SUBMITTED BY : MUHAMMAD AHSAN ADEEL

2020-ag-3207

H-4

SUBMITTED TO : PROF IFTIKHAR ALI

SUBJECT : AFRON-PRACTICAL

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE FAISALABAD

Tillage: Objectives, Types, Effects, New concepts and Implements

Tillage:

Anglo-Saxon word

Tilian- to plough and prepare soil

 Teolian- to sow/cultivate & raise crops

Tillage is defined as the mechanical manipulation of the soil aimed at improving its physical condition or
tilth.

It can also be described as the practice of modifying the state of soil in order to provide conditions
favorable to crop growth.

Tilth
Tilth is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage.

Tilth is a loose, fine, airy, powdery, granular and crumbly condition of the soil with optimum
moisture content suitable for working and germination or sprouting of seeds and propagules i.e.,
tilth is the ideal seed bed.

TYPES OF TILTH
Fine Tilth refers to the powdery condition of the soil.

Coarse Tilth refers to the rough cloddy condition of the soil.

Fine seedbed is required for small seeded crops like lucerne, onion, berseem, tobacco.

Coarse seedbed is needed for bold seeded crops like sorghum, cotton, chickpea, maize etc.

TYPES OF TILLAGE
1. On Season Tillage: It is done during the cropping season (June–July or Sept.–Oct.).

2. Off Season Tillage: It is done during fallow or non-cropped season (summer).

3. Special Types of Tillage: It is done at any time with some special objective/purpose

1. On Season Tillage
It is divided into three types viz.,

(i) Primary tillage, deeper with ploughs (disc or moldboard).

(ii) Secondary tillage, shallower and done to pulverize the soil and make a fine seedbed for planting
– cultivators, disc harrows, rotovators, etc.

(iii) Tertiary tillage, this type of tillage is practiced for intercultural operations.

2. Off Season Tillage

(a) Post harvest tillage - Tillage operation carried out immediately after harvest of crop to clear off
the weeds and crop residues and to restore the soil structure.

(b) Summer tillage - Operation being done during summer season in tropical and sub-tropical
regions to destroy weeds and soil borne pest and diseases, checking the soil erosion and retaining
the rain water through summer showers.

(c) Winter tillage - It is practiced in temperate regions where the winter is severe that makes the
field unfit for raising crops.

(d) Fallow tillage - It refers to the leaving of arable land uncropped for a season or seasons for
various reasons.
3. Special Purpose Types
(i) Subsoil tillage (sub soiling) is done to cut open/break the subsoil hard pan or plough pan using
sub soil plough/chisel plough.

(ii) Levelling by tillage - Arable fields require a uniform distribution of water and plant nutrition for
uniform crop growth.

(iii) Wet tillage - This refers to tillage done when the soil is in a saturated (anaerobic) condition. For
example puddling for rice cultivation.

(iv) Strip tillage - Ploughing is done as a narrow strip by mixing and tilling the soil leaving the
remaining soil surface undisturbed.

AIMS
• To prepare ideal seed bed favourable for seed germination, growth and establishment;

• To loosen the soil for easy root penetration and proliferation;

• To remove other sprouting materials in the soil;

• To control weeds;

• To certain extent to control pest and diseases which harbour in the soil;

To improve soil physical conditions;

To ensure adequate aeration in the root zone which in turn favour for microbial and biochemical
activities;

To modify soil temperature;

To break hard soil pans and to improve drainage facility;

To incorporate crop residues and organic matter left over;

To conserve soil by minimizing the soil erosion;

To conserve the soil moisture;

To harvest efficiently the effective rain water;

To assure the thorough mixing of manures and fertilizers in the soil;

To facilitate water infiltration and thus increasing the water holding capacity of the soil, and

To level the field for efficient water management

OBECTIVES OF TILLAGES
There are several major objective of tillage.

1. PREPARATION OF SEEDBED

Weed free soil, which prevents the loss of precious water and plant nutrients to weeds.

Granular soil structure, which allows close contact of the seed and the plant roots with soil
particles.
 Soil free of compacted soils, which reduce air and water penetration and inhibit root development.

Level soil surface which facilitates planting seeds at a uniform depth and is especially important for proper
water management in irrigated areas.

2. MANIPULATION OF PLANT RESIDUES

AND FARM WASTES

Incorporation of organic matter results in;

Increased soil fertility.

Increased water penetration and water holding capacity.

Enhanced soil microbial activities

3. MANAGING WATER IN SOIL

Successful tillage systems help proper moisture conservation in rain fed areas.

Farmers of Barani Areas normally do 8-10 shallow ploughings with a cultivator for moisture
conservation of rain water.

