If you consume salt water on daily basis then it will kill you.
 If you drive excessive amount of water contain chlorine then it make you sick.

iv. Carbohydrates:

“Carbohydrates are macronutrients meaning they are one of three ways the body obtain
energy or calories” -Paige Smathers

Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. They are called carbohydrates because,
at the chemical level, they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

 Required:

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that carbohydrates make up 45 to 65

percent of your total daily calories.
So, if you get 2,000 calories a day, between 900 and 1,300 calories should be from
carbohydrates. That translates to between 225 and 325 grams of carbohydrates a day.

 Carbohydrates found in:

Carbohydrates found in:

 Bread
 Fruits
 Vegetables
 Sugar
 Starchy Food (Pasta, Rice)

 Advantage:

 Carbohydrates give you energy and help with weight control.

 They also benefit your heart and promote a healthy digestive system.
 Whole-grain carbohydrates are especially nutritious because they provide dietary
fiber, which can help to keep your cholesterol in check.

 Disadvantages:

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 Going overboard with carbs can cause you to exceed your overall daily calorie
allotment, which in turn leads to weight gain.
 Excessive amount of carbohydrates are what cause your blood sugar to increase
after meals.

v. Protein:

Protein is a macronutrient that is essential to building muscle mass. It is commonly

found in animal products. Chemically, protein is composed of amino acids, which are
organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur. Amino acids
are the building blocks of proteins, and proteins are the building blocks of muscle mass.

 Required:

 56 grams per day for the average sedentary man.

 46 grams per day for the average sedentary woman.

 Protein found in:

Protein found in:

 Meat
 Poultry
 Sea food
 Nuts

 Advantage:

 Hair and nails are mostly made of protein.

 Body uses protein to build and repair tissues.
 You also use protein to make enzymes, hormones, and other body chemicals.
 Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.

 Disadvantages:

 Weight gain.
 High Cholesterol and Uric Acid.
 According to Harvard University, a high-protein diet may increase calcium and
oxalate excretion, which promotes the growth of kidney stones.

vi. Vitamins:

Any of a group of organic compounds which are essential for normal growth and
nutrition and are required in small quantities in the diet because they cannot be

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 synthesized by the body. Simply, Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in
small quantities to sustain life.

 Types:
There are two main types of vitamins;

 Fat Soluble Vitamins

 Water Soluble Vitamins

 Fat Soluble:
Fat soluble vitamins, once they have been stored in tissues in the body, tend to remain
there.
Fat soluble vitamins are:

 Vitamin A
 Vitamin D
 Vitamin E
 Vitamin K

 Water Soluble:
Vitamins that fall into this category are soluble in water and, as a result, are carried to
the body’s tissues but aren’t stored in them.
Water Soluble vitamins are:

 Vitamin B
 Vitamin C

 Required:

That number is the amount of a vitamin or nutrient that you should get for top health from a
diet of 2,000 calories a day.

 Vitamins found in:

Vitamins Found in

Vitamin A Milk, Egg, Oranges, Green Vegetables

Vitamin C Citrus food, Strawberries, Kiwi, Guava,

Tomatoes

Vitamin D Egg Yolk, Sunlight, Fish, Milk, Orange Juice

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Vitamin E Vegetable Oil, nuts, Whole grains

Vitamin B Fish, Meat, Potatoes, Banana

Vitamin K Dark green leafy vegetables

 Advantages:

 Prevent eye problems.

 Essential for growth.
 Keep skin healthy.
 Essential for bones, teeth, gems.

 Disadvantages:

 Consuming excessive amounts of vitamin A in supplement form, for example, may

cause liver damage, reduced bone strength, headaches and birth defects.
 Large doses of certain vitamins and minerals can cause nausea, vomiting, nerve
damage, weight loss, muscle weakness, and other illnesses.

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CUISINE AND COOKING TECHNIQUES
A lot of cooking methods are used in catering and hotel industry. Each is specific and
has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three types of cooking methods to
remember:

 Dry-heat Cooking Method

 Moist-heat Cooking Method

 Combination Cooking Method

Dry-Heat Cooking Method:

Dry heat cooking refers to any cooking technique where the heat is transferred to the
food item without using any moisture. It includes methods that utilize air or fat i.e. oil, butter
to cook food. Dry-heat cooking typically involves high heat, with temperatures of 300°F or
hotter. These are broiling, roasting, grilling, baking, sautéing, shallow-frying and deep-frying.
Foods cooked using these methods have a rich flavor due to the Caramelization and browning
of the foods. It's worth noting that cooking methods involving fat, such as sautéing, shallow
frying, pan frying and deep-frying are considered dry-heat methods. If this seems confusing,
remember that oil and water don't mix, so while fat can take a liquid form, in many ways it's
the opposite of water hence ―dry heat‖.

1. Roasting:

Roasting is cooking in dry heat in an oven or on a spit with the aid of oil. Ideal oven
temperature for roasting is (205°C- 233°C (400°F – 450°F)).

Methods;

a) Placing prepared foods (meat, poultry) on a roasting spit over/in front of radiating
heat.

b) Placing prepared foods in an oven with dry heat.

