Vision IAS GS 1 VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL

https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website ➡ https://upscpdf.com https://t.
me/UPSC_PDF
GS 1 POST INDEPENDENT INDIA VISION IAS VALUE ADDITION.pdf

GS 1 COMMUNALISM VISION IAS VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL
GS 1 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION
GS 1 INDIAN SOCIETY VISION IAS VALUE ADDITION MATERIALS
GS 1 MIGRATION
GS 1 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES
GS 1 REGIONALISM VISION IAS VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL
GS 1 ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORG
GS 1 SECULARISM VISION IAS VALUE ADDITION.pdf
GS 1 URBANIZATION VISION IAS VALUE ADDITION MATERIALS
Website ➡ https://upscpdf.com
https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website ➡ https://upscpdf.com https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
VISION IAS
www.visionias.in
VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL – 2018

PAPER I: POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA
POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA
Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission of Vision IAS
DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS
Post-Independence Consolidation and Reorganization

within the Country
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: NATION BUILDING AND CONSOLIDATION: PROCESS AND CHALLENGES ............................................. 3
A. Partition and its Aftermath ........................................................................................................................... 3
B. Integration of Princely States ........................................................................................................................ 5
C. Tribal Integration .......................................................................................................................................... 9
D. Issue of Language ....................................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2: DEMOCRATISATION: PROCESS, CHALLENGES AND ACHIEVEMENTS ................................................. 12
A. Emergence of Electoral Politics ................................................................................................................... 12
B. Dominance of Congress System .................................................................................................................. 13
C. The Opposition Parties ............................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER: 3 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................. 17
A. Mixed Economy Model (Socialism).............................................................................................................. 17
B. Planning and its Impact ............................................................................................................................... 17
C. Green Revolution ........................................................................................................................................ 19
D. Land Reforms and the Cooperatives ........................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 4: INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS ......................................................................................................... 26
A. Introduction to India's Foreign Policy .......................................................................................................... 26
B. Relations with Neighbors: An Overview ...................................................................................................... 27
C. India's Nuclear Policy .................................................................................................................................. 29
CHAPTER 5: THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER ................................................................................................ 30
A. Emergency.................................................................................................................................................. 30
B. J. P. Movement ........................................................................................................................................... 31
C. Naxalite Movement and Maoist Insurgency ................................................................................................ 32
D. Communalism ............................................................................................................................................ 32
CHAPTER 6: REGIONAL DISCONTENT AND ITS SOLUTION .................................................................................... 34
A. Basis of Regionalism ................................................................................................................................... 34
B. Issue of J & K, Punjab .................................................................................................................................. 35
C. Problems with North-East Region................................................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER 7: REORGANIZATION OF THE STATES ................................................................................................... 39
A. Formation of Linguistic States ..................................................................................................................... 39
B. Unique cases of reorganization ................................................................................................................... 40
C. Recent Reorganizations of States ................................................................................................................ 41
1 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS
CHAPTER 1: NATION BUILDING AND CONSOLIDATION: PROCESS

AND CHALLENGES
In the immediate aftermath of independence India faced challenges at multiple levels. Firstly, it was country vast
in geographical expanse and diversity. Secondly, the society was plagued with disparity, inequality and illiteracy.
Thirdly, in economic sphere poverty was rampant after the ravages of centuries of colonial rule and industry as
well as agriculture was in abysmal shape. These challenges led to many observers predict the disintegration of
India, especially as it adopted a democratic system of government despite not possessing the conditions
considered to be necessary for democracy to flourish.
However, strength of the nascent nation lay in the fact that it was endowed with natural resources and industrious
people. Also, the national struggle had provided leadership, institutions and experiences that would aid in facing
the challenges mentioned earlier. Thus, the challenges over the time shaped the key goals to be achieved in the
process of nation building and making India a success story.
In concrete terms the challenges facing India at the time of independence have been variously identified as:
i. The first and immediate challenge was to shape a nation that was united, yet accommodative of the
diversity in our society. Due to the large landscape, different cultures with different regions and religions,
variety of spoken languages, many people widely believed that a country with such amount of diversity
could not remain together for long.
ii. The second challenge was to establish democracy. India adopted representative democracy based on the
parliamentary form of government. These features strived to ensure that the political competition would
take place in a democratic framework. The challenge was to develop democratic practices in accordance
with the constitution.
iii. The third challenge was to ensure inclusive development and well-being of the entire society. Due to the
widespread poverty, the real challenge now was to evolve effective polices for economic development
and eradication of poverty.
These can be also seen as the goals to be achieved by independent India:
• Preserving, consolidating and strengthening territorial integrity and fostering national unity
• Developing democratic consciousness and institutionalizing it.
• Ensuring economic development and self-reliance.
The issue of national integration and unity involved both internal and external aspects. The internal elements
included the issue of princely states, linguistic regions and inter-communal relations especially in the aftermath of
partition. External elements included, situation in the neighborhood and the evolving international environment.
A. Partition and its Aftermath

Independence came with partition resulting in large scale communal violence and displacement. Thus, at the
outset unity and social cohesion were challenged by the legacy left by the colonial rule.
Legacy and issues of Partition : Boundaries, Displacement and Rehabilitation
India was accompanied by Pakistan in independence. Thus, two nation states came into existence, because of
'partition' of British India. Pakistan was culmination of the communal politics engendered by the British rule and
championed by the Muslim League as "two nation theory" which implied India consisted of two 'People' Hindus
and Muslims.
Due to the forceful circumstances and several political developments in 1940's the political competition between
the Congress and the Muslim League and the British role led to the decision for the creation of Pakistan.
Boundaries:
A very important task at hand was demarcation of boundaries. After 3 rd June plan of Mountbatten a British jurist
Sir Cyril Radcliff was invited to fix the problem and to form two boundary commissions one for Bengal and one for
Punjab. Four other members were also there in commission but there was a deadlock between Congress and
Muslim league. On 17th August, 1947 he announced his award.
Implications of the Radcliff Award:
It was decided to follow the principle of religious majorities which means that areas where the Muslims were in
majority would make up the territory of Pakistan. The remaining was to stay with India.
The principle of religious majorities had entailed with it so many difficult positions:
i. There were two areas of concentration with Muslim majority, In the West and East part of India. Hence,
it was decided that the new country. Pakistan will comprise two territories, West and East Pakistan.
ii. Not all the Muslims were in favour joining Pakistan. Frontier Gandhi, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, the
undisputed leader of the North West Frontier Province, staunchly opposed the two nation theory. But
as Khudai khidmatgar of Abdul Ghaffar Khan boycotted the Plebiscite due to provision of limited
franchise rights in that, the lone contender in the fray, the Muslim League, won the vote by default and
in the end NWFP was made to merge with Pakistan.
iii. Two Muslims majority concentrated provinces of British India, Punjab and Bengal had very large areas
with non-Muslims population in the majority. Eventually it was decided that these two provinces would
be bifurcated according to the religious majority at the district or even lower level. The partition of these
two provinces caused the prolonged trauma of Partition.
iv. The last difficult position was of "minorities" on both the sides of the border. Minorities then on either
side lived in fear and fled from their homes to save their lives from brutal violence unleashed during
partition.
Limitation of this award:
a) Justice Radcliff had no prior knowledge about India.
b) He had no specialized knowledge needed for the task also.
c) He had no advisors and experts.
d) 6 week deadline that Radcliff had was also a limitation of this award.
Consequence of Partition:
The year 1947, saw the one of the most abrupt and haphazard, tragic transfer of people that human history had
ever witnessed.
• There were brutal killings, atrocities, rapes, on both sides of the border.
• The cities like Lahore, Amritsar, Kolkata (then Calcutta) got divided into "Communal Zones".
• In many cases women were killed by their own family members to preserve the 'family honor'.
• Everything was divided then from tables, chairs to government officials.
• It is estimated that the Partition forced about 80 lakhs people to migrate across the new border.
• Between five to 10 lakh people were killed in Partition related violence.
Relief and rehabilitation:
The government of India was successful in providing relief and in resettlement and rehabilitation of nearly six
million refugees from Pakistan.
• A department of rehabilitation was created.
• Various refugee camps were set up some notable being camp at Kurukshetra and Kolwada camp at
Bombay.
• Many of the Hindus and Sikhs fleeing West Punjab were directed by the government of India to refugee
camp in Kurukshetra. A vast city of tents had grown up on the plain, to house waves of migrants,
sometimes up to 20,000 a day.
• Kurukshetra was the largest of the nearly 200 camps set up to house refugees from West Punjab. While
there were five refugee camps in Mumbai for refugees from Sindh region.
Some refugees had arrived before the date of transfer of power; among them prescient businessmen who had
sold their properties in advance and migrated with the proceeds. However, the vast majority came after15 August
1947, and with little more than the clothes on their skin. These were the farmers who had ‘stayed behind till the
last moment, firmly resolved to remain in Pakistan if they could be assured of an honourable living’. But when, in
September and October, the violence escalated in the Punjab, they had to abandon that idea. The Hindus and
Sikhs who were lucky enough to escape the mobs fled to India by road, rail, sea and on foot.
Camps such as Kurukshetra were but a holding operation. The refugees had to be found permanent homes and
productive work. Thus refugees required land for permanent settlement. As it happened, a massive migration
had also taken place the other way, into Pakistan from India. Thus, the first place to resettle the refugees was on
land vacated by Muslims in the eastern part of the Punjab. If the transfer of populations had been ‘the greatest
mass migration’ in history now commenced ‘the biggest land resettlement operation in the world’.
• As against 2.7 million hectares abandoned by Hindus and Sikhs in West Punjab, there were only 1.9
million hectares left behind by Muslims in East Punjab.
• The shortfall was made more acute by the fact that the areas in the west of the province had richer soils,
and were more abundantly irrigated.
To begin with, each family of refugee farmers was given an allotment of four hectares, regardless of its holding
in Pakistan. Loans were advanced to buy seed and equipment. While cultivation commenced on these temporary
plots, applications were invited for permanent allotments.
Each family was asked to submit evidence of how much land it had left behind. Applications were received from
10 March 1948; within a month, more than half a million claims had been filed. These claims were then verified
in open assemblies consisting of other migrants from the same village. As each claim was read out by a government
official, the assembly approved, amended, or rejected it.
Expectedly, many refugees were at first prone to exaggeration. However, every false claim was punished,
sometimes by a reduction in the land allotted, in extreme cases by a brief spell of imprisonment. This acted as a
deterrent; still, an officer closely associated with the process estimated that there was an overall inflation of about
25 per cent. To collect, collate, verify and act upon the claims a Rehabilitation Secretariat was set up in Jullundur.
At its peak there were about 7,000 officials working there; they came to constitute a kind of refugee city of their
own.
Leading the operations was the director general of rehabilitation, Sardar Tarlok Singh of the Indian Civil Service.
A graduate of the London School of Economics, Tarlok Singh used his academic training to good effect, making two
innovations that proved critical in the successful settlement of the refugees.
Thus the task of rehabilitation took time to accomplish and by 1951, the problem of the rehabilitation of the
refugees from West Pakistan had been fully tackled.
The rehabilitation on East took years and it was more difficult because of constant exodus of Hindus from East
Bengal continued for years.
Beyond Partition: Challenges of internal consolidation
After handling this worst nightmare of Partition, Indian leadership strived to consolidate India from within and
look after its internal affairs.
Plan of consolidation:
The broad strategy for national consolidation after 1947 involved:
1. Territorial integration,
2. Mobilization of political and institutional resources
3. Economic development, and
4. Adoption of polices which would promote social justice, remove glaring inequalities and provide equal
opportunities.
B. Integration of Princely States

Unifying post partition India and the princely states under one administration was perhaps the most important
task faced by then political leadership. In colonial India, nearly 40% of the territory was occupied by five hundred
sixty five small and large states ruled by princes who enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy under the system of
British Paramountcy. British power protected them from their own people as also from external aggression so long
as they did British bidding.
As the British left, many of 565 princely states, began to dream of independence. They had claimed that the
paramountcy could not be transferred to the new states of India and Pakistan. The ambitions were fuelled by the
then British PM Clement Attlee announcement on Feb 20, 1947 that "His Majesty's Government does not intend
to hand over their powers and obligations under paramountcy to any government of British India".
With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using both persuasion and pressure, Sardar Patel succeeded in
integrating the hundreds of princely states. Few princely states joined Constituent Assembly with wisdom &
realism, but other princely states still stayed away from joining it. Princely states of Travancore, Bhopal, and
Hyderabad publicly announced their desire to claim an independent status.
On June 27, 1947, Sardar Patel assumed additional charge of the newly created states department with V.P.
Menon as its Secretary.
The government's approach was guided by three considerations. :
i. The people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to become part of the Indian Union.
ii. The government was prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions. The idea was to
accommodate plurality & adopt a flexible approach in dealing with the demands of the regions.
iii. In the back drop of Partition, the integration and consolidation of the territorial boundaries of the nation
had assumed supreme importance.
Patel threw a series of lunch parties where he requested his princely guests to help the Congress in framing the
new constitution for India. Patel's first step was to appeal to the princes whose territories fell inside India to
accede to the Indian Union in three subjects which affected the common interests of the country, namely, foreign
relations, defence and communications. He also gave an implied threat he would not be able to restrain the
impatient people post August 15, 1947. States were issued an appeal with an implied threat of anarchy and chaos.
Next step of Patel was to convince Mountbatten to bat for India. 25th July speech of Mountbatten to the
Chamber of Princes finally persuaded the Princes. This speech ranked as the most significant Act of Mountbatten
in India. After this, virtually all the states except 3 signed the instrument of accession.
One was Travancore under the Maharaja of Travancore Chithira Thirunal but the real ruler was its Diwan C. P.
Ramaswamy Aiyyer. There was an attack on C. P. Aiyyar, and after that it was Maharaja of Travancore which wired
the government that they are ready for accession.
Jodhpur-, it’s accession was a serious issue due to its proximity to border. The young king was also being wooed
by Jinnah but after tremendous pressure from Patel, finally he signed the Instrument of accession to India.
Bhopal- Mainly had hindu population and its ruler was Habibullah Khan who was supported by Jinnah. There was
a mass revolt against the Bhopal ruler, he faced pressure from Patel and common population and finally he signed
the Instrument of Accession.
Thus before August 15, 1947 peaceful negotiations had brought almost all states whose territories were
contiguous to the new boundaries of India, into the Indian Union. The rulers of most of the states signed a
document called the "Instrument of Accession" which meant that their respective states agreed to become a part
of the Union of India.
Accession of the princely states of Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and Manipur proved more difficult than the
rest.
i. Junagadh was a small state on the coast of Saurashtra surrounded by Indian Territory without any
geographical contiguity with Pakistan. Yet it’s Nawab Mohabbat Khan announced accession of his state
to Pakistan on August 15, 1947 even though majority of the people, overwhelmingly Hindu, desired to
join India.
People of the state organized a popular movement and a group of Junagarhi people forced the Nawab to
flee and formed Aarze Hukumat (Provisional government) it was led by Samal Das Gandhi. The Dewan of
Junagadh, Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the father of the more famous Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto now decided to invite
the Government of India to intervene. Indian troops marched into the state. Later, a plebiscite was held
in state in 20 February 1948, which favoured joining India.
ii. In the state of Kashmir, The Hindu ruler of the state Hari Singh, did not wish to merge with India and tried
to negotiate with India and Pak to have an independent status for his state. Since majority of the
population of the state was Muslim, the Pakistani leaders assumed that the Kashmir region 'belonged'
to them.
The popular movement in the state, led by Sheikh Abdullah, wanted to get rid of the Maharaja, but was
against joining Pak. Sheikh Abdullah formed the National conference which was a secular organization &
had a long association with the Congress. Abdullah asked Dogra dynasty to quit and hand over the power
to people.
On 15th August Hari Singh offered standstill agreement with both countries which would allow the free
movement of people and goods. Pakistan signed the agreement but India didn’t and followed the policy
of wait and watch. Pakistan became impatient and started violating standstill agreement. Mehar Chand
Mahajan the then prime minister of Kashmir complained about economic blockade and breach of standstill
agreement to the British government. Reports of atrocities against the Muslim population of Poonch by
Maharajah’s forces further stoked a civil unrest against the ruler. On 22nd October several pathan
tribesmen unofficially led by Pakistan’s army officer invaded the state from north and reached up to
Baramullah, and were further advancing towards Srinagar.
On 24th October Hari Singh asked for military assistance from Indian government. Mountbatten pointed
out that India could send its troops only after the state of Kashmir signed a formal instrument of accession.
V. P. Menon went to Kashmir and on 26th October Maharaja signed instrument of accession and also
agreed upon Abdullah being appointed as the Head of the state administration. On the morning of 27th
October nearly 100 Indian planes airlifted men and weapons to Srinagar. Pakistan army left the main
valley region but continued to occupy a large chunk of territory of Gilgit, Baltistan region. National
conference volunteers worked with the Indian Army to drive out the Pakistan infiltrators. Sheikh Abdullah
became the Prime Minister. In November 1947 Mountbatten flew to Lahore on a peace mission. There
took place a meeting with Jinnah but no agreement could be made. Jinnah alleged that Kashmir accession
was based upon fraud and violence. Nehru wrote to Hari Singh that he wanted a final solution to Kashmir.
On 1 January 1948 India decided to take the Kashmir issue to UN:
• It was based on the advice of Lord Mountbatten.
• The underlying logic is explained by Ramchandra Guha: “since Kashmir had acceded to it, India
wanted the UN to help clear the northern parts of… illegal occupation by groups loyal to
Pakistan.;
At the security council the issue was transformed from ‘the Kashmir question’ to the ‘India- Pakistan question’. It
happened, in part, due to the success of Pakistan’s representative, Sir Zafarullah Khan, in painting the issue as a
consequence of partition riots in north India. Thus, the issue was left as an unfinished agenda of the partition.
The debate in UN was marked by partisanship of the British. Philip Noel Baker, as Britain’s representative, strongly
backed Pakistan’s position. The developments at the Security Council made Nehru regret his decision as he saw
UN being run by the Americans who like the British were sympathetic to the case of Pakistan.
Security Council resolution 47 on 21 April 1948 enforced a ceasefire between India and Pakistan. In 1951
constituent assembly met in Srinagar to formulate a constitution for state and it ratified the accession in 1954.
In 1951 the UN passed a resolution for a referendum under UN supervision contingent on Pakistan
withdrawing its troops. This resolution remains ineffective because Pakistan never withdrew its force from
what is called Azad Kashmir or Pakistan Occupied Kashmir.
iii. Hyderabad: Surrounded entirely by Indian Territory, Hyderabad was the largest of the princely states .
Its ruler, the "Nizam", had claimed an independent status and in November 1947 the Government of India
signed a standstill agreement with him. Sardar Patel patiently waited a negotiated solution as he felt time
was on India’s side and Lord Mountbatten was interested in acting as an intermediary.
Though encouraged by Pakistan, the Nizam failed to get dominion status from the British. Thus, he
engaged in negotiations with the government of India. It was expected by the government that while the
negotiations went on the Nizam would introduce representative government in his state helping the way
for merger. Nizam hoped to prolong negotiations and build up his military strength in order to force India
to accept his sovereignty; He also kept the option of acceding to Pakistan open in view of the tensions
over Kashmir between India and Pakistan.
iv. Within the state the Majlis-e-Ittehad-ul Muslimeen or MIM (Council of the Union of Muslims) and its
paramilitary wing the Razakars grew strong with the official help. The MIM advocated the setup of a
Muslim dominion rather than integration with India. On the other hand the Hyderabad state Congress
had in August 1947 launched a powerful satyagraha movement to enforce democratization. The response
of Nizam to the popular movement was repression. This accompanied by violence by Razakars forced
thousands of people to flee the states and take shelter in Indian territory
v. In the Telangana region of the state a Communist led peasant movement had already developed since
1946. It received impetus as peasant dalams organized against the attacks by Razakars. Big land lords were
attacked and the land was distributed among peasant and landless.
By June 1948 As the negotiations dragged on, Sardar Patel grew impatient. He conveyed to Nehru that it was time
to convey to the Nizam that nothing short of unqualified acceptance of accession and introduction of responsible
government would be acceptable to the government of India.
After holding back for long even in the face of provocations by the Nizam administration, including increasing
import of arms, and the atrocities of Razakars, the Indian army moved into Hyderabad on 13 September 1948. The
police operation was code named operation Polo.
Within three days the Nizam had surrendered and finally acceded to the Indian Union in November 1948. The
government treated Nizam with generosity by retaining him as the Rajpramukh and allowing him the privy purse
of Rs 5 Million. The accession of Hyderabad completed the process of accession of princely states to India. Its
significance also lies in the fact that it marked the triumph of Indian secularism as a large number of Muslims in
Hyderabad joined in anti-Nizam struggle along with Muslims throughout the country supporting government and
action much to the disappointment of the leaders of Pakistan.
Manipur: Maharaja of Manipur Bodhchandra Singh signed the instrument of Accession with the Indian
government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.
Under the pressure of public view, the Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948 & thus the state became
a constitutional monarchy. Manipur was the first part of India to hold an election based on universal adult
franchise.
There were some differences over Manipur's merger with India. The state Congress was in favour of merger with
India, but other political parties opposed this view. The government of India succeeded in pressurizing the
Maharaja into signing a Merger Agreement in September 1949, without consulting the popularly elected
Legislative Assembly of Manipur. This caused a lot of anger and resentment in Manipur, the consequences of
which are still being felt.
Other States:
Smaller states were either merged with the neighboring states or merged together to 'form centrally
administered areas'. A large number of states were consolidated into five new unions, forming Madhya Bharat,
Rajasthan, Patiala and East Punjab states Union [PEPSU], Saurashtra and Travancore-Cochin. Mysore, Hyderabad
and Jammu and Kashmir retained their original form as separate states of the Union.
In return of their surrender of all power and authority, the rulers of major states were given privy purses
guaranteed by the constitution. The rulers were allowed succession to the ‘gaddi’ and retained certain privileges
such as keeping their titles, flying their personal flags and gun salutes on ceremonial occasions.
French and Portuguese settlements:
After integration of princely states two troubled spots were French settlement and Portuguese settlements. After
prolonged negotiation Pondicherry and other French possessions were handed over to India in 1954.
Portuguese were not ready to handover their areas. Its NATO allies supported Portugal’s position and India
supported peaceful means. There was a independence movement in Goa, India remained patient even in face of
Portuguese repression in Goac. Eventually, however, in 1961 when that popular movement asked for support,
Indian troops marched in Goa in under Operation Vijay and Portuguese authorities surrendered without any fight.
C. Tribal Integration
The uphill task of integrating the tribal population into the mainstream was extremely difficult given the diverse
conditions under which they dwell in different parts of the country, having different cultures and speaking varied
languages.
• Tribal population was spread all over India, their greatest concentration lies in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Orissa, North-eastern India, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Except the North-East,
they constitute minorities in their home states. Residing mostly in the hills and forest areas, in colonial
India they lived in relative isolation and their tradition, habits, cultures and ways of life were exceptionally
different with that of their non-tribal neighbours.
• Penetration of market forces and colonial rule led to radical transformation effectively. A large number of
money lenders, traders, revenue farmers and other middlemen and petty officials invaded the tribal
areas and disrupted the traditional way of life of tribal people. Consequently they were engulfed in debt
and lost their lands to outsiders.
• To conserve forests and to facilitate their commercial exploitation, the colonial authorities brought large
tracts of forest lands under forest laws which forbade shifting cultivation and put severe restrictions on
the use of forest and access to forest products for the tribals.
• Loss of land, indebtness, exploitation by middlemen, denial of access to forests and forest products,
oppression and extortion by policemen, forest officials and other government officials was to lead to a
series of tribal uprisings in the nineteenth & twentieth centuries, e.g. Santhal & Munda rebellion.
Roots of India Tribal Policy:
The government of India led by Jawaharlal Nehru favoured the policy of integrating the tribal people in Indian
society, of making them an integral part of the Indian nation, even while maintaining their distinct identity and
culture.
Prime Minister Nehru was the main influence in shaping government's attitude towards the tribals. Nehru stood
for economic and social development of the tribal people in multifarious ways, especially in the fields of
communications, modern medical facilities, agriculture and education.
Nehru thought that Indian nationalism was capable of accommodating the uniqueness of tribal people. The
nationalist policy towards tribals since the 1920s was underlined by Gandhiji’s efforts to set up ashrams in the
tribal areas and promotion of constructive work.
There were certain broad guidelines laid down by Nehru, with the help of Verrier Elwin [British Anthropologist]
which was called as "Tribal Panchsheel". They are:
1. Tribal people should be afforded the opportunity to develop along the line of their own genius & imposing
anything on them should be avoided. Attempt should be to encourage in every way their own traditional
arts and culture.
2. Tribals rights to land and forest should be respected.
3. They should be trained in building up a team of their own people to do the work of administration and
development. Some technical personnel from outside will no doubt, be needed, especially in the beginning.
Introducing too many outsiders into tribal territory should be avoided.
4. These areas should not be over administered or overwhelmed with multiplicity of schemes. Attempt
should be to work through & not in rivalry with, their own social & cultural institutions.
5. Results should be judged not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but by the quality of human
character that is involved.
To give shape to government's policy, provision was made in the constitution itself.
• Under article 46 – the state should promote with special care the educational and economic intersects of
the tribal people & should protect them from social injustice & all forms of exploitation.
Critical Appraisal of the policy and its impact:
In spite of the constitutional safeguards and the efforts of central & state governments, the tribal progress and
welfare has been a slow a process. Except the North East, the tribals continue to be poor, indebted, landless and
often unemployed. The problem lies in weak execution of even well intentioned measures.
i. Quite often the funds allocated for tribal welfare are not spent or are spent without corresponding results
and sometimes funds are even misappropriated. The watch dog of tribal interests, Tribal Advisory Council
has not functioned effectively.
ii. Administrative personnel are either ill trained or prejudiced against tribals.
iii. A major handicap from which tribals suffer is denial of justice, often because of their unfamiliarity with
the laws & the legal system.
iv. Violation of strict land transfer laws for tribals, leading to alienation of land & eviction of tribals.
v. Rapid extension of mines & industries has worsened their conditions in many areas.
vi. The progress of education among the tribal people has been disappointingly slow.
vii. Exploitation from the forest officials and unsympathetic attitude of officials.
Positive Developments due to state's Initiative:
Certain positive developments in the tribal sphere have occurred since 1947.
1. Legislation to protect tribal rights & interests, activities of the tribal welfare departments, Panchayati
Raj, Tribal Advisory Councils in all states containing tribal areas to advise on matters concerning the
welfare of tribals.
2. Spread of literacy and education, reservations in government services and in Parliament, state
assemblies, reservation in higher education institutions, repeated elections have led to increasing
confidence among the tribal people & greater political participation by them, at least by growing middle
classes & intelligentsia among them in the constitutional political processes.
Even though there are some regions where the benefits of positive discrimination by the states have reached,
certain tribal regions are still lagging behind. Protest movements have sprung up among tribals out of their
frustration with the lack of development & welfare. Some of the protest movements have taken to violence leading
to strong state action against them.
D. Issue of Language
Linguistic identity during first 20 years after independence had become a strong force in all societies. Due to
diversity in languages, this issue became more difficult to tackle.
The challenges posed to national consolidation by linguistic diversity manifested in two ways:
1. The dispute over official language .
Demands for linguistic reorganization of the states The Official Language:
• The issue of the status of Hindi as a national language led to conflict between Hindi speaking and non-
Hindi speaking regions of the country.
• The issue of a national language was resolved when the constitution-makers virtually accepted all the
major languages as "languages of India".
• Being a foreign language Gandhi opposed the idea that English would be an all India medium of
communications in free India.
• Sharp differences marked the initial debates as the problem of the official language was highly political
from the beginning.
• Hindi was chosen over Hindustani [written in Devanagari or Urdu script] to be the official language of
India. The issue of the time-frame for a shift from English to Hindi further caused friction between Hindi
& non Hindi areas. Proponents of Hindi wanted immediate switch over, while non-Hindi areas advocated
retention of English for a longer if not indefinite period.
• Nehru was in favour of making Hindi the official language, but he also favoured English to be continuing
as an additional official language.
• The constitution provided that Hindi in Devanagari script with international numerals would be India's
official language. As for English, it was to be used for all official purposes till 1965, when it would be
replaced by Hindi in phased manner. However, Parliament would have the power to provide for the use
of English for specified purposes even after 1965.
• The constitution mandated the government to promote the spread and development of Hindi & provides
for the appointment of Commission & a Joint Parliamentary Committee to review the progress in this
respect.
• The state legislatures were to classify the matter of official language at state level, though the official
language of the Union would serve as the language of communication between the states and the centre
& between one state & another.
• In 1956, the report of the official language commission set up in 1955 in terms of a constitutional
provision, recommended that Hindi should start progressively replacing English in various functions of
the central government with effective change taking place in 1965. Two members of commission, one
each from West Bengal & Tamil Nadu, dissented this while accusing other members for pro-Hindi Bias.
• JPC [Joint Parliamentary Committee] reviewed the report to implement the recommendations of JPC,
President issued an order in April 1960 stating that after 1965 Hindi would be the Principal official
language, but English would continue without any restriction as the associate official language.
• To promote Hindi, according to President's directive, central government took a series of steps to
promote Hindi. These includes the setting up of Central Hindi Directorate, publication of standard works
in Hindi or in Hindi translation in various fields, compulsory training of central government employees in
Hindi and translation of major text of law into Hindi & promotion of their use by the courts.
• To allay the fear of non-hindi speakers Nehru in the Parliament in 1959, assured them that English would
continue as alternate language as long as the people require it. In 1963, official languages Act was passed.
The objective of the Act, was to remove a restriction which had been placed by the constitution on the
use of English after a certain dates namely 1965.
• Due to ambiguity in Official Languages Act caused by the use of "may" instead of "shall", it attracted
criticism.
• In protest many non-Hindi leaders, who had earlier demanded slowing down of the replacement of
English, now shifted their stand and demanded that there should be no deadline fixed for the transition.
• There were widespread protests in Tamil Nadu, some students burned themselves. Two Tamil Ministers
in Union Cabinet, C. Subramaniam & Alagesan resigned, 60 people died due to police firing during
agitation.
• In 1967 the Indira Gandhi government amended the 1963 official Languages Act. Features of Amended
Act are as follows:
1. The Act put to rest all the ambiguities regarding Nehru's assurance in 1959. It provided the use of English
as an associate language in addition to Hindi for the official work at the centre & for communication
between the centre and Hindi will continue to be an official language in non Hindi states as long as non-
Hindi states wanted it.
2. Indefinite policy of bilingualism was adopted.
3. The states were to adopt a three language formula that is study of one modern Indian language,
preferably one of the Southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi speaking areas and of
Hindi along with the regional languages and English in the non-Hindi speaking areas;
4. The Parliament adopted a policy resolution laying down that the public service exams were to be
conducted in Hindi & English as well as in all the regional languages with the provision that the candidates
should have additional knowledge of Hindi or English.
The Government of India took another important step on language in July 1967. On the basis of the report of the
education commission in 1966 it declared that Indian languages would ultimately become the medium of
education in all subjects at the University level, though the time from for the changeover would be decided by
each university to suit its convenience.
CHAPTER 2: DEMOCRATISATION: PROCESS, CHALLENGES AND

ACHIEVEMENTS
One of the most important achievements of India in years since independence is the adoption of democratic polity
and adhering to it despite the odds. As political scientist Samuel Huntington observed India in this context “is a
dramatic exception".
A. Emergence of Electoral Politics

India defied many predictions and social-scientific generalization when in the face of all odds it affirmed its faith
in opting for democracy at the inception of independence. Provision of a universal adult franchise at the very
outset, was all the more remarkable given the prevailing challenges. These challenges, as observed by many, were:
• largely poor and illiterate population
• Immense geographic, social and economic diversity.
Never in history was such an experiment undertaken. The success of India in this context over the years has
become an example to be emulated for other countries across the globe.
It is noteworthy that when faced with such serious challenges, other leaders from different countries did not prefer
democracy as a form of governance. Leadership in many of the newly independent countries argued that when
the priority was national unity, democracy was not thought of as suitable as it would bring differences and
conflicts. Hence, various forms of non-democratic regimes were adopted in many of the newly independent
countries. Post-independence the political leadership in India believed that while competition and power are the
two most visible things about politics, the intention of political activity should be deciding and pursuing public
interest.
Setting up Institutional aspects of the democratic system
After adoption of constitution on January 26, 1950, It was necessary to install the first democratically elected
government of the country. The Election commission of India was set up in January 1950 with a constitutional
provision to conduct free and fair elections. Sukumar Sen became the first Chief Election Commissioner, at that
time the ECI was single member body.
India has adopted universal adult franchise model of democracy where any person with prescribed condition of
age, could vote without any form of discriminations. Election commission soon realized that it was an uphill task
to conduct a free and fair election in a country of India's size. Holding an election required delimitation or drawing
the boundaries of constituencies and preparation of electoral rolls. Nearly 40 lakh women registered themselves
as wives or daughters of somebody rather registering themselves by their names. The election commission
refused to accept these entries and ordered a revision if possible and deletion if necessary.
Preparing for the first general election was a huge exercise. No election on this scale had ever been conducted
in the world before. At that time there were 17 crores eligible voters, who had to elect about 489 MPs of Lok
Sabha and 3200 MLA of state assemblies. Only 15% of these eligible voters were literate. Hence Election
Commission had sought some special method of voting, like the candidates were to be identified by symbols,
assigned to each major party and independent candidates, painted on the ballot papers in the box assigned to a
particular candidate and ballot was secret.
Election Commission trained over 3 lakh officers and polling staff to conduct the election. Democracy took a giant
step forward with the first elections. These elections were the biggest experiment in democracy anywhere in the
world. Many people were skeptical about the democratic elections being conducted in the caste ridden, multi
religious, illiterate and backward society like India.
Over 224000 polling booths were organised, one for almost every 1000 voters were constructed and equipped
with over 2.5 million steel ballot boxes one box for every candidate. Nearly 620,000,000 ballot papers were
printed. In a first past the post contest whoever got the plurality or the largest number of votes would get elected.
In all, candidates of over 14 national and 63 regional or local parties and a large number of independents
contested the elections. Nearly 17500 candidates in all stood for the seats to the Lok Sabha and the state
legislatures. The elections were spread out over nearly four months from Oct 25, 1951 to Feb 21, 1952 Later this
period was reduced to nineteen days in 1957 and 07 to 10 days in subsequent elections. Suitable conditions were
created for free participation of opposition parties in elections including Jan Sangh & communist party of India
(CPI). Nehru vigorously campaigned for the Congress. He made communalism the central issue of his campaign,
due to the basic struggle at that time between secular and communal forces in the background of partition inflicted
communal violence and riots. The elections were conducted in a fair, free, impartial and orderly manner with very
little violence.
People's response to the new political order was tremendous. They participated in the polls with enough
knowledge that their vote was a prized possession. At certain places, people treated polling as a festival wearing
festive clothes, women wearing their jewellery. Despite higher percentage of poverty and illiteracy, the number
of invalid votes cast was a low as 0.3% to 0.4%. A remarkable feature was the widespread participation of women:
at least 40% of women eligible to vote did so. Thus, the faith of the leadership in the people was fully justified.
When the elections results were declared, it was realised that nearly 46% of the eligible voters had cast their
vote.
There were many political parties which had participated in country's first general elections and state assemblies
elections in free India. Starting from the Indian National Congress to Socialist Party, Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party,
Communist and allies, Jan Singh, Hindu Mahasabha, RRP [Ram Rajya Parishad] other local parties and
independents. The Congress had emerged as the single largest party by winning 364 seats with 45% of total
polled votes for Lok Sabha. The Congress formed all the government in all the states and at the centre too. It did
not get a majority on its own in four states–Madras, Travancore-Cochin, Orissa, PEPSU but formed governments
even there with the help of independents and smaller local parties which then merged with it. The communist
performance was big surprise and it emerged as the second largest group in the Lok Sabha. Princes and big
landlords still wielded a great deal of influence in some parts of the country. Their party Gantantra Parishad won
31 seats in Orissa Assembly.
Despite the numerically dominant position of the Congress, the opposition was quite effective in parliament.
Other forms of political participation such as trade unions, Kishan Sabha, strikes, hartals, bands and
demonstrations were available to the middle classes, organized working class and sections of the rich and
middle class peasantry. Elections were the main form of direct political participation for the vast mass of rural and
urban poor.
After 1952, during the Nehru years, two other general elections were held for the Lok Sabha and state assemblies
in 1957 & 1962. Voter’s turnout improved in 1957 to 47% and in 1962 to 54%. In both the elections, the Congress
again emerged as a single largest party and formed government at the centre and at states level. However, in
1957, the communist were able to form a government in Kerala, which was the first democratically elected
communist government anywhere in the world.
The fair and peaceful conduct of the polls was an indication that the democratic system and institutions, a legacy
of the national movement were beginning to take root. The successful conduct of the polls was one of the reasons
why India and Nehru, came to be admired abroad, especially in the post-colonial countries.
Political leadership used elections both to promote national consolidation and to legitimize its policies of
integration. As observed by Ashok Mehta, "The parliament acted as a great unifier of the nation".
B. Dominance of Congress System