4.CONTROLLING WEEDS

With the use of mechanical tillage practices, weeds can be controlled effectively and
economically.

5.PREVENTING WIND AND WATER EROSION

Rain fed areas are often subject to wind and water erosion, an acceptable and appropriate tillage
system must provide for soil erosion prevention and control.

One mould board ploughing with planking followed by two ploughings with a cultivator and
planking will create rough soil surfaces containing clods from .5-5 cm which will help control both
wind and water erosion.

Effects of Tillage
Positive

• Loosens and aerates the top layer of soil

• Helps in mixing harvest residue, organic matter (humus), and nutrients evenly into the soil

• Mechanically destroys weeds

• Dries the soil before seeding (in wetter climates tillage aids in keeping the soil drier)

Negative

Soil loses a lot of nutrients like nitrogen and fertilizer.

 Tillage in soil results in dislodging the cohesiveness of the soil particles thereby inducing erosion.

Reduces organic matter in the soil

Reduces microbes, earthworms, ants, etc

Crop diseases can be harbored in surface residues

EFFECT OF TILLAGE ON SOIL CONDITIONS

1. EFFECT ON SOIL MOISTURE:

Tillage practices and systems have been developed to facilitate water penetration into the soil and
increases the amount of water retained for crop use

Excessive shallow tillage operations results in increase soil compaction which restricts root
growth, impedes air exchange and also creates problems in soil drainage

2 . SOIL WATER RETENTION

The rough soil surface and depressions caused by tillage decreases run off

This results in storing part of rain water in the soil profile

3. INFILTRATION

Tillage enhances infiltration of water if large voids are produced in a soil layer

4. EFFECT ON SOIL STRUCTURE

Tillage directly effects the roughness and bulk density of the soil.

These factors in terms directly affect water infiltration, water holding capacity, crusting and
compaction which in turn affect seedling emergence, root development and nutrients up take

5. EFFECT ON SOIL TEMPERATURE

Research have shown that different tillage practices results in differences in soil temperature e.g.
straw or stubble mulch

6. EFFECT ON EVAPORATION

Surface roughness caused by loosening of the upper soil layer by tillage increases the area of the
soil exposed to the atmosphere and ultimately increase evaporation

7. EFFECT ON SOIL MICRO-ORGANISMS

Appropriate soil tillage practices will improve the soil structure, moisture, air and temperature
which will ultimately increase the number and activity of micro-organisms

If tillage affects temperature and moisture and manipulate crop residues, it will certainly effects
micro-organism

8. EFFECT ON NUTRIENTS UPTAKE

Nitrogen is probably the nutrient most affected by tillage although both P and K are also
influenced
 Warm moist soil has greater micro-organism activity, which results in greater mineralization of N
and in turn results in its higher up take by plants

MODERN CONCEPTS OF TILLAGE AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY

Conservation tillage

Conservation tillage as any tillage and planting system in which at least 30 per cent of the soil
surface is covered by residue after planting in order to reduce soil erosion. ( Whyte, 1987).

Conservation tillage was 1st developed in semi arid regions of USA ,Canada, Australia.

Conservation tillage systems are currently adopted on nearly 100 million ha worldwide.

United States is the leading country, followed by Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Australia and Paraguay

Zero tillage

Father of zero tillage is George McKibben.

Primary tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is restricted to seed-bed preparation in
the row zone only.

It is also known as No-till.

Advantages

Zero tillage significantly reduces cost of production.

Zero tillage increases the yield by 5-15% over the conventional system.

Zero tillage uses a seed and fertilizer drill and thus improves germination.

Improves fertilizer use efficiency through better placement.

Less water is used in zero tillage, and therefore, there is less leaching of nitrogen.

The organic matter content of zero-till soils may stay higher

Zero tillage reduces diesel consumption by 40-70 litres per ha depending upon soil condition and
thus, reduces the CO2 emission in the environment (2.6 kg CO2 production/litre of diesel burnt).

Zero tillage reduces soil erosion and land degradation.

Saving in time in seedbed preparation.

Advancement in sowing time over conventional system by 2-4 weeks depending upon the type of
soil.

Disadvantages

Reduced infiltration rate and pore space.

 Increased incidence of broad-leaved weeds

The seedling establishment in zero tillage is 20% less than in conventional methods.

Require 20-30% more seed and fertilizer

Minimum tillage

Minimum tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good
seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand and favorable growing conditions.

Advantages

Improved soil conditions.

Higher infiltration

Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure.

Less soil compaction

Disadvantages

Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage.

In minimum tillage, more nitrogen has to be added.

Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crops like peas and broad beans.

Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment.