Advantages;

a) Good quality meat and poultry is

tender when roasted.

b) Meat juices from the joint are used

for gravy.

c) Use of energy and oven

temperature can be controlled.

d) Cooking can be observed.

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 e) Food items can be adjusted or removed easily.

Disadvantages;

a) Requires regular attention.

b) Expensive energy.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by roasting:

 Meat (lamb, beef)

 Poultry (duck, chicken)

 Vegetables (potatoes)

2. Grilling/Broiling:

Grilling is a form of cooking that involves dry

heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from
below. Grilling usually involves a significant amount of
direct, radiant heat, and tends to be used for cooking
meat and vegetables quickly. Food to be grilled is
cooked on a grill (an open wire grid with a heat source
above or below), a grill pan (similar to a frying pan, but
with raised ridges), or griddle (a flat plate heated from
below). Broiling is similar and almost reverse to grilling
in that is uses radiant heat from an overheat source only.
Broiling uses a heat source located above the food to
generate intense heat whereas in grilling, the heat source
is located below the food. Broiled foods are placed on a
preheated metal grate and the heat above cooks the meat
while in grilling, the heat from below makes marks on
the food item. Typical temperature for grilling is (71°C – 74°C (160°F – 165°F)).

Methods;

Grilled foods can be cooked:

a) Over heat (charcoal, barbecues, gas or electric grills).

b) Under heat (gas or electric grills, gas or electric salamanders over fired grills).

c) Between heat (electrically heated grill bars or plates).

Advantages;

a) Food can be quickly cooked.

b) Yields a pleasing appearance and better flavor.

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 c) Better control as food is visible during cooking.

Disadvantages;

a) More suitable for expensive cuts of meat.

b) Requires skill.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by grilling:

 Fish

 Meat (chops, steak)

 Vegetables (mushrooms, tomatoes)

 Toasted items (bread, muffins, tea cakes)

3. Baking:

Baking is cooking food by dry

heat in an oven (the action is modified by
steam). Ideal baking temperature is
(180°C (356°F).

Methods;

a) Dry baking: During the baking

process steam rises from the water
content of the food, it combines
with the dry heat of the oven to
cook the food (cakes, pastry and
baked jacket potatoes).

b) Increased humidity baking: During the baking process with some foods the oven
humidity is increased by placing a bowl of water into the oven to increase the water
content of the food and to improve eating quality.

c) Bain Marie (Double boiler): During the baking process food is placed in a container
of water to cook the food more slowly.

Advantages;

a) A wide range of savory and sweet foods can be produced.

b) Bakery products are appealing to the eye and to the mouth.

c) Bulk cooking can be achieved with uniformity of color and degree of cooking.

d) Baking ovens have effective manual or automatic controls.

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 e) Easy access for loading and removal of items.

Disadvantages;

a) Requires regular attention.

b) Expensive energy.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by baking:

 Eggs

 Meat (steak, patties)

 Chicken

 Vegetables (potatoes, carrots, broccoli etc.)

 Fruit flans

 Cakes

 Bread

4. Sautéing:

This is a cooking technique that

means to brown or cook a food quickly
over fairly high heat (medium-high) using
a small amount of fat i.e. oil or butter in
an open, shallow pan. The word comes
from the French word "sautér" which
means "to jump." Traditionally when sautéing, the cook shakes the pan, making the food
jump, to keep the food from sticking and ensure it cooks on all sides. This can also be done
by stirring using a spatula.

Method;

Sautéing is carried out by first cutting the food to be sautéed into small, preferably
thin pieces. The small size of the food allows it to cook faster as sautéing is a quick process.
Be sure to warm the pan over medium-high heat for a few minutes. It needs to be quite hot in
order to cook the food properly. If the heat is too low, the food will end up releasing liquid
and steaming rather than sautéing.

Advantages;

a) It is a very fast process.

b) The amount of fat required is lesser as compared to shallow-frying or deep-frying.

Disadvantages;

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 a) Less healthy as compared to boiled or baked dishes.

b) Sautéing needs skill and constant supervision.

Examples of food that might be cooked with sautéing:

 Meat (beef, mutton)

 Fish (fish fillets)

 Chicken (breast piece)

 Vegetables (mushrooms, bell peppers)

5. Shallow Frying:

Shallow frying is cooking food in a small quantity of pre-heated fat or oil in a shallow
pan or on a flat surface. Ideal temperature for shallow frying is 44°C - 80°C.

Methods;

a) Shallow fry: Cooking food in a small

amount of fat or oil in a frying pan or
sauté pan. The food is first fried on the
presentation side, and then turned, so
that both sides are cooked and colored
properly.

b) Sauté:

 Cooking tender cuts of meat and

poultry in a sauté or frying pan.
After cooking the fat is discarded and stock is added in the pan as a part of the
finished sauce.