The success of Congress as the dominant party in the electoral system has led many to term the initial years of the
republic as the Congress System. This was attributed to the electoral success of the Congress as well as the
weakness of the opposition during these years. In the three general elections following independence, the
Congress gained overwhelming majority. It won three out of every four seats even when it did not win half the
total votes polled. In 1952, for example the Congress obtained 45% of the total votes, but it managed to win 74%
of the seats. In the first general elections, out of 489 seats of Lok Sabha, the Congress had won 364 seats. In the
next two general elections of 1957 and 1962 respectively, it had secured 371 and 361 seats out of total 494. It had
also formed government at the state level throughout the country with an exception in Kerala in 1957.
Nature of Congress Dominance
India is not the only exception to have experienced the dominance of one party. We can see examples of ‘one
party dominance’ in other parts of the world as well. The key difference however was that while in many other
countries democratic values and norms were compromised, in India these values and norms were upheld. In some
countries like China, Cuba and Syria the constitution allows only a single party to rule the country. Some others
like Myanmar, Belarus, Egypt and Eritrea were effectively one party state due to legal and military measure. Until
a few years ago, Mexico, South Korea and Taiwan were also effectively one party dominant states.
The Congress party had inherited the legacy of national movement led by the Indian National Congress and its
stalwarts such as Nehru and Sardar Patel were widely respected figures among the masses. Due to its strong
organizational network inherited form the days of the freedom movement, throughout the country, it reached
out to the masses instantly and connected well. It was simply not possible for other political parties to organize
themselves in such a short time and gaining confidence of the masses.
During the freedom struggle movement, INC had adopted inclusive approach and accepted membership of all
strata of the society. After independence, the Congress maintained the same characteristics. The Congress also
remained sensitive to and functioned as the medium for the reconciliation, accommodation and adjustment of
the diverse and divergent class, sectional and regional interests.
Congress was an ideological coalition. It accommodated the revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and radical,
extremist and moderate and the right, left and all shades of the centre. The accommodative nature of the Congress
party based on inner coalition tolerated and encouraged various factions and instead of being a weakness, internal
factionalism became the strength of the Congress. The system of factions functioned as balancing mechanism
within the ruling party.
In the first decade of electoral competition, the Congress acted both as the ruling party as well as the opposition.
Hence, noted political scientist, Mr. Rajni Kothari termed this period of Indian Politics as “The Congress system".
Due to the great performance of the Congress party, all opposition parties achieved only a token representation
in the Lok Sabha and State assemblies during the “Congress system”, period. In the beginning, reflecting true sense
of democracy in India, there was high degree of mutual respect between the Congress and opposition leaders.
Non-Congress political leaders such as Dr. B.R Ambedakar and Dr. Shyma Prasad Mukherjee were made part of
the first cabinet of Independent India.
However, the positive rapport between the Congress and opposition leaders gradually declined when these parties
in intense competition of achieving power did not cooperate. As the ability of Congress to accommodate all
interests and all aspirants for political power steadily declined, other political parties started gaining greater
significance.
By the mid-1960s there was increasing criticism of party in the country along with some disillusionment. Within
the party internal divisions grew overtime. Various factors led to the decline of the congress system. Factors such
as the death of two Prime Ministers in quick succession, economic crisis, agricultural failure due to drought like
situation caused by weak monsoon etc. created fertile ground for disaffection towards the Congress and space for
opposition politics. Thus, the Congress dominance constituted only a phase of country’s politics and by the 1967
general elections this phase was in decline.
C. The Opposition Parties

Electoral participation of opposition parties played a key role in maintaining the democratic character of the
system since its inception. The opposition parties offered a sustained and principled criticism of the practices
and policies of the Congress party. By keeping democratic political alternative alive, the opposition parties
prevented the resentment within the system from turning into anti-democratic.
Right for the first elections, the existence of several political parties- such as the Bhartiya Jan Sangh, the Socialist
Party, the communist Party, the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP)- was crucial for the development of a
parliamentary democracy in India. Thus, it would be prtinant to discuss the major political parties that contributed
in the democratic consolidation process in the initial years of the republic.
Socialist party
• The foundation of the socialist party was laid before independence when some leaders within the
Congress party sought more radical and egalitarian Congress. So, they formed the Congress Socialist Party
(CSP) in 1934.
• Jayprakash Narayan, Rammanohar Lohiya, Achyut patwardhan, Ashok Mehta, Acharya Narendra Dev, S.M.
Joshi were stalwart leaders of the socialist party in its various incarnations.
• Relation with the Congress was a key issue that the party faced after independence. Since the Congress
party changed the rule regarding duel membership and barred the CSP members from Congress’s
membership, the CSP leaders were compelled to form separate Socialist Party in 1948. Subsequently, after
a merger with the KMPP, the party became Praia Socialist Party in 1952.
• The socialists believed in the ideology of democratic socialism which distinguished them both from the
Congress and the communists.
• Socialist party leaders criticized Congress for favouring capitalists and landlord and ignoring teaming
masses like workers, peasants.
• Socialist party was in big dilemma when the Congress party in 1955 declared its commitment to the
socialist pattern of society. In such scenario, their leader Asoka Mehta offered limited cooperation with
the Congress. However, leaders such as Ram Manohar Lohia took a staunch anti-Congress line.
• In the contemporary times, the Samajwadi party, the Rashtriya Janta Dal (RJD), Janta Dal (United), Janta
Dal (Secular) trace their origins to the Socialist Party
Bhartiya Jan Sangh (BJS)
• BJS was formed in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukharjee and its lineage could be traced back to the R.S.S
(Rashtriya Sawayamsevek Sangh) and the Hindu Mahasabha before independence.
• The BJS emphasized the idea of one country, one culture and one nation and argued that the country
could become modern, progressive and strong on the basis of Indian culture and traditions.
• The prominent leaders of BJS were Shyama Prasad Mukharjee, Deen Dayal Upadhayaya and Balraj
Madhok.
• Even though its performance in consecutive Lok sabha elections remained unimpressive, high point of its
political journey was its merger in the Janata Pary and in the post 1977 Janata government prominent
figures of BJS such as Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Lal Krishna Advani served in the Cabinet.
• In the contemporary times, the Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP) traces its roots to B.J.S.
The communist party of India
Taking inspiration from the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, there emerged lots of communist group advocating
socialism is the solution to the problems affecting the nation in 1920’s.
• The communists worked mainly within the Congress fold, but they had separated themselves from the
Congress when they supported the British in WW-II.
• It had well organized dedicated cadre and effecient organisation to run political party.
• The communist believed in violent uprising, as they thought transfer of power was not genuine. They later
abandoned violent means and participated in general elections and emerged as second largest
opposition party.
• The party’s support was more concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Kerala.
• Their stalwart leaders included A.K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, P.C. Joshi, Ajay Ghosh
and P. Sundarrya.
• The CPI was spilt up in 1964 and the pro-china faction formed the CPI (Marxist).
• Now, the base of both has shrunk a lot and their presence concentrates in very few states of the country.
Swatantra Party
• The Swatantra party was formed in August 1959 after Nagpur resolution of the Congress which called for
land ceilings, takeover of food grain trade by the state, and adoption of cooperative farming. The party
believed lesser involvement of the government in economy. It opposed the development strategy of state
intervention in economy, central planning, nationalization, Public sector. They opposed progressive tax
regime, demanded dismantling of license Raj. It was critical of non-alignment policy and friendly relations
of India with the Soviet Union and advocated closer ties with the U.S.A.
• The industrialist and big landlords had supported this party.
• This party had a very limited influence, lacked dedicated cadres, so it didn’t perform well.
• The stalwart of party were C. Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi, N.G. Ranga and Minoo Masani.
CHAPTER: 3 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Economic Development and Planning
A. Mixed Economy Model (Socialism)

After independence, apart from extreme poverty, illiteracy, a ruined agriculture and industry, the structural
distortions created by colonialism in Indian economy and society made the future transition to self-sustained
growth much more difficult.
Ensuring wellbeing and economic development were the important challenges for the Indian leadership and to
pursue these goals, they had two models of economic development, the liberal – capitalist model followed in
U.S.A. and Europe, another was the socialist model followed in U.S.S.R. During the debate of model of economic
development, there was abroad consensus that development of India should involve economic growth and social
as well as economic justice. Hence very few people supported the American style of capitalist development. There
were many who got impressed by the Soviet model of development.
India abandoned the colonial economic model that was focused on commercial gains only.. In the democratic
polity post-independence, poverty alleviation and social-economic redistribution became the primary
responsibility of the government. Therefore India adopted the mixed model of economic development, which has
features of both the capitalist and socialist models.
Factors that generated hopes for the revival of Indian economy after centuries of colonial subjugation included:
1. There was a mature indigenous entrepreneurial class (Birlas, Tatas, Singhanias, Dalmia-Jains) that
developed an independent economic base which was an asset for post independence planned
development.
2. Wider societal consensus on the nature and path of development. Everyone from the staunch Gandhian
to the Socialists, the capitalists as well as the communists more or less agreed on following agendas:
a. Multi pronged strategy of economic development based on self reliance.
b. Rapid industrialization based on import-substitution including capital goods industries.
c. Prevention of imperialist or foreign capital.
d. Land reforms involving tenancy reforms.
e. Abolition of Zamindari system.
f. Introduction of cooperatives especially of service cooperatives like marketing, credit, etc.
Why India completely rejected the capitalist style of Modernization?
During that era, it was common for people to refer 'West' as the standard for measuring development.
Development meant becoming more and more modern like the industrialised countries of the West. India rejected
such model because majority of the people were illiterate and the breakdown of traditional social structures that
modernization required was not feasible in India. Modernisation was also associated with the ideas of growth,
material progress and scientific rationality, but due to lack of resources and education right away it was not
possible in India which was at traditional and caste based stratified society.
Indian Parliament in December 1954 accepted ' the socialist pattern of society’ as the objective of social and
economic policy. In fact the model projected was of a "mixed economy" where the public and the private sectors
were not only to co-exist but were to be complementary to each other and the private sector was to be encouraged
to grow with as much freedom as possible within the broad objectives of the national plan.
B. Planning and its Impact

There was consensus on one point that the government should plan for development, not the private sector. In
fact the idea of planning as a process of rebuilding economy earned a good deal of public support in the 1940's
and 1950's all over the world. The experience of great depression in Europe, the inter-war reconstruction of Japan
and Germany, most of all spectacular economic growth against heavy odds in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and
1940s contributed to this consensus.
Generally, it is assumed that the big business entrepreneurs are averse to the idea of planning. Contrary to this, a
section of big industrialists came together in 1944 and drafted a joint proposal for setting up a planned economy
in the country. It was called the Bombay Plan.
After the Independence, the Planning Commission was set up in March 1950 by a simple resolution of the
Government of India. It has an advisory role and its recommendation become effective only when the Union
cabinet approves these. The scope of the resolution by which Planning Commission was formed:
1. Every individual should have the right to an adequate means of livelihood.
2. Material resources of community, their ownership and control should serve the common good.
3. Economic system should operate in such a way that use of ‘means of production’ and ‘wealth’ should not
result in well being of particular community and to the detriment of the society.
As in the then U.S.S.R [United Soviet Socialist Republic], the Planning Commission of India opted for five year
plans. It was argued that five years plans had the advantage of permitting the government to focus on the larger
picture and make long term intervention in the economy. This entailed preparing a detailed plan for all income
and expenditure for the next 5 years. Accordingly the budget of the central and all the state governments was
divided into two parts:
• Non 'Planned' Budget – This is spent on routine items on a yearly basis.
• Planned Budget – This is spent on a Five year basis as per the priorities fixed by the plan. The First Five
Year Plan (1951-1956):
The draft of the first five year plan and the actual plan document was released in December 1951. People from all
walks of life-academics, journalists, government and private sector employees, industrialists, farmers, politicians
etc. discussed and debated the documents extensively.
Based on the Harrod-Domar Model, the first five year plan (1951-56) sought to get economy out of the vicious
cycle of poverty. The prominent young economist K.N. Raj proposed that India should "hasten slowly" for the
first two decades as a fast rate of development might endanger democracy. The First Five Year Plan addressed
mainly the agrarian sector including investment in dams and irrigation. Due to the bitter Partition, Agricultural
sector was hit hardest and needed urgent attention. Huge allocations were made for "Modern Temples of India"
like the Bhakhra Nangal Dam. The First Five Year Plan also focused on land reform for the country's development.
One of the basic aims of the planners was to raise the level of national income. Basic level of spending was very
low in the 1950's. Hence planners sought to push savings up. Due to the efforts of the planners, savings did rise
up and that rise continued till the Third Five Year Plan, but later it declined sharply.
Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961)
The second plan stressed on heavy industries and it was drafted by a team of economists and planners under
the strong leadership of P.C. Mahalanobis. Contrary to the patience preached in first plan, second plan aspired to
bring about quick structural transformation by making changes in all possible directions. IN 1955 the Congress
party passed a resolution in Avadi near Madras before finalization of the draft of the second plan and declared its
goal of "Socialist pattern of society". This was visible in Second Plan document. The government imposed
substantial tariffs on imports to protect domestic industries, which helped them to grow. Savings and
investments were growing, bulk of these industries like electricity, railways, steel, machineries and
communication were to be developed in the public sectors. The push for industrialization marked a turning point
in India development.
Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966):
The underlying assumption for the third plan was that the Indian economy had entered a take-off stage. Thus it
aimed at making India a 'self-reliant' and 'self-generating' economy. The chief priority of this plan was agriculture
both to enhance food supply and support the exports and industry.
However, the plan was an abject failure in achieving its targets, primarily because of extraneous factors such as
wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965) as well as severe drought in the year 1965-66. These circumstances
led to the declaration of plan holidays.
Achievements of Plans from 1947–65

1. Stepping up the rate of growth required a substantial increase in the investment rate. An important
achievement in this period was the rise in the savings and investment rates.
2. On the agrarian front, the comprehensive land reforms measures initiated soon after independence, the
setting of a massive network for agricultural extension and community development at village level, the
large infrastructural investment in irrigation, power, and agricultural research created favorable
conditions which led to the growth of agriculture output during 1949 to 65 at 3% per annum.
3. Industry during the first three plans grew more rapidly than agriculture. The industrial growth was based
on rapid import substitution of both consumer goods and capital good and intermediate goods. This
helped India in reducing India's total dependence on the advances countries for basic goods and capital
equipments.
4. Apart from industry and agriculture, the early planners gave utmost priority to the development of social
infrastructure including education and health, areas greatly neglected in the colonial past.
5. Nehru's temples of Modern India' consisted not only of steel and power plants, irrigation dams, etc. but
included institutions of higher learning particularly in the scientific field. During first Five year Plan, high
powered national laboratories and institutes were set up by the council of scientific and industrial
research for conducting fundamental and applied research in each of following areas : Physics, chemistry,
fuel, glass and ceramics food technology drugs, electro-chemistry, roads, leather and building. In 1948,
the Atomic Energy Commission was set up laying the foundations of the creditable advances India was to
make in the sphere of nuclear Science and related areas. India's scientific and technical manpower
increased more than 12 times from 190,000 to 2.32 million.
Key controversies regarding 5 year plans: The strategy of development followed in the early years raised several
important questions.
1. Agriculture vs. Industry
Many thought that the second Plan lacked an agrarian strategy for development and the stress on industry caused
agriculture and rural India to suffer badly. Veteran Gandhian economists like J.C. Kumarappa proposed an
alternative blueprint that put greater emphasis on rural industrialisation. The stress on rapid industrialisation
required import of technology for which India has to spend precious foreign exchange to buy from global market.
It was the industry that attracted more investment than agriculture even as the possibility of food shortage loomed
large.
2. Public vs. Private Sector:
The state controlled key heavy industries, provided industrial infrastructure, regulated trade and made some
crucial interventions in agriculture. Critics argued that the planners refused to provide the private sector with
enough space and the stimulus to grow. The enlarged public sector produced powerful vested interests that
created enough hurdles for private capital by installing systems of licenses and permits for investment. With the
restriction on imports, of goods, production of such goods in domestic market with little or no competition in
addition to no incentive to improve the quality of products. The state controlled more things than required which
led to inefficiency and corruption.
C. Green Revolution
Green Revolution in India is known to reduce the dependence of India on foreign aids for the supply of food grains
during the agricultural crises like droughts, floods etc. and envisaged to make India self dependent and self
sustained nation in terms of food grains availability.
Prevailing Conditions before the introduction of Green Revolution:
• The focus of Indian agriculture was only on institutional reforms, not on the technological base for
agriculture.
• Despite very credible growth of agriculture output during 1949 to 65 of 3% per annum India had been
facing food shortages since the mid 1950's.
• The massive jump in population growth rates after independence, steady rise in per capita income, huge
outlays towards planned industrialisation put long term pressures on Indian agriculture which resulted in
massive demand.
• To meet food shortage, India was forced to import food in greater amount.
• Two wars, one with China (1962) and another with Pak (1965) and successive droughts in years 1965–
1966, led to fall in agriculture output massively. Food prices shot up.
• Arm twisting policies of United States. Due to India’s stand on Vietnam and India's denial of accepting an
economy policy package. For long India depended on the United States for food import under the PL-480
Scheme.
• Due to the grim Scenario of the mid 1960's economic self reliance and food self sufficiency became top
priority objectives of Indian leadership.
Initiatives prior to Green Revolution to boost Agriculture:
• There was wrong perception prevailing during the Nehru's era that he had neglected the agriculture sector
and instead focused too much on rapid industrialisation. But contrary to this perception, Nehru had placed
great importance to create the physical and scientific infrastructure essential for Indian agriculture. There
was massive large scale irrigation and power projects like Bhakra Nangal, various agricultural Universities
and research laboratories fertilizer plant were set up.
Introduction of Green Revolution in India:
Green Revolution took place in three different phases in the various regions of the country at different point of
time.
First phase of the Green Revolution: This happened from 1962–65 to 1970-73 with the sharp increase in yield of
wheat in the north-western region which included Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.
Second phase of the Green Revolution: This happened from 1970-73 to 1980-83 with the extension of HYV High
Yielding Variety seed technology from wheat to rice, this time the technology spread was in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh particularly the coastal areas, parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and soon regions like Maharashtra,
Gujarat, improved their production too.
Third Phase: Third phase was from 1980-83, to 1992-95 showed very significant and encouraging results. This time
Green Revolution spread to the low growth areas like Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
During the last phase, Southern region registered higher rate of growth than Northern region. By the end of this
phase, the ‘coefficient of variation’ of the output growth levels and yield [per hectare] level between the various
states dropped down substantially compared to earlier decades. By the end of the last phase, there was
considerable reduction in regional inequality by increase in the prosperity in rural India.
Significant government initiatives during Green Revolution Period:
• Government investment in agriculture rose significantly. Institutional finance in agriculture sector
doubled from 1968 to 1973.
• The agricultural prices commission was set up in 1965 and efforts were made to assure the farmers a
sustained remunerative price.
• Public investment, institutional Credit remunerative prices and availability of the new technology at low
prices raised the profitability of private investment by farmers.
• The result of government's initiative was that the rate of increase in the gross irrigated area rose from 1
million hectares per annum in Pre Green Revolution to about 2.5 million hectares per annum during the
1970s.
Positive impact of Green Revolution:
• Throughout the three phases of Green Revolution food grain production rose significantly. By the 1980's
not only was India self sufficient in food with buffer food stocks of over 30 million tonnes, but also it was
exporting food to pay back its earlier loans and also giving loans to deficit countries.
• The critical impact of the Green Revolution was that it maintained the agricultural growth rates plus it
generated a rapid increase in the marketable surplus of food grains.
• The liberation from dependence on PL–480 or other imports was a major step in the direction of self
reliant independent development for India.
• The new Green Revolution technology proved not only scale neutral but also evolved an inverse
relationship between scale and productivity. Small farmers applied more inputs per unit of land
compared to large farmers.
• Small farmers became relatively more viable and did not sell out their land to large land holding farmers
in distress.
• The Green Revolution not only generated employment in agriculture but also non-agricultural rural and
semi-urban employment through the development of agro industries, transport industry, and other
agriculturally allied sectors.
• Increase in income of farmers led to the demand for factory produced consumer durables like radios,
watches, TVs, Sewing machines etc.
The surplus stocks of food-grain helped government to launch employment generating poverty alleviation
programmes in backward areas. In conclusion, the Green Revolution had a major impact on rural poverty level
which declined sharply through food availability, and it resulted in decline in relative prices of food, generating
employment in agricultural sector and agriculturally allied areas, rises in wages etc.
Negative impacts of the Green Revolution:
• Huge disparity and polarization between classes and regions resulted in favourable conditions for left
wing organisations to organise the poor peasants to follow extreme paths (seeds of Left Wing Extremism)
for their rights; the green revolution also resulted in the rise of middle peasant sections. These middle
peasants with medium size holding hugely benefitted from the changes and later emerged as politically
influential in many parts of the country.
• The negative environmental impact of excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides as well as
plateauing of the growth rates in areas like Punjab. The excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation
in many areas without adequate recharging of the sub soil aquifers is environmentally unsustainable.
• Tenants and share croppers who did not have security of tenure were perhaps the only losers.
• To appease the Farming Community in Green Revolution belt, many political parties provided subsidised
or totally free electricity which led to misuse of it and adversely affected the overall health of the Indian
economy.
D. Land Reforms and the Cooperatives

Transforming the agricultural sector and rural economy were seen as important goals and in this context land
reforms were considered important.
At the time of independence

• Ownership of land was highly concentrated
• Landlords used to extract maximum rental from tenants
• Tenants were left with no money after paying the rents and thus made no effort to develop agriculture
• They had neither resources nor knowledge
• Land was not organized and thus number of small fragments existed
• Often cultivators were shifted from one farm to another by landlords on their whims and fancies.
• Cultivators often had to supplement their farm income by working as hired laborers like their poorer
landless counterparts.
Objectives of Land Reforms
• It was to be done so that ownership of land can be clearly identified
Abolition of Intermediaries
with management and operation of land. The owner himself should
operate and manage the land.
Land ceilings • To meet the land needs of the working cultivators.
• To reduce disparity in agricultural incomes in ownership and in the use
of land.
• To increase employment opportunities in the rural sector.

Consolidation of holdings • For more efficient management.
Encouragement of co-operative • To overcome the difficulties presented by tiny holdings.

joint farming • Larger financial resources could be invested and employment
opportunities increased.
• To confirm the rights of occupancy of tenants, secure the possession of
Settlement and Regulation of
their rented land and also rents on leased land.
tenancy
Opposition to the Land Reforms

o Many argued that ceilings and tenancy legislation would, in effect, infringe upon the constitutional
guarantees.
o It was said that agricultural output of the nation would be adversely affected because small farming will
be inefficient as they would not be able to afford the cost of mechanisation.
o It was argued that land was a property and imposition of capital levy in terms of ceiling on land holding
would be an injustice when similar measures were not simultaneously adopted in other sectors.
o Since land reforms was a state subject, Planning Commission fought hard to convince the states about the
reforms. In this process the reform strategy was diluted.
o NSS collected data in 1954 which was made available to the planners in 1960. As, planners had already
formulated the policy, the magnitude of the problem involved in structural reorganization could not be
realized on time.
Implementation of the Reforms:
Abolition of Intermediaries
o While the aim was to abolish intermediaries between the tiller and the state, in actual practice the
legislative enactments equated intermediaries with the zamindars and as a result it left a class of rent
receivers and absentee landlords under ryotwari untouched.
o Intermediaries were quite successful in getting huge compensation for abolition. It may be mentioned that
Communist nations abolished it without any compensation.
Land ceilings
• There are some cases where assignments on benami basis have been made.
• Implementing the reforms at a slow pace, in fact, failed the programme. This is because landlords
transferred land to their relatives, friends etc., thereby coming under the ceiling on paper.
• Rise in agricultural productivity, rising land values and higher income from cultivation added to the
economic strength of landlords. Substantial landowners who wield great authority in rural India are
bitterly opposed to a ceiling on agricultural holdings. They are able to have their way because no serious
effort has been made to organise the landless and the landed poor and enlist their support in favour of
reforms.
• The Land Ceiling could not yield enough land to fulfil land requirement of vast population of tenants.
• The law provided a number of exemptions, for instance the one for sugarcane farms orchard.
• A large chunk of land which was recovered remains undistributed and uncultivated. In other words, where
there is no return from the land and the government has already compensated those from whom it has
been acquired, such land can be developed with little investment and effort.
• Litigation slowed the implementation of reforms.
Consolidation of Holdings
• In pursuance of this, many States had enacted legislations but not much progress could be made except
in the States of U.P., Haryana and Punjab.
• In other States, work was continued for some years and lost momentum thereafter.
• Farmers are emotionally attached to their ancestral land, and therefore, they are not willing to take
advantage of the scheme of consolidation of holding.
• Those farmers who own good quality land do not favour the scheme in fear of getting inferior and poor
quality land after the consolidation.
• Consolidation of holdings is a cumbersome process. The government officials who implement the scheme
are generally slow and often corrupt.
• In general, the scheme did not receive the desired support and co-operation from the farmers.
• The scheme has paved way for litigation and court cases, many of which are pending in different courts
for a long time. This vitiates the serene atmosphere of the rural areas.
• Under the existing law of inheritance, the fields continue to be smaller and fragmented.
• In every consolidation, about 5 to 10 per cent of the village land is taken out for providing house sites to
the weaker sections of society, approach roads (chak-roads) and village utility services. Hence, if the
process is repeated three or four times, a sizable portion of the agricultural land would go out of
agriculture.
• The cost of consolidation is realised from the farmers, which has adverse effect on their resources and
economy.
• It has been observed that small farmers are generally allotted inferior quality land, and due to lack of
money power, they are neither able to please the officials nor get justice in the court.
The Cooperatives:
Prominent leaders of Indian freedom struggle ranging from from Mahatama Gandhi to Nehru as well as the
socialists and communists, viewed co-operativization as important element in improving agriculture as well as the
benefit the poor. Post-independence also co-operativization was seen as an important part of the agenda for
institutional change in agriculture.
The Congress Agrarian Reforms Committee also known as Kumarappa Committee recommended in 1949 for
state to be empowered to enforce varying degrees of cooperation for different types of farming. The First Plan
adopted a judicious approach in recommending that small and medium farm should be encouraged and assisted
to group themselves into cooperative farming societies. It was expected that village panchayats, motivated party
workers and trained workers of the Community Development programme, launched in 1952, would be helpful in
this context. The Second plan sounded optimistic note by emphasizing the need of taking essential steps laying
foundation for the development of cooperative farming with the aim of bringing substantial proportion of
agricultural land under cooperative farming over a period of ten years.
The Congress party in their 1959's Nagpur Session passed Nagpur Resolution which visualized an agrarian pattern
based on Joint cooperative farming in the future, it specified that such a pattern was to be achieved within three
years. However, leaders like C. Rajagopalachari, N.G. Ranga and Charan Singh opposed such move. Thus, Prime
Minister Nehru assured the Parliament in February 1959 of not using any coercion to introduce cooperatives.
Furthermore, as the idea of co-operative farming was sought to be promoted by citing China’s success in improving
agricultural output through cooperativisation, Chinese aggression in Tibet in 1959 and later encroachments inside
Indian border made any idea based on the Chinese model suspect.
In light of such factors the idea of cooperative farming received a setback and the Congress put forward the idea
of setting up service co-operatives all over the country. The Third Plan reflected change in position regarding
cooperative farming, as it advocated a modest target of setting up ten pilot projects per district. Thus, gradually
cooperative farming was sought to be made contingent on general agricultural efforts through the community
development movement as well as the progress of cooperation in credit, marketing, distribution and processing.
Success of Cooperatives: The Milk Cooperatives and Operation Flood
The most successful experiment in cooperation in India is found in milk cooperative sector. This experiment that
started in Kaira (also called Kheda) District of Gujrat eventually led to the ‘White Revolution’ that spread all over
India. Peasants of Kaira, Gujarat which supplied milk to Bombay felt cheated by the milk traders and then they
met Sardar Patel who was from the same region to redress their grievances. At the initiative of Patel & Morarji
Desai, the farmers organized themselves into a cooperative union; pressurize the Bombay government with "Milk
Strike" to buy milk directly from their Union. These farmers registered themselves in Anand, Gujarat in Dec, 1946.
Gandhian freedom fighter Tribhuvandas K.Patel, convinced the farmers to form milk cooperatives, later became
its chairman and remained so for 25 years. Dr. Verghese Kurien was CEO of this Union from 1950 to 1973.
Meanwhile in 1955, the Union chose "Amul" as the name for its range of products, which competed with MNC
companies of dairy products like Glaxo and Nestle.
The "Anand Pattern" of Kaira cooperative union gradually spread to other districts in Gujarat in 1974. The Gujarat
cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd. Anand was formed as an apex organisation of the unions in the
district to look after marketing, According to one estimate, due to the activities of cooperative, 48% of the income
of rural households came from dairying.
The Kaira cooperative success made the movements spread to the rest of the country inevitable. In the 1964, the
then Prime MinisterShastri wrote to all the Chief Ministers of the country to set up cooperative dairies on the
"Anand Pattern".To perform this task NDDB (National Dairy Development Board) was created in 1965–Mr.
Verghese Kurien was at its helm as its honorary chairman.
Beginning of Operation Flood:
Drawing heavily from the Kaira Union for personnel, expertise and much more, the NDDB launched "Operation
Flood", a programme to replicate the "Anand Pattern" in other milkshed (region producing milk that may be
supplied to the area of demand) of country.
Operation Flood organised cooperatives of milk producers into a nation-wide milk grid with the purpose of
increasing milk production, bringing the producers and consumers closer by eliminating middlemen and assuring
the producers a regular income throughout the year. It was not just a dairy programme, but a path to
development, generating employment & income of rural households and alleviating poverty. By 1995 there were
69,875 village dairy cooperatives spread over 170 milksheds all over the country with a total membership of 8.9
million farmers.
Impact of operation Flood
• The obvious impact of operation Flood was the considerable increase in milk supply and consequent
increase in income of the milk producers, particularly the poor.
• It was estimated that 60% of the beneficiaries were marginal or small farmers and landless labourers.
Thus, Milk cooperatives proved to be a significant anti-poverty measure.
• The chief beneficiaries of this scheme were the landless people from SC &ST communities and deprived
sections of other communities.
Operation Flood and the accompanying dairy expansion has been instrumental in the establishment of an
indigenous dairy equipment manufacturing industry ; an impressive body of indigenous expertise that includes
animal nutrition, animal health, artificial insemination management information systems (MIS), dairy engineering,
food technology.
• Operation flood was instrumental in empowerment of women. Operation flood with the help of NGOs like
SEWA helped in establishing about 6,000 Women dairy cooperative societies.
• Operation Flood had spillover effect on other cooperatives too. Cooperatives for fruits and vegetable
producers, oilseeds cultivators, small scale salt makers and tree grower were doing excellently well which
were initiated by NDDB.
Limitations of Cooperativization
Danial Thorner, the noted economist during his observation of cooperatives between Dec 1958 to May 1959 found
many weaknesses in the cooperative movements. He observed two types cooperatives movements. He observed
two types cooperatives in case of joint farming.
• One was of rich and landowning farmers. They formed such cooperatives to evade land reforms and
access incentives offered by the state. These were bogus kind of cooperatives where big farmers enrolled
their labourers and ex-tenants as members.
• The other, second type of cooperatives was state sponsored cooperative farms where uncultivated lands
of the government was made available to the landless labourers and underprivileged groups. These
cooperatives didn't live up to their expectations in terms of benefits of scale.
Overall service cooperatives fared better than the farming cooperatives. Nonetheless, there were many
shortcomings in service cooperatives.
• Service cooperatives reinforced the casted based hierarchical structure.