Continuous use of herbicides cause pollution problems.

PURITY ANALYSIS:

Procedure:

Purity analysis is also termed as physical or analytical purity test. The working sample is weighed and the
weight is recorded on a record card. Then the separation of sample is done into different components, such
as pure seed, other crop seeds an inert matter. The seeds are put on a working board that has a smooth
and transparent surface. Seeds are separated with the help of forceps and needles and are examined
ideally under a magnifying glass in case of smaller seeds and with naked eye in case of larger seeds. The
procedure is continued until the separation of entire seed sample. After that, each component is weighed
separately. Percentage of each component is calculated on the bases of total weight of the working
sample. Analytical purity test can also be performed in the field even if balance is not available .In this case
seed analysis is done by counting the number of seeds in each component. Therefore, the percentage of
each component is determined on the bases of number of the different components of the working sample
against the total number of all the components. Working sample is separated into following components.
A. Pure Seed (PS) The term pure seed includes the normal seeds of the crops or varieties under
consideration and in addition, the followings should also be considered as pure seeds: 1. The immature
shriveled or undersized, cracked and germinated seeds provided that they can be identified as the species
under consideration. 2. The pieces of seeds which are more than half of its original size. However, seeds of
Fabaceae (Legumes), Brassicaceae (Sarson, canola etc.) and conifers with seed coat entirely removed shall
be considered as inert matter. 3. Diseased seeds except those attacked by fungi and nematodes to form
smut balls and nematode galls B. Other Crop Seeds (OCS) These should include seeds of plants grown as
crops with respect to classification of crop seeds. C. Weed Seeds (WS) Seeds recognized as weeds by law,
official regulations or by general uses shall be considered as weed seeds. D. Inert Matter (IM) 1. Seeds of
Fabaceae (Legumes), Brassicaceae (Sarson, canola etc.) and conifers with seed coat entirely removed. 2.
Soil particles, stones, sand, leaves, flowers and all other type of matters shall be included in inert matter. 3.
Pieces of broken seeds or damaged seeds which are less than half of the original size of the seeds shall be
regarded as inert matter. STANDARDS: Wheat: PS (min) = 98% , IM (max) = 2% OCS (max) = 0.05% , WS
(max) = 5 seeds per Kg Rice: PS (min) = 98% , IM (max) = 1.5% OCS (max) =none , WS (max) = none Maize:
PS (min) = 98% , IM (max) = 2% OCS (max) = none , WS (max) = none Cotton: PS (min) = 98% , IM (max) = 2%
OCS (max) =none , WS (max) = none Berseem: PS (min) = 98% , IM (max) = 2% OCS (max) =0.5% , WS (max)
= 0.2% Rapeseed and Mustard: PS (min) = 98% , IM (max) = 2% OCS (max) =0.2 , WS (max) = 35 seed per Kg
Groundnut: PS (min) = 96% , IM (max) = None OCS (max) = 3% , WS (max) = 0.01% Sunflower: PS (min) =
98% , IM (max) = 0.2% OCS (max) =0.02% , WS (max) = none SOLVED EXAMPLE: Laboratory test for purity
test of maize: Total size of the working sample (number) = 243 Pure seed (PS) = 127 % age of PS =
127/243*100 = 52.26% Other crop seed (OCS) = 5 % age of OCS = 5/243*100 = 2.06% Weed seeds (WS) = 0
(0 %) Inert matter (IM) = 111 % age of IM = 111/243*100 = 45.68% Kind of inert matter = Broken seeds (less
than the half of actual seeds) of maize, barley, rice, oat etc. REPORT: The given sample of seed is not fit for
sowing as it contains. 1. Pure seed is less than 98% pure seed 2. Inert matter is more than 2% Related
Terms Seed Lot It is used to represent any quantity of seed upto a maximum of 20,000 kg for seeds of the
size of cereal species (wheat, barley etc.) or larger seed crops and 10,000 kg for seeds smaller than cereals
(like wheat). Primary Sample When a seed lot is sampled either from containers or from bulk, several
individual samples are drawn from different places or containers in bulk. Each probe (a sampling
equipment) or handful seed is called as a Primary sample. Good primary samples truly represent the seed
lot. Composite Sample All the primary samples are combined in a suitable container. These combined
primary samples are called as composite sample. Composite sample should be representative of the seed
lot. The composite sample is much larger than the required one and consequently need to be reduced.
Submitted Sample A composite sample when properly reduced to the desired size, resulting sample is
called submitted sample. This sample is submitted to laboratory for analyses regarding the quality of seed.
Working Sample It is the reduced sample obtained from the submitted sample on which one or more of the
quality tests are mad
 PURITY
ANALYSIS:

1. STANDARDS FOR WHEAT:

Pure Seeds (min) =98% , Inert Matter(max) =2%

Other Crop Seeds (max) = 0.05% , Weed Seeds (max) = 5 seeds per Kg

Example:
Item Seed count %age
Pure Seed 605 605/733*100 =?%
Other crop seed 97
Weed seed 2/50 g of seed
Inert matter 29
Total 733

CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT?