 Cook potatoes or onions which are cut into slices and tossed into hot shallow
fat or oil in a frying pan till golden brown.

c) Griddle: Food items like sliced onions, sausages etc. are placed on a lightly oiled, pre-
heated griddle (solid metal plate) and turned frequently during cooking.

d) Stir Fry: Fast frying in a wok or a frying pan in a little oil (vegetables, strips of beef
or chicken).

Advantages;

a) Quick cooking method.

b) No loss of soluble nutrients.

c) Good color.

27
Disadvantages;

a) Suitable for expensive cuts of meat.

b) Not easily digested.

c) Requires constant supervision.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by shallow frying:

 Eggs (omelets)

 Fish

 Meat (lamb, beef)

 Poultry (chicken)

 Vegetables (potatoes, onions, cauliflower)

 Sweets and pastries (pancakes)

6. Deep Frying:

Deep frying is a cooking method in which food is submerged in pre-heated fat, most
commonly oil, rather than the shallow frying done in a frying pan. Normally, a deep fryer or
chip pan is used for this; in industry a pressure fryer or vacuum fryer may be used. Typical
temperature for deep frying is (177°C – 199°C (350°F – 390°F)).

Methods;

Conventional deep-fried foods are coated with flour, egg and crumbs, to protect the
surface of the food from the intense heat, to prevent the escape of moisture & nutrients and to
modify the rapid penetration of the intense heat. The food is placed into deep pre-heated oil
or fat, fried until cooked and golden brown, drained and served.

Advantages;

a) Quick cooking method

b) No loss of soluble nutrients

c) Ensures good color

Disadvantages;

a) Not easily digested

b) Safety hazard

28
Examples of foods which might be cooked by deep frying:

 Eggs (Scotch eggs)

 Fish

 Chicken (cutlets)

 Savory (cheese fritters)

 Vegetables (Potatoes, onions etc.)

 Pastry and sweets (pineapple fritters, doughnuts)

Moist-Heat Cooking Method:

Moist heat cooking methods include any techniques that involve cooking with
moisture whether it's water, stock or some other liquid. Cooking temperatures are much
lower, anywhere from 140°F to a maximum of 250°F, They include poaching, boiling,
steaming and simmering. We use moist-heat cooking to emphasize the natural flavor in
foods.

1. Boiling:

Boiling is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids
such as stock or milk. It is heating the liquid above the temperature where bubbles start to
appear. In this condition, liquid will move rapidly in rolling manner. The boiling point of
water is typically considered to be 100 °C or 212 °F. Pressure and a change in the
composition of the liquid may alter the boiling point of the liquid.

Methods;

Food is boiled in two ways:

a) Food is placed into boiling liquid, let it boil and then the heat is reduced, so that the
liquid boils gently (simmering).

b) Food is covered with cold liquid, brought to the boil, and then the heat is reduced, so
that the food simmers.

Advantages;

a) Older, tougher joints of meat can

be made palatable and digestible.

b) Appropriate for large-scale

cooking.

c) Economic on fuel.

29
 d) Nutritious, well flavored stock is produced.

e) Requires little attention.

f) Safe and simple.

g) Maximum color and nutritive value are retained with green vegetables but the boiling
time must be kept to the minimum.

Disadvantages;

a) Foods can look unattractive.

b) It can be slow.

c) Loss of soluble vitamins in the water.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by boiling

 Stocks (beef, mutton, chicken, fish, vegetables)

 Sauces (brown, white, curry)

 Glazes (fish, meat)

 Soup (tomato, lentil)

 Pasta

 Fish (cod, salmon)

 Meat (beef, leg of mutton)

 Vegetables (carrots, cabbage, potatoes)

2. Poaching:

Poaching is cooking food in the required amount of liquid at just below boiling point.
Cooking within hot and stable water is poaching. Poaching is a type of moist-heat cooking
technique that involves cooking by submerging food in a liquid, such as water, milk or stock.
Poaching is differentiated from the other
"moist heat" cooking methods, such as
steaming and boiling, in that it uses a
relatively low temperature (about (71–82
°C) 160–180 °F). This temperature range
makes it particularly suitable for delicate
food, such as eggs, poultry, fish and fruits,
which might easily fall apart or dry out
using other cooking methods.

30
Methods;

a) Shallow poaching: Foods (fish, chicken) are cooked in the minimum of liquid (water,
stock, milk). The liquid is not allowed to boil; it is kept at a temperature close to
boiling.

b) Deep poaching: Foods are cooked in enough water to cover them, brought to the boil
and then simmered (eggs) or placed into simmering liquid and cooked gently.

Advantages;

a) Poaching is often considered as a healthy method of cooking because it does not use
fat to cook or flavor the food.

b) Poached food is easily digestible.

c) Poached dishes retain the original flavor of the main ingredient, and are quick and
easy to prepare.

Disadvantages;

a) Poaching requires a certain level of skill, as the temperature and duration of cooking
are very important.

b) It is not a suitable method for many foods.

c) Water soluble nutrients may be drained into the water.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by poaching

 Eggs

 Fish

 Fruits (fresh and dried)

 Poultry (chicken)

3. Steaming:

Steaming is cooking prepared foods by steam (moist heat) under varying degrees of
pressure. In this method food should be
surrounded with hot water. Temperature of
steam is higher than the temperature of
boiling water (110°C – 120°C (230°F –
250°F)). This is often done with a food
steamer, a kitchen appliance made
specifically to cook food with steam, but
food can also be steamed in a wok.