• Leaders of such cooperatives mostly drawn from traders and money lending communities.
Furthermore, in the case of credit cooperatives, there was a virtual exclusion of the landless in securing credits,
as found by the National Commission on Agriculture in 1971.
• Credit cooperatives suffered from major drawback of failure of repayment of loans, which led to large
percentage of over-dues.
• Contrary to common perception, rich and landowning community were largest defaulters than the poor
and small farmers.
Thus, over the years instead of promoting people's participation, the cooperative movement became overstaffed
with government officials and became inefficient.
CHAPTER 4: INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

A. Introduction to India's Foreign Policy
At the time of India’s independence the global situation was in flux. The world had just witnessed the devastations
of the World War II, attempts of creating a new international body for peace had resulted in the formation of the
United Nations, and a number of countries were undergoing the process of de-colonization to claim their place as
sovereign members of international community. In the Indian context the legacy of British rule posed many
difficult challenges. Upholding an independent voice befitting India’s size and civilization along with ensuring
economic welfare guided the conduct of foreign policy in the initial years.
India's efforts to pursue an independent foreign policy were highlight of post 1947 politics. Nehru played a crucial
role in setting the national agenda. He was his own foreign minister hence, both as the Prime Minister and the
foreign minister; he exercised profound influence in the formulation and implementation of India's foreign policy
from 1947 to 1964.
Nehru used foreign policy as an instrument to defend and strengthen India's independence and to safeguard her
national interests, to develop the self-reliance, self-confidence and pride of the masses while serving the cause
of world peace and anti-colonialism.
India decided to conduct its foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other nations and to
achieve security through the maintenance of peace. This aim finds an echo in the Directive Principles of State
Policy, in the Article 51 of constitution: "Promotion of international peace and security"
The state shall Endeavour to:
a) Promote international peace and security.
b) Maintain just and honourable relations between nations.
c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised people with one
another.
d) Encourage settlement or international disputes by arbitration.
The three major objectives of Nehru's foreign policy were:
i. To preserve hard earned sovereignty.
ii. Protect territorial integrity.
iii. Promote rapid economic development.
During Nehru's era, a basic objective of India's foreign policy was extending support to colonised and newly de-
colonised countries in their struggle against colonialism. Another objective was that of promoting peace. Nehru
constantly emphasized that peaceful co-existence of countries with different ideologies and differing systems,
was a necessity and believed that nobody had a monopoly on the truth and pluralism was a fact of life. In this
context, he outlined which were called "Panchsheel" of India's Foreign Policy; these were
1. mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty,
2. nonaggression, five principles
3. non-interference in each other's internal affairs,
4. equality and mutual benefit, and
5. Peaceful co-existence.
Non Alignment Policy
In the spirit of the right of India and other nations to have an independent an equal voice in international affairs,
the idea of non-alignment was shaped by Nehru. The division of world into two hostile blocs after World War-II
provided the immediate context for the emergence of the non-aligned movement. It was argued by Nehru that
newly independent countries of Asia and Africa had nothing to gain by joining the military blocs of the big powers.
This idea eventually culminated in the Non Aligned Movement (NAM)
Salient features of the Idea of Non-alignment:

i. The leaders of NAM were firm in their view to expand the "area of peace" instead of hostility. Hence India
and other countries like Egypt, Indonesia did not approve joining of Baghdad Pact, the Manila Treaty,
SEATO and CENTO, which were military blocs.
ii. Non-Alignment came to symbolize the struggle of India and other newly independent nations to retain
and strengthen their independence from colonialism and imperialism.
iii. To pursue the dream of a peaceful world, India advocated non alignment policy by reducing the cold war
tensions and contributing human resources to the UN peace keeping operations.
iv. Due to acceptance of non-alignment policy, many nations of the world got their voice heard at the United
Nations. The one country, one vote system enabled the non-aligned bloc to check domination by the
Western bloc. Thus, Non alignment advanced the process of democratization of international relations.
Background to Non Alignment Policy:
i. Indian National Movement was a part of the worldwide struggle against colonialism and imperialism.
India's struggle influenced the liberation movements of many Asian and African countries. There was
communication between the nations who were united in their common struggle against colonialism and
imperialism.
ii. Due to vast size, location and power potential, Nehru envisaged a major role for India in world affairs,
particularly in Asian Affairs.
iii. Throughout the 1940s and 50s, Nehru had been an ardent advocate of Asian unity. Hence, under his
leadership, India convened the Asian Relations Conference in March 1947 in New Delhi. Later India
supported the Indonesian struggle for freedom from the Dutch colonial regime by convening an
international conference in 1949.
iv. India was an ardent supporter of the decolonization process and in firm opposition to racism, particularly
the apartheid in South Africa. The Afro Asian Bandung Conference 1955, marked the Zenith of India's
engagement with the newly independent Asian and African Nationals. The Bandung Conference later led
to the establishment of the NAM. The first Summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961.
Former U.S.A. secretary of state, John Foster Dulles criticised the non-alignment movement with the charge of
"immoral neutrality". Nehru refuted this by saying that Non alignment meant having the freedom to decide each
issue on its merits, to understand what was right or wrong, and then take a stand in favour of right. By not tying
India to anyone bloc, non-alignment enabled India to develop economic ties with countries on both sides of the
divide. India could thus acquire, as per the need, capital, technology, machines and food from the Western
countries. On the other hand it could rely on Soviet Union, after 1954, for building heavy industries in the public
sector when The United States was reluctant to do so.
B. Relations with Neighbors: An Overview

[Note: We will discuss in brief only, the relations of India was Pakistan and China such as wars some disputes or
background to some important events. For detailed information, students must refer their IR notes.]
India's relations with her neighbours were of central concern to her. With Nepal India signed, Treaty of Peace and
Friendship in 1950, which gave Nepal unhindered access for commercial transit through India and secured its total
sovereignty and making both the countries responsible for each other's security. With Burma [now Myanmar]
there was problem of India settlers which was solved peacefully. Even though there was some tension with Sri
Lanka regarding Tamil settlers’ issue, but it didn't become obstacle in the relations. However, with Pakistan and
in later years China, relations suffered with serious problems.
I. Relations with Pakistan:
Strained relations with Pakistan owing to the bitter experience of partition further spilled into international realm
on the issue of Kashmir. The Pakistan supported tribal invasion of Kashmir and resultant conflict drew international
attention. India had accepted the UN resolution on ceasefire in spite of its advantageous position and agreed for
plebiscite in Kashmir, which laid down two conditions for holding plebiscite:
a. Pak should withdraw its forces from the state of J&K.
b. The authority of the Srinagar administration should be restored over the whole state.
Above mentioned first conditions was never fulfilled, so there was no plebiscite there. Meanwhile J&K participated
in India's general elections and then the talk of plebiscite remained irrelevant. However, Kashmir remained a
contention in the bilateral relationship, especially for Pakistan. The issue was used to needle India in the UN as
Pakistan became integral part of US led western alliance as a member of CENTO and SEATO. The Kashmir conflict
didn't prevent cooperation between the government of India and Pak. Both the government worked together to
restore the abducted women to their original families, a long term dispute of river water sharing was resolved –
with World Bank's mediation and India-Pakistan Indus Water Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan
in 1960.
1965 War:
Pak still desired for the accession of Kashmir, even after its debacle by Indian troops in 1947. In April 1965, Pakistan
launched armed incursion in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat, later it launched bigger offensive, as part of
“Operation Gibraltar”, in J&K in August and September in 1965. Pakistan thought that this time the local
population would support the cause of Pakistan, but the planfailed to convince the local people and Pak couldn't
get the local support. Meanwhile, in order to ease the pressure from Kashmir front, the then PM Shastri ordered
Indian troops to launch counter offensive on the Punjab border. This war again won by India, and the hostilities
came to an end with UN intervention.
after Soviet Union mediated negotiations Prime Minister Shastri and General Ayub khan of Pakistan, signed the
Tashkent Agreement in January 1966. Although India won the war, this war added to India’s economic difficulties.
1971 War:
The internal crisis of Pakistan after the verdict of their general elections in Pakistan turned violent. The ruling
party of Zulfikar Bhutto emerged as winner in West Pakistan while in their Eastern Part Sheikh Mujib-Ur Rahman's
Awani League won majority of seats with great margins. However, strong and powerful western establishment
ignored the democratic verdict and didn't accept the League's demand for federation. Instead of responding to
their demands and verdict positively, Pakistan army arrested Rahman and unleashed brutal terror activities and
suppressed their voices. To end this menace permanently, people of Eastern Pakistan started liberation struggle
of Bangladesh from Pakistan. Due to the huge influx of refugees from Eastern Pakistan, India deliberated much
and later extended its support to people's cause materially and morally, which was frowned by Western Pakistan
as Indian conspiracy to break of Pakistan.
The support to Western Pakistan came from the USA & China to quash the people's movement. To ensure its
safety from the attacks of American and Chinese backed Pak, India signed 20 year Treaty of Peace and Friendship
with the Soviet Union. Even after much diplomatic deliberations it could not achieve concrete results, and full
scale war broke out in December 1971 on both the western and Eastern front. With the support of local
population in the form of "Mukti Bahini" Indian army made rapid progress and compelled the Pakistani troops to
surrender in 10 days only. With emergence of Bangladesh as an independent country, India declared a unilateral
ceasefire. Later Shimla Agreement of 1972 between Indira Gandhi & Zulfikar Bhutto brought back the peace
between two nations. Since then India has argued for Shimla agreement as the framework within which the
disputes between the two countries should be resolved.
Kargil War:
After the debacle of 1971 war, Pakistan adopted the tactics of proxy war by sending the terrorists trained by their
secret agencies to create havoc and panic in J& K and India.
In 1999, so called Mujahideens occupied several points on the Indian side of LOC in the Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar,
Batalik. Suspecting Pak's hand behind such activities, Indian forces immediately started reaching to such proxy war
which is known as "Kargil conflict". The conflict recieved worldwide attention because of the nuclear capabilities
attained by these countries in 1998, which could be used by either sides. However, it the Indian troops regained
territory with the help conventional war tactics, with special role played by the Air Force. There was huge
controversy surrounding this Kargil conflict, that, the then PM of Pak was kept in the dark of such move. Later, the
then Pak army Chief General Parvez Musharraf took over as President.
II. Relations with China:

India adopted a policy of friendship towards China since the beginning. India was the first to recognize the new
People's Republic of China on 1 January, 1950. Nehru also supported the representation of China in U.N.S.C. When
Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signed "Panchsheel "Treaty, at the same time India recognized China's
right over disputed territory of Tibet and approved the Chinese control over it in 1954.
1962 War:
Relations of India with China turned soure in 1962 when Chinese forces attacked the Thagla ridge and dislodged
troops, which was initial spark for ensuing massive attack. In October 1962, the Chinese army launched a massive
attack and overran India posts in the eastern sector in NEFA (now Arunachal). India army commander in NEFA
fled without resistance and left behind open door for Chinese personnel to attack India. In western sector, Chinese
captured 13 posts in the Galwan Valley and the Chushul airstrip was threatened. India was apprehensive of such
move by China and sought American and British help later, However Chinese themselves declared a unilateral
withdrawal, nonetheless the relations between the two nations were strained for years to come after the war.
Impact of 1962 War:
• The resources for the economic development and third five year plan were diverted for defence and
India faced very difficult situation.
• In August 1963, Nehru faced had to no confidence motion in Loksabha.
• It induced a sense of national humiliation and dented India's image at home and abroad.
• Nehru was severely criticised for his naive assessment of the Chinese intentions and the lack of military
preparedness.
• Relations between the nations remained cold till 1976. Normal relations resumed in 1976, and later the
then Foreign minister A.B. Vajpayee was the first top level leader who visited China in 1979.
C. India's Nuclear Policy

[Note: Here will just discuss the background for India's nuclear policy you will learn about India's nuclear policy
in detail in security issues sub part of G.S. paper III].
Nehru had always maintained his strong faith in Science and Technology for rapid building of modern India. A
significant component of his industrialisation plans was the nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s, under
the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. The Indian Atomic Energy Commission was first setup in August 1948 in the
Department of Scientific Research, which was created a few months earlier in June 1948. The Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) was setup on August 3, 1954 under the direct charge of the Prime Minister through a
Presidential Order. Subsequently, in accordance with a Government Resolution dated March 1, 1958, the Atomic
Energy Commission (AEC) was established in the Department of Atomic Energy. India wanted to use atomic energy
for peaceful purposes. Nehru was always against the use of nuclear weapons, so he pleaded to all the superpowers
for complete nuclear disarmament. However, as a pragmatic approach he never discarded the development of
nuclear technology.
In 1974, India under the leadership of Indira Gandhi conducted its first nuclear tests. India termed it as peaceful
explosion and argued that it was committed to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes. Earlier
the five permanent members of UNSC U.S., U.S.S.R., France, U.K. and China , who had acquired nuclear weapons
capabilitytried to impose Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)in 1968 on the rest of the world. India considered such
move as discriminatory and refused to adhere to it. India always maintained that treaties like NPT was selectively
applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimized the monopoly of the Five Nuclear weapon holding powers.
In 1998, India again conducted a series of nuclear test, displaying its capacity to use nuclear & energy for military
purposes. After some time, Pak too conducted such test . Unhappy with moves of both India and Pakistan,
International community imposed harsh sanctions, which were later waived when India assured no first use of
nuclear weapon and maintained its stand of peaceful use nuclear energy and reiterated its commitment to global
verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear weapon free world.
CHAPTER 5: THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

A. Emergency
Internal Emergency declared on 26 1975, is widely considered as the greatest political crisis India faced since
independence.
Background of Emergency
I. Economic Issues
• A combination of recession, growing unemployment rampant inflation and scarcity of food grains
created a serious economic crisis.
• India’s support to liberation of Bangladesh, materially had serious repercussions for India as these
exchange reserves drained and more resources were diverted to defence.
• Consecutive monsoon failure in 1972 & 73 affected India food grains availability and fuelled price rise.
• Large scale unemployment and economic recession led to industrial unrest and wave of strikes in different
parts of country culminated in All India railway strike in May 1974.
II. Tussle with Judiciary
• The union government under the leadership of Mrs. Indira Gandhi, amended the constitution, to the
effect that gave parliament the power to abridge Fundamental rights in case of legislation giving effect to
DPSPs. Later, In Kesavananda Bharti Case(1973), the Supreme Court ruled that there are some basic
features of the constitution, which can't be amended.
• Furious with SC judgement in Kesavanda Case, the Union Government changed the long term precedence
of appointing senior most judge in S.C. as Chief Justice. In 1973, the government set aside seniority of
three judges and appointed Justice A.N. Ray as Chief Justice of India.
• The Allahabad High Court, while hearing the plea of socialist leader Raj Narain on the validity of election
of Indira Gandhi to Lok Sabha ruled in his favour and set aside her victory and ruled her elections invalid
on the grounds of abuse of power. However, the Supreme Court Later granted partial stay on this order,
and allowed Mrs. Gandhi to remain MP but observed that she can't participate in proceedings of the court.
III. Imposition of Emergency
• Due to the Allahabad HC's judgement and later S.C.'s opinion and just partial stay on earlier's order, all
the political parties under leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan, demanded her resignation on moral
grounds. But Indira Gandhi resisted such demands and in response government declared a state of
emergency on June 26, 1975 on the grounds of threat of internal disturbances, invoked article 352 of
constitution. Once an emergency is proclaimed, the federal distribution of powers remains suspended and
all the powers gets concentrated in Union government. Even the Fundamental rights get curtailed during
such period. The declaration of emergency was followed by censorship of the press and arrest of
opposition leaders
IV. Impact of Emergency
• Government curtailed the freedom of press via "Press censorship" and made it mandatory to get its
approval before publishing it.
• Protests, strikes and public agitations were not allowed.
• Fundamental right of constitutional remedies to move the court for restoring their fundamental rights
got suspended.
• Religious and cultural organisations like R.S.S., Jamait-E-Islami were banned on the apprehension of
disturbance to social and communal harmony.
• Government misused the provision of preventive detention, arrested the political workers of opposition
parties. Under preventive detention arrested persons can't challenge such move as right to constitutional
remedies were suspended.
• Due to such harsh conditions during emergency regime, people who were awarded with honours like
Padma shri and other awards returned these honours in the protest against suspension of democracy.
• Torture and custodial deaths occurred during Emergency, arbitrary relocation of poor people, imposition
of compulsory sterilisation to control population.
• People without official position, misused the powers of administration and interfered in the functioning
of the government.
VI. Lessons from Emergency
In 1975, the then PM Indira Gandhi had declared emergency, on the grounds of threat to internal stability. Due to
the abuse of power during the period of emergency, it was realised that such measures subvert the rule of law
and democratic institutions. Therefore post emergency, there emerged a political consensus that ensured that
such declaration of emergency did not happen again.
The end of emergency was marked by the announcement of Mrs. Gandhi on 18 January 1977 that elections to the
Lok Sabha would be held in March. Results of the elections held on 16 March made clear that the electorate had
not taken a kind view of the developments during the emergence and as a result Congress party was thouroughly
defeated, this also included loss of Mrs Gandhi and Sanjay Gandhi in their respective constituencies. Normalcy
soon resumed in India after the end of emergency. Many observers found many weakness and strengths emerged
out of this period.
• First lesson is that it is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India.
• The ambiguities regarding the emergency provisions were rectified during the Janata Government as it
was made clear in the constitution that "Internal Emergency" can be proclaimed only on the grounds of
"armed rebellion" and it is now necessary for the council of Minister to advice President in writing to
proclaim emergency.
• Emergency made everyone aware of the value of civil liberties.
The lifting of emergency and the free elections that followed were a defining moment in India’s post-independence
history. This chapter in Indian history revealed the underlying attachment of Indian people to democratic values
evolved over the years through the experience of freedom struggle as well as conduct of free elections in
independent India.
B. J. P. Movement
The movement named after one of the greatest political personalities of modern India, Jayaprakash Narayan, is
widely viewed as a response to widespread corruption in public life and politics in India amidst rising
unemployment and economic hardships faced by the common people. The students of Gujarat protested
vigorously in January 1974 against the rise in prices of food-grains, cooking oil and other essential commodities.
As the protests spread it was joined by the political parties too. The police administration replied with excessive
force, indiscriminate arrests and used lathi charge. Later union government dissolved the assembly and announced
new elections to the assembly.
Inspired by the efforts and success by Gujarat student's movement, similar agitation was initiated in Bihar by
students in March 1974. Jayaprakash Narayan came out of his political retirement and provided the perfect
leadership to these students. He gave a call for "Sampooran Kranti" (Total Revolution) against the immense
corruption, to defend democracy from authoritarian conduct of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
During the JP Movement, people set up parallel governments all over the state, didn't pay the taxes etc. The J.P.
Movement attracted wide support from students, middle classes, traders, and a section of the intelligentsia.
The J.P. Movement also got the backing of nearly all the non-left political parties. However, by the end of 1974,
The JP Movements fervor got down because of absence of organizational structures of the movement. Most of
his student followers resumed their classes. The movement had failed to attract the rural and urban poor both in
Gujarat and Bihar. However, the leadership of JP gave credence to the agitation against the government of the
day and when emergencey was imposed and even after that it became a key factor in galvanizing the opposition
parties in forming a joint front culminating in the formation of the Janata Party
C. Naxalite Movement and Maoist Insurgency

The first non-Congress United Front (UF) government came to power in West Bengal in March 1967, comprising
the CPI, CPM and Bangla Congress (a breakaway faction of the Congress). This new government decided to
expedite the implementation of land reforms.
The then land revenue minister Hare Krishna Konar announced a programme of quick distribution of surplus land
among landless and an end to eviction of share croppers. But this process was slow and time consuming because
issue of distribution of surplus land went to the court and was under litigation. Therefore, the local leader Charu
Majumdar from Naxalbari area of Darjeeling district argued that this democratic process of distribution of land
and democracy in India is Sham and decided to adopt a strategy of protracted guerrilla warfare in order to lead
a revolution.
This Naxalite Movement under Majumdar's leadership used force to snatch land from the rich landowners and to
distribute it among the poor and the landless. Its supporters advocated the use of violent means to achieve their
political goals. Initially the efforts of reconciliation such as sending of a cabinet mission by the UF government
failed and negotiated solution was brushed aside by Charu Mazumdar. Eventually the policy of repression by the
government had its effect and by July 1967 the peasant movement was over with most of its leaders in jail.
Despite the efforts of subsequent governments to control the naxal menace, similar movements took root in other
areas such as Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh. Here ‘revolutionaries’ inspired by Mao Zedong led group of tribals
into a suicidal confrontation with the state. As in Naxal bari here dissident CPM leaders shifted to a line of armed
struggle and guerrilla warfare. Beginning in November 1967 the movement reached intense phase between
November 1968 to February 1969. With the formation of CP (ML) in April 1969, a new party of extreme left
activists, a turn from mass line to guerrilla action and individual annihilation took place. In the face of police action
the movement faded.
By 1971 feeble attempts were made by some Maoist factions to revive the movement but by 1975 these attempts
fizzled out. Even after this date groups of Maoists existed in remote pockets of the country, often backward and
poor regions inhabited by tribals or very poor low caste cultivators and agricultural labourers in Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Many of the splintered groups joined hands to form the unified CPI (Maoist) in the
early 2000s, constituting a serious internal security threat in some regions of India. .
D. Communalism
The problem of communalism begins when a religion is seen as the basis of the national unity and identity. The
problem becomes sharper when religion is expressed in exclusive and partisan terms, when one followers of a
particular religion is pitted against another.
Communal politics is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community. The most common
expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs which routinely involve religious prejudices, stereotypes of
religious communities and belief in the superiority of one's religion over other religions. Political mobilization on
religious lines is another frequent form of communalism, this involves the use of sacred symbols, religious
leader's emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion together against the other
religious community. Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots, and
massacre etc.
Communalism was and continues to be one of the major challenges to democracy in our country. The founding
fathers of the nations wanted secular India, hence they strictly refrained themselves from declaring India's official
religion, and provided equal freedom to all the followers of different religions. In-spite of all the equal freedom to
everyone in the country and secular character of country India witnessed lots of communal riots which were
immensely brutal and horrendous.
Here we will discuss the infamous incident of communal politics.
1. Ayodhya Dispute
A dispute had been going on for many decades over the mosque known as Babri Masjid at Ayodhya, built by Mir
Baqi Tashqandi, Mughal Emperor Babur's General. Some Hindus believe that it was built after demolishing a
temple of Lord Rama which is believed to be his birthplace. The dispute reached to the court and in late 1940's
the mosque was locked up as the matter was with court.
In February 1986, the Faizabad district court ordered that Babri Masjid premises to be unlocked so that Hindus
could offer prayers at the statue which they considered as a temple. Soon with the unlocking of doors, mobilisation
on communal lines began on both the sides. Gradually the local issue became national issue and increased the
communal tensions.
In December 1992 many Karsevaks of Hindu Right Wing faction like VHP, Bajrang Dal etc. arrived at Ayodhya in
the name Karseva, voluntary service by devotees to build Ram temple. Meanwhile the Apex Court ordered that
State government must ensure that disputed site won't be endangered. However thousands of peoples arrived
there and demolished the Babri Masjid on 6 December 1992 and vitiated the peaceful atmosphere in the country
and it was followed by communal riots in the country at large scale, in which lots of people died. Then Union
government dismissed state government and appointed Librehan Commission to investigate circumstances
leading to demolition of mosque.
2. Anti Sikh Riots
Under the orders of Indira Gandhi government, in June 1984 the Indian Army launched its offensive against Sikh
militants at the Golden Temple in Amritsar under the code name "Operation Blue Star". The army was successful
in driving out the militants from the Sikh's sacred place, but this event angered the Sikh People and their
sentiments got hurt. To avenge this action the bodyguards of Mrs. Gandhi killed her at her own house. Later the
angry Congress workers and supporters allegedly began their brutal actions of killing innocent Sikh People in the
country; Delhi was the most affected area during anti Sikh riots. Union Government appointed so many
commissions to enquire about the guilty people and to find out their masterminds, but nothing concrete came out
of such commissions. The kiths and kins of the victims of Anti-Sikh riots are still waiting to get the justice after
30 years of the incident.
3. Anti-Muslim riots in Gujarat (2002)
In months of February and March 2002, Gujarat witnessed one of the ugliest communal riots in its history. The
spark of the riots happened at Godhra Station, where a bogey of train that was returning from Ayodhya with
Karsevaks was set on fire. Suspecting it to be Muslims conspiracy, large scale violence against Muslims began in
many parts of Gujarat. The National Human Right Commission Criticized the Gujarat Govt's role in failing to control
violence, in providing relief to the victims and prosecute the perpetrators of this violence.Gujarat riots show that
the governmental machinery also becomes susceptible to sectarian passions.
CHAPTER 6: REGIONAL DISCONTENT AND ITS SOLUTION

A. Basis of Regionalism
Local patriotism and loyalty to a locality or region or state and its language and culture don't constitute
regionalism nor are they disruptive of the national unity. They are quite consistent with national patriotism and
loyalty to the nation. One's pride in his/her region doesn't constitute regionalism. The Indian national movement
too functioned on this understanding.
Aspiring to or making special efforts to develop one's state, to remove poverty, implementing social justice is
not branded as regionalism. However, if any state asserting its pride & interests above the national interest and
against the nation in a hostile manner, then that can be dubbed as regionalism.
American scholar and journalist, Selig Harrison in his book India – The most dangerous decades, wrote that there
would be threat to Indian unity because of conflict between national and state governments. But contrary to this
apprehension, India quite well managed to accommodate and even celebrate India's cultural diversity.
The linguistic reorganization of India and the resolution of the official language controversy have played a very
important role by eliminating a patent cause of the feeling of cultural loss or cultural domination. Despite such
great amount of amity and peace, there exist many regional disputes which create friction between regional
states like on sharing of river waters between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh etc.
Economic Imbalances & Regionalism:
Economic inequality among different states and region could be a potential source of trouble. Hence from the
beginning, the national government felt a responsibility to counter the imbalance in regional development. To
influence the rates of growth in poorer states and regions and to reduce economic distance from richer states, the
central government adopted a whole range of policies.
• A major instrument in government's hand in bringing development to the poor state was transfer of
financial resources, which was done by Finance Commission, a constitutional body.
• Planning was also used as a powerful instrument to remove regional inequality. Planning Commission
allocated greater plan assistance to the backward states. The assistance was given in both the forms,
grants and loans.
• Public investment by the central government in major industries such as steel, fertilizers, oil refining,
petro chemicals, heavy chemicals, and in power and irrigation projects has been a tool for the reduction
of regional inequality.
• Government incentives have been provided to the private sector to invest in backward areas through
subsidies, tax concessions, concessional banking and institutional loans at subsidized rates.
Inspite of above mentioned initiatives and programmes the backward states have a lower level of infrastructural
facilities such as power, irrigation, roads, telephones and modern markets for agricultural produce. Political and
administrative failure also bolsters backwardness.
Sons of Soil Doctrine:
This doctrine mentions that particular state belongs to majority linguistic group inhabiting it or constitutes an
exclusive "homeland" for regional language speakers. The doctrine is majorly popular in cities. In the struggle for
the appropriation of economic resources and economic opportunities, recourse was often taken to communalism,
casteism and nepotism.
In similar way, language loyalty and regionalism was and is still used to systematically exclude the "outsiders".
This doctrine was profoundly utilized in big metros like Mumbai (Marathi) [Earlier Bombay], Bangalore (Kannada),
Kolkata (Bengali), etc.
“Mulki rule” provided in article 371(D) of Indian constitution safeguards the rights of local people in employment
and education and was created after agitation in the state of Andhra Pradesh. This is an example of Sons of soil
doctrine, but this was provided only in Group C and D services.
Sons of the soil doctrine arise when there is actual or potential competition for industrial and middle class jobs,
between the migrants and local educated middle class youth. The worst case of anti-migrant or implementation
of Sons of the Soil doctrine was movement led by Shiv Sena which appealed regional chauvinism and assumed
fascist proportions. However, the courts approved the reservation on the grounds of residence, but maintained
people's right to migrate and their allied fundamental right regarding their movements
B. Issue of J & K, Punjab

1. Issue of J & K
Jammu and Kashmir comprises three social and political regions: Jammu, Kashmir & Ladakh. Kashmir Valley is the
heart of the region.Jammu region is a mix of foothills and plains areas of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and speakers of
various languages. The Ladakh region is mountainous, has very little population which is equally divided between
Buddhists and Muslims.
The Kashmir issue" isn't just a dispute between India & Pakistan. It has both external and internal dimensions. It
involves the issue of Kashmiri identity "Kashmiriyat" and the aspirations of the people of J& K Political autonomy.
Root – Cause of the problem:
• Before 1947, J&K was a princely state as specified by British that Princes were free to join any either
country or to remain independent. The Prince wanted to remain independent, while the popular
movement in the state, led by Sheikh Abdullah of the national conference wanted to get rid of Maharaja
Hari Singh & at the same time didn't wish to join Pakistan.
• Later after partition, Pakistan still had designs on J&K and to annex it forcefully it sent tribal infiltrators
from its side to capture Kashmir. The Maharaja pleaded for help and India helped to drive out infiltrators
only when the Maharaja signed "Instrument of Accession" to India. At the same time, it was also agreed
that once the situation get normalised, the views of the people of J&K will be ascertained about their
future.
• The tribal infiltrators had captured one part of the state which came under Pakistan's control, India
maintains this as illegal and since then Kashmir has remained a major issue of conflict between India and
Pakistan.
• Internally, there is a dispute which still persists and couldn't be resolved. This was related to J&K's special
status because of Article 370 of the constitution, which gives greater autonomy to it as compared to other
states in the country. All provisions of Indian constitution are not applicable to the state. Laws passed by
the Parliament apply to J&K only if the state agrees. J&K has its own constitution too.
• There is a section of people and parties outside J&K that believes that the special status of the state doesn't
allow full integration of the state with India. Hence, it should be revoked. The people residing in Jammu &
Kashmir, mostly Kashmiri don't believe that autonomy conferred by Article 370 is enough. A section of
Kashmiri have expressed at least three major grievances:
i. The promise of "Plebiscite" hasn't been fulfilled.
ii. Autonomy given by Article 370, has been eroded in practice and this led to a clamor for "Greater
State Autonomy".
iii. Democracy which is practiced in the rest of India, hasn't been institutionalised in J&K.
By 1989, the J&K state had come in the grip of a militant movement mobilised around the cause of a separate
Kashmiri region. The insurgents get moral, material and military support from Pakistan. Separatist Politics has
taken different forms and made up of various strands. Successive governments at the centre from time to time
have made attempts to engage various separatist groups in negotiations.
2. Punjab Issue
The social composition of the state changed first with the partition and later on with creation of Haryana &
Himachal Pradesh in 1966. Much before the independence, in 1920, the Akali Dal was formed as the political wing
of Sikhs, which led movement for the formation of a "Punjabi Suba". After partition, the Sikhs were now a
majority in the truncated state of Punjab. Hence to fulfill this demand, during the 1970s a section of Akalis began
to demand political autonomy for the region. They passed a resolution in this regard in their Anandpur Sahib
Conference in 1973. This resolution asserted regional autonomy and wanted to redefine centre-state relationship
in the country. They declared their goal of attaining bolbala (dominance or hegemony) of the Sikhs. However, this
didn't mean separation from India. The more extreme elements started advocating secession from India &
demanded "Khalistan".
The leadership of Akali’s was transformed from moderate to militant elements. Parallel to the Akali militancy,
terrorism made its appearance in Punjab in 1981 as partial culmination of communal politics since 1947. These
elements they took the path of armed insurgency to get Khalistan. They made the Golden Temple as their
headquarters in Amritsar and turned it into an armed fortress. In June 1984, the government of India carried out
"operation Blue star" an army action to flush out the militants. It was successfully achieved by Indian army
personnel. Meanwhile during the action the holy place got damaged and people's sentiments got hurt and this
gave impetus to militant and extremist groups. Later, the bodyguards of our PM Indira Gandhi shot her to avenge
the feelings of Sikhs, which was followed by brutal anti Sikh riots.
Road to Peace:
In August 1985 the newly elected PM of India, Rajiv Gandhi signed an agreement with Harchand Singh Longowal
the then President of Akali Dal which was known as "Rajiv Gandhi-Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord". This
was a positive step towards bringing normalcy to Punjab.
Basic feature of the Accord:
i. Transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab.
ii. Sharing of Water through tribunal between Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana.
iii. Compensation for those who suffered from militancy.
iv. Revocation of AFSPA from Punjab.
This accord didn't facilitate peace immediately. Militancy and counter insurgency violence continued which led to
human rights violation. Fragmentation of Akali Dal also started. Normal political process was suspended and
President's rule was imposed. Gradually the military was eradicated by the security forces. Peace returned to
Punjab by the middle of 1990's. The alliance of BJP and Shiromani Akali Dal emerged as victorious and brought
back democratic process in the state.
C. Problems with North-East Region

The regional aspirations of North-east region became more focal and prominent in the 1980's. The region has seen
lots of changes since 1947. The princely states like Manipur, Tripura, Khasi Hills of Meghalaya had merged with
India Post Independence. The whole North-East region has witnessed altogether different political reorganization.
Earlier the partition of India turned the North-East region into a land locked region and affected it economically.
Due to this isolation from the mainstream India, the region remained backward in terms of developmental
parameters.
Nagaland state was created in 1960, Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura in 1972 and Arunachal Pradesh and
Mizoram became separate state in 1987. The isolation of the region, its complex social character due to different
ethnic tribes and their culture, lack of development, weak communications between the north-east region and
rest of India fuelled the anger and soured the relationship between centre and this region, which led to varied
demands of people inhabiting in this region. Due to this delicate relationship, people aspired for their autonomy,
secessionist movements and strict opposition to outsider from entering into their region. Meanwhile, following
the large scale reorganization of region in 1972, a regional body, the North-Eastern Council (NEC) was set up to
provide a forum for inter-state coordination regional planning and integrated development of the region to avoid
intra regional disparities.
However, this NEC couldn't control their feelings for autonomy and violent secessionist movements for that cause.
Now we will discuss the different demands emanating from different parts of North-East region:
I. Demands for autonomy:
After the independence, except Manipur and Tripura, entire north-east region comprised the state of Assam.
Due to the presence of different cultures and tribes, Non-Assamese felt alienated with the Assamese and Bengali
residents of the plain. In addition to this, the Assam Government imposed Assamese language on them. This non-
Assamese people protested against this move violently, tribal leaders started demanding separation from Assam.
To consolidate their voice for the separation, the tribal leaders formed the Eastern Indian Tribal Union which later
transformed into a comprehensive all Party Hill leaders Conference in 1960. Their demands were fulfilled later and
several states were carved out of one Assam. fulfillment of these demands couldn't stop aspirations of a separate
state among some tribes like Bodos, Karbi and Dimasas. They drew centre's attention towards their demand of
autonomy. They mobilised public opinion through popular movements and insurgency. It was not possible for the
centre to fulfill all the regional aspirations, and create smaller and smaller states. So the centre devised some other
alternative to fix this demand, such as grant of Autonomous District for such tribes.
II. Secessionist Movements:
The demands of autonomy can be fulfilled with the constitutional provisions, but the demands of separatismare
complicated to deal with. This has been true in the case of the North-East region as well, as can be seen form the
following cases:
i. Mizoram:
Mizo People never considered themselves us a part of British Union. So they refused to consider themselves as
Indian, after India's Independence. Later in 1959, during the Famine in Assam, The Mizos felt neglected by the
government in famine relief efforts. Discontent among a section of Mizo people led to the formation of the Mizo
National Front under the leadership of Lal denga in 1961.
The MNF began an armed an armed campaign against Indian army through guerrilla warfare and they were aided
by Pakistan government and received shelter in East Pakistan. Pakistan was aiding all such secessionist movement
in India to destabilize India through different means. The Union government used armed and air forces to quell
the MNF uprising. After realising the futility of war, Laldenga started negotiations with the Indian Government. In
1986 Rajiv Gandhi, the then PM and Laldenga reached for an agreement known as the Mizo-Accord. In accordance
with thisagreement, Mizoram was granted a full-fledged statehood with special powers and MNF gave up its
secessionist movement. Now, the state is recognised as having done a commendable job in the implementation
of development programmes and making agriculture remunerative.
ii. Nagaland
The Nagas residing in the Naga hills on consisted of many separate tribes speaking different languages. The British
had left the Nagas in relative isolation and due to missionary activity permitted by them there had emerged an
educated section which became the flag bearer of separate Naga identiy and the demand of sepration
andcomplete indendenc e form India. Led by Angami Zaphu Phizo belonging to the Naga National Council (NNC),
the Nagas articulated their demands of freedom and separation from India, immediately after the end of the
British Rule. Following a referendum held by the NNC in 1951, Phizo formed the underground Naga Federal
Government (NFG) and the Naga Federal Army (NFA) in March 1956, thus beginning an armed insurrection
against Indian government. The Government of India sent in the Army to crush the insurgency and, in 1958,
enacted the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act. The Government also tried to quell such movements with limited
success by bringing many Naga areas within an autonomous framework in 1957, formation of the state of
Nagaland in 1963.
organization
A section of NNC leaders to signed the Shillong Accord with the government of India on 11 November 1975,, under
which this section of NNC and NFG agreed to give up arms. A group of about 140 members led by Thuingaleng
Muivah, who were at that time in China, refused to accept the Shillong Accord, and formed the National Socialist
Council of Nagaland (NSCN) in 1980. Muivah also had Isak Chisi Swu and S S Khaplang with him. In 1988, the NSCN
split into NSCN (IM) and NSCN (K) after a violent clash. While the NNC began to fade away, and Phizo died in
London in 1991, the NSCN (IM) came to acquire greater significance.
The main aim of the NSCN in its various incarnations has been to establish a sovereign state, "Nagalim" by unifying
all the areas inhabited by the Naga people in Northeast India and Burma. However the cease-fire between the
Union Government and the NSCN(IM) and later NSCN (K) reduced violence in Naga areas. Significantly, after
rounds of negotiations between the NSCN (IM) leadership and the government of India a “Framework Agreement”
was signed in August 2015. However, as the NSCN (K) breaking the ceasefire and engaging in violence as well as
the neighboring states such as Assam, Manipur and Arunachal remaining apprehensive, the Naga issue awaits a
final resolution.
iii. Movements against outsiders
The migration of people from other part of the country to the North-east region has created lots of problem and
increased the tension between 'locals' and 'outsiders'.
The migrant people were seen as encroachers, who would snatch away their scarce resources like land,
employment opportunities and political power and render the local population without their legitimate due. To
drive away the outsiders from the region was the main aim of the Assam Movement from 1975 to 1985. The main
targets were Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh. In 1979 the All Assam student's union (AASU), a student’s
group not related to any political party, led an anti-foreigner movement. Their area of focus was illegal migration,
domination of Bengali and other outsiders, against faulty voter’s registration of lakhs of immigrants. AASU
members used both non-violent and violent methods. Their violent agitation took human lives and damaged lots
of properties.
After 6 years of violent turmoil, the then PM, Rajiv Gandhi negotiated with AASU leaders. Both the sides (Union
Govt and AASU) signed the Assam Accord in 1985. According this accord, the foreigners who migrated into Assam
during and after Bangladesh war, were to be identified and deported. With the success of signing this accord, the
AASU and Assam Gana Sangram Parishad came together, formed their political party, Assam Gana Parishad,
won the Assembly elections in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problem and make Assam
a "Golden Assam". However the problem of immigration hasn't been resolved yet, but it brought peace to some
extent.
iv. Accommodation of Regional Aspirations and National Integration:
As observed from the discussion of the movements involving demands of autonomy and secession described
above it is evident that that the regional aspirations are part of democratic politics. Expression of such aspirations
can be found across the globe. In UK, there are regional aspirations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Spain
faces such issue in Basques and Sri Lanka in Northern Province of the country.
Significantly, it can be argued that suppression of regional aspirations is not the best way out, rather deliberative
consultation and negotiated solution within democratic norms is always possible.
CHAPTER 7: REORGANIZATION OF THE STATES