2. STANDARDS FOR RICE:

Pure seeds (min) =98% , Inert Matter(max) =1.5%

Other crop seeds (max) =none , Weed seeds (max) = none

Example:

Item Seed (g) %age

Pure Seed 210 g 210/250*100 = ?
Other crop seed 17 g
Weed seed 1g
Inert matter 22 g
Total 250 g

CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT?

3. STANDARDS FOR MAIZE:

Pure Seeds (min) =98%, Inert Matter(max) =2% , Other crop seeds (max) = none , Weed
seeds (max) = non

Eaxmple:
Item Seed (g) %age
Pure Seed 844 g 844/850*100 = ?
Other crop seed 3g
Weed seed 0.5 g
Inert matter 2.5 g
Total 850 g

CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT?

 4. STANDARDS FOR COTTON:

PS (min) =98% , IM (max) =2%

OCS (max) =none , WS (max) = none

Example:
Item Seed (g) %age
Pure Seed 500 g 844/500*100 = ?
Other crop seed 110 g
Weed seed 70 g
Inert matter 8g
Total 688 g

CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT?

Example (count basis):

Item Seed count %age
Pure Seed 1063 1063/1100*100 = ?
Other crop seed 2
Weed seed 5
Inert matter 30
Total 1100
CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT?

5. STANDARDS FOR BERSEEM:

PS (min) =98% , IM (max) = 2%

OCS (max) =0.5% , WS (max)

=0.2%

Example:

Item Seed count %age

Pure Seed 320 320/350*100 = ?
Other crop seed 15
Weed seed 5
Inert matter 20
 Total 350
CALCULATE ERCENTAGES AND WRITE

REPORT?

6. STANDARDS FOR RAPE SEEDS AND MUSTARD (TORIA, SARSSON, RAYA &
TARAMERA):

PS (min) = 98% , IM (max) = 2%

OCS (max) =0.2 , WS (max) = 35 seed per Kg

Example for Rapseed and Mustard:

Item Seed count %age
Pure Seed 1100 1100/1300*100 = ?
Other crop seed 100
Weed seed 70
Inert matter 30
Total 1300
CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT?

7. STANDARDS FOR GROUND NUT:

Groundnut:
PS (min) = 96% , IM (max) = None
OCS (max)=3% WS (max) =0.01%

Example for Groundnut:

Item Seed (g) %age
Pure Seed 480 480/500*100 = ?
Other crop seed 20
Weed seed 5
Inert matter 0
 Total 500
CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT?
 8. STANDARDS FOR SUNFLOWER:

PS (min) =98% , IM (max) =0.2%

OCS (max) =0.02% , WS (max) = none

Example:

Item Seed (g) %age

Pure Seed 495 g 495/500*100 = ?
Other crop seed 3g
Weed seed 0g
Inert matter 2g
Total 500 g

CALCULATE PERCENTAGES AND WRITE REPORT

Plant Nutrition

Nutrient

• a substance that provides nourishment essential for the maintenance of life and for growth.

• Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds that are essential
for plant growth, and also of their external supply and internal metabolism.

• An element is said to be essential if the plant cannot complete its life cycle without it, and if the
malady (deficiency) that develops in plants in its absence can be remedied only by that element.

Plant Nutrients

Criteria for Essentiality

Arnon (1954) has laid down the criteria to distinguish the essential elements, they are:

1. Plant must be unable to grow normally or complete its life cycle in the absence of the elements;

2. The element is specific and cannot be replaced by another element.

3. The element plays a direct role in metabolism

Insufficient

When the level of an essential plant nutrient is below that required for optimum yields or when
there is an imbalance with another nutrient.  

Sufficient

When the concentration of an essential nutrient is present in adequate amounts for

optimum crop growth.

Excessive

When the concentration of an essential plant nutrient is sufficiently high to result in a

corresponding shortage of another nutrient. 

Toxic

When the concentration of either essential or other elements is sufficiently high to

reduce plant growth severely. Severe toxicity will result in death of plants.
 SOURCES OF PLANT NUTRIENTS

Plants nutrients are essentially supplied through

1. Manures

2. Fertilizers

 Manures are organic in nature and applied in large quantities. They are also called organics or
organic manures.