31
Methods;

a) Atmospheric or low pressure steaming: Food may be cooked by direct or indirect

contact with the steam:

 Direct: In a steamer or in a pan of boiling water.

 Indirect: Between two plates over a pan of boiling water.

b) High pressure steaming: In purpose-built equipment which does not allow steam to
escape, steam pressure builds up, the temperature increases and cooking time is
reduced.

Advantages;

a) Retention of nutritional value.

b) Some foods become lighter and easier to digest.

c) Low pressure steaming reduces the risk of overcooking.

d) High pressure steaming enables food to be cooked quickly, because steam is forced
through the food, cooking it rapidly.

e) Labor-saving and suitable for large-scale cooking.

f) High speed steamers enable frequent cooking of small quantities of vegetables.

Vegetables are freshly cooked, retaining color, flavor and nutritive value.

g) With steamed fish, natural juices can be retained; they are served with the fish or used
to make an accompanying sauce.

h) Economical on fuel.

Disadvantages;

a) Foods can look unattractive.

b) It can be a slow method.

c) Special care is required while handling the streaming equipment during cooking.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by steaming:

 Fish

 Meat

32
  Vegetables (almost all)

4. Simmering:
Simmering is a cooking technique in
which foods are cooked in hot liquids kept just
below the boiling point of water but higher
than poaching temperature. To keep a pot
simmering, brings it to a boil and then reduces
the heat to a point where the formation of
bubbles has almost end. Typical temperature
range for simmering is (85°C – 96°C (185°F – 205°F)).

Method;

Bring liquid to a rolling boil. Lower temperature so that the liquid gently rolls in the
pot i.e. 85°C. Put the food items in the liquid. Simmer for the time called for in the recipe.
Make sure the liquid doesn’t boil by re-checking the liquid temperature periodically. Take
these out as it’s done and place the simmered food items in a pot with some of the liquid used
while simmering to avoid drying out.

Advantages;

a) It keeps the original flavor and color of the food.

b) It gently cooks the product without destroying its texture and shape.

c) Retain the nutritive value of the food.

d) Economic on fuel.

e) Simmering is usually a rapid and efficient method of cooking.

Disadvantages;

a) Require constant supervision in order to avoid over cooking.

b) Slow cooking technique.

Examples of food items which can be simmered,

 Stock, soups & sauces

 Meat (mutton, beef)

 Poultry (chicken)

 Vegetables (carrots, potatoes)

33
Combination Cooking Method:
Combination cooking includes methods that incorporate both dry and moist-heat
cooking. The two most important methods are braising and stewing. Each one of these
cooking methods can be applied to a large variety of foods including meats, vegetables, fish,
pastries, cakes, cookies, etc.

1. Stewing:

Stewing is a long, slow cooking method where food is cut into pieces and cooked in
the minimum amount of liquid, water, stock or sauce. The food and the cooking liquid are
served together. Ideal temperature range for strewing is (55°C – 60°C (131°F – 140°F)).

Methods;

All stews have a thickened consistency. Stewed foods may be cooked

a) In a covered pan on stove.

b) In a covered pan in oven.

Advantages;

a) Meat juices are retained as part of the

stew.

b) Correct slow cooking results and very

little evaporation.

c) Economic on fuel.

d) Nutrients are conserved.

e) Tough foods are tenderized.

f) Economical in labor because the foods can be bulk cooked.

Disadvantages;

a) Stewing is a slow cooking method.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by stewing:

 Fish

 Meat

 Poultry (chicken)

 Vegetables

34
 2. Braising:

Braising is a method of cooking in

the oven. The food is cooked in liquid in a
covered pan or a baking dish. It is a
combination of stewing and pot roasting.
Ideal temperature range for braising is
(135°C – 165°C (250°F – 325°F)).

Methods;

a) Brown braising: Joints and portion

cuts of meat are marinated, cooked and then sealed quickly by browning on all sides
in a hot oven or in a pan on the stove. Sealing the joints helps retain flavor and
nutritive value and gives a nice brown color. Joints are then placed on a bed of root
vegetables in a braising pan, with the liquid and other flavorings, covered with a lid
and cooked slowly in the oven.

b) White braising: Vegetables are blanched, refreshed and cooked on a bed of root
vegetables with white stock in a covered container in the oven.

Advantages;

a) Older, tougher joints of meat and poultry can be used.

b) Maximum flavor and nutritive value are retained.

c) Variety of presentation and flavor is given to the menu.

Disadvantages;

a) It takes a long cooking time.

b) Food may have a lack of texture.

c) It reduces the nutrient content of food.