A. Formation of Linguistic States
India is a land of many languages, each with its distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and literary tradition. In 1917,
the Indian National had initiated creation of an organizational structure based on linguistic provinces. After INC’s
Nagpur Session in 1920, the principle was extended and formalized with the creation of provincial Congress
Committee by linguistic zones. The linguistic reorganization of the Congress was encouraged and supported by
among others Lokmanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi.
After the bitter partition on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of dividing country further
on the basis of language. Nonetheless, demands for separate state based on linguistic identity got momentum as
seen in movements for Ayikya Kerala, Samyukta Maharashtra and Vishalandhra.
The Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces Commission, headed by Justice S.K. Dhar,
to enquire into the desirability of linguistic provinces especially in case of Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala, and
Maharashtra. The Dhar Commission advised against this at that time reason being it might threaten national
unity and would be administratively inconvenient. However, to appease the vocal votaries of linguistic states, the
Congress appointed a committee, also known as the JVP committee,) in December 1948 consisting of Nehru,
Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to examine the question afresh. In its 1949 report the JVP Committee
revoked the seal of approval that the Congress had once put on the principle of linguistic provinces; it argued that
the time was not suitable for formation of creation of new provinces.
The demands for separate state on the linguistic basis didn't subside. There were renewed movements aimed at
linguistic autonomy in 1948-1949. There was the campaign for Samyukta Karnataka, uniting Kannada speaking
spread across the states of Madras, Mysore, Bombay, Hyderabad, Samyukta Maharashtra, Maha Gujarat
movement. In case of Punjab, struggle brought together both the factors language and religion (Sikh).
The Case of Andhra: the first linguistic state
The speakers of Telugu asked the Congress to implement its old resolution in favour of linguistic states. The
method they used to advance their causes included: Petitions, representations, street marches, parts. To support
their cause, former Madras CM T. Prakasam resigned from the Congress party in 1950. Another politician Swami
Sitaram went on hunger strike to support Telegu people's cause. Later he called off his hunger strike on the appeal
of veteran Gandhian leader Vinobha Bhave.
On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over the demand
for a separate Andhra; unfortunately he passed away on 15 December 1952. After his death people were agitated
and it was followed by rioting, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over Andhra. The Vishalandhra movement
(as the movement for a separate Andhra was called) turned violent. Finally, the then PM Nehru announced the
formation of a separate Andhra State on 19 December 1952.
The States Reorganization Committee:
The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the struggle for making of other states on linguistic lines in other parts
of the country. Hence Nehru appointed in August 1953 the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) with Justice
Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members, to examine "objectively and dispassionately" the
entire question of the reorganization of the states of the Union. The SRC submitted its report in October 1955. It
recognized for the most part on the linguistic principle and recommended redrawing of state boundaries on that
basis. The then government accepted the SRC's recommendations.
Finally, the States Reorganization Act was passed by parliament in November 1956.
• It provided for fourteen states and six centrally administered territories.
• SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab.
• Therefore, the strongest reaction against SRC's report came from Maharashtra, where widespread rioting
took place.
To fulfill their demand of separate state for Marathi speaking people, there was the broad based Samyukta
Maharashtra Samiti and on the other hand in Bombay state, there was Maha Gujarat Janata Parishad led the
movement for Gujarati speaking people. Eventually in May 1960, the state of Bombay was bifurcated into
Maharashtra, Gujarat with Bombay city being included in Maharashtra and Ahmedabad being made the capital of
Gujarat.
The other state where an exception was made to the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956, the state of PEPSU
had been merged with Punjab, which remained a trilingual state having three language speakers-Punjabi, Hindi
and Pahari within its border. In the Punjabi speaking part of the state, there was a strong demand for carving out
a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi Speaking State). This demand got communal overtones. The Akali Dal led Sikh
Communalists, while the Jan Sangh, led Hindu communalists. SRC had rejected the demands in Punjab, as it would
not solve either the language or the communal problem of Punjab. Finally in 1966, Indira Gandhi agreed to the
division of Punjab into two Punjabi and Hindi speaking status of Punjab and Haryana, with the Pahari speaking
district of Kangra and a part of the Hoshiarpur district being merged with HP.
Finally, after more than ten years of continuous strife and popular struggles, the linguistic reorganization of India
was largely completed.
B. Unique cases of reorganization

I. Sikkim:
At the time of Independence, Sikkim was a "Protectorate" of India. It meant that it was neither a part of India like
other states nor a complete sovereign country. Sikkim's defence and foreign relation were managed by India while
the power of internal administration was with the Sikkim's Chogyal Monarch. The people of the state were
unhappy with this arrangement and aspired for democratic set up for governance. The majority of the people of
the state were Nepali and ruler was from minority community Lepcha-Bhutia. The people of the state got support
for this cause from the Government of India and from the leaders of both the communities.
In 1974's Assembly Elections, the Sikkim Congress swept the polls and they stood for greater integration with
India. The Assembly sought the status of "Associate State" initially then in 1975 passed a full-fledged resolution of
integration with India. This was followed by immediate referendum that sealed the approval on assembly's
request of integration. The Indian Parliament accepted this plea and accepted it as a state.
II. Goa's Liberation
The prolonged rule of British Empire came to an end in 1947. However, the Portugal refused to withdraw from the
territories of Goa, Diu and Daman, which they ruled since 16the Century. The people of Goa were suppressed by
Portuguese misrule and they were denied of basic civil rights to them, Portuguese carried out coerced religious
conversions as well.
Initially, the Government of India, tried to convince the Portuguese to vacate these territories and consider the
popular movements of local people. The Situation became worse in 1955 when a group Goan and Indian protesters
staging a liberation march were shot at and killed by the Portuguese. Nehru government responded by instituting
a blockade around Goa, however this was bypassed by the Portuguese by adopting the air route to open trade
with Pakistan and Srilanka. Eventually on 18 December 1961, under operation Vijay, the Indian troops crossed the
border into Goa and after two days of action the Portuguese surrendered on 19 December
After this liberation, another thorny issue emerged in Goa. The Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party [MGP] desired
that Goa should be merged with Maharashtra.
Another faction of Goans wanted to retain their separate identity & their culture essentially their Konkani
language. The faction got their support from United Goan Party (UGP). In 1967, Government of India initiated a
move to resolve this issue. It undertook an "Opinion Poll" in Goa whether it should be merged with Maharashtra
or remains separate. This was the only occasion where this kind of referendum like process was undertaken to
ascertain people’s desire on a particular subject. The overwhelming majority of the people favored Goa to remain,
separate from Maharashtra. For a longer time, Goa remained a Union Territory. Finally Goa became a state of
the Indian Union in 1987.
C. Recent Reorganizations of States

I. Chhattisgarh
The present state of Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh, and become 26th State of India on 1
November 2000.
The demand of a separate state was first pitched in pre independence era in 1920's and later in after independence
period when State Reorganization Commission in 1955 submitted its report, but it rejected the demand for
separate Chhattisgarh. However after long time, this demand acquired renewed momentum in 1990's. The key
issues underlying this renewed demand were a distinct Chhattisgarhi identity, large Tribal population and
underdevelopment despite being resource rich. Chhattisgarh Rajya Nirman Manch, led by Chandulal Chandrakar
conducted several region wide strikes and rallies and got the support of INC and BJP.
Finally, in the year 2000 NDA Government accepted separate Chhattisgarh demand and made it 26th state of India.
II. Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand, earlier known as [Uttaranchal] was carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9th November 2000, as 27th state
of India. It was the successful culmination of 70 year old struggle of the people of the hilly region for a separate
state.
Lack of development in geographically unique region (93% of the areas in the hilly region & 64% of the total areas
is forest area) and rising unemployment gave impetus to the age old demand for a separate state.
It all started in 1930 when residents of the hill region had moved a resolution by majority vote claiming for a
separate of Uttarakhand. Later in 1973, there was Uttarakhand Rajya Parishad formed and became a platform for
statehood struggle. This got transformed into Uttaranchal Kranti Dal in 1979. Later in 1994, the then CM Mulayam
SinghYadav set up a committee for evaluating demands of Uttarakhand. The committee favoured the formation
of the state. Uttaranchal, later to be renamed Uttarakhand in 2006-7, became the 27th state of the union on 9
November 2000.
III. Jharkhand:
Jharkhand, which constituted the tribal areas of Bihar consisting of Chhota Nagpur and the Santhal Pargana,
remained subject of the demands for autonomy. The region has a concentration of several major traditional tribes,
like Santhal, HO, Oraon and Munda etc.
With the spread of education & modern activity in the tribal area a movement for the separate state started in
late 1930's & 1940's. Jharkhand Party was founded in 1950, under the leadership of Jaipal Singh. However, their
demand of separate state got rejected by SRC in 1955. Later many tribal parties and movements developed and
furthered the demand for separate state, one of them was Jharkhand Mukti Morcha led by Shibu Soren. Finally
after prolonged struggle for their separate state demand, the central government made Jharkhand-28th state of
India on November 15th 2000.
IV. Telengana:
On 17 September 17 1948 Hyderabad state, which included Telangana, was merged into the Indian Union. It is
well known fact that the States Reorganization Commission (SRC) did not favour the idea of merging Telangana
with Andhra Pradesh and it provided various safeguards to protect the interests of the people of the region for
some years to come. Telangana was merged with Andhra to form Andhra Pradesh in 1956. In 1969, an agitation
began in the region under Marri Channa Reddy under the banner of Telengana Praja Samiti. The struggle
continued without any success for a long time.
The Telengana Rashtra Samiti then took the cause of separate Telengana is 2001. On November 29, 2009, the
TRS launched an indefinite hunger strike. On 9 December 2009, the centre announced that it was "initiating the
process for formation of Telengana State". Finally in 2014, the demand was fulfilled, after much dilly-dallying,
Telangana became 29th State of India on. `
IV. Other Demands for State creation:
There are still long pending demands for state formation on the different basis viz. ethnicity, lack of
development, administrative inconvenience. Some of the prominent demands for separate statehood are:
• Gorkhaland (WB),
• Kamatpur state for Koch Rajbangsi (Assam), Bodoland (Assam),
• Vidharbha (MH),
• Saurashtra (Gujarat),
• fourfold division of Uttar Pradesh in the form of Harit Pradesh, Awadh Pradesh, Purvanchal and
Bundelkhand (some parts of UP and MP).
Demands of separate statehood on various grounds show that language is not the sole glue that can bind people
together. Now some people are aspiring for preservation of their ethnic culture in the form of separate state and
on the other hand some people are aspiring for better development after prolonged apathy and backwardness.
CHAPTER 8: CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS

A. Politics of Coalition
A large number of political parties always contested elections in our country, as we have seen in the chapter From
Colony to Democracy. In the initial years, the Congress party gained overwhelming majority. The Congress party
commanded popularity and respect of the people. The party had mass base and grass roots in India. It remained
in power both at the centre as well as in the states right from 1947 to 1967 and it had a monolithic character.
However, emergence of strong regional parties, politicization of various social groups and their struggle for share
in power characterized the political transition and churning in contemporary India and it have made coalition
government inevitable at the Federal level.
The beginning of coalition Politics in India
During the fourth general elections to the Lok Sabha and the state assemblies, after the demise of Nehru and
Shastri, the Congress Party exhausted its mandate and lost its character and motivation as a party of social and
institutional change. People were unhappy with corruption and lavish lifestyle of party members. According to
Zareer Masani, a freelance journalist and broadcaster, due to the continuous power struggle within and rapid
erosion of party discipline, confidence was built up in the anti-Congress wave during 1967 elections.
An important feature of the 1967 elections was the coming together of the opposition parties. The 1967 elections
also initiated the dual era of short lived coalition governments and politics of defection. Coalition governments
were formed in all opposition ruled states except Tamil Nadu. Congress too formed coalition governments in some
of the states. 1967 elections also heralded politics of coalition. In Haryana where the defection phenomenon was
first initiated, and new term was coined "Aya Ram Gaya Ram" for the leaders frequently changing their party.
During 1967 to 1970 nearly 800 assembly members crossed the floor, and 155 of them were rewarded with
ministerial offices.
The 1967 elections, also dramatically changed the balance of power within the Congress Party. Syndicate, the
powerful group, of the party received major blow as several stalwarts lost the elections.
1977 Elections
The elections of 1977 was a watershed in the history of independent India as it not only put to test the resolve of
people to uphold democracy but also ensured the transfer of power by peaceful means from one party to another
through the electoral verdict. The election results ensured a chastising defeat for the Congress led by Mrs Indira
Gandhi and a victory for opposition forces that came together to form the Janata Party.
Morarji Desai, headed four party Janata Government for about two years (1977–79). Technically, it was not a
coalition because its four constituents had agreed to merge and fought the elections on a single manifesto and on
a share symbol.
Formation of Government in 1977
S.N. Constituent Group No. of MPs No. of Ministers
1 Jana Sangh 94 11
2 Bhartiya Lok Dal 71 12
3 Congress (O) 50 10
4 Socialist Party 28 04
5 CFD Congress for Democracy 28 03
6 Ex-Congressmen [Chandra shekhar group] 05 02
7 Others [Like Akali Dal etc.] 25 02
Due to the aspiration of power and position the Janata Coalition collapsed like a house of cards in July 1979.
Others reasons for the collapse were flood gates of defection were open and Akali and other regional groups
withdrew their support. According to L.K. Advani, Janata Party was in the pain of collapse in 1979, partly due to
their divergent concept of a party discipline. Non governance became the bane of the administration. The struggle
for power within the coalition led to the conflicts, confrontation and mudslinging at each other.
After the collapse of Janata Government, India had another coalition government headed by Charan Singh. But
this government too remained for a very short time. Later for almost a decade India had a stable one party
government at the centre under Congress's leadershipEra of constant coalition governments
After a decade old stable government by the Congress, there was a return of coalition politics. Elections in 1989
led to the defeat of the Congress Party but didn't result in majority for any other party. This defeat of 1989 of the
Congress Party marked the end of Congress dominance over the India Party System. Hence an era of multi-party
system began. The evolution of multiparty system at the centre meant that no single party secured a clear
majority of seats in any Lok Sabha elections held since 1989 until BJP got majority in 2014.
The nineties also saw the emergence of powerful parties and movements that represented the Dalit and backward
castes. There have been nine governments at the centre, majority of them either been coalition governments or
minority governments. In this phase, any government could be formed only with the participation or support of
many regional parties. This can be seen from the National Front in 1989, the United Front in 1996 and 1997, the
NDA in 1997, BJP led coalition in 1998, NDA in 1999 and UPA in 2004 and 2009.
Mandal Politics
The Mandal Commission was set up in 1978 by Government of India to investigate the extent of educational and
social backwardness among various sections of Indian Society and recommend ways of identifying these
"backward classes". Mandal Commission found that the backward caste had a very low presence in both
educations institutions and in employment in public services. Hence it had recommended reservations of seats in
educations institutions and government job for these groups. The Mandal Commission also made many other
recommendations like land reforms, to improve the conditions of the OBCs. After a decade of the report, in August
1990, the National Front Government decided to implement one of the recommendations of Mandal Commission
pertaining to reservations for OBCs in job in the central government and its undertakings. This decision sparked
agitations and violent protests in many cities of North India. Supreme Court in 1992 upheld the decision of the
government.
B. New Economic Policy 1991

The evolution of Indian economy from a public sector dominated socialist pattern to a liberalized open market
econmy was a slow process. The convergence peculiar circumstances such as the Gulf war, collapse of Soviet Union
and unstable governments at the center and the economic crisis as seen in the balance of payment issue in the
early 1990s made it imperative for India to respond to the changed scenario.
The origin of the economic crisis can be traced from the inefficient management of the Indian economy in the
1980's. In the late 1980's government expenditure began to exceed its revenue by such large margins that it
became unsustainable. Inflation was soaring, imports grew in excess to the export to such a level that foreign
exchange reserves declined to a level that it was not adequate to finance imports for more than two weeks. Even
there was insufficient foreign exchange to pay the interest to international lenders.
To ward off this precarious situation of economy, India approached the World Bank and IMF and received $7
billion as loan to manage the crisis. In return, these institutions wanted that the Indian should open up the
economy by removing restrictions of the several sectors and reduce the role of government in many areas and
remove trade restrictions. India had no choice but to accept these conditions and announced the New Economic
Policy. The Crux of the policy was to remove the barrier to the entry of private firms and to create more
competitive environment for the economy. These reforms can be classified into two types.
1. The stabilization measures [short term]
2. The structural reform measures [Long term]
The government initiated a variety of policies which fall under three heads viz. Liberalization, Privatization and
Globalization, "LPG Policy". The first two are policy strategies & the last one is the outcome of these strategies.
I. Liberalization
1991 reforms were more comprehensive as compared to the reforms of 1980's. Industrial licensing was abolished
for almost all but product categories – alcohol, cigarettes, hazardous chemicals industries, expensive electronics,
aerospace drugs and pharmaceuticals.
The only industries now reserved for the public sector are defence equipments, atomic energy generation and
railway transport. In many industries, the market has been allowed to determine the prices.
Financial sector reforms
Major aim of financial sector reforms was to reduce the role of RBI from regulator to facilitator of financial sector.
In a way, financial sector may be allowed to take decision without consulting RBI. These reforms led to the
establishment of private sector banks, entry of foreign banks with certain conditions on FII, such as merchant
bankers, mutual funds and pension Funds were not allowed to invest in Indian Financial markets.
Tax Reforms
Since 1991, there has been a continuous reduction in the taxes on individual incomes. The rate of corporation tax
was reduced; simplification of procedures to pay the income tax was also initiated.
Foreign Exchange Reforms- Initially the rupee was devalued against foreign currencies. This led to the increase in
the inflow of foreign exchange. Now usually, markets determine exchange rates based on the demand and supply
of foreign exchange.
Trade and Investment Policy Reforms: To promote the efficiency of the local industries and for the adoption of
modern technologies competitiveness of industrial production and foreign investment and technology into the
economy was promoted. Import licensing was abolished except in case of hazardous and environmentally sensitive
industries.
II. Privatisation:
Government had shed off the ownership and management of various government owned enterprises.
Government started disinvestment by selling off equity of PSU's. The purpose behind such move was to improve
financial discipline and to facilitate modernization.
The government has also made attempts to improve the efficiency of PSUs by giving them autonomy in taking
managerial decisions.
III. Globalisation:
Globalisation is the outcome of the policies of liberalisation and privatisation. Globalisation implies greater
interdependence and integration. It involves creation of networks and activities transcending economic social and
geographical boundaries. The best example is of outsourcing. e.g. BPOs.
Globalization is mix bag of results. On one hand it has provided greater access to global markets, imports of high
Technology etc. on the other hand developed countries expands their markets in other countries. It has also been
pointed out that markets driven globalization has widened the economic disparities among nations and people.
C. Era of ICT (Information and Communication Technology)

The main objective behind any innovation in technology is to ensure that it provides comfort leisure, productivity
and a better quality of life and built environment to its citizen. In India, the path towards technology induced
development especially associated with ICT, was given a vent in 1984 by Rajiv Gandhi government. He adopted
an effective route to development with massive programme of computerization, launched in the public sectors as
well as in commercial and the public sectors undertakings and in administrative departments. By 1985, large
sectors had announced computerization plans, which included railways, banking operations, schools etc.
Information & Communication Technology can be broadly viewd under two sectors,
• Information Technology and
• Communication]
In 1998, National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development prepared the blue print for
making the adoption of IT as a national movement by establishing a wide network of empowered taskforce at all
governmental & non-governmental level.
In 1999, the Ministry of Information Technology was established by bringing together government agencies
involved in different aspects of IT for creating job to harness opportunities provided by convergence of
communication technologies and to facilitate the use of IT in use of Electronic Governance.
ICT generates new possibilities to address problems of rural poverty, inequality and environmental degradation.
In India, the growth of information technology and communications is very significant in the past two decades. IT
Industry in India comprises of software industry and information technology enabled services [ITES] which also
includes BPO industry.
India is considered as a pioneer in software development and a favorite destination for IT-enabled services (ITES).
Many other countries look to India as a model for global outsourcing and try to imitate elements of this is their
own strategies.
The Government of India and respective state government in India use ICT for delivery of government information
and services to citizens (G2C), business [G2B], employees [G2E], and governments [G2G]. The Government of India
initiated an e-government programme during the late 1990's by adopting the Information Technology Act in 2000.
The major aims of this Act were to recognize electronic contracts, prevent computer crimes and make electronic
filing possible. Later in 2006, Government approved the National e governance Plan [NeGP) to enhance e
government initiatives in India. Almost all state governments and UTs have also implemented their own e
government services to serve their citizens and business. Some of the prominent services include "Bhoomi" from
Karnataka, "Gyandoot" from MP, "Smart government" from Andhra Pradesh, "SARI" from Tamil Nadu.
CHAPTER 9: POPULAR MOVEMENTS

A. Introduction
i. According to Paul Wilkinson, Concept of Social Movements means a a deliberate collective endevour to
promote change in any direction and by any means not excluding violence, illegality, revolution or
withdrawal into utopian Community.
ii. Ghanshyam Shah classifies movements as revolt, rebellion, reforms and revolution to bring about
changes in the political system. According to Parth Mukherji, social movements are accumulative,
alternative and transformatory in nature.
iii. In the view of T.K. Oommen, movements are charismatic, ideological and organisational.
iv. Some other classify movements on the basis of the participants such as Peasants, tribals, dalits, women,
backwards, students etc. Many other Movements that are based on issues transcending the barriers of
class have been termed as New Social movements.
In the case of India one can find examples belonging to the above mentioned typology. Some of the prominent
ones are discussed in the following section.
B. Environment Movement
Ecological and environmental conflicts in India are result of claims over depleting resources of forests, land water,
fisheries etc. These conflicts have been a challenge to the development of the country and also give rise to
organized movement revolving around them
I. Chipko Movement:
Chipko movement that began in 1973 in central Himalayas is one of the most famous movements in India. This
movement began in Uttarakhand when forest department had refused permission to villagers to fell ash trees for
making agricultural tools and allotted the same patch of land to sports manufacturer for commercial use.
The villagers demanded that no forest exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders and local communities
should have effective control over natural resources like land, water and forests. Women's active participation
in the Chipko agitation was a very novel aspect of the movement. Villagers in general, and women in particular
thwarted commercial falling of trees by hugging the trees to prohibit their cutting and the name chipko originates
from this very practice only.
The movement achieved a victory when the then government issued a ban on felling of trees in the Himalayan
regions for fifteen years, until the green cover was fully restored. Gaura Devi, a middle aged widow of the village
was prominent figure of this movement. After this movement, the Chipko movement inspired many
environmental movements and gave rise to series of protests against commercial felling in Himalayan foothills
led by Gandhians and leftists.
II. Narmada Bachao Aandolan:
• An ambitious developmental project was launched in the Narmada valley of central India in early 80's.
• The project consisted of 30 big dams, 135 medium sized and around 3000 small dams to be constructed
on the Narmada and its tributaries that flow across three states, MP, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat and Narmada Sagar Project in MP were two most important biggest,
multipurpose dams planned under the project.
• The projects mentioned above were aimed to provide drinking water and water for irrigation, generation
of electricity and increase in agricultural production.
• The project required relocation of about two and half lakh people and 245 villages were expected to get
submerged.
• Initially locals demanded proper relocation and proper rehabilitation. It was during late 80's that the
issue crystallised under the banner of Narmada Bachao Aandolan, a loose collective of local voluntary
organs.
• NBA demanded a proper cost benefit analysis of the major developmental projects completed in the
country so far.
• It also demanded that social cost should be calculated too with respect to such projects. Social cost meant
forced settlement of project affected people, serious loss of means of livelihood and culture, depletion of
ecological resources.
• Because of constant struggle, Right to rehabilitation has been recognized by the government and judiciary.
• A comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy formed by the government in 2003 can be considered as
an achievement of the movements like NBA.
• NBA used every available democratic strategy to put forward its demands like Pradarshan, Dharna,
Gherao, Rasta Roko, Jail Bharo Aandolan, Bhook Hartal etc. The prominent face of the movement was
Medha Patkar, a social activist.
III. Silent Valley Movement:
• This environmental movement aimed at the protection of silent valley an evergreen forest in the Palakkad
district Kerala.
• After the announcement of imminent dam construction on Kuntipuzha river, as an ideal site for electricity
construction “Save silent valley”.
• movement was started in 1973 and Kerala Sasthra Sahitya Parishad (K.S.S.P) effectively aroused the
public opinion to save silent valley.
• The protesters were successful in 1985, when the then PM Rajiv Gandhi inaugurated Silent valley
National Park and the park was designated as the core area of Nilgiri Biosphere Deserve.
• Silent Valley is also famous for the endangered lion-tailed macaque.
IV. Fisheries Movement:
• Both in the eastern and the western coastal area of our country hundreds of thousands of families,
belonging indigenous fishermen communities are engaged in fishing occupation.
• The livelihood of these fishermen worker was threatened, when the government permitted entry of
mechanized trawlers and technologies like bottom trawling for large scale harvest of fish in the Indian
seas.
• To protect their interests and livelihood, the fishermen came together on a national level platform as a
National Fish workers Forum.
• NFF achieved their first success against Indian government's move to open the entry of commercial vessels
including of MNCs in deep sea. In July 2002, NFF called for a nationwide strike to oppose the move of
government to issue licenses to foreign trawlers as well.
C. Dalit Movement
After Independence, the Dalit Movement sought social justice and dignity and they attempted to build electoral
majorities on a certain type of caste mobilization.
The Term "Dalit" encompasses the communities known as ex-untouchables and tribals who are officially termed
as Sheduled Castes and Sheduled Tribes respectively.
Ghanshyam Shah classified Dalit Movement into:
1. Reformative
2. Alternative Movement
Reformative: it tries to reform the caste system to solve the problem of untouchability.
Alternative: it attempts to create an alternative socio-cultural structure by conversion to some other religion or
by acquiring education, economic status and political power.
In almost all Dalit movements, the issue of reservations has been an overriding phenomenon and is seen as the
most decisive tool of progress.
The Bhopal Declaration (2002) adopted unanimously a new 21 point Action Agenda for Dalits for the 21st century.
Some of the important points:

i. Recognize SC & ST women as distinct category of women.
ii. Make the reservation quota applicable in all public & private educational institutions from primary to
technological, professional levels.
iii. Implement effectively in letter and spirit the SC & ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989.
iv. Implement the policy of reservation to SC & STs at all levels of Judiciary and the Defence forces.
The 1980s saw the rise of political organisation of the Dalits. In 1978, the Backward and Minority Classes
Employees Federation BAMCEF was formed. It took a strong position in favour of political power to the bahujan
– the SC, ST and OBC, minorities. The prominent face of this movement and it's subsequent outfit Shoshit Samaj
Sangharsh Samiti, was by Kanshi Ram.
D. OBC Movements
• The Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are those who are as deprived as the S.C.s but without the stigma of
untouchability. Andre Beteille, says "The OBC Constitute a congeries of communities of rather uncertain
status".
• The Kaka Kalelkar Commission appointed by the Government of India, identified more than 3000 castes
or communities as OBC in 1956. The Mandal Commission (1980) calculated that 52% of the population
including non Hindus constitutes OBCs. Almost all commissions, except the Rane Commission in Gujarat
(1983), used Social, educational and economic critieria for identifying 'backwardness'.
E. New Farmers Movement

• The farmer’s movements burst onto the National political stage in 1980 with the road and rail roko
agitation in Nasik, Maharashtra led by the Shetkari Sangathana of Sharad Joshi.
• Sharad Joshi articulated the ideology of the movement in terms of India V/s Bharat, industrial V/s rural.
• In 1986, in Muzaffarnagar, U.P. Mahendra Singh Tikait, presided over a gathering of lakhs of villagers
before which the CM of UP had been forced to appear in person to announce his acceptance of their
demand for reduction of electricity charges to the old level.
• In the 1980's emerged widespread grassroots mobilization of rural dwellers like in Tamil Nadu led by Viva
Sayigal Sangam, the Rajya Ryothu Sangha, Karnataka, Bhartiya Kisan Union Punjab and Haryana; Khedut
Samaj and Kisan Sangh in Gujarat and the Shetkari Sangathana in Maharashtra.
• These above mentioned New Farmers Movement especially in 1980s have attracted much media and
political attention and
• focused mainly on the demands of remunerative prices for agricultural produce and lowering or
elimination of government dues such as canal water charges, electricity charges, interest rates and
principal of loans, etc.
F. Women's Movement
• Immediately after two decades of independence, the overall feelings with respect to women's issues were
concerned with required legislative reforms. Many acts were passed to translate namesake equality into
true spirits, like special Marriage Act 1954, the Hindu Marriage Act (1956), Inter State Succession Act
(1956) and Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 were enacted.
• There are three prominent women organization, which are still working for the women's cause. All India
women's conference (AIWC), National Federation of Indian women (1954) and All India Democratic
Women's Association (AIDWA since 1981). Neither of them has direct political affiliations, but AIWC is
known to have close links with Congress, the NFIW with the CPI and AIDWA with CPM.
• The mid 1970's were a watershed years in Indian Politics. A series of locally organised and intense popular
struggle broke out. Eg, united women's Anti Price Rise Front, which turned into a mass movement of
women for consumer protection ; Chipko Movement for environment protection ; Bodhgaya movement
for women's land rights.
• Nationwide protest were organised around specific incident like the Mathura Rape Case (1978), Jessica
Lal Murder case, the latest ones were Nirbhaya Case Delhi (2012).
There is growing demand for women's safety, dignity, employment, and reservation in Assemblies and Parliament;
Various NGOs have also contributed a lot in women emancipation. But there are many rape cases and violence
against women happening in the country despite multiple laws.
G. Civil Democratic Movement

• It originated in the late 1960's. The 1960’s were a period of political uncertainty as the conflict with the
ruling class got sharpened and there were signs of mass revolt.
• The increasing arbitrariness of state behavior was the main provocation for the democratic rights
movement.
• The main propeller of growth of Civil liberties movement was declaration of Emergency which suspended
the fundamental freedoms guaranteed in the Part III of the constitution.
• Two major Delhi based organizations, namely the People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) & People's
Union for Democratic Rights (PUDR) started working for people's democratic rights.
• Till today these organizations are working in the interest of the vulnerable and deprived sections of the
society and taking their cause on their behalf in the judiciary.
PREVIOUS YEARS VISION IAS GS MAINS TEST SERIES QUESTIONS