 They are of animal or plant origin and contains more than one nutrient element.

 Nutrients content in organic manures is low.

 Fertilizer are inorganic or synthetic and the nutrient contents is higher than in manures.

 Fertilizers are available for a particular nutrient or combination of nutrients.

 Fertilizers are soil amendments applied to promote plant growth;

 The main nutrients present in fertilizer are nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium (the
'macronutrients') and other nutrients ('micronutrients') are added in smaller amounts.

 Fertilizers are usually directly applied to soil, and also sprayed on leaves (‘foliar feeding').
 Following fertilizers are available in Pakistan:

a. Nitrogenous fertilizers:

Common name N P2O5 K2O (%)

• Urea 46 0 0

• Ammonium Sulphate 21 0 0

• Ammonium nitrate 35 0 0

. Phosphate fertilizers:

Common name N P2O5 K2O (%)

• SSP 0 18 0

• TSP 0 46 0

C. Potash Fertilizers:

• SOP 0 0 50

• MOP 0 0 60

d. Compound & Complete fertilizers:

• Nitrophos 23 23 0

• DAP 18 46 0

• NPK 15 15 15

• NPK 10 20 20

• NPK 13 13 21

• If various sources of the same nutrient have equal merit, a cheaper source should be selected.

There are ten urea manufacturing plants, one DAP, three NP, three SSP, two CAN and one
plant of blended NPKs having a total production capacity of 8,983 thousand product tonnes per
annum.

Product Average Rates

MOP 2915.00

NP 2975.00

NPK ( ‫)زرخیز‬ 2955.00

SOP 3950.00

SSP 1210.00

Urea 1680.00

DAP 3290.00

MOP 2915.00

NP 2975.00
• These are classified into three categories according to their element (nutrient) structure:

• 1. Nitrogen (N): Increases the protein content of plants, gives them color and accelerates
growth

• 2. Phosphorous (P): Promotes strong, healthy root development and helps plants mature more
rapidly and thus aids in blooming and seed formation. It is critical for the synthesis of energy
regulating substances in plants

• 3. Potassium (K): Raises the resistance of plants to diseases and promotes growth from root to
stack. It increases the plumpness of grains and seeds, and provides winter hardiness to legumes
and other crops.
• These fertilizer which come in a myriad of mixes and composition, are regularly applied
according to soil conditions, weather conditions, crop type and the desired productivity. There
are eleven types of

• fertilizers that are used in Pakistan.

• • Urea - More than 90% of the world’s production is destined for use as a nitrogen-release
fertilizer. Urea has the highest nitrogen content of all solid nitrogenous fertilizers in common
use (46.7%).

• • Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) - It contains 46% P2O5 and 18% N. it is water soluble. It is a
good source of P fertilizer for all crops. Good source for problem soils. Overall, it suits to about
90% soil of the country.

• • Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) – It contains 27% N and 20% of ground limestone. This has
a rapid as well as permanent effect. The granulation of this fertilizer ensures a quick and exact
dosing

• • Ammonium Sulphate (AS) - (NH4)2SO4 is an inorganic salt. It is used largely . as an artificial

fertilizer for alkaline soils. It lowers the pH balance of the soil, while contributing essential
nitrogen for plant growth

• Single Super Phosphate (SSP) - Superphosphate is a fertilizer produced by the action of

concentrated sulfuric acid on powdered phosphate rock.

• Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) - Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) fertilizer is composed of inorganic
nutrients that are used to restore soil components essential for farming.

• Nitro phosphate (NP) - It provides 22% nitrogen, and 20% phosphorus. Nitrogen is a primary
nutrient that really makes plants "grow”. Phosphorus is a primary nutrient that encourages
rooting, blooming and fruit production in plants.

• Sulphate of Potash (SOP) - Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4) is a non-flammable white crystalline salt
which is soluble in water. This chemical is commonly used in fertilizers, providing both
potassium and sulphur.

• Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium (NPK) - NPK fertilizer is a complex fertilizer comprised

primarily of the three primary nutrients required for healthy plant growth. The agriculture
industry relies heavily on the use of NPK fertilizer to meet global food supply and ensure healthy
crops.