Examples of foods which might be cooked by braising:

 Rice

 Meat (lamb, beef)

 Poultry (duck)

 Vegetables (celery, onions)

3. Pot Roasting:

35
 Pot roasting is cooking on a bed of
root vegetables in a covered pan. This method
retains maximum flavor of all ingredients.
Pot roasting is one of the combination
cooking methods which involve both dry and
moist-heat cooking. Meat is often first
browned before it is slowly cooked in a
liquid. Typical temperature range used for pot
roasting is (65°C – 95°C (150°F – 203°F)).

Method;

Food is placed on a bed of root vegetables and herbs, coated with butter or oil,
covered with a lid and cooked in an oven.

Advantages;

a) Maximum flavor is retained.

b) Nutrients are retained.

c) Cheaper cuts of meat can be used.

d) Vegetables used in pot roasting can be served as an accompaniment.

Disadvantages;

a) Pot roasting is a slow cooking method.

b) Needs constant attention.

c) Food dries out easily.

d) Food burns easily.

Example of food which might be cooked by pot roasting:

 Meat (cheaper cuts)

 Vegetables

36
BASIC FOOD GROUPS
In general category food has two main types, vegetarian and non-vegetarian food.
The food obtained from plant sources generally called vegetarian food while the food
obtained from sources other than plants is called non-vegetarian food. In broad category food
has five basic groups which are listed below. To be healthy it’s very important to eat a
balanced diet. All foods can be put into one of these five food groups.

1. Vegetables and Fruits:

This group includes fresh as well as frozen, tinned & dried and juices of fruits and
vegetables. Fruit and vegetables give you lots of vitamins and chemicals called antioxidants
which keep you healthy. These can even stop you getting some cancers. They also contain
fiber to keep your digestive system healthy. Because fruit and vegetables are low in calories
and high in fiber eating plenty will help control your weight. Also green leafy vegetables are
rich source of iron which is an important part of blood. While citrus fruits like oranges, lemon
and grapes have a plenty of vitamin C in them. It is important to eat a wide variety of fruits
and vegetables as a part of everyday diet. This way you get the whole range of all the
important nutrients these foods give. You should eat at least five portions of fruits and
vegetables a day.

2. Starchy Foods/ Carbohydrates:

This group contains starchy foods such as pasta, rice, oats, potatoes, noodles, green
bananas, sweet potato, millet, couscous, breads, breakfast cereals, barley and rye.
Carbohydrates give us energy, calcium and B vitamins. Wholegrain ones give us lots of fiber
to help keep the digestive system healthy. Many breakfast cereals also have extra iron. A
healthy diet would include 3-5 servings of carbohydrates a day. These portions should be
spread throughout the day and eaten with every meal, including snacks.

3. Milk and Dairy Products:

This group contains milk, yoghurt, butter, cheese – both hard and soft cheese. These
foods contain protein, calcium and some vitamins like vitamin B12, vitamin A and vitamin D.
Dairy products keep your bones
and teeth healthy. The body
absorbs the calcium in dairy foods
easily. We should try to eat three
servings of these a day.

4. Protein:

This group contains meat,

fish and eggs as well as vegetable
protein, nuts, beans, peas, lentils
and soya. These foods give us

37
protein, iron and some other minerals and vitamins especially vitamin B. This helps the body
to grow and repair itself. They are like building blocks for the body. Meat is a good source of
iron. Fish like salmon, tuna fish, mackerel contain a high level of fatty acids. We should eat
2-3 servings of these every day.

5. Fats and Sugars:

This group contains margarine, cooking oils, cream, salad dressings, chocolate, crisps,
sugary soft drinks, sweets, jam, cakes, pudding, biscuits and pastries. These foods give us a
lot of energy (calories) but not many nutrients. Sugary foods are a powerful source of energy
as an appropriate level of sugar is vital for the maintenance of overall health. Junk foods are
often high in fat, sugar and salt. It’s important not to have too many foods from this group too
often. One should try to get these from natural sources like fruits (have a proper level of sugar
in them), fatty fish, nuts, eatable coconut and olive oil, whole eggs etc.

38
MENU COURSES FOR DINNER
Appetizer/ Starter:

An appetizer or starter is a small dish served before a meal. Some of these are served
cold while others hot. These may be served at the dinner table as a part of the meal or may be
served before seating. An appetizer can be defined as a small portion of food before a meal to
stimulate the appetite. An appetizer should not always be serves as a starter for a meal but can
also be served with tea as a snack. A starter or an appetizer may or may not be the same i.e.
every appetizer (drumstick) is not a starter and every starter (fish crackers) is not an
appetizer. The standard weight of an appetizer is 70 grams of a single person serving.

Soup:

Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served hot that is made by combining
ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, water or another liquid. Hot soups are
additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are
extracted.

Salad:
Salad is a dish consisting of a mixture of small pieces of food, usually predominantly
vegetables. These are typically served at room temperature or chilled. Salads can contain
virtually any type of ready to eat food. These can be served at any point during a meal.

 Appetizer Salad; light smaller portion of salads served as the first course of the meal
or as a snack.

 Side Salad; to accompany the main course as a side dish or as a complementary dish.

 Main Course Salad; usually containing a portion of a high-protein food such as

chicken, fish, beef or cheese.