1. Portugal’s refusal to give up Goa in spite of India’s repeated requests, led to a two-fold struggle.
Elaborate.
Approach:
Include diplomatic efforts to resolve Goa dispute, local resistance to Portuguese rule and the Indian
military actions.
Answer:
At the time of Union of India's independence from the British Empire in 1947, Portugal held a handful of
exclaves in the Indian subcontinent - the districts of Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli -
collectively known as the Estado da India.
The Government of India asked the Portuguese government to open negotiations about the future of
Portuguese colonies in India. Portugal asserted that its territory on the Indian subcontinent was not a
colony But a part of metropolitan Portugal and hence its transfer was non-negotiable; and that India had
no rights to this territory, since the Republic of India did not exist at the time when Goa came under
Portuguese rule.
When the Portuguese Government refused to respond to subsequent aide-memoires in this regard, the
Indian government withdrew its diplomatic mission from Lisbon and the struggle became two fold. From
within Goa and by the Indian Government outside Goa.
Inside struggle to Portuguese rule in Goa in the 20th century was pioneered by Cunha, a French-educated
Goan engineer who founded the Goa Congress Committee in Portuguese India. Messages of solidarity
were received by the Goa Congress Committee from leading figures in the Indian independence
movement like Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and several others. There
were intermittent mass demonstrations. In addition to non-violent protests, armed groups such as the
Azad Gomantak Dal (The Free Goa Party) and the United Front of Goans conducted violent attacks aimed
at weakening the Portuguese rule in Goa. The Indian government supported the establishment of armed
groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal, giving them full financial, logistic and armament support. The armed
groups acted from bases situated in Indian territory and under cover of Indian police forces. The Indian
government - through these armed groups - attempted to destroy economic targets, telegraph and
telephone lines, road, water and rail transport, in order to impede economic activity and create conditions
for a general uprising of the population.
Outside struggle was the action by India's armed forces. The armed action, codenamed Operation Vijay
by the Indian government, involved air, sea and land strikes for over 36 hours, and was a decisive victory
for India, ending 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule in Goa. The brief conflict drew a mixture of
worldwide praise and condemnation. In India, the action was seen as liberation of historically Indian
territory, while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against national soil. Under Indian rule, Goan voters
went to the polls in a referendum and voted to become an autonomous, federally administered territory.
After joining India, the territory of Goa was under military rule for five months, however the previous civil
service was soon restored and the area became a federally administered territory.
2. Post-independence, India had to deal with the inflow of refugees from both East as well as West
Pakistan. What factors made the task of dealing with refugees on the Eastern flank more difficult?
Approach:
• Explain the context – the mammoth task of rehabilitation at both east and west front immediately
after independence.
• Explain the problems on the eastern front –
o Long term inflow of refugees
o Evacuee properties
o Problem with respect to language affinity
• Finally relate it to the problems that persist even today i.e. Ethnic problems in lower Assam and lack
of economic opportunities in Bangladesh.
Answer:
The partition of the Indian subcontinent was a watershed in the history of the region. Millions living in
Punjab and Bengal bore the brunt of partition in a way that still defines their existence in many ways. India
had to deal with mammoth task of rehabilitating millions of refuges pouring in from both sides of the Indo-
Pak border. However there were many factors that made the task of dealing with refugees on the eastern
flank much more challenging.
For Punjab, partition and exchange of population- the Hindus and Sikhs coming from Western Punjab to
India and the Muslims moving from Eastern Punjab into Pakistan- was primarily one time affair. But, for
Bengal, the exodus of Hindus from East Bengal continued for years. Due to the periodic communal riots,
there was a steady stream of refugees till 1971.
The evacuee property left by the Muslims, who migrated to West Pakistan, helped the displaced persons
from the West Pakistan to settle down in Punjab and the adjacent areas. The situation in the East was
definitely not so. The displaced in the East had neither adequate compensation nor rehabilitation to
reconstruct their lives.
While the better-off people from East Pakistan could reconstruct their lives with relative ease in West
Bengal, for those belonging to the middle class and lower middle class, it was almost impossible. Many of
them could never return to their traditional family occupations and, therefore, felt a sense of alienation
and irreparable occupational loss even after partial rehabilitation. In other words, the partition of Bengal
had a long-term impact on the economy and culture of the region.
Language affinity was another problem. In western flank, the refugees could be settled in not only Punjab
but also in other Hindi speaking areas like Himachal, Haryana, Western UP, Rajasthan and Delhi – thus
these refugees were better prepared to adjust. However those coming from East Bengal could be adjusted
in Bengali speaking areas only like Bengal and to a lesser extent in Assam and Tripura.
Post 1971, the problem of refugees in the East is mainly attributed to lack of economic opportunities in
Bangladesh. This has led to an additional strain on the socio-economic infrastructure and has led to many
socio-political problems like riots, ethnic tensions and has even played a role in fueling insurgency.
3. The Three Language Formula sought to accommodate the interests of group identity (mother tongues
and regional languages), national pride and unity (Hindi), and administrative efficiency and
technological progress (English). Analyse.
Approach:
Question provides 3 keywords – group identity, unity and technological progress. In the answer equal
focus needs to be provided on all 3 keywords.
Answer:
• Having gained independence from the British in 1947, the leaders of the independent India recognized
the opportunity to unite the many regions of India with a common, universal language.
• As English the language of the colonial power which had just been ousted, Hindi was natural choice
which is widely spoken and understood in a very large area of the country.
• The Constitution of India was framed with the provision that the official language of the Union would
be Hindi in Deva Nagari script. Many actions were taken to aid the ascendancy of Hindi. A plan was
adopted to phase out English over a 15 year period and replace it with Hindi.
• But, India has hundreds of active dialects in use. Therefore, choosing any single language as an official
language presented problems to people whose "mother tongue" is different. In 1965 when
government issued order phase out of English, lead to violent protests in many different regions of
India-most notably in Madras against Hindi and in favour of regional and English language. At the
same time, pro-Hindi groups in the north staged demonstrations against English.
• Concern of Madras people was that any prominent use of Hindi in the government services would
have a disadvantage them for employment within those services and they also felt this action as
discrimination towards their identity, particulary towards Dravidian languages.
• Also there were group which comprises the highly- educated and professionally qualified people,
argue that English has been the vehicle of higher education, technology, and scientific research and
that any attempt to dislodge it will result in a breakdown of our educational system and take the
country backwards in all aspects of modern life.
• In response to the widespread violent protests, a compromise formula has been worked out to
accommodate Hindi, English, and another language. Thus, Three Language Formula is a compromise
between the demands of the various pressure groups and has been hailed as a masterly solution to a
complicated problem.
4. Explain the terms 'Operation Gibraltar' and 'Operation Grand Slam' with respect to the first Indo-Pak
war. What were the major factors which helped India in successfully thwarting the Pakistani aggression?
Approach:
First part is very specific and the two terms should be explained in the context of first Indo-Pak war. The
reasons given in second part should cover all the dimensions regarding warfare as well as leadership. The
reasons should be specific and not general comments.
Answer:
First Indo-Pak war was the result of an attempt of insurrection in Kashmir by Pakistani leadership. Pakistani
president, Ayub Khan, believed that either Kashmir will be annexed to Pakistan or will go to international
arbitration. So, Operation Gibraltar was planned in which Kashmiri militants were trained and then sent
across the cease-fire line in August 1965. The hope was that Kashmiris would support the infiltrators
against Indian government. However, local people remained apathetic and even handed over intruders to
the police.
When the ‘hoped for’ rebellion did not materialise, Pakistan launched its reserve plan-Operation Grand
Slam. Troops crossed the cease fire line in the Jammu sector and made swift progress. However India
opened a second front by crossing the international border in Punjab. This forced Pakistan to redeploy its
forces from Kashmir. Ultimately, the two sides fought themselves to a stalemate.
The major reasons which helped India in successfully thwarting Pakistani aggression were:
• Pakistan underestimated Indian military strength, mainly because of defeat in the China war of 1962.
However, Chinese war was fought in hilly terrain for which Indians were not prepared. But for a battle
in plains, Indian military men had a lot of experience.
• Another reason was their miscalculation that Indian Muslims, specifically Kashmiri Muslims, will side
with them. Ironically, the aggression actually united Indian Muslims who pledged their support to
India.
• The role of leadership was also important as the new defence minister, Y.B. Chavan, had taken
significant steps to boost the morale of the military including purchase of tanks, planes, rifles and
submarines. Lal Bahadur Shastri was also decisive in taking strict action and was swift to order strike
across Punjab border when needed.
5. The framing of a uniform civil code is an acid test of India’s commitment to secularism and
modernisation. Critically analyse the statement in the light of post-independent developments in India.
Approach:
The answer should provide a balanced perspective and refrain from making politically incorrect assertions.
• The answer should define what a uniform civil code means and its necessity
• It should specify the constitutional basis of uniform civil code and discuss the post-independence
developments in the direction of a uniform civil code and the impediments to it
• The answer should discuss the arguments against a uniform civil code
• The answer should suitably conclude with a balanced perspective
Answer:
• A Uniform civil code seeks to replace the personal laws based on the scriptures and customs of a
religious community with a common set governing every citizen.
• At its core, Uniform Civil Code (UCC) deals with issues of secularism, equality and women’s rights. The
secular argument is that the laws of the state should not be religion, caste or community specific.
Further, a modern state should treat all citizens equally and should not discriminate against women.
• In the Constituent Assembly, a UCC was supported by leaders such as Nehru, Ambedkar and women
members but due to stringent opposition from orthodox members, it was included only in the form
of Directive Principles as a compromise.
• Later a Hindu Code Bill to provide for a uniform civil code for Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists also
met with opposition but was eventually passed in a diluted form through 4 separate acts.
• The Muslim Personal Law continued to exist and is considered as discriminatory towards Muslim
women as it permits unilateral divorce and polygamy.
• However, the demand to include the Muslim community under a UCC was resisted by India’s leaders
as there was a feeling that partition had left Indian Muslims feeing vulnerable and any tampering with
their traditions at that stage would have made them feel even less secure. Hence, it was decided to
delay such a move to a more apt time.
• However, the controversial case of Shah Bano once again led to demands for a UCC.
• At the same time, there is another perspective that the state should not unilaterally change personal
laws, based on religion. Support for such changes should come from the community itself. For
instance, the demand for uniform personal laws for all Hindus was the result of a vigorous social-
reform movement among them. Despite opposition from some orthodox sections, there was
widespread support for such a move. On the other hand, such a demand did not emanate from the
Muslim community.
• Hence, in conclusion a UCC is a worthy goal to seek but it should be arrived at through a process of
debate and consensus and not through top-down law making.
6. Bhoodan movement had great potential, but it soon lost its initial promise and ended in a failure.
Examine.
Approach:
• First part of the answer should briefly describe the purpose and modus operandi of Bhoodan
Movement.
• Second Part should show the potential it had.
• Third part should outline its failures with reasons in brief. Fourth part should highlight its
achievements and its significance as a movement based on trusteeship and the influence it had on
land redistribution propaganda. Hence conclusion should be that although it was partial successful in
its pursuit but it was a shining example of use of mass awareness to achieve social objectives.
Answer:
Bhoodan was an attempt at land reform, at bringing about the institutional changes in agriculture through
a movement. Acharya Vinoba Bhave drew upon Gandhian techniques and ideas such as constructive work
and trusteeship to take up the task of non-violent social transformation in the country. He was to do
padyatra to persuade landowners to donate at least 1/6th of their land for distribution among landless.
It showed great promise initially. First donation came from a village Pochampalli (Telangana). Eminent
personalities became part of it. Jayprakrash Narayan withdrew from active politics to become part of this
movement. Later, by 1955, the movement took the form of Gramadaana implying that all land to be
owned collectively, not individually. By march 1956, 4 million acre of land was received. About 6,54,000
acre distributed among 20,000 families.
Despite its initial success, by 1960s it lost its promise, because of various reasons:
• Substantial part of the land received as donation was unfit for cultivation.
• It was disregarded by some as reactionary and utopian as it avoids class struggle.
• It was also alleged that Bhoodaan encouraging the fragmentation of land and would thus obstruct a
rational approach to large-scale agriculture.
• The objective of many of the landlords to donate their land was to bypass land ceiling act. They were
not really motivated by high morals.
But terming this movement a failure will be an exaggeration. And its significance cannot be decided based
solely upon the land it managed to distribute among landless. It was also significant because:
• It was one of the very few attempts to bring reform via movement, not by govt. legislation in free
India.
• It was a first serious large scale attempt to test the principal of trusteeship in independent India. It
was trying to change mindset through Satyagrah.
• It created favourable atmosphere for political propaganda and agitation for redistribution of land.
Hence it can be concluded about this movement that it was unique attempt in the history of free India to
bring revolutionary institutional change, not by law but by mass awareness and participation. Although it
was not fully successful in its stated objective but its achievement were enormous if weighted against
odds.
7. The post-independence era witnessed emergence of ‘New Social Movements’ as a corrective measure
to maladies arising from the neglect of political establishment. Discuss emergence of these movements
in India. Also, examine their limitations.
Approach:
• Identify the reasons for emergence of NSMs.
• Discuss the contribution of various movements with examples.
• Identify the limitations of these movements.
Answer:
Social movements formed integral part of the India’s freedom struggle. These movements tried to address
the centuries old deprivation of various social groups like dalits, adivasis and women. Even after the
indigenous rule for a decade social deprivations remain widespread in India. The disenchantment with the
political and administrative establishment led to emergence of the ‘New Social Movements’ (NSMs).
• Over-centralization, limited administrative capabilities, laxity of tax administration and authoritarian
tendencies has combined to provide fertile conditions for corruption in many countries. All these
factors promoted the cause of social protest against the establishment. Hence a large number of new
social movements originated from the under privileged section of Indian society.
• New social movements emerge around new scopes and range of politics. The environment, the rights,
and role of women, health, food and nutrition, education, shelter and housing, the dispensation of
justice, communications and the dissemination of information which were considered to be subject
matter for politics in which ordinary people were involved, are major concerns for the new
movements.
• New social movements are distinctive in so far as they work outside the traditional party system. Much
of their membership and force is the reflection of people's disappointment and frustration with and
their search for alternatives to the political process, political parties and the state.
Classification of New Social Movements-:
• Environmental Movements-: India is a country blessed with abundant natural resources. The country
is also having many rivers which provides livelihood for a considerable number of people including the
Adivasies. The exploitation of natural resources resulted in displacement of indigenous communities
dependent on these forests. In the absence of proper rehabilitation and deprivation these
communities protested against the government. Chipko movement, Silent Valley movement and
Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) can be cited as few examples of these movements. These movements
are also reaction to the forces of globalization. NBA fought against the funding from international
donor agencies like the World Bank.
• Dalit Movements-: Dalit movement was important part of pre-independence social movements.
However, atrocities towards Dalits continued even after independence. This has resulted in militant
Dalit movement in various regions of country. In post-independence, Republic Party of India provided
platform to these voices. In 1970 the young activists from Maharashtra formed Dalit Panther to fight
against the atrocities committed by upper classes.
• Women Movement-: Dowry, domestic violence, alcoholism and erosion of women participation in
decade after independence led to resurgence of women movement in India. The price rise and
economic hardships in 1970s led to emergence of urban women movement. The Self-Employed
women’s Association (SEWA) and Working Women’s Forum in Madras were formed in this period.
Limitations:
• Most of these movements were localized in nature. It limited their success in influencing the policy
circles. In the absence of linkages between these individual movements, their capacity to bring about
change in the policy and attitude of government got limited success.
• As the deprivations of women, dalits and Adivasies continue to exist in society, these movements
failed to bring about fundamental change in society. Though Dalit Panther like organizations wielded
political power, they got limited success in reforming the basic social structures responsible for
atrocities.
8. Briefly discuss the issues that led to the rise of ethnic insurgency in Sri Lanka in the 1980s. How did the
Indo-Sri Lanka Accord attempt to address them?
Approach:
• Give an introduction about ethnic insurgency in Sri Lanka.
• Mention the causes of insurgency.
• Discuss how the Indo-Sri Lanka accord attempted to address the situation.
Answer:
The Sri Lanka witnessed rise of insurgency during 1980s in its northern part of country. The militant
organization Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam fought with the Sri Lankan government to create independent
Tamil state. However, the government was able to defeat the insurgents and end the civil war.
The reasons which led to gradual rise of militant Tamil nationalism were:
• The country’s politics was dominated by the majority Sinhala community which was hostile to Tamils
who had migrated from India to Sri Lanka and settled there.
• Citizenship issue: the Ceylon Citizenship Act, 1948 discriminated against the Tamil ethnic minority by
making it virtually impossible for them to obtain citizenship in the country
• Language issue: The government passed the "Sinhala Only Act" which made Sinhala as the only official
language of the country.
• Quota system: The language-based quotas in university entrance exams in the 1970s required Tamil-
speaking students to earn significantly higher scores on entrance exams compared to Sinhalese
students.
There were many areas in economy, politics where Tamils had to face discriminations which caused
number of riots in Sri Lanka after independence but they turned militarized after 1980s under LTTE. When
Sri Lankan government launched heavy repression, thousands of Tamils from Sri Lanka fled to Tamil Nadu
in India in 1983.
In this scenario, the negotiations between Indian Prime Minister and Sri Lankan President led to an accord
in July 1987 called Indo-Sri Lanka Accord. The accord attempted to address the crises in peaceful manner
by providing sufficient autonomy to northern regions without splitting up the nation.
Provisions of accord:
• The northern and eastern provinces of Sri Lanka where Tamils were the majority would be merged
into a single province
• Substantial devolution of power to the northern province
• The LTTE would be dissolved and arms surrendered in a very short time
• The Indian army would come to the aid of the Sri Lankan government if requested by Sri Lanka.
However, the accord failed to take off because the LTTE had given only reluctant consent, was not a
signatory, did not trust the Sri Lankan government and refused to surrender.
9. Discuss whether the agrarian movements which emerged from the late 1970's should be referred to as
'New’ Farmers' Movements. In light of the problems faced by poor farmers and agricultural labourers,
critically evaluate these movements.
Approach:
• By using arguments make a case for or against referring the agrarian movements that emerged from
the late 1970’s as ‘New’ Farmers Movements. The answer below makes a case against using the term
‘new’ for them.
• Evaluate these movements on the basis of their participation and demands made. Then give
arguments which both agree and contradict with these in light of the problems faced by the poor
farmers and agricultural labourers.
Answer:
The agrarian movements that emerged from the late 1970’s are often referred to as ‘new’, the suggestion
being that they are part of the worldwide trend of ‘new’ non-class or supra-class movements which have
emerged outside the formal political party structures, examples being the women’s and environmental
movements.
However, supported by the following, it has been argued that there is hardly anything new about the ‘new’
farmers’ movements:
• Most of these farmers’ organisations have not shown signs of really trying hard to become a social
movement. Thus, they cannot be brought into the category of ‘new’ social movements defined as non-
class movements, concerned with women’s issues or child labour or environmental issues that are
outside the framework of the traditonal party structure.
• The ‘new’ farmers’ movements are not all that new as similar demands were made by peasant
organisations earlier as well.
• The other ground on which ‘newness’ is asserted is that these movements are not linked to political
parties, whereas earlier organizations were wings of parties. This is only partially correct. While it is
true that none of the organizations were started by political parties, it is also true that over time they
have inexorably got linked to politics.
The basic understanding on which these movements rested is that the government maintains agricultural
prices at an artificially low level in order to provide cheap food and raw materials to urban areas. The
consequent disparity in prices results in farmers paying high prices for industrial goods needed as inputs
into agriculture and receiving low returns for their produce. As a result, farmers are exploited by urban
interests, and are victims of internal colonialism. Thus, they need not pay back loans or charges for
infrastructure costs as they have already paid too much and are in fact net creditors.
Thus, these movements have focussed mainly on demanding remunerative prices for agricultural produce,
and lowering or elimination of government dues such as canal water charges, electricity charges, interest
rates and principal of loans, etc.
As a result, there have been charges that they are mainly vehicles for demands of rich or well-to-do
agriculturists most of whom are beneficiaries of post-independence agrarian development, including the
Green Revolution, and have little or no room for the concerns of the rural poor.
While this is denied by the leaders and idealogues of these movements, the fact remains that most of
these have not really gone beyond what can be described as landowning peasant’s issues. They have
shown scant concern for the landless poor or rural women. Concerns of small landholders and landless
peasants are often unaddressed.
However, it is also true that these movements are broad based among the peasantry and not confined to
the upper sections, as alleged by some critics. Also, smaller-holding peasants are as much interested in
higher prices and lower rates of government dues since they too produce for the market and pay
government dues.
10. Though India was facing several difficult problems, it has been argued that LalBahadurShastri's
government did not deal with them in a decisive manner and followed a policy of drift instead. Critically
discuss.
Approach:
• First write about the problems the country was facing during the Shastri’s regime and how he could
not dealt with them in a decisive manner.
• Since, the question demands critical discussion you should also write about the other side as well.
• Provide a balanced conclusion.
Answer:
After the death of Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri was sworn in as Prime Minister in the mid of 1964 when
government was facing several problems.
• The problem of the official language of Hindi versus English, flared up in early 1965, but the central
government failed to handle it effectively.
• The demands for a Punjabi Suba (state) and Goa’s merger with Maharashtra were also allowed to
simmer.
• In 1965, the followers of Sheikh Abdullah and other dissident leaders created a great deal of unrest in
the Kashmir Valley however; the government was not able to deal with it decisively.
• Agricultural production had slowed down, there was severe drought in several states in 1965 and
buffer food stocks were depleted to a dangerous extent. Clearly, long-term measures were needed to
deal with the situation. But those were not taken, particularly as the chief ministers of food grain-
surplus states refused to cooperate.
• After the US suspended all food aid because of the Indo-Pak war, the government was compelled to
introduce statutory rationing but it covered only seven major cities. The government also created the
State Food Trading Corporation in January 1965, but it did not succeed in procuring a significant
amount of food grains.
However, with the passage of time, the Prime Minister took various steps to handle the worsening
situation of the country. For example,
• The problem of language was resolved in early 1966 and it was due to the policy interventions taken
by the Shastri government.
• The initiation of green revolution strategy with the purpose of increasing agriculture output and
achieving self-sufficiency in food in the long run was started during his tenure, though it was during
Indira Gandhi regime the policy was pursued vigorously.
• On international front also India asserted itself. For example, the Indian government was among the
first to criticize the US bombing of North Vietnam.
• He also set up his own Prime Minister’s Secretariat as a source of information and advice to the prime
minister on policy matters, independent of the ministries. The secretariat came to be known as Prime
Minister’s office with great deal of power and influence in decision making and execution of
government’s policy. .
• He responded decisively in against Pakistan and crossed Indian army crossed International boundary
and gained strategic positions. As a result of the war Shastriji became a national hero and a dominating
political figure.
Thus even though during his initial days Shastriji was criticized of failing to give a direction to government
policies, he later proved himself to be an honest politician, a decision maker and a great statesman.
PREVIOUS YEAR UPSC GS MAINS QUESTIONS

1. Critically discuss the objectives of Bhoodan and Gramdan movements initiated by AcharyaVinobhaBhave and
their success.
2. Write a critical note on the evolution and significance of the slogan, ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan’.
3. Discuss the contributions of MaulanaAbulKalam Azad to pre- and post-independent India.
4. Analyze the circumstances that led to the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the
Agreement.
5. Critically examine the compulsions which prompted India to play a decisive role in the emergence of
Bangladesh.
6. Has the formation of linguistic states strengthened the cause of Indian unity?

permission of Vision IAS.
VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
COMMUNALISM


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
India is a land of multiple faiths and religions leading often to violence and hatred among the
people. Those who fan this religious violence do not consider religion as a moral order but use
it as a means and weapon to pursue their political ambitions. Communalism essentially leads to
violence as it is based on mutual religious hatred. This phenomenon leads to distinction
between a communal organization and a religious organization.
2. Definition of Communalism
Communalism, in the Indian context, is most commonly perceived-form as the phenomenon of
religious differences between groups that often leads to tension, and even rioting between
them. In its not so violent manifestation, communalism amounts to discrimination against a
religious group in matters such as employment or education
The causes of communal clashes as such are rarely religious in its fundamental character. In
India, communalism arises when religion is used as a marker to highlight socio-economic
disequilibrium between communities and as a force multiplier to demand concessions.
A man of religion is not communal, but a man who practice politics by linking it with religion is
communal. Hence we can define communalism as “political trade in religion”.
3. Elements of Communalism
Communalism or communal ideology consists of three basic elements or stages- one following
the other:
• Mild: It is the belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular
interests i.e. common political, social and cultural interests.
• Moderate: In a multi-religious society like India, the secular interests of followers of one
religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the followers of another religion
• Extreme: Interests of different religious communities are seen to be mutually incompatible,
antagonistic and hostile.
4. Features of Communalism
• It is multifaceted process based on orthodoxy and intolerance.
• It also propagates intense dislike of other religions.
• It stands for elimination of other religions and its values.
• It adopts extremist tactics including use of violence against other people.
• It is exclusive in outlook, a communalist considers his own religion to be superior to other
religions.
5. Factors aiding Communalism in India

• Political factors: British policy of divide and rule led them to focus on using religion to
divide India. This culminated in separate electorates for Muslims, which was later given to
Sikhs and Anglo Indians. Other political factors include religion-based politics, partiality of
political leaders towards their communities etc.
• Economic factors: Communalism in India has its beginnings in the British policy of ‘divide
and rule’. A prominent reason why this policy gained currency was that the Muslim middle
class had lagged behind the Hindus in terms of education, which contributed to their low
representation in government jobs. Due to lack of enough economic opportunities at that
time, a government job was highly coveted by the middle classes. The demand for a
separate nation of Pakistan got the fervour due to marked inequalities in socio-economic
indicators including representation in the seats of power.

2 www.visionias.in # 8468022022 ©Vision IAS
Student Notes:
The Mappila Rebellion, the first so-called communal clash was also more of a proletarian
strike against the landed gentry than a communal riot. It only so happened that the landed
gentry were Hindus and the peasants were Muslims.
In India, politics of opportunism, is the biggest cause of communalism driven by the
middle/ upper class for secular gains and trusted by the lower sections that identify with
the cause.
• Historical factors: British historians projected ancient India as being ruled by Hindus and
Medieval period as the period of Muslim rule, when Hindus were exploited and threated.
Some influential Indians too supported this projection.
• Social factors: Issues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu imposition, conversion efforts by
religious groups etc., further created a wedge between the Hindus and Muslims.
6. Evolution of Communalism in India:

6.1. Pre-Independence
Communal ideology in a person, party or movement went through the mentioned three stages
and two phases (Liberal and Extremist) during the Indian National Movement and ultimately
resulted in the bifurcation of India and creation of Pakistan.
• Liberal Phase:
o Post 1857 revolt, the British preferred Hindus over Muslims in matters of employment,
education etc. Muslim intellectuals too realized that Muslims lagged behind their Hindu
counterparts in terms of education, government jobs etc. Eventually, Syed Ahmed Khan,
a Muslim intellectual founded Aligarh College to fight the bias against modern
education among Muslims. He also started numerous scientific societies in the 1860s,
in which both Hindus and Muslims participated.
o Communalism in India got its initial start in the 1880s when Syed Ahmed Khan opposed
the national movement initiated by the Indian National Congress. He decided to
support British causes and opposed the functioning of the Indian National Congress and
deemed it a pro- Hindu party, which was against Muslim interests.
o Eventually, prominent Muslims like Aga Khan, Nawab Moshin-ul-Mulk etc. founded the
All India Muslim League, to consolidate Muslim interests. One of its major objectives
was to keep the emerging intelligentsia among Muslims from joining the Congress.
o Simultaneously, Hindu communalism was also being born. It manifested in Hindu
leaders disseminating notions of tyrannical Muslim rule, espousing the language issue
and giving it a communal twist. They declared Urdu to be the language of the Muslims
and Hindi of Hindus. Further, anti-cow slaughter propagation was undertaken in the
1890s and it was primarily directed against Muslims.
o Eventually organizations like the Punjab Hindu Sabha (1909), All India Hindu Mahasabha
(1st session in 1915), etc. were founded.
o Revivalist movements like Arya Samaj, Shuddhi Movement (among Hindus), Wahabi
Movement , Tanzeem and Tabligh movements(among Muslims) etc. gave further
impetus to communalist tendencies.
o This phase saw eventual communalization of leaders like Syed Ahmed Khan, Lala Lajpat
Rai, M.A. Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malvia etc.
o The British gave a momentum to the communalist divide through their administrative
decisions and policies such as division of Bengal, Morley- Minto reforms (1909),
Communal Award (1932) etc.

Student Notes:
• Extremist Phase:
o Post 1937, India witnessed extreme communalism based on the politics of fear,
psychosis and irrationality. During this phase, the interests of Hindus and Muslims were
deemed to be permanently in conflict.
o Communalism acquired a popular base among urban lower middle class groups and
mass movements around aggressive, extremist communal politics emerged.
o Communalism also became the only political recourse of colonial authorities and their
policy of divide and rule.
o During the period, M.A. Jinnah declared that ‘Muslims should organize themselves,
stand united and should press every reasonable point for the protection of their
community.’ He eventually stated that Muslims would be suppressed under the Hindu
dominated Congress after the British left India and thus, the only recourse would be a
separate state for Muslims i.e. creation of Pakistan.
o Hindu communalism too did not lag behind. The Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), began propagating extreme communalism. They demanded
that the non-Hindu groups of India adopt the Hindu culture and language and hold
Hindu religion in reverence. They too espoused that Hindus and Muslims are two
separate social and political entities with opposing interests.
Consequences of Communalism: The manifestations of communal killings and disturbances
resulted in Calcutta killings (1946) in which thousands lost their lives within a span of five days,
butchery of Hindus at Naokhali in Bengal and Muslims in Bihar, the carnage of partition riots in
various parts of India and the assassination of Gandhiji by a Hindu fanatic. Communalism also
resulted in the division of India and creation of Pakistan.
6.2. Post-Independence
Colonialism, is perceived as the prominent factor for emergence of communalism in India.
However, overthrowing of colonial rule proved to be only a necessary condition for fighting
communalism, not sufficient. Because even post-independence, communalism persisted and
has been the biggest threat to the secular fabric of our nation.
Reasons for persistence of communalism in post-independence period
• Slow development of the economy
• Improper cultural synthesis
• Perceived or relative deprivation
• Regional or social imbalance in development
• Political mobilization in the age of democracy has led to consolidation of communal
sentiments.
Post-independence communal violence outbreaks include the following
• Anti-Sikh riots (1984): Sikhs in large numbers were murdered by mobs post assassination of
the then Prime Minister, Mrs Indira Gandhi.
• Issue of Kashmiri Hindu pundits (1989): Spread of Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism in
Kashmir valley led to mass killing and large-scale exodus of Kashmiri pundits during 1989-
90. The region continues to be threatened by communal violence.
• Babri Masjid incident (1992): On December 1992, a large crowd of Hindu kar sevaks
demolished the 16th century Babri masjid (mosque) in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh claiming the
site to be Ram Janmabhoomi (birthplace of Ram). This led to months of inter-communal
rioting between the Hindus and Muslims resulting in deaths of hundreds of people.
• Godhra Riots (2002): In February 2002, four coaches of the Sabarmati Express were set on
fire. The passengers, mostly Hindu pilgims were returning from Ayodhya after a religious

Student Notes:
ceremony at the site of the demolished Babri Masjid. Following the attacks, several Hindu
groups declared state-wide bandh in Gujarat and started brutally attacking Muslim colonies.
This went on for months post Godhra incident, resulting in the death and displacement of
thousands of Muslims.
• Assam violence (2012): There were frequent clashes between the Bodos and Bengali
speaking Muslims due to increased competition for livelihood, land and political power. In
2012, one such outbreak escalated into a riot in Kokhrajhar, when unidentified miscreants
killed four Bodo youths at Joypur. This was followed by retaliatory attacks on local Muslims
killing two and injuring several of them. Almost 80 people were killed, most of whom were
Bengali Muslims and some Bodos. Approximately, 400,000 people were displaced to
makeshift camps.
• Muzzafarnagar Riots (2013): The clashes between the Hindu Jats and Muslim communities
in Muzaffarnagar, UP resulted in at least 62 deaths, injured 93 people and left more than
50,000 displaced. The riot has been described as "the worst violence in Uttar Pradesh in
recent history", with the army being deployed in the state for the first time in the last 20
years.
7. Current issues regarding communalism

Currently, manifestation of communalism in India can be witnessed in several forms. These
include:
• Hadiya case: A 24 year old Hindu woman, Akhila, who converted to Islam and took a new
name, Hadiya was at the centre of the ‘love jihad’ controversy. While she alleged that she
converted to Islam and chose to marry her husband out of choice, her father filed a Habeas
Corpus petition and claimed that she was forced to convert to Islam and was targeted as a
recruit of ISIS. The Kerala High Court annulled her marriage, sent her to her parents’ home
and observed that “she was a weak and vulnerable girl capable of being exploited.”
However, the Supreme Court protected her freedom to choose her religion and freedom of
movement and asked her to return to college to continue her studies.
• Beef consumption and ensuing deaths: The issue of beef consumption and transportation
has been a contentious issue in India and has triggered communal outbreaks in various
parts of the country. Muslims were the target of 51% of violence centred on bovine issues
over nearly eight years (2010 to 2017) and comprised 86% of 28 Indians killed in 63
incidents, according to an IndiaSpend content analysis.
• Ghar Wapsi programmes: It is a series of religious conversion activities, facilitated by
Indian Hindu organizations such as the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) and Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), to facilitate conversion of non-Hindus to Hinduism. While the
organizing groups claimed that people voluntarily came forward to convert to Hinduism,
some participants claimed that they were forced to do so.
• Religious fundamentalism among youth: It has been deemed as a major challenge among
the youth. There is on-going threat of radicalization among Kashmiri youth, which can give
an impetus to already existing separatist tendencies. Further, the youth have fallen prey to
fundamentalist tendencies of terrorist groups like the ISIS as many Indian radicalized youth
have joined the group. Minister of Home Affairs estimates that 75 Indians have joined the
ISIS. However, the reach of the terrorist organization is spreading in India, especially
through the medium of social media.
8. Measures to address the problem of communalism:

The problem of communalism in India is grave and can have far-reaching consequences. Thus,
persuasive as well as punitive measures are required to curb its spread.

Student Notes:
• Building solidarity and assimilation of various religious groups at different levels in society-
workplace, neighborhood etc. by fostering a secular culture eg. celebrating each other’s
religious festivals.
• Swift and prompt response to radicalization by a militant group on social media through
police action, counselling sessions for those radicalized especially adolescents etc.
• Ensuring that political parties refrain from using religion, religious ideologies in order to
garner votes through strict vigilance by institutional mechanisms such as the Election
Commission, media, civil society etc.
• Instances of an inter-religious marriage of two consenting adults should not be construed
as “love jihad issue” and highlighted in the media. Thus, media persons should be sensitized
regarding the issue.
• Mobs leading communal riots should be controlled and strict action should be taken against
them as a combative measure.
• Stern law should be framed by the Parliament against communal violence. The weaknesses
of laws have resulted in escape of politicians and other influential persons who have openly
indulged in inciting communal violence.
• The CBI or a special investigative body should investigate communal riots within a
stipulated time frame. Further, special courts should hear such cases for quick delivery of
justice to victims.
• Police and other bodies upholding law and order should be held accountable as sometimes
the police bow down to pressure from politicians and remain inactive during communal
violence and in the course of its follow up eg. while filing FIRs, arresting the accused,
producing charge sheets etc. Thus, legal reforms must be introduced which hold them
accountable for swift action.
• Pluralistic settlement where members of different communities live together should be
encouraged by removing existing barriers as religious segregation strengthens communal
identities and reinforces negative stereotypes of other religious groups. Eg. taking action
during instances of intolerance where Muslims, Dalits, North-Eastern citizens etc. are
denied housing owing to their identities. Sachar Committee report on the status of Indian
Muslims recommended the creation of an Equal Opportunities Commission to deal with
complaints of intolerance and exclusion.
• Secular education should be taught in all educational institutions, which will led to
development of harmony and co-operation among members of different communities.
• History education should be de-communalized as the present categorization of Indian
history into ancient, medieval and modern has contributed to communal thinking as it has
effectively divided history into the Hindu period, Muslim period and Christian period
respectively. This has given rise to notions that India was a Hindu country which was
‘invaded’ by Muslims and Christians.
• Increased employment opportunities for minorities can lead to decrease in communal
discord. Thus, there should be focus on skilling members of minority communities through
various programmes and initiatives.
• Religious heads can play an important role in dissemination of ideas of diversity of religion,
ideas, etc. which can help in spreading peace among different communities.
• The government should not ban minority practices in order to appease the majority group.
E.g. the state should not show a preference for vegetarianism.
• Uniform Civil Code should be formulated and implemented with the consensus of all
religious communities so that there is uniformity in personal laws.
• Media, movies and other influential should be used in promoting religious harmony and
peace.

Student Notes:
9. Vision IAS GS Mains Test Series Questions

1. Discuss the socio-economic factors responsible for the growth of communalism in
India.
Approach:
• The answer should clearly bring out the socio-economic reasons for the
proliferation of communalism in India with suitable examples. There is no need to
discuss philosophical or religious reasons here.
Answer:
• Communalism refers to a “belief or ideology according to which all people
belonging to one religion have common economic, social and political interests
and these interests are contrary to the interests of those belonging to another
religion”. There are three stages (degrees), discernible in the development of
communalism:
o Mild: People following the same religion have similar interests
o Moderate: Dissimilarity of interests between people of different religions
o Extreme: Interests of people following different religions are antagonistic to
each other, based on fear and hatred of other religions.
• Communalism is an important issue in Indian context as it has been a recurrent
source of tension and violence.
• In its not so violent manifestation, communalism amounts to discrimination against
a religious group in matters such as employment or education
• The causes of communal clashes as such are rarely religious in its fundamental
character. In India, communalism arises when religion is used as a marker to
highlight socio-economic disequilibrium between communities and as a force
multiplier to demand concessions.
• Improper cultural synthesis, perceived or relative deprivation, regional or social
imbalance in development and lack of opportunities may be pointed out as the
reason for the genesis of communalism. Political mobilization in the age of
democracy tends to consolidate these movements.
• The rise of communalism has been a very complex process. Communalism in India
has its beginnings in the British policy of ‘divide and rule’. A prominent reason why
this policy gained currency was that the Muslim middle class had lagged behind the
Hindus in terms of education, which contributed to their low representation in
government jobs. Due to lack of enough economic opportunities at that time, a
government job was highly coveted by the middle classes. Moreover, the post-1857
anti-Muslim bias of the British also gave a slight edge to the Hindus, who took to
modern enterprises/professions with great keenness. As a result, the demand for a
separate nation of Pakistan got the fervor due to marked inequalities in socio-
economic indicators including representation in the seats of power.
• The first so-called communal clash during colonial rule was the Mappila Rebellion,
which was more of a proletarian strike against the landed gentry than a communal
riot. It only so happened that the landed gentry were Hindus and the peasants
were Muslims.
• Hence a stagnant secularization process (involving separation of religion and
politics) due to: (1) Slow development of economy, (2) Competition between
Hindu and Muslim elite (3) Weak mercantile bourgeoisie vis-a-vis feudal lords, (4)
British policy of divide-and rule led to growth of communalism in pre-
independence era.