• Muriate of Potash (MOP) - used extensively for fertilizing pastures, sugar cane, fruit trees,
vegetables, and other field crops.
 • Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP) - is a widely used source of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen
(N). It’s made of two constituents common in the fertilizer industry and contains the most
phosphorus of any common solid fertilizer

List of Market Players in Pakistan

• 1.Arif Habib Corporation Limited

• 2.Dawood Hercules Corporation Limited 3.Engro Fertilizer Limited

• 4.Engro Corporation Limited

• 5.Fatima Fertilizer Company limited

• 6.Fauji Fertilizer Bin Qasim Limited

• 7.Fauji Fertilizer Company Limited

Crop-wise of usage of Fertilizer

• Pakistan has two cropping seasons, "Kharif“ being the first sowing season starting from April-
June and is harvested during October- December. Rice, sugarcane, cotton, maize, moong, mash,
bajra and jowar are “Kharif“ crops. "Rabi", the second sowing season, begins in October-
December and is harvested in April- May. Wheat, gram, lentil (masoor), tobacco, rapseed, barley
and mustard are "Rabi" crops. Pakistan’s agricultural productivity is dependent upon the timely
availability of water.

• The total cropped area in Pakistan is about 22.2 million ha. The share of food grain crops is 54
percent, followed by cotton and sugar cane 20 %; pulses 6 %; oilseed crops 3 %; fruit/vegetables
4 % and other crops about 13 %.

• Wheat is the main food crop. It occupies about 36.3 % of the total cropped area, followed by
cotton with 14 %, paddy with 9.5 %, sugar cane with 4.5 % , maize with 4.5 % and other crops
with 20.8 %.

• According to the fertilizer use survey five major crops: wheat, cotton, sugar cane, rice and maize
account for about 87 % of fertilizer consumption. Wheat accounts for about 45 % followed by
cotton with a share of 23 %. Sugar cane is the third crop; nutrient use per ha is highest on this
crop. The share of fruit and vegetables is 5.6 %.

• Less than two percent of the farmers apply potash whereas 92 percent apply nitrogen and 83
percent apply phosphate. Half of the farmers apply FYM. Almost five percent apply
micronutrients. The use of green manures, crop residues and bio-fertilizers is negligible.

Almost all farmers having access to canal or tube well irrigation water use fertilizers. In rain fed
 areas scarcely 50 percent of the farmers use fertilizers. About 92 percent of small-scale farmers
(< 5 ha) use fertilizers. Application rates decrease with an increase in farm size (rain fed and
irrigated). In rain fed areas the difference between application rates for small and large farms is
very wide.

Organic manure
Introduction

The use of chemical fertilizer is increasing day-by day for the sake of increasing production.

By excess use of it, the fertility of soil and health also deteriorate.

Therefore the use of organic manure is one of the alternative ways for enhancing production
and improves the soil health.

It is not only cheaper; easily available ensures sustainable agriculture too.

Organic manure as a component

Introduction

Organic manures are natural products used by farmers to enhanced sustainable crop
production.

There are a number of organic manures like farm yard manure, green manures, compost
prepared from crop residues and other farm wastes, vermicompost, oil cakes, and biological
wastes - animal bones, slaughter house refuse

from crop residues and other farm wastes, vermicompost, oil cakes, and biological wastes -
animal bones, slaughter house
 Benefits of Organic Manures

• Organic manures increase the organic matter in the soil.

• Organic matter in turn releases the plant food in available form for the use of crops.

• Organic manures should not be seen only as carriers of plant food.

• These manures also enable a soil to hold more water and also help to improve the drainage in
clay soils.

• They provide organic acids that help to dissolve soil nutrients and make them available for the
plants.

Types of Organic Manures

 Farm yard manure (FYM)

 Crop residues

 Compost

 Concentrated organic manures

 Green manures

Farm yard Manure

• The manure is produced in the farm chiefly with animal excreta.

• It is also called as stubble manure, barn manure, dung and cattle manure.

• Farm yard Manure is prepared basically using cow dung, cow urine, waste straw and other dairy
wastes. 

• It is highly useful and some of its properties are

 FYM is rich in nutrients

 When cow dung and urine are mixed, a balanced nutrition is made available to the
plants.

 Availability of Potassium and Phosphorus from FYM is similar to that from inorganic
sources.

 Application of FYM improves soil fertility.

Crop residues
  “Crop residues are the parts of plants left in the field after the crops have been
harvested and thrashed.”

 Good sources of plant nutrients

 Primary source of organic material added to the soil

 Important components for the stability of agricultural ecosystems

• Crop residues are the non-economic plant parts that are left in the field after harvest.

• The harvest refuses include straws, stubble, Stover and haulms of different crops. 

• Crop remains are also from thrashing sheds or that are discarded during crop processing.

Potential uses of crop residues

• As livestock feed

• For preparing bedding for animals

• In composting

• For biogas generation

• For mushroom culture

• As a raw material for industry

Benefits of using crop residues

Soil benefits

• Increases soil productivity (yields).

 • Sustains soil organic matter.

• Improves soil structure.

• Controls soil erosion.

• Increases water infiltration rates.

• Conserves soil moistures.