 Dessert Salad; sweet versions containing fruits, gelatin, whipped cream or other
sweeteners.

Main Course:

The main course is a featured or primary dish in a meal consisting of several courses.
It is usually preceded by the entry course i.e. an appetizer, soup or salad and followed by a
dessert. The main dish is usually the heaviest, heartiest and the most complex dish on a menu.
The main ingredient is usually meat, fish or another protein source. It is sometimes referred
to as the ―meat course‖.

Dessert:

Dessert is a confectionary course that usually concludes a main meal. The course
usually consists of sweet foods, and possibly a beverage. The term dessert can apply to many

39
confections such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatin sweets, pastries, ice creams, pies,
puddings, custards and sweet versions of soups.

Hot and Cold Beverages:

Hot beverages includes drinks which are served hot like hot chocolate, coffee, tea etc.
while cold beverages includes all drinks which are served cold like smoothie, shakes,
lemonade, soft drinks etc. Cold beverages are divided into two main types, alcoholic drinks
or cocktails i.e. wines, beers etc. and non-alcoholic drinks or mock tails i.e. pinna colada,
mint margarita etc.

Side Dish:

A side dish sometimes referred to a side order or side item, is a food item that
accompanies the main course at a meal. It is a complementary dish which is usually offered
by host to please the guest. (Or if something wrong happens with the food served)

40
TYPES OF STOCKS & SAUCES
Types of Basic Stocks:

Stock can be simply defined as “a liquid which has been simmered for a long time in
order to extract flavors from the ingredients used”.

There are four basic types of stock.

1. White Stock: A white stock is a stock made from bones that have been taken from
chicken or duck. They are usually raw and the most common type of white stock is
the all-purpose Chicken Stock. A white stock has a lightly golden color that is clear
and mild in flavor. White stocks are typically used as bases in soups and as a
substitute for water in some dishes. Simply add chicken bones along with other basic
ingredients and let these cook for about 1 to 2 hours. As you see the appearance of
some oiliness on the surface, it’s done.
2. Red Stock: It’s usually made with mutton or beef bones. Its preparation time is about
2 to 3 hours. The uses for red stock are usually reserved for darker dishes such as beef
gravies, stews etc.
3. Vegetable Stock: Vegetable stock is just as the name implies. It is a low-cost
vegetarian stock used in soups with no meat, or as a flavor enhancer in place of water.
A good vegetable stock should be clear and light-colored. Vegetable stock can be
used in place of many meat-based stock recipes. It is very convenient when preparing
vegetarian dishes or as a lighter, more healthful alternative when preparing sauces or
soups. Its cooking time is about 40 to 45 minutes.
4. Sea Food Stock: As the name implies, it’s a stock made up of sea food including
fish, prawns, lobster and octopus. It takes about 1 to 1-½ hours to cook and is
essential for dishes that showcase seafood as its main.

Basic Stock Recipe:

Bone 1Kg

Water 4Kg

Method:
Add water and bones in a large pot and let it cook for 1 to 2 hours until water reduces
to 1kg. Occasionally skim this mixture to remove froth coming on the surface to avoid any
impurities present in the raw meat.

41
Glace:

A reduced stock that becomes jellylike

or syrupy. The flavor is highly concentrated and
is often used as a base to bolster other foods.

Remouillage:

Remouillage is a stock that is made from

bones that have already been used once to make
a stock. The stock is weaker that the first stock
and is sometimes called "second
stock/secondary stock". It is sometimes used for
water in making another stock or is reduced to
make a glace.

Bouillon:

Also called broth, bouillon is the liquid

that is left over after simmering meats. It can be
the base of another soup or stew.

Types of Sauces:
Sauces are of five basic types;

Béchamel Sauce:

Béchamel sauce, also known as white sauce is made from white roux and milk. It is
since the seventeenth century and on, one of the
mother sauces of French cuisine. It is used as a
base for other sauces. It’s a royal family food
because of the use of milk.

Flour + Butter + Milk

Espagnole Sauce:

42
 It is one of the five mother sauces that
are the basis of sauce-making in classic French
cooking. Espagnole has a strong taste and is
rarely used directly on food. It is also known
as Brown Sauce, serves as the starting point
for many derivatives.

Flour + Butter + Brown/Red Stock (Glace)

Velouté Sauce:

In preparing a Velouté sauce, a light

stock (in which the bones used have not been
previously roasted) such as chicken or fish
stock, is thickened with a roux.

Flour + Butter + Stock/Broth

Tomato Sauce/ Concasse Sauce:

Tomatoes have a rich flavor, high

liquid content, and very soft flesh which break
down easily. These have a right composition to
thicken into a sauce when cooked. The
simplest tomato sauce consists of chopped
tomato flesh cooked in a little olive oil and
simmered until it loses its raw flavor and
seasoned with salt. It is also known as Pizza
Sauce.

Tomatoes + Olive Oil + Salt + (Garlic,

Crushed Red Chili, Herbs, Pepper)

Hollandaise Sauce:

Also known as Dutch Sauce is an

emulsion of egg yolk, liquid butter, water and
lemon juice, whisked together over low heat in
a double boiler. Additional salt, white pepper
and/or cayenne pepper are used for seasoning.