Student Notes:
• Post-independence, things did not change much for Muslims, which was well
substantiated with the findings of Sachar committee report. According to this
report:
o The literacy rate among Muslims is far below the national average and this
gap is greater in urban areas and for women.
o Working population ratios are lower for Muslims than any other socio-religious
community and this is more so in the rural areas.
o Moreover, Muslim workers are concentrated in self-employment- small traders,
enterprises etc. due to more exposure to disruptions and damage caused by
urban conflict and violence.
o Muslims have poor access to bank credit. The average size of credit is meager
and low compared to other socio-religious groups.
• Hence, among all the socio-religious communities, Muslims are the most
economically vulnerable, educationally backward and financially excluded.
• State over the years has failed to wither away this vicious cycle of illiteracy-
unemployment-poverty despite many policies being framed to deal with the
menace.
• As a consequence, youth are getting disillusioned, discontent, frustrated, looking
for ways to exert pressure there by further aggravating extreme communalism.
• Hence, the demand of the situation is to act swiftly on the recommendations of the
Sachar committee and create a conducive environment for the holistic
development of Muslim community. Generate awareness amongst the youth so
that they don’t fall in the trap of the politics of opportunism where people for their
secular gains take undue advantage of their plight.
2. The persistence of Communalism as a significant internal security threat, is rooted in

the deadly cocktail of identity politics, developmental deficit and systemic deficiency
in state capacity to handle such threats. Comment.
Approach:
Answer can begin with a brief introduction of the kind of problems communalism
brings with itself. Students should bring out how communalism is rooted in three ills ID
politics, developmental deficit and systemic deficiency. Credit must be given to those
students who are able to identify that of the three, ID politics is the core of
communalism. Without it, the other two factors don’t give rise to communalism. No
marks would be awarded for digressing towards naxalism and such other issues.
Answer
Communalism in a broad sense implies blind allegiance to one’s own communal group
– religious, linguistic or ethnic – rather than to the larger society or to the nation as a
whole. In its extreme form, a communalist sees her own communities’ interests being
jeopardised by the interests of other communities. Hence it manifests itself in hatred
towards groups perceived as hostile, ultimately leading to violent attacks on other
communities. (Just for understanding)
Communalism is a major internal security threat that our country is facing. It ruptures
social bonhomie, creates social tensions, mutual distrust, alienates certain social
groups, and creates breeding ground for further violence and harnessing of
disgruntlement by forces inimical to India’s interest. The root causes of communalism
are following -

Student Notes:
Systemic Problems
• Conflict resolution mechanisms are ineffective;
• Intelligence gathered is not accurate, timely and actionable and
• Bad personnel policies - poor choice of officials and short tenures - lead to
inadequate grasp of local conditions.
• The administration and the police fail to anticipate and read indicators which
precipitated violence earlier;
• Even after the appearance of first signals, the administration and police are slow
to react;
• Field functionaries tend to seek and wait for instructions from superiors and
superiors tend to interfere in local matters undermining local initiative and
authority;
• The administration and police at times act in a partisan manner and
• At times there is failure of leadership, even total abdication on the part of those
entrusted with maintenance of public order.
• Rehabilitation is often neglected, breeding resentment and residual anger and
• Officials are not held to account for their failures, thus perpetuating slackness and
incompetence.
Developmental Deficit
• In most cases, inadequate development creates genuine grievance in a community.
Their grievance can then be harnessed by opportunistic communal element to
breed animosity towards other groups.
Identity Politics
It refers to mobilization of masses on the communal lines. While the other factors could
be present in many places in our country. They succeed in communalising the situation
only when there is political mobilisation on communal lines.
Thus while addressing systemic flaws and developmental deficiencies, we need to
address political undercurrents as well. Institutions like National Integration Councils
must be better utilized in this context.
10. Previous Year UPSC GS Mains Questions

1. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how
the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India.

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS

VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION OF INDIAN SOCIETY


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
Globalization is a process of increasing interdependence, interconnectedness and integration of
economies and societies to such an extent that an event in one part of the globe affects people
in other parts of world.
The effect of globalization is far reaching. It affects us all but affects us differently. Thus, while
for some it may mean new opportunities, for others the loss of livelihood. Women silk spinners
and twisters of Bihar lost their jobs once the Chinese and Korean silk yarn entered the market.
Weavers and consumers prefer this yarn as it is somewhat cheaper and has a shine. Similar
displacements have come with the entry of large fishing vessels into Indian waters. These
vessels take away the fish that used to be earlier collected by Indian fishing vessels. The
livelihood of women fish sorters, dryers, vendors and net makers thereby get affected. In
Gujarat, women gum collectors, who were picking from the ‘julifera’ (Baval trees), lost their
employment due to the import of cheaper gum from Sudan. In almost all cities of India, the rag
pickers lost some of their employment due to import of waste paper from developed countries.
It is obvious that globalization is of great social significance. But its impact on different sections
of society is very different. There are, therefore, sharply divided views about the impact of
globalization regarding its effect. Some believe that it is necessary to herald a better world.
Others fear that the impact of globalization on different sections of people is vastly different.
They argue that while many in the more privileged section may benefit, the condition of a large
section of the already excluded population worsens. There are yet others who argue that
globalization is not a new development at all.
2. Impact of Globalization on Indian Culture

There are many ways that globalization affects culture. Over the ages India has had an open
approach to cultural influences and has been enriched because of this. The last few decades
have seen major cultural changes leading to fears that our local cultures would be overtaken.
Thus there are heated debates in our society not just about political and economic issues but
also about changes in clothes, styles, music, films, languages, body language. The debate is not
new and 19th century reformers and early nationalists also debated on culture and tradition.
The issues today are in some ways the same, in some ways different. What is perhaps different
is the scale and intensity of change.
2.1. Homogenization versus Glocalization of culture
A central contention is that all cultures will become similar, that is homogeneous. Others argue
that there is an increasing tendency towards glocalisation of culture. Glocalisation refers to the
mixing of the global with the local. It is not entirely spontaneous. Nor is it entirely delinked from
the commercial interests of globalization. It is a strategy often adopted by foreign firms while
dealing with local traditions in order to enhance their marketability. In India, we find that all the
foreign television channels like Star, MTV, Channel V and Cartoon Network use Indian
languages. Even McDonald sells only vegetarian and chicken products in India and not its beef
products, which are popular abroad. McDonald’s goes vegetarian during the Navaratri festival.
In the field of music, one can see the growth of popularity of ‘Bhangra pop’, ‘Indi pop’, fusion
music and even remixes.
Ritzer(2004) has coined another word grobalization that refers to what he calls “growth
imperatives(pushing) organisations and nations to expand globally and to impose themselves
on the local”. For Ritzer, Globalization is the sum total of ‘glocalization’ and ‘grobalization’.

Student Notes:
Homogenization of Culture
• Family structure: Joint family has been adversely affected due to globalization. There has
been an increase in nuclear families. This can be clearly manifested in the increasing
number of old age homes that are present now. The diversity in family forms has given
way to a dominance of nuclear family in the globalized India
• Food: due to opening up of food joints like McDonalds, KFC across the country, there has
been a homogenization of food available across the country, but there has also been
heterogenization in food. Old restaurants are now replaced by Mc. Donalds. Fast food and
Chinese dishes have replaced juice corners and Parathas.
• Borrowing of money has become more acceptable now as compared to the past. Taking
loans is very common due to increasing access to financial institutions
• In place of old cinema halls, multiplex theatres are coming up.
• Use of English has increased manifold in urban areas, this has led to a homogenization in
language across the country, but the rural areas have been less affected by it.
Glocalization of Culture
• Food: India has its unique cuisine, but the cuisines of foreign countries have become more
easily available, they are modified to suit the taste buds of Indians (like Paneer Tikka
Burger in McDonalds). This has led to a wide variety of food being available, leading to
heterogenization
• French, German and Spanish are taught to students right from school level along with
indigenous languages, this is an exemplification of hybridization of culture
• Movies: popularity of foreign movies has increased, Hollywood, Chinese, French and
Korean movies are quite popular among the urban youth. Along with this, dubbing of
these foreign movies in local languages is testimony of increased glocalization.
• Festivals: celebrations of Valentines’ day, Friendship day are examples of change in
cultural values related to festival. However, along with these new days, traditional festivals
are celebrated with equal enthusiasm.
• Marriage: Importance of marriage is decreasing, there has been an increase in divorce,
increase in live-in relationships, and single parenting is increasing. Marriage used to be
considered as bonding of the souls; but today marriage is becoming professional and
contractual. However, despite change in forms of marriage, it has not declined as an
institution.
2.2. Revival of Culture

• Revival of Yoga in the country as well as in the international level. This can be seen in the
popularity of the ‘Art of Living’ course by Ravi Shankar, or the celebration of International
Yoga day across the world
• There has been a revival of ayurvedic medicines in the country as well as outside it
• Due to increasing uncertainty by inter-linkage with the outside world, there has been
religious revivalism. This can be manifested in the use of religion to attract voters, or
mobilizing people on the basis of religion.
• Increasing demand for local handicraft products in global market: such as Chikenkari or
bandhani.
• Due to increasing global tourism, locals are making efforts to preserve their diversity and
revive their traditions.

Student Notes:
All these changes have led to drastic changes to Indian culture, though most of these changes
are confined to the urban areas, but the rural areas are fast catching up. We can see that the
western culture is influencing the Indian culture, but it is not replacing it, rather there is a
mixture of both cultures.
It is to be noted that culture cannot be seen as an unchanging fixed entity that can either
collapse or remain the same when faced with social change. What is more likely even today is
that globalization will lead to the creation of not just new local traditions but global ones too.
3. Impact of Globalization on Women in India

Globalization affects different groups of women in different places in different ways. On the one
hand it may create new opportunities for women to be forerunners in economic and social
progress on the other it may take away job opportunities by providing cheaper avenues in the
form of assembly line production or outsourcing.
With the advent of global communication networks and cross-cultural exchange there seems to
be a change in the status of women albeit not to a very large extent. Globalization has indeed
promoted ideas and norms of equality for women that have brought about awareness and
acted as a catalyst in their struggle for equitable rights and opportunities.
However, Globalization may exacerbate gender inequality in a patriarchal society, especially in
the developing world. In the economic realm it may lead to further marginalization of women in
the informal labor sector or impoverishment through loss of traditional sources of income.
According to a United Nations Development Fund for Women’s report, over the past two
decades the process of globalization has contributed to widening inequality within and among
countries
3.1. Positive of Globalization
• Opened up broader communication lines and brought more companies as well as different
worldwide organizations into India- this provides more opportunities for women who are
becoming a larger part of the workforce
• With new jobs for women, there are opportunities for higher pay, which raises self-
confidence and brings about independence
• It has increased rate of urbanization. Women in urban areas have become more
independent and self-sufficient.
• The lower middle class is experiencing a shift in the way family relations worked.
Traditionally women stayed at home taking care of domestic needs and children. Now most
of the women are setting out of their private spaces to earn a living. For example: Self-
Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in India is a union of women laborers willing to
work hard and seize any work opportunities they might get
• Feminist movement has spread to India due to globalization, making women more vocal
about their ideas.
• Globalization has led increase in education of women, it has led to an improvement in
health care facilities, leading to reduction of MMR and IMR
• Different non-profit organizations have been brought to India from around the globe. These
organizations have given women the skills they need to advance, such as literacy and
vocational skills.
• It has led to an increase in independence of women especially in urban areas. This has been
manifested through inter-caste marriages, single mothers, live-in relationships
• The women in rural settings have been influenced by globalization through media and
through numerous intervention programs like non-profit organizations, increasing self-
confidence of women and motivating them to fight for their rights

Student Notes:
• Changes in attitude of women- more acceptance of western clothes, dating has become
common in urban areas, increased use of contraception in rural as well as urban areas.
3.2. Negative Aspects of Globalization

• Though employment opportunities for women are increasing, they are mostly crowded in
low paying jobs, have less social security.
• Women are suffering two fold. As women in developing countries move into the work force,
their domestic responsibilities are not alleviated. Women work two full time jobs.
• Exploitation of women in work place has emerged as a new issue
• Globalization has occurred with the persistence of patriarchal mindset of Indians, this has
led to problems for women like commodification of women, use of social media to harass
women, increase in violence against women
• As consumers, women are increasingly facing a consumer culture which reduces them to
commodities and as producers, women are exposed to work exploitation and occupational
hazards
• Additionally, prostitution, abuse and dowry related suicides are on the increase despite
globalization.
4. Impact of Globalization on Youth in India

Globalization offers clear economic opportunities and benefits, but comes with substantial
social costs that often appear to affect young people disproportionately, given their tenuous
transitional status within an uncertain and rapidly evolving global context.
The majority of India’s population is young. The population growth among youth is one of the
most critical factors in the way India responds to globalization. Indian youth are fuelling both
positive and negative perceptions given to globalization. They are embracing globalization in a
way that the previous generation never imagined.
Economic globalization has led to increased urban poverty as people move from the rural areas
to the cities in search of opportunity. Youth make up the large majority of urban migrants.
Young people are experiencing the encouragement and the freedom to break from traditional
family norms and practices of the rural areas to find opportunities in the city.
But youth face a high level of unemployment in urban centres. Young migrants are pushed and
pulled into the cities only to find a stressed local economy. In the absence of critical
infrastructure many youth suffer from the mismanagement of scarce resources, corruption, and
sometimes natural calamities that devastate overpopulated areas. Religious, civic and ethnic
conflicts also undermine economic prosperity available in cities, which often directly involve
young people.
The primary ambition of young Indians from the smallest villages to the largest cities is to
''become rich.'' Young people hope to achieve this goal through enterprise and education. The
most highly regarded careers like civil service, engineering, and medicine are giving way to high-
paying jobs in high tech and the media.
Present day youth, with its more materialistic ambitions and more globally informed opinions,
are gradually abandoning the austere ways and restricted traditional Indian markets. Youth
demand a more cosmopolitan society that is a full-fledged member of the global economy.
In addition to the dynamic, global, economic forces effecting India, globalization has brought
change to India’s rich culture. Youth see themselves as global teenagers. They belong to a much
bigger community than the community they were born into. The younger generation is
embracing western popular culture and incorporating it into their Indian identity. There is a
subtle and powerful hybridization of western and Indian values occurring – particularly evident

Student Notes:
among Indian youth.

Consumerism has permeated and changed the traditional beliefs and practices of the Indian
people. The traditional Indian dress is declining, especially among urban youth, in favour of new
fashions from the west. Buying the latest cars, televisions, electronic gadgets, and trendy
clothes has become quite popular. The younger poor population is particularly susceptible to
the allure of expensive products seen in advertisements and when they cannot respond to
these ads, they get frustrated. Crime can be the result of their frustration.
Globalization also is changing family institutions, and the nuclear family is increasingly the
norm. Youth are not as close to their grandparents as were earlier generations and spend less
time with the older generation resulting in loss of wisdom handed down from generation to
generation.
Globalization has led to an increase in uncertainty among youth; this underlying instability may
serve to magnify the tensions and lack of control they experience on a daily basis. Uncertainty
is because of the breakdown of traditional norms, weakening of social relations like that of
family and marriage, uncertainty in career due to market economy. This has led to an increase
in cases of depression and suicide among the youth.
Most religious activities are becoming irrelevant to the youth. They want to see changes in
religion. They are not internalizing traditional ideas; rather, they are merely tolerating them.
Though they do find some indirect value with religion.
The evaluation of the effects of globalization is as a mixed bag, both good and bad. Economic
globalization has improved study and job opportunities and provided greater employment
opportunities. But it has also made the poor even poorer. But importantly, there is no going
back from globalisation. The youth enjoy having the opportunity to be modern, progressive,
and be a part
5. Impact of Globalization on Family

Traditionally, in India, the basic unit of society was not individual but the joint family. Ever since
independence, Indian Society has undergone and continues to undergo great change in every
walk of life. Family is becoming progressively weak due to globalization and individualism is
growing rapidly.
Structure of the family
• Increasing mobility of younger generation in search of new employment and educational
opportunities has weakened the family relations. It has led to disintegration of the joint
family. Gradual change in family structure from joint/extended families to nuclear family
pattern.
• New forms of family are emerging: for example Single parent households, live-in
relationship, female headed households, dual-career family (both husband and wife are
working) etc.
Functions of the family
• The family bonding and ties have started loosening due to physical distance as it rendered
impracticable for family members to come together as often as earlier. This affected the
earlier idealized notion of 'family' as the caring and nurturing unit for children, the sick and
elderly.
• With more women joining the workforce system, the care of aged within families has
declined.

Student Notes:
• Finding partners: younger generations have started depending on internet marriage sites
like 'Shadi.com, Bharat Matrimony' etc. Family involvement in finding a groom / bride is
reducing. However, the tradition of arranged marriages is still relevant in Indian society.
• Traditionally family served the role of providing education to the younger generation.
However this role has been taken over by the specialised institutions due to growing
division of labour and specialization of the work.
• However, despite changes in the functions of the family, even today there are certain
functions still specific to family i) Primary socialization of children, ii) Agency of social
control
Inter-personal relations
• Traditional authority structure has changed. The head of the family- father/grandfather
have started losing their authority to the bread winner of the family
• In nuclear families, there has been a change in marital rules and distributions of powers.
• Total subordination of women to men and strict disciplinarian role of father towards
children are changing
• Individualism in younger generation is increasing, many of them don’t believe in total
surrender of their individual interests to family interests.
• However, due to penetration of technology connectivity with extended kins has improved.
6. Impact on Caste System

The traditional caste system is based on the principles of Purity and pollution. It had following
characteristics:
• Hierarchy
• Separation of contact
• Occupational division of labour
Due to globalization, there has been changes in the traditional caste system in following ways:
• Due to globalization, there has been expansion of economic opportunities, education and
liberal thoughts, which has resulted in weakening of the caste system.
• Inter caste marriages are becoming more common and are being accepted gradually
• Traditional division of labour was breaking down due to industrialization; this was given a
boost by globalization.
• Increasing use of modern communication facilities, increased interaction between
members of different castes has led to decrease in feeling of Casteism.
• Globalization has resulted into growing urbanization, which has facilitated secular pattern
of living and hence impacted “separation of contact” aspect of caste system.
However, despite changes, caste system has shown immense resilience and still continues to
exist as one of the significant feature of Indian society.
7. Socio-Economic Impact of Globalization

Globalization has intensified interdependence and competition between economies in the
world market. This is reflected in Interdependence in regard to trading in goods and services
and in movement of capital. As a result domestic economic developments are not determined
entirely by domestic policies and market conditions. Rather, they are influenced by both
domestic and international policies and economic conditions. Direction and depth of all
economic activities in India is now governed largely by global Economy.

Student Notes:
Positive Impact includes

• Policies of Privatization and liberalization of economy, along with the process of
globalization, had a dramatic effect on Indian Economy which responded swiftly and
positively to these measures. . The growth rate of the Indian economy accelerated from
5.29 per cent per annum during the 1980s to 6.06 per cent per annum during 1991-92 to
2005-06. The Indian economy has been recording a growth rate of about 8-9 per cent per
annum since 2003-04.
• Globalization has led to an increase in innovations in the economy and has pushed the
culture of start-ups in the country.
• Access to global capital resources via the stock market and international debt depending on
the economic potential of nations and their markets.
• Sharp reduction in industries reserved exclusively for public sector.
• Decision to go for disinvestment in public sector enterprises thus promoting efficiency and
merit.
• Increase in tourism and development of tourist destinations in India- leading to increase in
foreign reserves
• Boost to urbanization and industrialization, which has also led to unplanned growth of
urban centres leading to formation of more slums.
• Vast expansion of sectors like IT, telecommunication and aviation. A notable revolution has
occurred in the telecom sector. In the pre reforms era, this was entirely in the hands of the
central government and due to lack of competition, the call charges were quite high.
Further, due to lack of funds with the government, the government could never meet the
demand for telephones. In fact, a person seeking a telephone connection had to wait for
years before he could get a telephone connection.
• The biggest contribution of globalisation is in the field of quality and development of
products with various features to suit the Indians. Now wide choices are available to select
goods, which has led to better quality of products due to greater competition.
• Access to global capital resources via the stock market and international debt depending on
the economic potential of nations and their markets.
• Globalization has improved access to health technology (medicines, vaccines and medical
equipments and knowhow).This has led to improvement of health care system. But
globalization has also led to a greater threat of spread of communicable diseases like Ebola.
• Globalization has also affected the education sector in India. Globalization has increased
the demand for education due to the economic payoffs of higher education to global,
science based, knowledge. University training has become more of a necessity to get good
job in a globalized world. Moreover, socio-political, demographic and democratic ideals
increase pressure on universities to provide access to groups that traditionally have not
attended universities. Opening Indian higher education to foreign competition will benefit
education sector further.
• In theory, globalisation, by promoting economic growth in developing countries, tends to
reduce poverty Some scholars have argued that ‘ trade is good for growth, growth is good
for the poor and so trade is good for the poor’ (Dollar and Kray, 2001). The empirical
experience of developing countries generally supports this proposition as the incidence of
poverty declined significantly in many fast growing countries like China, India and Vietnam.
However, some critics have argued that the reduction of poverty in China was only because
of its exceptional growth—in fact, absolute poverty increased in Sub-Saharan Africa and
relative poverty has increased in a majority of countries.
• Globalization has through greater exposure liberalized our attitudes, reduced our biases
and predispositions about people, situations and communities worldwide.

Student Notes:
Negatives
• Indian Economy has become more vulnerable to global shocks like East Asian crisis 1997,
European crisis, Global Financial crisis (2007-08) etc.
• Globalization has adversely affected many established companies (like organisations
manufacturing Ambassador Cars or Fiat cars etc) which failed to face competition from
established global players.
• Steep and fast reductions in custom duties have snatched large part of Indian market from
Indian Industry and passed it on to imports from established global players.
• For its survival in the face of global competition, Indian industry has transformed itself from
labour intensive processes to Capital intensive processes by adopting global technologies
and automatic machinery. This has resulted in high rate of unemployment in India.
Unemployment is the biggest challenge for Indian Government today.
• There has been a tremendous increase in consumerism for goods and services.
We may call globalization, at best, a double edged weapon. It has helped Indian consumers to
enjoy all high Quality global brands. It did help Government of India to tide over its serious
foreign exchange problem, though temporarily, by enabling it to get loan from World Bank. But
critics cite serious erosion of control of Indian Government over its economy and the loss to
local Industry as setbacks.
7.1. Impact of Globalization on Employment in India
Globalization affects the employment situation through trade liberalisation, through
encouraging exports and imports and through increasing incentives for investment and
innovation. It also encourages FDI which supplements domestic investment and leads to higher
growth of the economy. Globalization, which is often combined with domestic liberalisation,
also results in reducing the power of trade unions and encourages informal contractualization
and lock outs.
No wonder, the advocates of globalization have always been of the firm view that globalization
would result in significant increases in labour intensive exports thereby promoting employment
and income generation in developing countries. Simultaneously, larger flows of FDI would result
in increased investment in Greenfield areas and would lead to accelerated direct and indirect
employment and income growth in the developing countries.
In the Indian context of post economic reforms, the rate of growth of the economy and the rate
of growth of employment have accelerated, but the economy as also employment remains
undiversified. Both interpersonal and inter-regional income inequalities remain high and seem
to have increased. The quality of employment remains very poor for a major portion of
workers. The following points may be noted in Indian context:
• Globalization has resulted in casualization of labour. Global competition tends to
encourage formal firms to shift formal wageworkers to informal employment arrangements
without minimum wages, assured work or benefits. It encourages informal units to shift
workers to piece-rate or casual work arrangements without assured minimum wages, or
benefits.
• Real wages of casual labour increased faster than in the past- both among agricultural and
industrial workers.
• There has been a shift in the composition of labour force in favour of the skilled labors, in
general, and more significantly in the unorganised sector.As a natural consequence, labour
productivity indicated faster improvement both in organized and unorganised sectors
• International mobility of labors: The migration of labours across international boundaries
is one of the most striking features of globalization worldwide.

Student Notes:
o Since Independence, migration from India has been characterized by movement of

persons with technical skills and professional expertise to the industrialized countries,
and flow of unskilled and semi-skilled workers to the oil exporting countries of the
Middle East.
o During the 1990s, however, there has been a clear shift in the pattern of labour
demand in the Middle East away from unskilled and semi-skilled categories towards
service, operations and maintenance workers requiring high skills.
o Besides, there has been a runaway growth in exports of IT and software services from
India
o All these have enhanced the employment opportunities for the Indian labour,
particularly when the country boasts to have very large pool of English speaking people.
o In the process, sustained remittances from the Indian Diaspora, which is in fact the
largest in the world, have imparted an element of stability in the country’s balance of
payments.
• Woman labour: feminization of the workforce increased after liberalization.
• Child labour: Though undesirable, child labor persists primarily in rural and agricultural
activities on account of socio-economic compulsions. But there has been a decline in
participation of children aged 5- 14 years in the workforce. There has been a substitution
effect, which favors the employability of adult females.
• Industrial relations: Increasingly, consultation, co-operation and consensus are taking the
place of coercion and confrontation. This is reflected in the reduced number of man days
lost.
7.2. Impact of Globalization on Informal sector

Informal sector includes the large amalgam of men and women, who eke out a living
unprotected by a regular salary and job security. This includes the large and amorphous
category called the self-employed, daily wage laborers, as also those who are salaried
employees but do not have job security, wage revisions and other benefits.
• Globalization often leads to shifts from secure self-employment to more precarious self-
employment, as producers and traders lose their market niche.
• Globalization tends to benefit large companies which can move quickly and easily across
borders but posses disadvantage to labour, especially lower-skilled workers that cannot
migrate easily or at all. This puts a pressure on low skilled workers and petty producers by
weakening their bargaining power and subjecting them to enhanced competition.
• Lack of opportunities in the formal sector due to lack of skill/education and slow pace of
job creation in the country push people to informal sector.
• As more and more men enter the informal economy, women tend to be pushed to the
lowest income end of the informal economy.
• Thus, globalization of the economy tends to reinforce the links between poverty,
informality, and gender.
• But globalization can also lead to new opportunities for those who work in the informal
economy in the form of new jobs for wageworkers or new markets for the self-employed.
• There has been a radical restructuring of production and distribution in many key industries
characterized by outsourcing or subcontracting through global commodity chains. The net
result is that more and more workers are being paid very low wages and many of them
have to absorb the non-wage costs of production
However, a collaborative effort on the part of grassroots organizations of those who work in the
informal economy with sympathetic representatives of non-governmental, research,
government, private sector, and international development organizations is needed to enable
the most vulnerable segments of society to seize these opportunities.

Student Notes:
7.3. Impact of Globalization on Agriculture

With a view to move towards liberalizing the agricultural sector and promoting free and fair
trade, India, a member nation of the World Trade organization (WTO) signed the Uruguay
Round Agreements on 1st January 1995. The Agreement On Agriculture of the WTO, was the
first multilateral agreement, meant to curb unfair practices in agricultural trade and set off the
process of reforms in the agricultural sector.
Indian agriculture has shown a slow average annual growth rate. It was 3.1 % during the decade
1980-1990 prior to liberalization of the economy. But since then the annual growth rates have
declined consistently relative to annual growth rate of the population. Several factors were
responsible for this fall in growth rate; lack of credit, inadequate irrigation cover, and
indebtedness, continuing use of obsolete technology, improper use of inputs and decline in the
public investments
Since the non-agricultural sectors of the economy have been growing at a much faster rate than
the agricultural sector, this has resulted in a declining share of agriculture in the total GDP.
Although the share of agriculture in GDP declined rapidly, its share in employment declined at a
much slower rate.
The notable effects of Globalization on Indian agriculture may be listed as under:
• With globalization farmers were encouraged to shift from traditional crops to export-
oriented ‘cash crops’ such as cotton and tobacco but such crops needed far more inputs in
terms of fertilizers, pesticides and water.
• Appropriate use of agricultural equipment’s, suited to the crops and the region of
cultivation, lead to efficient utilization of farm inputs, making farming financially viable and
profitable. Though there has been considerable progress in farm mechanization, its spread
across the country still remains uneven.
• Introduced new water saving practices in India such as drip irrigation.
• There has been a gradual shift from Subsistence farming to capitalist farming and contract
farming
• Increased access to developed country markets. However Indian farmer still find it difficult
to export their products to rich countries because of their inferior technology and stringent
quality parameters imposed by foreign consumers. (Due to sanitary and phytosanitary
requirements, example temporary ban of Mangoes by EU in 2014)
• Seed prices have increased due to entry by seed producing MNCs like Monsanto and Cargill.
There are also concerns related to patent rights on seeds. The large scale suicide by Indian
farmers in Karnataka, Punjab and Haryana under the burden of heavy loans is attributed to
rising cost of inputs and thin margins on profit.
• Trading of agricultural commodities has increased which at times lead to fluctuation of
prices of these commodities.
• It has led to feminization of agriculture.
8. Globalization and Environment

The architects of globalization have ignored the social, biological and physical constraints on
their created system. Critics of globalization have noted that global free trade promotes the
social and economic conditions most likely to undermine its own existence. The same can be
said of the biological and physical limiting factors-especially, in the short term, the dwindling
supplies of cheap energy.
The effects of Globalization on environment include, but are not limited to, reduced genetic
diversity in agriculture (loss of crop varieties and livestock breeds), loss of wild species, spread

Student Notes:
of exotic species, pollution of air, water and soil, accelerated climatic change, exhaustion of
resources, and social and spiritual disruption.
8.1. Ways in Which Globalization Affects Environment
• Globalization has led to an increase in the consumption of products, which has impacted
the ecological cycle. Increased consumption leads to an increase in the production of
goods, which in turn puts stress on the environment.
• Globalization has also led to an increase in the transportation of raw materials and food
from one place to another. The amount of fuel that is consumed in transporting these
products has led to an increase in the pollution levels in the environment. It has also led to
several other environmental concerns such as noise pollution and landscape intrusion.
Transportation has also put a strain on the non-renewable sources of energy.
• Ozone layer depletion and enhanced greenhouse effect pose additional challenges.
• The industrial waste that is generated as a result of production has is dumped in oceans.
This has killed many underwater organisms and has deposited many harmful chemicals in
the ocean. Oil spills from oil tankers threat pose threat to marine environment.
• Due to globalization and industrialization, various chemicals have been thrown into the soil.
This toxic waste has caused a lot of damage to plants by interfering in their genetic makeup.
It has put pressure on the available land resources.
• In various parts of the world, mountains are being cut to make way for a passing tunnel or
a highway. Vast barren lands have been encroached upon to pave way for new buildings.
• Globalization increases the vulnerability of ecosystems and societies, and the least resilient
ecosystems. The livelihoods of the poorest communities are most at risk.
It is important to highlight that not only does globalization impact the environment, but the
environment impacts the pace, direction and quality of globalization. For example:
environmental resources provide the fuel for economic globalization. Similarly social and policy
responses to global environmental challenges constrain and influence the context in which
globalization happens.
8.2. Ways in Which Environment Affects Globalization

• Natural resource scarcity or/and abundance are drivers of globalization, as they incite
supply and demand forces in global markets.
• The need for environmental amelioration can extract costs from economy and siphon
resources away from development goals.
• Environmental stress can trigger alternative technological paths, e.g., dematerialization,
alternative energy, etc., which may not have otherwise emerged.
• Environmental standards influence patterns of trade and investment nationally and
internationally.
The current debate on globalization has become de-linked from its environmental roots and
contexts. These links between environment and globalization need to be re-examined and
recognized. To ignore these links is to misunderstand the full extent and nature of globalization
and to miss out on critical opportunities to address some of the most pressing environmental
challenges faced by humanity.
9. Way Forward
International trade in goods and ideas will and should continue, but the only form of
globalization that is acceptable is one that unites nations in meeting global threats and in
preserving the environments, life forms and civilizations of this planet.

Student Notes:

1. How has globalization affected Indian culture? Does it pose a threat to our indigenous
crafts and knowledge systems?
Approach:
• The first part demands briefly explaining what culture is. A short definition such as
“a way of life” would suffice. Then explain that it has been affected by globalization
in three ways primarily – some parts of culture have been wiped out , some new
elements such as new festivals have become its part and finally some existing
elements have been enriched
• Second part must deal with cases of intellectual property theft such as bio-piracy
and exploitation of local crafts (buying cheap, selling dear by the MNCs)
• Finally, suggest some measures to counter this threat such as traditional knowledge
digital library must be mentioned.
Answer:
There are divergent views on the cultural dimensions of reforms in the content of
globalization. Three clashing notions of cultural change has been identified in Indian
context in the era of globalization.
• Homogenization: It refers to increasing global interdependence &
interconnectedness which would lead towards growing cultural standardization &
uniformisation for e.g.: increasing homogeneity of world values (market
competition, human rights, commodification); Cocacolisation, Walmartization,
Corporate culture, fast food chains, concept of e-money etc.
• Cultural Clash: The market-centred globalization is making deep in roads into local
& regional cultures, which is seen as a threat by many. As a result, there is
increasing assertion of identities to defend against onslaught of globalization for eg
: Reactionary movements like assertion by elders against western culture of live-in-
relationship or against public display of affection.
• Glocalisation: It emphasises on the process of translocal cultural mixing,
manifested in cultural heterogeneity and hybridisation e.g. Mcdonalidization
(Mcdonald's going vegetarian during Navratris etc.); resorting to both allopathic &
homeopathic treatments; knowledge economy.
Moreover, Indian society has also witnessed in recent times rebirth of many long – lost
culture for e.g.: Yoga, Transcendental meditation etc.
Globalization is generally perceived as an attempt to establish cultural imperialism and
hence considered as a threat to Indigenous craft & knowledge systems.
For e.g. Many theatre groups have become defunct, traditional weavers and craftsman
due to their in ability to invest in technology have failed to adapt to the changing
customer tastes.
However, it is in the realm of knowledge systems globalization poses a real challenge. In
India various forms of traditional knowledge systems especially in the fields of medicine
and agriculture have been preserved and passed on from one generation to the other.
Recent attempts by some multi-national companies to patent the use of Tulsi, Haldi
(turmeric), Rudraksha and Basmati rice has highlighted the need for protecting the base
of its indigenous knowledge systems. To protect its indigenous crafts and knowledge
systems, the Government of India has initiated a project to identify and digitalize all
such knowledge.

Student Notes:
Thus globalization can be both helpful as well as detrimental to Indian culture and its
crafts and knowledge systems. It’s incumbent upon the governments to frame policies
which maximized the benefits and minimizes the losses for its citizen.
2. Intensified globalization has resulted in a transformation of youth in India. Comment.