• Recycles plant nutrients.

• Provides habitat and an energy source for soil organisms including earthworms and
microorganisms.

Environmental benefits

• Mitigates flooding by holding water on the land rather than allowing it to run off into streams
and rivers.

• Reduces surface runoff and decreases sedimentation.

• Improves water quality by denaturing and filtering of pollutants.

• Minimizes risks of anoxia and dead zones in coastal ecosystems.

Crop residue management (CRM

• “Crop Residue Management (CRM) is a conservation practice that usually involves a reduction in
the number of passes over the field with tillage implements and/or in the intensity of tillage
operations, including the elimination of plowing.”

Compost

• Decomposed plant residues/ farm wastes are known as farm compost.

• Compost is a rich source of organic matter.

• Soil organic matter plays an important role in sustaining soil fertility, and hence in sustainable
agricultural production.

• In addition to being a source of plant nutrient, it improves the physico-chemical and biological
properties of the soil.

Concentrated Organic Manures

• Edible oil cakes which can be safely fed to livestock; e.g.: Groundnut cake, Coconut cake etc.,
 • Non edible oil cakes which are not fit for feeding livestock; e.g.: Castor cake, Neem cake, Mahua
cake etc.,

• Both edible and non-edible oil cakes can be used as manures.

• However, edible oil cakes are fed to cattle and non-edible oil cakes are used as manures
especially for horticultural crops.

• Nutrients present in oil cakes, after mineralization, are made available to crops 7 to 10 days
after application.

Green Manures

• Green manuring is the practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant
material for improving the physical conditions of the soil or adding nutrients.

• Any crop or plant (generally leguminous grown and ploughed in situ is called a “green manure”.

Why Green Manuring is Necessary

 To add organic matter into the soil

 To maintain soil fertility level .

 To improve the structure of soil.

 To fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil.

• Criteria For Green Manure Crops

 Crop should be of short duration.

 Vegetative growth rate should be high.

 Produce more biomass.

 Rapidly decomposing.

 Should have Fibrous root system.

Time Of Green Manuring

 Mostly practiced in kharif season

 High temperature help in rapid decomposition.

 Six weeks usually required to complete decomposion.

PROPERTIES OF GREEN MANURE CROPS

GREEN MANURE GREEN DRY BIO- N

BIO- MASS CONTENT
CROPS
MASS (t/ha) (%)
(t/ha)

Cow pea 9-10 3-4 1.4-1.5 14

Mustard     3.5  
Pigeon pea 9-10 5-7    
Susbania   1.5-4 4.3 25
Soybean   5-7.4   31
Sunhemp 5-19 5.5-6 1.7 10
Sweet clover 12 6 2  

Benefits Of Green Manuring

 Increase in organic matter

 Increase in soil fertility.

 Reduction of inorganic fertilizer use

 Increase in food quality

 Improvement in soil properties

 Increase in water holding capacity.

 Increase in porosity.

 Improvement in soil structure

 Toxic effects of heavy metals are reduced

  pH of soil is reduced.

 Cation exchange capacity of soil is increased

 Leaching losses are reduced

 Microbial activity is increased.

Major Green Manure Crops

o Jantar

o Guara

o Sesbania

o Berseem

o Lucern

o Sunhemp

o Green Manure Crops

o DHAINCHA

o (Sesbania aculeata)

o MANILA AGATHI

o (Sesbania rostrata

Green Manure Crops

SUNNHEMP (Crotalaria juncea)

WILD INDIGO

(Tephrosia purpurea

Fertilizer numerical
1-100kg N/acre ? bags of urea = ?

urea = 46% N

Area = 1 acre

46 kg N = 100 kg Urea

1 kg N = 100/46 kg Urea

100 kg N = 100/46 * 100 = 217.39 kg Urea

urea bags = 217.39/50 = 4.34 bags

2- urea = ?

50 kg N /acre

46 kg N = 100 kg urea

1 kg N = 100/46 kg urea (Unit value)

50 kg N = 100/46 * 50 = 108.1 kg Urea

3-No. of bags of Ammonium Sulphate = ?

Area = 1 ha

Recoomended Dose of N = 50 kg / acre

Ammonium Sulphate = 21% N = 21/100 N

Solution

21 kg N = 100 kg AS

1 ha = 2.5 acres

1 ha = 2.5 * 50 = 125 kg N

21 kg N = 100 kg AS

1 kg N = 100/21 AS
125 kg N = 100/21 * 125 = 595.2 kg AS

bags = 595.2/50 = 11.9 bags

4-Amount of AN = ?

Bags of AN = ?