43
Egg Yolk + Melted Butter + Lemon Juice + Salt + Cayenne Pepper

44
HACCP
HACCP stands for,

“Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points”

This is a preventive food safety system in which every step in the manufacture,
storage and distribution of a food product is scientifically analyzed for biological, physical
and chemical hazards. Potential hazards are therefore identified and appropriate control
measures are taken before the problem can occur. It is a preventive system for the safe
production of food products. It is a response to the need to be more confident about food
safety. It is a food safety management system that is,

 Science based and systematic

 Preventive

 Applicable
throughout the
food chain

It’s a powerful tool in

food safety management.
The system which enables
the production of safe
meat and poultry products
through the analysis of
production processes and
identification of all
hazards that are likely to
occur in a production establishment. It is used for the identification of critical points in the
process at which these hazards may be introduced into a product and should be controlled. It
also includes identifying what could go wrong in a food system and planning how to prevent
it.

History & Foundation of HACCP

HACCP was developed by Pillsbury Company in 1959 as a non-testing approach to
ensure the safety level required by NASA (National Aeronautics & Space Administration) for
food produced for space program. NASA wanted a zero defect program to guarantee safety in
food that astronauts would consume in space. NASA’s major concerns are,

 Food Crumbs

 Food Bourne illness i.e. food poisoning

45
1971: Pillsbury Company presented HACCP system at a national food production
conference.

1972: Pillsbury Company in United States began the application of its HACCP concept to
the manufacture of its consumer food products.

1973: A HACCP system was adopted for the low-acid canned food regulation following the
Bon Vivant soup botulism incident in which several people died after eating the soup due to
botulism poisoning.

1980: World health Organization (WHO)/International Commission on Microbiological

Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) report on HACCP.

1983: World health Organization (WHO) recommends HACCP.

1985: The Food and Nutrition Board and National Academy for Science publish two books
recommends that HACCP can be used as a product safety system to ensure the production of
safe food.

1989: National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Food (NACMCF)

developed a standardized and updated HACCP system.

1990: The National Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) adopt HACCP as an

internationally accepted method for food safety by identifying hazards and check their critical
control points in the process.

1997: Codex document on HACCP principles and applications.

1998: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World health Organization (WHO) provide
guidance for regularity assessment of HACCP.

1999: HACCP becomes necessary for small meat and poultry manufactures.

2002: Juice HACCP regulation begins to be necessary for processors and small businesses.

2006: Legal requirements to apply HACCP in food businesses.

Above 2006: Increased use of HACCP in food safety legislation has begun worldwide.

Components of HACCP
HACCP is a science based step wise process. The two main steps in following
HACCP are;

 Identify hazards.

 Take preventive measure to prevent, eliminate or reduce hazards in food.

HACCP has two main components which are

46
 1. Pre-requisite Program

2. Hazard Analysis

1. Pre-requisite Program:

According to the World Health

Organization (WHO), pre-requisite program
comprises of practices and conditions needed
prior to and during the implementation of
HACCP system and which are essential for
food safety. These programs provide a foundation for an effective HACCP system. It
includes;

 Building & Equipment Design

 Cleaning & Sanitization

 Personal Hygiene

 Hand Washing, Good Hygiene Habits

 Proper Facilities

 Storage (Cold, Dry & Chemical)

 Services (Portable Water System, Ventilation)

 Maintenance

 Waste Management

 Pest Control

 Approved Suppliers

 Staff Training

 Operational Control

 Policies,
Procedur
es &
Work
Instructio
ns

What is Hazard?

47
 Hazard is a potential for harm. It is associated with a condition that can cause
undesired results such as injury or illness if left un-controlled. Food hazards are of three
types;

1. Chemical Hazard:

A chemical hazard is a type of food hazard caused by exposure to chemicals in the

workplace. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can cause acute or long-term detrimental
health effects. Chemicals can affect our skin by contact. If air is polluted with chemicals,
these can enter in our body through breathing. These can cause cross-contamination if not
handled properly. Whereas cross-contamination is defined as,

“The process by which bacteria or other microorganisms are unintentionally transferred

from one substance or object to another, with harmful effects.”

2. Physical Hazard:

Physical hazards are those which can cause injury risks for our body. It includes
hazards from working in confined spaces, being hit by a flying object, falling from height etc.

3. Biological Hazard:

Biological hazards includes all biological substances which can cause harm to the
health of living organisms, primarily that of humans. The sources are insects, plants, worms,
fungi, bacteria and viruses.

Hazard Analysis
Hazard analysis is a process of recognizing hazards that may arise from a system. It
includes analysis of potential causes of a hazard to occur. The purpose of a hazard analysis is
to develop a list of hazards and to determine the critical control points. Its result is the
identification of the type of hazard so that preventive measures could be taken accordingly.

Hazard Analysis Flow Map:

The flow map for hazard analysis shows which type of hazard can arise at every step
of food production and how we can control it.