Approach:
• Answer should focus on effect of globalisation on youth and not a general debate
on globalisation.
• Coverage should include all aspects like cultural and social along with economic
aspects.
Answer: [Student Note: Answer is long to discuss major points of the issue.]
• The majority of India’s population is young. The population growth among youth is
one of the most critical factors in the way India responds to globalization. Indian
youth are fuelling both positive and negative perceptions given to globalization.
They are embracing globalization in a way that the previous generation never
imagined.
• Economic globalization has led to increased urban poverty as people move from
the rural areas to the cities in search of opportunity. Youth make up the large
majority of urban migrants. Young people are experiencing the encouragement and
the freedom to break from traditional family norms and practices of the rural areas
to find opportunities in the city.
• But youth face a high level of unemployment in urban centres. Young migrants are
pushed and pulled into the cities only to find a stressed local economy. In the
absence of critical infrastructure many youth suffer from the mismanagement of
scarce resources, corruption, and sometimes natural calamities that devastate
overpopulated areas. Religious, civic and ethnic conflicts also undermine economic
prosperity available in cities, which often directly involve young people.
• The primary ambition of young Indians from the smallest villages to the largest
cities is to ''become rich.'' Young people hope to achieve this goal through
enterprise and education. The most highly regarded careers like civil service,
engineering, and medicine are giving way to high-paying jobs in high tech and the
media.
• Present day youth, with its more materialistic ambitions and more globally
informed opinions, are gradually abandoning the austere ways and restricted
traditional Indian markets. Youth demand a more cosmopolitan society that is a
full-fledged member of the global economy.
• In addition to the dynamic, global, economic forces effecting India, globalization
has brought change to India’s rich culture. Youth see themselves as global
teenagers. They belong to a much bigger community than the community they
were born into. The younger generation is embracing western popular culture and
incorporating it into their Indian identity. There is a subtle and powerful
hybridization of western and Indian values occurring – particularly evident among
Indian youth.
• Consumerism has permeated and changed the traditional beliefs and practices of
the Indian people. The traditional Indian dress is declining, especially among urban
youth, in favour of new fashions from the west. Buying the latest cars, televisions,
electronic gadgets, and trendy clothes has become quite popular. The younger poor
population is particularly susceptible to the allure of expensive products seen in

Student Notes:
advertisements and when they cannot respond to these ads, they get frustrated.
Crime can be the result of their frustration.
• Globalization also is changing family institutions, and the nuclear family is
increasingly the norm. Youth are not as close to their grandparents as were earlier
generations and spend less time with the older generation resulting in loss of
wisdom handed down from generation to generation.
• Most religious activities are becoming irrelevant to the youth. They want to see
changes in religion. They are not internalizing traditional ideas; rather, they are
merely tolerating them. Though they do find some indirect value with religion.
• The evaluation of the effects of globalization is as a mixed bag, both good and bad.
Economic globalization has improved study and job opportunities and provided
greater employment opportunities. But it has also made the poor even poorer. But
importantly, there is no going back from globalisation. The youth enjoy having the
opportunity to be modern, progressive, and be a part of the development which is
taking place. Indians should formulate popular strategies to influence state policies
stressing the need to wipe out illiteracy, to develop educational facilities, and to
train young people in skills according to the new trends.
3. Critically evaluate if globalization is transforming “social inequalities” into “economic

inequalities”.
Approach:
The answer should seek to define social inequalities and their relationship with
globalisation. The student should also critically examine whether globalisation is really
transforming social inequalities into economic inequalities. Specific examples can be
given in the global and Indian context to support your answer.
Answer:
• Social inequality refers to the ways in which socially-defined categories of persons

(according to characteristics such as gender, age, class and ethnicity) are
differentially positioned with regard to access to a variety of social ‘goods’, such as
the labour market and other sources of income, the education and healthcare
systems, and forms of political representation and participation.
• The current process of globalisation has resulted in the globalisation of national
policies and policy-making mechanisms of national governments. Under pressure
from international organisations and MNCs the national governments have had to
restructure their economies which demands more thrust on free trade and less
spending on social sector. Governments have had to reduce expenditures on social
sectors such as education, healthcare, sanitation, transportation etc. Hence, social
inequalities particularly in developing economies continue to fester as
government’s role in ensuring social justice is reduced.
• On the other hand, the net result of the globalisation and its attendant processes of
liberalisation and privatisation has been the concentration of wealth in the hands of
few as economic inequalities widens across both the developed and developing
world.
• Also, this growing economic inequality is positively correlated with the social
inequalities based on gender, age, class and ethnicity. Examples of this
phenomenon are:

Student Notes:
o Feminisation of labour force, i.e. concentration of women in low-paid jobs

labour-intensive or service-intensive jobs in apparel, shoe-making,
semiconductor assembling jobs and in the hospitality sector.
o Casualisation or informalisation of work force leading to low wages for
labourers and less job security.
o Reduction in pensions and other forms of social support for the elderly.
o Huge gaps between the incomes of the dominant racial groups and the
minority racial groups/immigrants particularly in western countries.
• In conclusion, it can be argued that globalisation has neither led to the eradication
off social inequalities, nor led to its transformation. Rather, globalisation has led to a
situation where a socially deprived person is more and more likely to be economically
deprived too.
4. Instead of ushering in a classless society, globalization has in fact brought about a

distinct class divide and also strengthened the caste system in India. Critically
examine.
Approach: The following sub-questions need to be answered:
• What is globalization?
• How does it bring about a class divide?
• How has caste system fared in the era of globalization?
Answer:
Globalization involves the free movements of goods, services and capital across
borders. It is a contentious process and some groups of scholars and activists view
globalization as an ideological project of economic liberalization that subjects states
and individuals to more intense market forces.
The proponents of globalization have argued that by bringing greater opportunities to
people, globalization decreases the social and economic equality between people and
alleviates the problems of poverty and hunger. However there have been opposite
effects as well as listed below:
• Globalization has led to widening income inequalities, as measured by India’s
increasing Gini coefficient. This has contributed to the solidification of class
structure in Indian society
o Globalization has led to the informalisation/contractualisation of labour in
industry which has further widened the gap between salaried professionals
(the middle class), capitalists (the upper class) and the lower classes
o There has been a growth of capitalist farming in rural areas which has widened
inequality between the capitalist farmer and the peasant and also between
different regions in India
o Globalization has led to the growth of a distinct middle class which is populated
by professionals (in sectors such as IT, BPO), smaller capitalists and traders. This
class has developed its own subculture which has characteristics such as
achievement-orientation, focus on higher education and consumerism
o In India, caste structure has certain parallels with the class structure. Therefore,
the upper classes or capitalist farmers are the erstwhile middle castes in
regions such as Punjab, Haryana and Western UP. Similarly, the urban middle
class nurtured by globalization is dominated by the traditional upper castes

Student Notes:
such as Brahmins and Vaishyas, at the expense of the lower castes (SCs) and
tribes.
o Globalization has also brought about information technology and the internet
which have also helped, though indirectly, in consolidating and even promoting
caste solidarity e.g. matrimonial websites help in locating same-caste grooms
for people in different regions of the country. Similarly, caste-based forums are
mushrooming on the web and social media.
However, Globalization to some extent has spread the values of equality, freedom and
liberty of every human being. These values in a sense militate against the caste
structure of India which is based on the principles of tradition, hierarchy and inequality.
Also, the jajmani system which was hitherto an important component of the caste
system has lost some of its vitality with the growth in employment opportunities for all
sections of population. Hence the overall impact of globalization on caste and class
distinctions has been mixed.
5. “Globalization will end up making all cultures of the world homogeneous”. Critically
examine the statement taking examples from socio-cultural and economic life of
India.
Approach:
The question wants to elicit an understanding of multiple responses of globalization
from homogenization/standardization to Hybridization/Globalization.
• Introduce the answer by discussing the process of globalization and how it aids in
spreading cultural uniformity or homogeneity.
• Then discuss specifically how this process has elicited multiple responses i.e. i)
Homogenization ii) Glocalization iii) Spreading of Indian culture in the West.
• In the end also discuss briefly that how Globalization has negatively impacted
Indian culture. (because the question is critically examine) and then conclude the
answer.
Answer:
Due to economic liberalization and globalization, the world has become a “global
village”. As social relations expand globally through the creation of global networks and
communities, as technologies of communication and transportation make a wide range
of standardized products available to global audiences, societies become more
homogenous, more alike.
Cultural homogeneity due to globalization in India can be seen at 2 levels:
i. Socio-cultural level: Certain common values of Globalization like modernization,
promotion of democracy, promotion of English, food habits (macdonaldization,
pizza culture) consumerism (mall culture, inroads of various international brands in
India ) etc. have led to the uniformity and imposed American culture and way of life
everywhere. Use of ‘English’ as a global language has been rapidly increasing Many
Indian restaurants are keeping cuisines belong to different parts of the world.
ii. Economic level: The spread of MNCs, corporate culture has made inroads in the
economic life and work culture in India. The opportunities opened up by the
information technology revolution has created in the metropolitan cities in India
class of upwardly mobile professionals working in software firms, multinational
banks, stock markets, and other allied fields.

Student Notes:
Globalization has not only led to imposing of Western and modern ideas in India but
also led to Glocalization (refers to the mixing of the global with the local). In India, we
find that all the foreign television channels like Star, MTV, Channel V and Cartoon
Network use Indian languages. Even McDonald sells only vegetarian and chicken
products in India and not its beef products, which are popular abroad. McDonald’s goes
vegetarian during the Navaratri festival. In the field of music, one can see the growth of
popularity of ‘Bhangra pop’, ‘Indi pop’, fusion music and even remixes. Many English
movies being dubbed in Hindi to increase the marketability and to cater to large
number of audiences.
Also, due to the process of Globalization ,there has been an impulse towards
understanding the local cultures and preserving them which help in spreading Indian
culture in the West. Global tourism is spurring cultural revival as well as homogeneity
in response to touristic demands, and also helping in preserving diversity. Indian’s
spiritual and cultural power like YOGA, AYURVEDA, Meditation, spirituality, etc. has
spread and become global.eg. Sri Sri Ravishankar, Ramdev have become ‘global-gurus’
and are aiding in exchange of spiritual ideas, naturopathy, yoga, etc. which are
increasingly becoming popular and are also being adapted by the people all across the
world.
However, the Indian society and its culture is drastically changing as a result of
globalization due to following reasons-Contemporary changes are taking place like from
Joint families , more number of nuclear families are becoming a norm ; youth are
increasingly becoming westernized and consumerist in their thinking , clash of values
among the elders leading to ‘generation-gap’; many marriages are breaking up for many
reasons like modern lifestyles, professional ambitions and unrealistic expectations ; TV
channels or Mass Media, Internet , ‘FTV MTV’ culture etc. have often been accused of
leading to ‘cultural degeneration’ of Indian society esp. among youths.
Thus, despite the negative fallouts of globalization on Indian culture, we can say that
culture cannot be seen as an unchanging fixed entity that can either collapse or remain
the same when faced with social change. What is more likely even today is that
globalisation will lead to the creation of not just new local traditions but global ones
too.
6. Discuss the impact of globalization on mass media in India. Also examine whether
cinema influences society or it is vice-versa.
Approach:
• First of all, give an introduction of globalization and bring out in brief its evolution
in India.
• Then analyze how it has affected the various forms of mass media.
• Finally analyze the influence of cinema on society and vice-versa.
Answer:
Globalization is a process by which various cultures, societies and economies get
integrated in a global network of trade and communication. Globalization in India
followed the Liberalization of economy in 1990’s. It has transformed the mass media
landscape by enormous growth in quantity and quality of media content available for
consumption.
The various forms of mass media have been impacted by Globalization in different
ways:

Student Notes:
• Print Media - The easy availability of print media like newspapers, magazine, and
books from across the world has immensely helped in spreading information.
Related issues include copyright infringements, issues of journalistic standards,
ownership of publishing houses by industrialists and politicians etc.
• Broadcast media - Liberalization of economy and consequent growth in the
number of global players led to the exponential growth in the number of television
channels - both Indian and foreign, thus giving more options to consumers.
o Indian cinema became a powerful vehicle for culture, education, leisure and
propaganda.
o Boost to Indian television industry as glocalization occurred.
o Role of All India radio in reaching out to residents of other countries. For
example “Akashvani Maitree”
Challenges in Broadcast media include cultural-imperialism, crumpling of
journalistic and investigative reporting and concentration of power with few media
houses.
• Digital Media-Internet and mobile mass media - Internet is quickly becoming the
center of mass media in India. Internet has affected the traditional pattern of social
interaction by capturing the social space via social websites like Facebook, twitter,
Instagram whereas at the same time it has greatly increased threats like cybercrime
and fraud etc.
Cinema influences society or vice versa
Cinema undoubtedly is reflective of the society itself. The themes of cinema change
with region and time. For example, post-independence Indian movies captured the
growing pains of infant democracy while 1970-80’s displayed common man’s struggle
with the system.
Cinema on the other hand also influences society by diffusing culture and creating
awareness about sensitive and controversial topics ranging from illiteracy, corruption
gender disparity, environment degradation, communalism etc. However, sometimes it
leads to proliferation of crimes, especially juvenile delinquency, so need is to filter it as
a medium of conveying right message to its target audience.
7. Even though globalisation has led to increased employment opportunities for women,
it has also created a new set of challenges for women workers. Discuss with
examples.
Approach:
• Briefly state the definition of globalisation and its impact on Indian society as a
whole.
• In the main body, discuss the status and growth of employment opportunities for
women in the wake of globalisation.
• Highlight the multiple forms of challenges faced by women workers in the changed
economic scenario along with relevant examples.
• Briefly suggest some measures to overcome these challenges, so as to enable
women to reap the benefits offered by globalisation in the coming future.
Answer:
• Globalisation is a process in which people and countries are getting integrated
economically and culturally, through trade, labor, information technology, travel,
cultural exchanges, and mass media. . Besides other sections of Indian society, the

Student Notes:
wave of globalisation has also touched economic and social lives of women
profoundly. It has opened up various avenues for women workers-
o Formal sector- Various MNCs have opened up multiple economic pathways for
women, thus making them more mobile and economically independent.
o Informal sector- Due to strengthened trade and export flows, absorption of
women in main economic fold has grown significantly. Kutchcraft, an
association of 110 craftswomen’s groups has generated over 6,000 job
opportunities since India embarked on the path of globalisation.
o New jobs and higher pays, raise self–confidence, economic independence, and
enhanced decision making power in financial and family settings. It has
promoted equality between sexes, and challenged gender stereotypes.
• Globalization has a darker side as well as seen from following challenges-
o Gender inequalities in form of wage differentials and lesser career mobility in
formal sector of economy. Unemployment, underemployment and temporary
work are more common among women than among men.
o Health Hazards-Since availability or work is irregular particularly in unorganized
sector, women are forced to work for 12 hours which gives rise to respiratory
problems, pelvic inflammatory disease etc.
o Patriarchal attitude and cultural norms- Challenged by globalization often
manifested in the form of violence, sexual offences, glass ceiling, domestic and
workplace harassment etc.
o Gender insensitivity- Maternity benefits and minimum wages provisions are
rarely enforced.
o Working in nights-Inadequate transport facilities and security for women
working with call centers and EPZs makes them more vulnerable to crimes.
o Mechanisation- Several traditional industries where women work in large
numbers like handloom and food processing have undergone changes in the
forms of production with introduction of machines, power looms etc.
o Informalization: 95% of female workers are in unorganized sector. Globalisation
has led to many MNCs outsourcing there production to cheap labor countries
like India. For ex: sports, apparel etc. These women don’t have protection from
labor laws or unions to articulate their problems.
In India, GDP could rise by 8% if the female/male ratio of workers went up by 10%. In
the long run, it is necessary to mitigate the negative consequence of globalisation by
enhancing women's skills, innovations, developing policies and insurance products to
minimize risks, so as to create an enduring environment for their economic and social
empowerment.

1. Critically examine the effect of globalization on the aged population in India.
2. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India?
3. To what extent globalisation has influenced the core of cultural diversity in India? Explain.


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
• Indian society is an exemplification of multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-ideological
constructs, which co-exist, at once striving to strike harmony and also to retain its
individuality.
• Based on the generous concept of Vasudhaiva Kutumbkam (the world is one family), Indian
society possess a great cultural heritage. During the course of its evolution, it has
accommodated and integrated many communities and their ways of life from time to time.
2. Characteristics of Indian Society
• Multi-ethnic society- Indian society is multi-ethnic in nature due to co-existence of wide
variety of racial groups in India. India is home to almost all the racial profiles prevalent in
the world,
• Multilingual society- Across the length and breadth of the country, more than 1600
languages are spoken. Among them the major languages are Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada,
Malayalam, Bengali etc.
• Multi-class society- Indian society is segmented into multiple classes. This division can be
on the basis of birth as well as financial and social achievements during one's lifetime.
• Patriarchal society- Indian society is largely a patriarchal society where men tend to enjoy
greater status than women . However, some tribal societies are matrilineal societies where
women have the dominant decision making power.
• Unity in diversity- This is an inherent feature of Indian society. Diversity in India exists at
various levels in different forms. However, beneath this diversity, there is fundamental unity
in social institutions and practices.
• Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity- Traditionalism is upholding or maintenance
of core values. Whereas modernity refers to questioning the tradition and moving towards
rational thinking, social, scientific and technological progress. Due to the spread of
education and technological advances, modern thinking among Indians has increased.
However, the family life is still bound by traditional value and belief systems.
• Balance between spiritualism and materialism- Spiritualism's main focus is to promote an
individual's experience with God. Whereas materialism is a tendency to consider material
possessions and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values. Indian society is
largely possess spiritual orientations. However due to increased Westernisation,
materialistic tendencies have also become quite visible.
• Balance between Individualism and collectivism- Individualism is a moral, political or social
outlook that stresses human independence, self-reliance and liberty. Whereas collectivism
is the practice of giving a group priority over each individual in it. There exists a fine balance
between them in Indian society.
• Blood and kinship ties- Blood relations and kinship ties enjoy a stronghold over other social
relationships. They continue to govern the political and economic spheres of life.
3. Features of Indian Society

3.1. Caste System
• Caste can be defined as hereditary endogamous group, having a common name, common
traditional occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in matters of mobility,
distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogenous community.
• The caste system in India is mainly associated with Hinduism and has governed the Hindu
society for thousands of years. Some of the features of caste system in India include the
following:

Student Notes:
o Segmental division of society: It means that social stratification is largely based on

caste. Membership to a caste group is acquired by birth, on the basis of which people
are ranked in relative to other caste groups.
o Hierarchy: It indicates that various castes are categorized according to their purity and
impurity of occupations. Just like a ladder, castes are ranked from higher to lower
positions. Pure caste is ranked at the top and impure is ranked at the bottom.
o Civil and religious disabilities: These comprise of restrictions based on contact, dress,
speech, rituals etc. and are placed on every caste group. It was done in order to
maintain purity of specific caste groups. Example, lower caste groups had no access to
wells, they were restricted from entering temples etc.
o Endogamy: Members of a particular caste have to marry within their caste only. Inter-
caste marriages are prohibited. However, in urban areas, the phenomenon of inter-
caste marriage is increasing.
o Untouchability: It is the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the
mainstream by social custom. Untouchability was a corollary of the caste system,
wherein the untouchables (those belonging to the lowest caste groups) were deemed
impure and polluted.
o Manual scavenging: Manual scavenging eventually became a caste-based occupation,
which involves the removal of untreated human excreta from bucket toilets or pit
latrines. It has been officially abolished by the Prohibition of Employment as Manual
Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013.
o Caste based violence in India: Increasing trend of caste based violence are related to
instances of inter-caste marriage and assertion of basic rights by Dalits including land
rights, freedom of expression, access to justice, access to education etc. e.g. A group of
Dalits were attacked in Una, Gujarat when they had participated in the movement for
demand of land ownership for the Dalits.
o Policy of caste based reservation: The system of caste-based reservation in India
comprises of a series of affirmative action measures, such as reserving access to seats
in the various legislatures, to government jobs, and to enrollment in higher educational
institutions. E.g. Scheduled Caste groups are given 15% reservation in government
services and educational institutions.

Student Notes:
3.1.1. Changes in the Caste system

• Trends for inter-caste marriage: Purity of blood was one of the main aim of the caste
system. As a result, inter-caste marriages were socially forbidden. Due to economic and
social necessities, inter-caste marriages on western lines are being performed at increased
frequency
• Challenge to orthodoxy: Orthodox practices of the caste system such as child marriage, ban
on widow re-marriage, ban on conversion, insensitiveness of superior class towards the low
caste people are being challenged in the wake of urbanization.
• New food habits: Due to frequent mixing of the people at meetings, conferences, seminars
etc., food habits have changed. Moreover, people have adapted to new social norms such
as eating at the same table, accepting food prepared by low caste people without any
reservations etc.
• Changes in occupation: Occupational mobility has become the new feature. Leaving behind
their traditional roles, Brahmins have become traders whereas Vaishyas have joined
teaching and so on.
• Improvement in the position of lower caste: Due to steps initiated by the government,
position of lower castes have improved economically as well as socially.
3.1.2. Factors Affecting the Changes in Caste System
• Sanskritisation: Sanskritisation as a process of change is the mobility concerned with
positional change in the caste system. By changing the customs and rituals such as by
adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, people belonging to the low castes are claiming a
‘higher’ position in the caste hierarchy.
• Westernisation: Due to changes in the spheres of education, food habits, dressing sense,
style of eating, manners etc., westernization has brought occupational changes cutting
across the caste barriers.
• Modernisation: It is a process which primarily relies on scientific outlook, rational attitudes,
high social mobility, mass mobilisation and specialisation in work. It has made caste system
more flexible. For instances, in the urban areas, castes are gradually becoming classes. The
emergence of middle class with a rational outlook and goal orientation is a testimony to the
fact.
• Industrialisation and urbanisation: With the growth of industrial towns and cities,
migration has spiralled up. Unlike the source regions, destination areas witness fewer
adherences to caste rules.
• Democratic decentralisation: The reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj system has
given the opportunity for the lower castes to empower themselves.
• Caste and politics: They both are closely linked to each other. In fact, the link has led to an
empowerment among the lower castes since they ventilate their feelings through elections
and power lobby. Dalit politics is one such example, where Dalits are trying to assert their
identities and have become successful in capturing power in various states.
• Legislative measures: A variety of social legislations have been introduced in the post-
independence era which aim to safeguard the interests of the down-trodden, to eradicate
untouchability and to facilitate the social and economic development of the depressed
castes. For instance, Untouchability (offences) Act, 1955 provided for punishment against
the practice of untouchability.

Student Notes:
3.2. Religious Pluralism

3.2.1. Different Religious Groups in India
India is a secular country comprising various religions of the world, which are further
subdivided into several sects and cults. Religion in India is characterized by a diversity of
religious beliefs and practices. The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four world
religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism.
Further, variants of Hinduism such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, etc is practiced. Even in Islam,
multiple variants such as Shia, Sunni tenets are followed. Animistic and naturistic religions are
also followed by tribal groups. Thus, there is a plurality of multiple religions and each religion
has individual salient tenets and associated festivals and customs.
3.3. Kinship, Marriage and Family
3.3.1. Kinship
Kinship system refers to a set of persons recognized as relatives either by virtue of a blood
relationship or by virtue of a marriage relationship. According to the Dictionary of
Anthropology, kinship system includes society recognized relationships based on supposed as
well as well actual genealogical ties. These relationships are the result of social interaction and
are recognized by society.
Kinship system represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most
societies plays a significant role in the socialisation of individuals and the maintenance of group
solidarity, It is supremely important in the primitive societies and extends its influence on
almost all their activites - social, economic, political, religious, etc.
Types of Kinship
• Affinal Kinship: The bond of marriage is called ‘affinal’ kinship. When a person marries, he
establishes relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a number of
other people in the girl’s family. Moreover, it is not only the person marrying who gets
bound to the family members of the girl but his family members also get bound to the
family members of the girl. Thus, a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes
place.
• Consanguineous Kinship: The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The
consanguineous kin are related through blood whereas the affinal kin are related through
marriage. The bond between parents and their children and that between parents and their
children and that between parents and their children and that between siblings is
consanguineous kinship.
Regional differences regarding kinship systems and marriage in North and South India
• North India: In North India, there are mostly patrilineal groups, with descent traced in the
male line from father to son. Members of a patri-lineage cooperate in in ritual and
economic activities. Caste endogamy is strictly practiced. Further, marriage is prohibited
within the same gotra or clan and village exogamy is commonly preferred. Thus, marriage
prohibitions tend to bar marriage over a wide area in terms of kinship as well as space.
• South India: The Southern zone presents a very complicated pattern of kinship system and
family organization. While there is dominance of patrilineal and patrilocal system, but
simultaneously matrilineal (descent from maternal line) and matrilocal systems also exist.
Rules of marriage also vary in South India.

Student Notes:
3.3.2. Marriage
Marriage is an important social institution. It is a relationship, which is socially approved and
sanctioned by custom and law. It is also a set of cultural mechanisms which ensure the
continuation of the family. It is more or less a universal social institution in India.
Structural and functional changes in the marriage system
The marriage system had undergone radical changes especially after independence. Even
though the basic religious beliefs associated with marriage have not crumbled down, many of
the practices, customs, and forms have changed. The recent changes in the marriage system are
as follows:
• Changes in the aim and purpose of marriage: In traditional societies the primary objective
of marriage is ‘dharma’ or duty; especially among Hindus. But today the modern objective
of marriage is more related to ‘life-long companionship’ between husband and wife.
• Changes in the form of marriage: Traditional forms of marriages like polygamy, polygyny
are legally prohibited in India. Nowadays, mostly monogamous marriages are practiced.
• Change in the age of marriage: According to legal standards, the marriageable age for boy
and girl stands at 21 and 18 respectively. Average age of marriage has gone up and pre-
puberty marriages have given place to post-puberty marriages.
• Increase in divorce and desertion rates: Relaxed legislative provisions for divorce have
virtually affected the stability of the marriage, particularly in the urban areas. . It is mainly
due to economic prosperity and internet connectivity. Internet has exposed people to the
different social trends prevalent across the world and has revolutionized the institution
in an otherwise conservative Indian society.
• Live in relationships: They are on a steady growth rate in India especially among the youth
in metropolitan cities. The institution also has legal recognition as a three judge bench of SC
in 2010 observed that a man and a woman living together without marriage cannot be
construed as an offence and held that living together is a Right to Life and Liberty (Article
21). SC has also acknowledged that children born out of such relations are legitimate and
have property rights of their parents under Section 16 of Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
3.3.3. Family in Indian Society
The family is the basic unit of society. It is the first and the most immediate social environment
to which a child is exposed. It is in the family a child learns language, the behavioral Patterns
and social norms in his childhood.
In some way or the other the family is a universal group. It exists in tribal, rural and urban
communities and among the followers of all religious and cultures. It provides the most
enduring relationship in one form or other.
Characteristics of Family
• Family is a basic, definite and enduring group.
• Family is formed by the relatively durable companionship of husband, wife who procreate
children.
• Family may be limited to husband, wife or only the father and his children or only the
mother and her children.
• Family is generally smaller in size companied to other social groups, organizations and
associations.
• Family can also be large in size in which persons belonging to several generations may live
together.

Student Notes:
Types of family
1. On the basis of marriage:
Polygamous families may be described as families in which either spouse is allowed to have
more than one spouse simultaneously.
Monogamous families are those families in which the marriage is limited to one spouse.
2. On the basis of residence:

Patrilocal family: The family in which after marriage wife comes to reside in the family of
her husband is known as patrilocal family. The patrilocal family is also patriarchal and
patrilineal in nature.
Matrilocal family: The family in which after marriage husband comes to reside in the family
of her wife is known as matrilocal family. It is just opposite of patrilocal family. This type of
family is also Matriarchal and Matrilineal in nature.
Bilocal family: In this type of family after marriage the married couple change their
residence alternatively. Sometimes wife joins in her husband’s house while at some other
times husband resides in wife’s house. That is why this type of family is also known as
family of changing residence.
Neolocal family: After marriage when newly married couple establish a new family
independent of their parents and settled at a new place this type of family is known as neo-
local family.
3. On the basis of size and structure:

Nuclear Family: A nuclear family is a family which consists of husband, wife and their
unmarried children. The size of nuclear family is very small. It is an autonomous unit. There
is no control of the elders because newlyweds crate a separate residence for themselves
which is independent of elders. It is also known as primary family.

Student Notes:
Joint or Extended Family: It includes members of three to four generations. It is an

extension of parent child relationship. This family is based on close blood ties. It is like the
joint family of Hindu Society.
The eldest male member is the head of the family. It is characterized by common residence,
common kitchen, commensality, sharing of property, performance of ritual bonds,
reciprocal obligations and sentiments.
Extended family consists of father, mother, their sons and their wife, unmarried daughters,
grandchildren, grandfather, grandmother, uncles, aunts, their children and so on. This type
of family found to exist in rural community or agrarian economy
4. On the basis of Authority:

Patriarchal Family: The family in which all the power remains in the hands of patriarch or
father is known as patriarchal family. In other words in this type of family power or
authority is vested in the hands of eldest male member of the family who is supposed to be
the father. He exercises absolute power or authority over the other members of family. He
owns family property.
After his death authority transferred to the eldest son of family. In this family descent is
known through father line. In this type of family wife after marriage come to reside in his
husband’s house. Joint family system among the Hindus is a fine example of patriarchal
family.
Matriarchal family: This type of family is just opposite of patriarchal family. In this family
power or authority rests on the eldest female member of the family especially the wife or
mother. She enjoy absolute power or authority over other members of the family. She owns
all the family property. In this family descent is known through the mother.
Headship is transferred from mother to the eldest daughter. Husband remain subordinate
to his wife in a matriarchal family. This type of family is found among the Nayars of Kerala
and among the Garo and Khasi tribes of Assam.
5. Family on the basis of descent:
Patrilineal family: The family in which descent or ancestry is determined through father line
and continues through father it is known as patrilineal family. The property and family
name is also inherited through father line. The patrilineal family is also patrilocal and
patriarchal in nature.
Matrilineal family: Matrilineal family is just opposite of the patrilineal family. The family in
which descent is determined through mother line or continues through mother it is known
as Matrilineal family. The property and family name is also inherited through mother line.
This right transferred from mother to daughter. A woman is the ancestor of family. The
Matrilineal family is Matrilocal and Matriarchal in nature. This type of family found among
the Nayars of Kerala and among tribals like Garos and Khasis.
Functions of the family
• Primary function- Some of the functions of family are basic to its continued existence.
o Production and rearing of the child
o Provision of home
o Instrument of culture transmission

Student Notes:
o Agent of socialization
o Status ascribing function
o Agency of social control
• Secondary function
o Economic functions: With economic advancements, family has become more
consuming unit than a producing one. Members are engaged in earning wages for
ensuring socio-economic well-being of the family.
o Educational functions: Family provides the basis for the child’s formal learning. In spite
of great changes, the family still gives the child his basic training in the social attitudes
and habits important to adult participation in social life
o Religious functions: Family is a center for the religious training of the children. The
children learn from their parents various religious virtues.
o Recreational functions: Family provides the opportunities to parents and children for
engaging in various recreational activities such as playing indoor games, dancing,
singing, reading etc.
Structural and functional changes in the Indian family system
With the advent of industrial civilization with modern technology the structure and functions of
the family fatedly changed. Today most of the traditional activities of the family were
transferred to outside agencies; this further weakening the bonds that in the past kept the
family together. There occurred a reduction in the educational, recreational, religious and
protective functions of the family which have been more or less taken over by various
institutions and agencies created for that purpose.
Some of the major changes in the Indian family system are discussed below:
• Changes in family: Family which was a principal unit of production has been transformed in
the consumption unit. Instead of all members working together in an integrated economic
enterprise, a few male members go out of the home to earn the family’s living. These
affected family relations.
• Factory employment: It has freed young adults from direct dependence upon their families.
This functional independence of the youngsters has weakened the authority of the head of
the house hold over those earning members. In many cities even women too joined men in
working outside the families on salary basis.
• Influence of urbanization: Various sociologists have revealed that the city life is more
favorable to small nuclear families than to big joint families. Thus, urban living weakens
joint family pattern and strengthens nuclear family patterns.
• Legislative measures: Prohibition of early marriage and fixing the minimum age of marriage
by the child marriage Restraint Act, 1929, and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have
lengthened the period of education. Even other legislations such as the Widow Remarriage
Act, 1856, Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Hindu succession Act, 1956, all have modified inter
personal relations within the family, the composition of the family and the stability of the
joint family.
• Changes in marriage system: Changes in the age of marriage, freedom in mate-selection
and change in the attitude towards marriage has diminished marriage is not very much
considered a religious affair but only a social ceremony. Modern marriage does not
symbolize the superior authority of the family head over other members.
• Influence of western values: Values relating to modern science, rationalism, individualism,
equality, free life, democracy, freedom of women etc. have exerted a tremendous change
on the joint family system in India.

Student Notes:
• Changes in the position of women: Main factor causing changes in the position of women
in our society lie in her changing economic role. New economic role provided a new
position in society and especially with respect to men.
Current status
Over the years, various sociologists have affirmed in their studies that the rise of nuclear
families — consisting of a couple and their unmarried children — is consistent with rapid
urbanization.
According to the 2001 census, out of 19.31 crore households, 9.98 crore or 51.7% were nuclear
households. In the 2011 census, the share grew to 52.1% — 12.97 crore nuclear out of 24.88
crore households. However, there is the decline in the proportional share of nuclear households
in urban areas. From 54.3% of the urban households of 2001, nuclear families have fallen to
52.3% of all urban households. In contrast, in rural areas, the share of nuclear families has risen
from 50.7% to 52.1%.
Joint families, meanwhile, fell substantially from 19.1% (3.69 crore) to 16.1% (4 crore) across
India. In rural areas, the dip was sharper – from 20.1% to 16.8% – than in urban India where it
fell from 16.5% to 14.6%. Thus, the declining share of urban nuclear families is attributed to
increased migration as well as lack of housing.
3.4. Diversity in India
India is a plural society both in letter and spirit. It is rightly characterized by its unity and
diversity. A grand synthesis of cultures, religions and languages of the people belonging to
different castes and communities has upheld its unity and cohesiveness despite multiple foreign
invasions.
National unity and integrity have been maintained even through sharp economic and social
inequalities have obstructed the emergence of egalitarian social relations. It is this synthesis
which has made India a unique mosque of cultures. Thus, India present seemingly multicultural
situation within in the framework of a single integrated cultural whole.
The term ‘diversity’ emphasizes differences rather than inequalities. It means collective
differences, that is, differences which mark off one group of people from another. These
differences may be of any sort: biological, religious, linguistic etc. Thus, diversity means variety
of races, of religions, of languages, of castes and of cultures.
Unity means integration. It is a social psychological condition. It connotes a sense of one-ness, a
sense of we-ness. It stands for the bonds, which hold the members of a society together.
Unity in diversity essentially means “unity without uniformity” and “diversity without
fragmentation”. It is based on the notion that diversity enriches human interaction.
When we say that India is a nation of great cultural diversity, we mean that there are many
different types of social groups and communities living here. These are communities defined by
cultural markers such as language, religion, sect, race or caste.
3.4.1. Various forms of diversity in India
• Religious diversity: India is a land of multiple religions. Apart from the tribal societies,
many of whom still live in the pre-religious state of animism and magic, the Indian
population consists of the Hindus (82.41%), Muslims (11.6%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs
(1.99%), Buddhists (0.77%) and Jains (0.41%). The Hindus themselves are divided into
several sects such as Vaishnavas, Shaivates, Shaktas, Smartas etc. Similarly, the Muslims are
divided into sects such as Shias, Sunnis, Ahmadiyas etc.