Area = 1 bega

Reccmonded dose of N = 25 kg / marla

Ammonium Nitrate = 26% N

Solution:

Total N required = 25 kg * 4 * 20= 2000 kg N

26 kg N = 100 kg AN

1 kg N = 100 / 26 kg AN

2000 kg N = 100/26 * 2000 = 7692.3 kg AN

Bags of AN = 7692.3/50 = 153.84 bags

5- Unit value of urea = ? 1 kg N hamen kitne men par ri h

Price of 1 bag = 1000 PKR

1 bag urea contains N = 23 kg

Unit value of urea = 1000/23 = 43.47 PKR / N

1-100kg N/acre ? bags of urea = ?

urea = 46% N

Area = 1 acre
46 kg N = 100 kg Urea

1 kg N = 100/46 kg Urea

100 kg N = 100/46 * 100 = 217.39 kg Urea

urea bags = 217.39/50 = 4.34 bags

2- urea = ?

50 kg N /acre

46 kg N = 100 kg urea

1 kg N = 100/46 kg urea (Unit value)

50 kg N = 100/46 * 50 = 108.1 kg Urea

3-No. of bags of Ammonium Sulphate = ?

Area = 1 ha

Recoomended Dose of N = 50 kg / acre

Ammonium Sulphate = 21% N = 21/100 N

Solution

21 kg N = 100 kg AS

1 ha = 2.5 acres

1 ha = 2.5 * 50 = 125 kg N

21 kg N = 100 kg AS

1 kg N = 100/21 AS

125 kg N = 100/21 * 125 = 595.2 kg AS

bags = 595.2/50 = 11.9 bags

4-Amount of AN = ?

Bags of AN = ?

Area = 1 bega

Reccmonded dose of N = 25 kg / marla

Ammonium Nitrate = 26% N

Solution:

Total N required = 25 kg * 4 * 20= 2000 kg N

26 kg N = 100 kg AN

1 kg N = 100 / 26 kg AN

2000 kg N = 100/26 * 2000 = 7692.3 kg AN

Bags of AN = 7692.3/50 = 153.84 bags

5- Unit value of urea = ? 1 kg N hamen kitne men par ri h

Price of 1 bag = 1000 PKR

1 bag urea contains N = 23 kg

Unit value of urea = 1000/23 = 43.47 PKR / N

6- No. of bags of Urea = ?

Area = 10 acres

Recommended dose of N = 40 kg/acre

Total N required = 40 * 10 = 400 kg N

Urea contains = 46% N

For 46 kg N = 100 kg urea

For 1 kg N = 100/46 kg urea

For 400 kg N = 100/46 * 400 kg urea

For 400 kg N = 869.56 kg urea

No. of bags of Urea = 869.56/50 = 17.39 bags

7-No. of bags of urea = ? N = 46%

No. of bags of DAP = ? N = 18%, P = 46%

Area = 10 acres

Recommended dose of N = 500 kg/acre

Recommended dose of P = 200 kg/acre

Total N required = 500 * 10 = 5000 kg N

Total P required = 200 * 10 = 2000 kg P

For 46 kg P = 100 kg DAP

For 1 kg P = 100/46 kg DAP

For 2000 kg P = 100/46 * 2000 = 4347.82 kg DAP

No. of bags of DAP = 4347.82/50 = 86.95 bags of DAP

DAP will give us how much N = ?

100 kg DAP gives = 18 kg N

1 kg DAP will give = 18/100 kg N

4347.82 kg DAP will give = 18/100 * 4347.82 kg N = 782.6 kg N

Remaining N required = 5000-782.6 = 4217.4 kg N

For 46 kg N = 100 kg urea

For 1 kg N = 100/46 kg urea

For 4217.4 kg N = 100/46 * 4217.4 kg urea

For 4217.4 kg N = 9168.2 kg urea

No. of bags of Urea = 9168.2/50 = 183.3 bags of Urea

8- No. bags of SOP = ?

Area = 200 ft * 150 m = (200/3.28) 60.97 m * 150 m = 9146.34 m2/10,000 (1 ha = 10,000 m2)= 0.914 ha

Also cost of total bags of SOP = ?

Recommended N-P-K = 250-200-125 kg/ha

Price of SOP = PKR 3950/50 kg

Solution:

Total Potash (K) required = 125 * 0.914 = 114.32 kg

SOP contains how much K = 50%

For 50 kg K = 100 kg SOP

For 1 kg K = 100/50 kg SOP

For 114.32 kg K = 100/50 * 114.32 = 228.64 kg SOP (Amount of SOP)

No. of bags of SOP = 228.64/50 = 4.57

Cost of 4.57 SOP bags = 3950 * 4.57 = PKR 1851.5