1. Purchasing:

Hazards; Chemically, physically and

biologically contaminated products

Controls;

 Approved suppliers

 Proper check & balance

48
  Preventive measures during travel
(distance)

2. Delivery:
Hazards; Chemically, physically and biologically
contaminated products

Controls; Approved suppliers

Delivery vehicle inspection

Visual checks of products and date codes

3. Storage:

Hazards; Contamination

Multiplication of bacteria

Controls; Maintenance of correct temperature

Segregation of products i.e. food items in a freezer should be placed in a

following order,

Vegetables & Fruits

Frozen Food Items
Chicken
Red Meat
Fish

Stock rotation:

Storeroom is the most important location for a restaurant business. The optimization of your
storeroom and regulating the flow of goods is the key of smooth flow of your business. There
are three main techniques of warehouse management, namely: FIFO, FEFO and LIFO

 FIFO: Stands for first in first out is the warehouse management technique which
implies that the products brought first, will move out/use first.

 FEFO: In first expired out first out the products are dispatched in order of their
expiration date. The product whose expiration date is due first, will move out from
store first.

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  LIFO: Stands for last in first out. This mode of warehouse management implies that
the product which is brought in the last moves out the first. Last in first out is used in
case of products which do not have a shelf life e.g. match boxes.

4. Preparation:

Hazards; Contamination

Multiplication of bacteria

Controls; Separation of raw and prepared food items

Color coding system

Clean and sanitized utensils and work area

Minimize handling and time keep at room temperature

5. Cooking:

Hazards; Contamination

Survival of microorganisms

Controls; Cook thoroughly to core temperature i.e. 75°C

Use of products from registered companies

Cooking person should be medically fit

Use of clean and sanitized equipment and

utensils

6. Food Holding:

“Keeping prepared, ready-to-eat or served later food, hot or cold, free of contaminants and
out of danger zone is called food holding.”

Hazards; Contamination

Multiplication of bacteria

Controls;

Hot Hold Cold Hold

Maintain food temperature Maintain food temperature

above 63°C below 5°C

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 Cover food properly Cover food properly

7. Service:
Hazards; Contamination

Multiplication of bacteria

Controls; Maintenance of correct temperature

Clean and sanitized utensils

Minimize handling

Seven Principles of HACCP

The seven principles of HACCP are as follows,

1. Conduct Hazard Analysis:

 Identify the hazards that can affect the process. To identify the correct type of hazard
is most important i.e. chemical, physical or biological.

 Identify the steps/causes of hazard to occur.

 Determine which
hazards are significant.

 Determine the measures

necessary to control
possible hazards.

2. Determine the
Critical Control
Points:

 Identify the most important points/steps to control hazards.

 What are the control measures that must be taken to prevent, eliminate or reduce
hazards to an acceptable level.

3. Establish the Critical Limits:

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Critical limit is the maximum or the minimum value
at which hazard must be controlled to lessen food
safety hazards. It includes safety limits which
separate the acceptable from unacceptable e.g.

 Cooking Temperature Limit

 Storing Temperature Limit

 Food Temperature Limit

4. Establish Monitoring System:

 Monitoring is a planned sequence of observations or measurements to assess whether

a CCP is under control and to produce an accurate record for future use in
verification. It includes set-up checks for control measures.

 CCP analysis to confirm that the process is under control and critical limits are not
exceeded.

 It monitors the product or process that does not meet critical limits in order to take
immediate corrective actions.

5. Establish Corrective Actions:

 Prepare plans in advance.

 Decide what to do when critical limits are break.

 Spell out the actions to be taken and when.

6. Establish Verification Procedures:

 Verification is defined as those activities, other than monitoring that determine the
validity of the HACCP plan and that the system is operating according to the plan.

 Check time and temperature devices for accuracy, as well as suppliers’ checks,
product quality checks etc.

7. Establish Documentation & Records:

The records maintained for the HACCP system should include the following;

 Temperature Charts

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 Cleaning Schedules

 Pest Control Records

 Equipment Maintenance Records

 Training Records

 Delivery Checks

 Non-Conformance Reports; which shows the details of any non-conformance

identified in a quality audit or other process review.

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FOOD HANDLING
Shopping & Purchasing:

 After selecting the non-perishable food items, purchase frozen food items.

 Never purchase food like fish, poultry or meat in hard packing material or the one
which can be torn or leak easily.

 Put raw meat, poultry or fish in separate plastic bags so that the meat juice and fruits
will not get cross-contaminated.

Distance:

 If you have meat, dairy or poultry products in your hand, try to reach home (desired
destination) from the grocery store as fast as you can.

Storage:

 Heavy items should be placed on the bottom of shelves and light items on the top of
shelf.

 Don’t put vegetables, cream, milk or like items in meat freezer because smell can be
transferred from one food item into the other.

Washing:
 Raw food items should be properly washed before cooking or freezing.

Hand Washing:

 Always wash your hands before and after any kind of food handling.

Fruits & Vegetables Handling:

 Always cover the fruits and vegetables with a plastic wrap before refrigeration.

 Use proper color coding system to avoid any bacteria transfer.

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