Student Notes:
• Linguistic diversity: Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the
major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 75% of Indians and the Dravidian
languages spoken by 20% of Indians. Other languages belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino-
Tibetan, Tai-Kadai, and a few other minor language families and isolates. India has the
world's second highest number of languages, after Papua New Guinea.
• Racial diversity: 1931 census classified India’s racial diversity in the following groups- The
Negrito, The Proto-Australoid, The Mongoloid, The Mediterranean, The Western
Brachycephals and the Nordic. Representatives of all the three major races of the world,
namely Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, are found in the country.
• Caste diversity: India is a country of castes. The term caste has been used to refer to both
varna as well as jati. Varna is the four-fold division of society according to functional
differentiation. Thus, the four varnas include Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras
and an outcaste group. Whereas Jati refers to a hereditary endogamous status group
practicing a specific traditional occupation.. There are more than 3000 jatis and there is no
one all India system of ranking them in order and status. The jati system is not static and
there is mobility in the system, through which jatis have changed their position over years.
This system of upward mobility has been termed as “Sanskritization” by M. N. Srinivas.
• Cultural diversity: Cultural patterns reflect regional variations. Because of population
diversity, there is immense variety in Indian culture as it is a blend of various cultures.
Different religion, castes, regions follow their own tradition and culture. Thus, there is
variation in art, architecture, dance forms, theatre forms, music etc.
• Geographical diversity: Spanning across an area of 3.28 million square kilometre, India is a
vast country with great diversity of physical features like dry deserts, evergreen forests,
lofty mountains, perennial and non-perennial river systems, long coasts and fertile plains.
In addition to the above described major forms of diversity, India also has diversity of many
other types like that of settlement patterns - tribal, rural, urban; marriage and kinship patterns
along religious and regional lines and so on.
3.4.2. Factors Leading to Unity Amidst Diversity in India
• Constitutional identity: The entire country is governed by one single Constitution. Even,
most of the states follow a generalised scheme of 3-tier government structure, thus
imparting uniformity in national governance framework . Further, the Constitution
guarantees certain fundamental rights to all citizens regardless of their age, gender, class,
caste, religion, etc.
• Religious co-existence: Religion tolerance is the unique feature of religions in India due to
which multiple religions co-exist in India. Freedom of religion and religious practice is
guaranteed by the Constitution itself. Moreover, there is no state religion and all religions
are given equal preference by the state.
• Inter-State mobility: The Constitution guarantees freedom to move throughout the
territory of India under Article 19 (1) (d), thus promoting a sense of unity and brotherhood
among the masses.
• Other factors such as uniform pattern of law, penal code, administrative works (eg. All India
services) too lead to uniformity in the criminal justice system, policy implementation etc.
• Economic integration: The Constitution of India secures the freedom of
Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of India under Article 301. Further,
the Goods and Service Tax(GST) have paved way for ‘one country, one tax, one national
market’, thus facilitating unity among different regions.
• Institution of pilgrimage and religious practices : In India, religion and spirituality have
great significance. . From Badrinath and Kedarnath in the north to Rameshwaram in the
south, Jagannath Puri in the east to Dwaraka in the west the religious shrines and holy

Student Notes:
rivers are spread throughout the length and breadth of the country. Closely related to them
is the age-old culture of pilgrimage, which has always moved people to various parts of the
country and fostered in them a sense of geo-cultural unity.
• Fairs and festivals: They also act as integrating factors as people from all parts of the
country celebrate them as per their own local customs. Eg. Diwali is celebrated throughout
by Hindus in the country, similarly Id and Christmas are celebrated by Muslims and
Christians, respectively. Celebration of inter-religious festivals is also seen in India.
• Climatic integration via monsoon: The flora and fauna in the entire Indian subcontinent,
agricultural practices, life of people, including their festivities revolve around the monsoon
season in India.
• Sports and Cinema: These are followed by millions in the country, thus, acting as a binding
force across the length and breadth of India.
3.4.3. Factors that threaten India’s unity
• Regionalism: Regionalism tends to highlight interests of a particular region/regions over
national interests. It can also adversely impact national integration. Law and order situation
is hampered due to regional demands and ensuing agitation.
• Divisive politics: Sometimes, ascriptive identities such as caste, religion etc. are evoked by
politicians in order to garner votes. This type of divisive politics can result in violence,
feeling of mistrust and suspicion among minorities.
• Development imbalance: Uneven pattern of socio-economic development, inadequate
economic policies and consequent economic disparities can lead to backwardness of a
region. Consequently, this can result in violence, kickstart waves of migration and even
accelerate demands of separatism.. For instance, due to economic backwardness of the
North East region, several instances of separatist demands and secessionist tendencies
have sprung up in the region.
• Ethnic differentiation and nativism: Ethnic differentiation has often led to clashes between
different ethnic groups especially due to factors such as job competition, limited resources,
threat to identity etc. E.g. frequent clashes between Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims in
Assam. This has been accentuated by son of the soil doctrine, which ties people to their
place of birth and confers some benefits, rights, roles and responsibilities on them, which
may not apply to others.
• Geographical isolation: Geographical isolation too can lead to identity issues and
separatist demands. The North-East is geographically isolated from the rest of the country
as it is connected with the rest of the country by a narrow corridor i.e the Siliguri corridor
(Chicken’s neck). The region has inadequate infrastructure, is more backward economically
as compared to the rest of the country. As a result, ithas witnessed several instances of
separatism and cross-border terrorism, among others.
• Inter-religious conflicts: Inter-religious conflicts not only hamper relations between two
communities by spreading fear and mistrust but also hinder the secular fabric of the
country.
• Inter-state conflicts: This can lead emergence of feelings related to regionalism. It can also
affect trade and communications between conflicting states. For instance, Cauvery river
dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• Influence of external factors: Sometimes external factors such as foreign organizations
terrorist groups, extremist groups can incite violence and sow feelings of separatism. E.g.
Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) has been accused of supporting and training mujahideen to
fight in Jammu and Kashmir and sow separatist tendencies among resident groups.
In-spite of the challenges posed by diversity, there can be no doubt on the role played by socio-
cultural diversity in sustaining and developing Indian society.

Student Notes:
Problem is not of diversity per se, but the handling of diversity in India society. The problems
of regionalism, communalism, ethnic conflicts etc. have arisen because the fruits of
development haven’t been distributed equally or the cultures of some groups haven’t been
accorded due recognition.
Hence, Constitution and its values must form guiding principles of our society. Any society
which has tried to homogenize itself, has witnessed stagnation in due-course and ultimately
decline. The most important example is this case is of Pakistan which tried to impose culture on
East-Pakistan ultimately leading to creation of Bangladesh.

1. In the light of multi-cultural society of India, can we say that multi-culturalism and
pluralism are the two sides of a coin of “unity in diversity”?
Approach:
• First explain both these terms and try to bring out the similarities/differences
between them.
• Then describe these terms in the specific context of India. While answering this keep
in mind the theme of “unity in diversity”.
• You can argue either in favour or against the statement, i.e. whether they are two
sides of the same coin or altogether different.. However, either viewpoint needs to
be supported with logical and coherent arguments. While arguing against the
statement, you can show how multi-culturalism differs from pluralism and how
some interpretations of multiculturalism has seen pluralism being lost in its
definition. While arguing in favour you can show how both are essentially similar in
striving to achieve the same objectives. The following answer uses the latter
approach.
Answer:
Let us first see briefly the similarities and differences between pluralism and
multiculturalism:
Pluralism Multiculturalism
Public Individuals are treated as The public sphere is not culturally
Sphere equals in a common (neutral) neutral. Public sphere is an arena for
public sphere. cultural negotiation. No group
should dominate in a way that
excludes other cultural forms.
Cultural Different cultures allowed in a Different cultures are encouraged.
Diversity separate cultural sphere, but Individuals are considered part of
society has no obligation to collectivities that provide meaning
acknowledge or support to their lives. Multiculturalism seeks
alternative cultural forms. ways to support these collectivities.
Thus, pluralism also allows for
the dissolution of cultural
formations.
Dominant 1. equality of opportunity 1. affiliation
Principals 2. freedom of association 2. cultural recognition
A lot has been said about the success of multiculturalism in India. We have vibrant
communities of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, Parsis etc. that
have blended well and enhanced the progress of India. We are one of the most diverse

Student Notes:
countries in the world in terms of cultural, religious and linguistic diversity. And this
diversity owes mainly to our vast geographical extent and successive waves of migration
from all over the world.
Striking a balance between unity and diversity or managing unity in such diverse socio-
cultural situations, is always a challenge for a nation. Pluralism and multiculturalism are
two ways to manage this conundrum simultaneously.
In India, pluralism describes the reality of cultural diversity. It attempts to create a
society in which the best of all inputs continue to integrate. It allows for many different
groupings but does not try to impose a uniform status on all of them.
Our multiculturalism, on the other hand, means showing respect and tolerance to other
cultures and faith. It holds that all minority values must have equal status to those of
the majority. It also allows assertion of different identities in every sphere of life. The
Indian constitution also provides fundamental rights for the preservation of this variety.
This assertion of variety can be seen in linguistic reorganization of states, political
representation, rise in demand for minority rights, indigenous rights, anti-hindi
movements etc. These assertions present a new way of assimilation where all
communities find their respective place in making of nation-state. No community is left
out in creating a rainbow nation. Multiculturalism and pluralism provides a new
paradigm for stability which increases cohesiveness and integrity of nation.
Thus from the above discussion we can say that pluralism is the more general term for
any kind of plurality while the multiculturalism is the proactive application of plurality
to maintain and harmonize the diversity and heterogeneity in society in general and
nation-state in particular.

Student Notes:
2. Is India's linguistic diversity a threat to national integration?

Approach:
• Briefly explain the nature of linguistic diversity
• Then explain what are the problems which are/can be faced due to this diversity
• Finally conclude on a positive note that even after such linguistic diversity, India has
unity
Answer:
Nature of India’s linguistic diversity:
In India, there are more than 200 languages, being spoken by different groups. There
exists ‘linguistic pluralism’ in India, which is a state of ‘mutual existence’ of several
languages in a contiguous space. The plurality of languages has led to ‘language
problems’, in the past. These problems being: i) Linguistic reorganization of the states in
India ii) Status of ‘minority languages’ in the states iii) Official language issue.
Language Problems and National Integration:
• Linguistic reorganization of states was primarily done for administrative
convenience. It also helped in fulfilling the aspirations of different linguistic groups
in India, without threatening national unity.
• Discriminatory practices or policies against ‘linguistic minorities’ in different states,
can in the long term threaten national integration. Prejudiced treatment against
linguistic minorities, can perpetuate ‘separatism’. Example: Bengali speaking people
in Assam, Kanada, Malayalam speaking people in Andhra Pradesh. There are
various Constitutional Provisions, to safeguard the interests of ‘linguistic
minorities’, enshrined in Articles: 29, 30, 347, 350.
• ‘Hindi, English’ are the ‘official languages’ of the Union. There are ‘regional
languages ‘recognized as the ‘official languages’ of the states. There has emerged a
‘hierarchy of official status’. The 1960s witnessed ‘anti-Hindi’ agitations’, in the
southern states, speaking Dravidian family of languages. The fear of Hindi becoming
the ‘national language’ was allayed by the continuance of English as the official
language. Also the ‘Three language formula ‘was devised to accommodate the
different languages, in the educational curriculum.
Linguistic Unity and National integration:
• However, the linguistic heterogeneity has not always been disruptive for national
integration. With linguistic diversity, one has also witnessed, the development of an
‘all India common vocabulary.’ Ex. Sanskrit, which has not only acted as bridge
between different Indo Aryan languages, but also between Indo Aryan and
Dravidian languages. Ex. In contemporary times, “Hinglish”, which is the blending of
English language with Hindi and other languages spoken in India.
• The mainstream cinema ‘’Bollywood’’, has immensely contributed to the
development of an all India vocabulary.
• The popularity of many ‘Epics’ and ‘fictional non-fictional literature’, has lead their
translation into many different languages. This has also contribute to ‘linguistic
unity’ in India.

Student Notes:
3. Explain India s 'diversity in unity’. Illustrate from the socio- cultural life of people.
Approach:
• Write down how India is a plural society with extensive diversity in religion, races,
languages, culture, heritage etc.
• Provide some examples for each
Answer:
India's Diversity in Unity:
India's Diversity in unity refers to the existence of plural-ethnic, racial, religious and
linguistic cultures together within the nation of India.
The concept heralds the geo-political unity of the nation state of India encompassing
several diverse cultures within its uniform matrix.
The test examples of 'Diversity in Unity' can be highlighted through the following
examples from the socio-cultural life of the Indian people.
The Indian festivals are known for their enhancement and liveliness throughout the
world. The most important example, Diwali is celebrated by all. However, the meaning
and methods of celebration change across various religions and regional communities.
The architectural heritage symbolizes India's historic past and glory. The Taj Mahal is
famous as the symbol of love and dedication across all people. At a broader level, it is
quite interesting to see people of various cultures visiting such heritage monuments;
accepting them as their common heritage.
• The Multi-National corporations have brought in a new 'cosmopolitan' culture to
India through globalization; these companies employ people across various
ethnicities, caste and class, creating a diverse yet unified environment.
• The caste system as a system of hierarchy identifies an Indian. So much so, that it
has taken within its hold, people across various caste, communities and religions.
• The 'power of patriarchy' is another common thread of value found prevalent in
India. It includes the diverse sexes – men and women too.
• The Popular phenomena such as Cricket and Bollywood also represent diverse
cultures celebrating together. The Indian Premier league is a good example of this.
4. While democratic institutions in India have led to changes in the caste structure,
these changes have at best led to only partial re-distributive outcomes for the
backward castes. Discuss.
Approach:
Introduce by defining the caste structure in brief. Then bring out the reasons which led
to changes in caste structure while illustrating on the changes. Further, point out the
positive and negative aspects of such changes and conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Caste as a social institution has existed historically and had been characterized by
hierarchical relations between different social groups. However, this hierarchical nature
of social order violates the trinity of liberty, equality and dignity enshrined in
constitution and recognised in Ambedkar's words "one man one vote and one vote one
value".

Student Notes:
In Post-independence India, under the twin influence of affirmative polices for sc/st's in
legislature, government jobs and education along with the democratizing influence of
universal adult franchise, it was expected to correct for historical injustices and give
effect to the redistributive agenda of the state and thereby weakening the hierarchical
foundation of caste on the social life of individuals
The democratizing influence of universal adult franchise led to the rise of dominant
castes in the agriculturally prosperous belts of north India which was followed by their
capture of state power. It meant that some caste groups irrespective of their position in
the caste hierarchy were able to wield influence and gain prominence and social
recognition.
It was further followed by the rise of backward class movement in 1980's and 90's
which gave rise to caste groups backed regional political parties like BSP, SP etc. in north
India. These parties on the other hand were able to become vehicles of social
mobilization and registering their presence in wielding power in the state.
The mandalization of politics in India post 1990 has belied the expectation of social
scientists that the developmental agenda of the state will wipe out primitive social
institutions like caste, whereas other's like M.N Srinivas have argued that under the
aegis of a democratic state the vertical hierarchical nature of caste based social groups
has been replaced by a horizontal arrangement of competing caste groups free from
any stigma of purity and pollution and this has been termed as the modern avatar of
caste.
However, recent studies have pointed out that the benefit of affirmative state policies
have been cornered often by the dominant groups within the OBC and SC categories,
which are a manifestation of the unfulfilled promises of democratic institution.
This elite capture and the introduction of class element within caste which can be seen
in the need felt in recent years to create subcategories as in within the preexisting
backward caste and communities. has led to the fracturing of dalit identity into
categories like 'maha dalits' or 'ati dalits'.and backward class and extremely backward
class in Bihar.
Also it has also been lamented that rather than weakening caste consciousness
democracy has strengthened it and this has been seen by some as impeding the aim of
promoting fraternity between the subjects of the state.
Perhaps this examples support the thesis that democratic institution in India though
have succeeded in imparting some changes in the caste structure but it were limited to
partial redistributive outcomes as far as backward caste categories has concerned.
5. “Linguistic, regional and tribal identity rather than religion has provided the most
important basis for the formation of ethno-national identities in India”. Explain.
Approach:
• Briefly describe different basis like language, region, tribe and religion as the basis
of identification with a community. Then examine how these identities have played
a role in determining the identity discourse in the country.
• Students can agree, disagree, or take a middle path on the view that religion has
not played so important role in shaping the ethno-national identity in the country.
• Cite relevant examples wherever needed.

Student Notes:
Answer:
Ethnic identity is a basis for distribution of social rewards like money, prestige and
power. In most societies one or more ethnic groups dominate others in economic,
political and cultural matters. Ethnic politics can, therefore, take the appearance of
‘ethnic stratification’, resulting in the emergence of ‘ethnic nationalism’.
Nations are created when ‘ethnic groups’, in a multi-ethnic state are transformed into a
‘self-conscious political entities’. The goals of ‘sovereignty and self-determination’, lead
to ethno nationalism.
Often minority groups try to play the ethnic card in order to acquire a better deal for
themselves in a plural society. When subjugated groups, fail to achieve success
according to the norms established by the dominant group the nature of their response
tends to be ‘ethnic antagonism’ which may take the form of
• Struggle of the indigenous people’s right to their land and culture,
• competition by ethnic groups for obtaining scarce resources
• Movements for a separate nation.
India is one of the most diverse countries in the world in terms of languages, regional
disparities, cultures, ethnicity and religions. When such diverse state is engaged in
nation building through the construction of national identity, smaller identities move in
the opposite direction, when they feel that they are about to lose their identity. Hence,
Ethno-national identities in India have been shaped by the relative concentration of
these factors in a region clubbed with the sense of regional deprivation.
For Example: Instances of Naga, Mizo, Manipur ethno nationalism, Khalistan movement
of 1980s
In India, post-independence, major factors that contributed to the emergence of ethnic
mobilization were:
• the pitfalls of nation-building process,
• the faulty modernization process, and
• the nature of the nation-state.
The most important basis for the formation of identity was language. Community
aspirations vented out as the demand for linguistic states, ultimately leading to major
redrawing of the internal boundaries on the basis of language.
Secondly, the postcolonial development process tried to integrate and assimilate ethnic
communities towards the mainstream development process while ignoring their
cultural and economic specificities. The centralized planning and the capitalist
modernization further lead to the exclusion of various tribal communities from
mainstream. This led to the mass displacement of tribals from their historical and
traditional lands, without commensurate benefits of development being provided to
them.
As a result, a combination of ethnicity based on tribal identity, language, regional
deprivation and ecology provided the basis for intense regionalism resulting in the
formation of states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and very recently
Telangana.
Similarly, the ethnic demand for homeland created a number of smaller states in the
northeast. For instance, the greater Assam was Balkanized into Nagaland, Meghalaya,
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram to meet the demands of these ethnic groups.

Student Notes:
However, mere making of territorial boundary did not solve the problem; on the
contrary, it further aggregated it. It is argued that the creation of separate state further
fanned the fire when “various smaller and bigger communities started to demand
establishment of more states; on the other hand, the state showed their inability to
deliver the basic goods”
However, in the Post-independence era, there are instances of religion becoming the
basis of identities especially among the Muslims and Sikhs. For example: demand for
the formation of Khalistan is an evidence of religion becoming the basis of identity.
However, demands from Muslims are more concerned with their relative backwardness
and poverty and a sense of security. Yet such instances of assertion of religious
identities are fewer when compared to language, regional deprivation etc.
Hence, it can be said that religion has played a relatively minor though not negligible
role in determining the ethno-national identities in India.
However, it must be emphasized that during recent times with the emergence of right-
wing political forces in the country, religion has again come into prominence as the
basis of national identity where nationalism is often misplaced with commitment to
religious and cultural traditions of the majority. This may result in the right-wing forces
in minorities asserting their religious identities to counter the right-wing of majority. It
may lead to not a very pleasant scenario of religion becoming dominant factor in
determining the identities of the communities from the minor one it currently is.
6. In recent times, there has been a clamor for implementing Article 44 of the Indian
Constitution. To what extent is such a demand justified, given the socio-cultural
diversity of India.
Approach:
Introduce the answer by mentioning what Article 44 is. The answer should discuss the
possibility of implementing this Article, considering the socio-cultural diversity of India.
Answer:
Article 44 of the Part IV directs the Indian State to implement Uniform Civil Code in the
country. Uniform civil code means to replace the personal laws based on the scriptures
and customs of each religious community with a common set governing every citizen.
These laws cover marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption and maintenance.
The Indian-state is socially and culturally one of the most diverse countries in the world,
in terms of religion, language etc. Historically, most states feared that, identity politics,
recognition of social differences, was a threat to state unity. In such a context, time and
again, there has been a repeated demand to impose uniform civil code in India. There
seems to be some substance in the argument, considering the examples of some states,
like in Spain, Sri Lanka, and erstwhile East Pakistan.
Further, different communities have their separate Personal laws that often go against
the law of the land, apart from violating the rule of law, basic humanistic and rational
law. Therefore, it may be desirable that there is a common legal system which is equally
applicable to all the communities residing in India.
However, deeper analysis reveals that, it was the imposition of majoritarian culture and
the corresponding neglect of the customs and social symbols of the minority that led to

Student Notes:
social unrest in the above mentioned countries. Moreover, suppressing cultural

diversity can be very costly in terms of the alienation of the minorities whose culture is
treated as ‘non-national.’ Further, the very act of suppression can provoke the opposite
effect of intensifying community identities and social unrest, as happened in few
neighboring states.
Contrary to the above, case studies from around the world have demonstrated that
enduring democracies can be established in polities that are multicultural. Explicit
efforts are required to end the cultural exclusion of diverse groups and to build multiple
and complementary identities. Such responsive policies provide incentives to build a
feeling of unity in diversity. Indian Constitution rightly embodies this notion. Though,
India is culturally diverse, comparative surveys of long-standing democracies show that
India has been very cohesive despite its diversity.
Thus, national cohesion doesn’t require the imposition of a single identity and the
denunciation of diversity. Successful strategies to build state-nations can and do
accommodate diversity constructively by crafting responsive policies of cultural
recognition. They are the time tested solutions for ensuring the longer term objectives
of political stability and social harmony. Hence, any effort to implement Article 44
should be based on popular consensus.

Student Notes:
7. Marriage and family institutions in India are marked by continuity as well as change.
Discuss in the context of legislations and socio-economic changes that have been
taking place over the past few decades in India.
Approach:
• First, give a brief introduction to the answer on how marriage and family
institution in India are important .
• Second, highlight the reasons for change in these institutions i.e. socio- economic
reasons and the impact of the legislations ( preferably more recent ones)
separately.
• Finally, conclude the answer by highlighting that despite changes , how the essence
of marriage and familial relations are still intact.
Answer:
Marriage and family institutions are the repositories of the core values of the Indian
society. These institutions are still seen as a social legitimation to have children . We
can see the domination of patriarchal values and feudal mindsets in these institutions.
However, under the impact of socio-economic changes and legislations, they are
undergoing many changes.
Factors influencing change and continuity in Marriage and family institutions
• Economic Changes
o Industrialisation and Urbanisation: Growth of cities and city culture have a
direct impact on the family and marriage.
▪ modern industries have lessened the economic functions of the family and
led to the replacement of Joint family structure with Nuclear families.
▪ Status of women in the family has improved as they have become more
educated and started working, thus along with other male members in the
family ,they also now have a say in family issues.
▪ In partner selection, job and salary are given more importance, than the
family background , caste or religion. Also the online matrimonial sites have
come up which has reduced the role of elders of the family.
▪ To fulfil career and individual ambitions , “delayed marriages” and “long –
distance marriages” have become a common feature
▪ Marriage is often held in cities more as a social or a civil ceremony than a
religious ceremony. The duration of marriage ceremony is also cut short in
the city . Elaborate customs are either avoided or shortened ; court
marriages preferred.
▪ In cities, the cases of divorce , desertion , separation , broken families etc
alongwith pre-marital and extra-marital sex relations are seen.
• Social Changes
o Modern education , values and western ideologies such as rationalism,
individualism , equality of sex, democracy , individual freedom , secularism , etc
have influenced the outlook of educated young men and women . Hence, they
want to take their own decisions and make choices on the main events of their
life such as line of education , job and marriage.
• Influence of legislations on Marriage:
o Dowry Prohibition Act, 1996 , Domestic Violence Act( DVA) , 2005, etc -
have made the position of women stronger .Now the women are given justice
against the "invisible violence" at home-physical and verbal abuse,etc which
they used to go through either because of dowry demands or otherwise.The

Student Notes:
DVA, 2005, includes in its ambit live-in partners caters to the changing
dynamics of relationships.
o The ‘divorce’ laws have been made more flexible with the amendment of The
Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 in 1986, by including the ground of ‘incompatibility’
and ‘mutual consent’ apart from the reasons provided earlier like adultery,
conversion of religion, etc. This has led to the institution of marriage more
susceptible to conflicts, fights, giving lesser scope to “compromise” and time to
save marriage and family. But on the other hand, it also gave the option to both
men and women to come out of a “bad marriage” which they otherwise used
to be in just to fulfil societal obligations.
o Women are given right in the ancestral property and a legal right to share
property along with male members, after the Hindu Succession Act of 1956
was amended in 2005. This has made the economic position of women
stronger.
However, despite changes, the core values in the institutions of marriage and family are
still intact. Mutual fidelity and devotion is still respected.
8. Even after years of independence and despite modern legislation, the antiquated
practice of child marriage still persists in certain sections. What are the reasons for
persistence of child marriage in India? How does it affect our society? What can be
done to eradicate this practice?
Approach:
• Give reasons encompassing social, cultural and economic issues for child marriages.
These reasons should be more specific with respect to the persistence of child
marriage.
• Secondly mention the impact that child marriage has on society as a whole in this
modern context.
• Finally suggest some practices to eradicate this menace.
Answer:
Child marriage is a traditional practice that in many places happens simply because it
has happened for generations – and straying from tradition could mean exclusion from
the community. On top of this, there is limited capacity among officials and lack of
willingness to go against community decisions, since officials are themselves part of the
community.
In communities where a dowry or ‘bride price’ is paid, it is often welcome income for
poor families; in those where the bride’s family pay the groom a dowry, they often
have to pay less money if the bride is young and uneducated.
Many parents marry off their daughters young because they feel it is in her best
interest, often to ensure her safety in areas where girls are at high risk of physical or
sexual assault. Limited education opportunities, low quality of education, inadequate
infrastructure, lack of transport and therefore concerns about girls’ safety while
travelling to school significantly contribute to keeping girls out of school and therefore
tend to favour child marriage.
Girls are often seen as a liability with limited economic role. Women’s work is confined
to the household and is not valued. Archaic laws such as those of Muslim Personal Law
allows the marriage of girls aged between 15 and 18.

Student Notes:
Child marriage ensues the vicious cycle of poverty. With little access to education and
economic opportunities, they and their families are more likely to live in poverty. Child
brides are often disempowered, dependent on their husbands and deprived of their
fundamental rights to health, education and safety. A system that undervalues the
contribution of young women limits its own possibilities. In this way, child marriage
drains country of the innovation and potential that would enable them to thrive.
There is a need to implement a convergent strategy:
• Law enforcement: Capacity-building on laws, support mechanisms such as a child
marriage telephone hotline.
• Girls’ empowerment: Life skills, protection skills.
• Community mobilization: Working with influential leaders, oaths and pledges,
counselling, folk and traditional media.
• Promoting convergence of sectors at all levels, in particular with education and
social protection schemes and programmes.
• Building a social movement on the lines of Bachpan Bachao Aandolan which would
emphasize on an IEC campaign and generating community support against such
practices.
9. What are Personal Law Boards? Are their decisions binding on citizens? How can the
incongruence between the principles followed by them and those of the common law
courts be reconciled? Discuss.
Approach:
• Give a brief overview about personal laws.
• Define personal law boards.
• Bring out some measures from the past as well the problem that need to be solved
to reconcile the incongruence.
Answer:
In India different religions are governed by their own personal laws. Every religion
follows its own personal law in the matters pertaining to marriage, adoption,
successions etc. All these matters are decided and mobilized by various personal law
boards representing the religion.
Personal Law Boards are non-governmental organization constituted to adopt suitable
strategies for the protection and continued applicability of Personal laws in India. The
Boards present themselves as the leading body of religious group opinion in India.
These Boards work liaise with and influence the Government and guide the general
public about the critical issues. They primarily defend the personal laws from any laws
or legislation that they consider infringes on it.
The decisions of these Boards which are backed up by the legislations like that of the
Hindu Law act (1955-56), Muslim personal law (shariat) application acts, 1937 etc. are
binding on the citizens. However, those decisions which infringe upon the Fundamental
rights of the citizens are not binding, although not following them can have
repercussions like community boycott or personal attacks.
The incongruence between the principles followed by them and those of the common
law courts can be reconciled through greater interaction between them, judges, law-
makers, religious leaders and community. This will help to iron out the differences in
the legal opinion regarding matters of personal law. Hardly any forums for such

Student Notes:
interactions exist as of now. It should be done on urgency considering the divisive and
sensitive nature of such issues. Some other measures can be:
• Clearly interpreting Article 25 in conjunction with Article 44.
• Addressing the fears of minorities by citing example of Hindu Law which has
become part of regular law courts and proved quite progressive.
• Most vulnerable and victimized section that is women need to be brought into
these Boards and codes should be made keeping their plights in minds.
• A comprehensive review of the personal laws with an aim to align the with modern
progressive ethos.
10. Exclusion, humiliation-subordination and exploitation are all equally important in

defining the phenomenon of untouchability. Explain. Give an account of the
provisions in the Indian Constitution and the steps taken by the government to
compensate for past and present caste discriminations.
Approach:
• Define the phenomenon of untouchability on the three dimensions of exclusion,
humiliation-subordination and exploitation.
• Then bring out provisions in the Indian Constitution prohibiting the menace.
• Finally bring out steps taken by the government over a period of time and how the
state has tried to compensate for past and present caste discriminations.
Answer:
Untouchability is an extreme and vicious aspect of the society that prescribes stringent
social sanctions against members located at the bottom of the purity-pollution scale. It
is widely prevalent in all spheres of life and has evolved over time and expanded in
form of exclusion, humiliation-subordination and exploitation. It has grown its
dimension from caste factor to other factors like religion, poverty, ethnicity etc..
The performance of publicly visible acts of humiliation and subordination include
common instances like the imposition of gestures of deference such as taking of
headgear, carrying footwear in the hand, standing with bowed head, not wearing clean
or ‘bright’ clothes, and so on.
Moreover, untouchability is also associated with economic exploitation of various kinds,
most commonly through the imposition of forced, unpaid labor, or the confiscation of
property.
In terms of exclusion, religion exclusion, exclusion of persons with disability, caste based
exclusion etc. are giving new dimensions to untouchability.
Some provisions of Indian Constitution to fight against Untouchability
• Under Article 17 of the Constitution, Untouchability has been prohibited on any
ground.
• Article 14 providing equality before law, article 15 providing equality and equal
access to public places etc.
• Article 46 under DPSP says that the State shall promote educational and economic
interest of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them
from social injustice and exploitation.

Student Notes:
Some of the Government Initiatives

• Parliament passed Untouchability (offences) Act in 1955 which was further
amended and renamed in 1976 as Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955.
• For further expansion of Article 17 of the Constitution, Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989 was passed, which was
amended in 2005 to give it more teeth.
• Setting up of National Commission for SCs and STs as well as setting up of National
Human Right Commission.
To compensate for past and current discrimination, the government has taken steps
like:
• Providing reservation which involves the setting aside of some places or ‘seats’ for
members of the Scheduled Castes in different spheres of public life.
• Introduction of reservation for SCs and STs in 73 rd and 74th Amendment Acts to
contest elections at the Panchayat level.
11. Even as the caste system has weakened in recent times, caste based identity has
strengthened particularly in the wake of democratic politics in India. Comment.
Approach:
• Give a very brief overview of the caste system in Indian society
• State the factors that have weakened the hold of caste in society
• Also, list the reasons why caste based identity has strengthened, with focus on
democratic politics.
• Suggest some ways to weaken caste identities.
Answer:
Caste system is a hereditary system of social and occupational segregation based on
notions of purity and pollution. It legitimized and reinforced the existing structure of
social inequality. Recent times show a paradoxical situation- as on the one hand, caste
system has weakened, on the other, caste-based identities have strengthened due to
political mobilization.
Factors leading to weakening of caste system
• Change in hierarchical structure: Caste hierarchy based on purity and pollution has
weakened because of secularization. Additionally, wealth is replacing birth as the
basis of social prestige.
• Breakdown of Jajmani system: Jajmani system involved exchange of goods and
services, with each jati contributing its share based on occupational specialty.
However, it is dissipating due to traditional breakdown of occupation and
industrialization.
• Sanskritization: It is a process by which low Hindu caste groups/tribes change their
customs, rituals etc. emulating a higher caste group to attain vertical mobility.
• Disruption of traditionally ordained occupational system: Due to globalization and
rise of services sector.
• Anonymous urban life: With increasing migration, city life is becoming anonymous
where caste identities of co-habitants is seldom known.
• Modernization of education and legal system.

Student Notes:
Factors strengthening caste identity

• Caste based politics: Political parties are increasingly mobilizing caste groups for
votes, strengthening caste identities. It is evidenced by emergence of many
regional parties.
• Caste based affirmative actions: Provision of caste based reservation in education
and jobs has strengthened the caste identities. For example, recent demand of OBC
status by some caste groups.
• Collective mobilization: Caste groups are also mobilizing and collectively demanding
equality and non- discrimination in the wake of incidents of atrocities on Dalits.
• “Dominant caste” phenomenon: Landowning classes have also come to wield
political power in some states due to sheer numbers, like in UP and Bihar.
Some experts have called this phenomenon as “casteism”. It is good in short term,
because it links the modern democracy with the masses through caste based political
mobilization and participation. However, it may threaten emergence of single national
identity.
Some solutions:
• Further promote participation of people in free market: Increased prosperity would
further dilute the caste identities.
• Strengthen Section 123 of RPA 1951: To prevent parties from invoking votes solely
on caste grounds.
• Rationalize reservation system: To target benefits only to deserving candidates so as
to usher in egalitarian society.

Student Notes:
12. The present form of caste as an institution has been shaped both by developments
during the colonial period as well as changes witnessed in independent India. Discuss.
Approach:
• Give a brief overview of the origin of caste system and its evolution.
• Discuss the caste system prevailing during British rule and how it got shaped by it.
• Then briefly discuss the measures taken to improve upon it post-independence and
how it got influenced.
• Suggest further measures that are needed.
Answer:
Caste is an institution uniquely associated with the Indian sub-continent. The English
word ‘caste’ is actually a borrowing from the Portuguese casta, meaning pure breed.
The word refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian languages
(beginning with the ancient Sanskrit) is referred to by two distinct terms, varna and jati.
It is generally agreed , that the four Varna classification is roughly three thousand years
old. However, the ‘caste system’ stood for different things in different time periods.,
The institution of caste as we know it today has been profoundly impacted by the
Brtish Colonial rule as well as developments since independence:
Changes during British rule/Colonial period
• The colonialists conducted methodical and, intensive surveys and reports on the
‘customs and manners’ of various tribes and castes all over the country so as to
govern them effectively. The 1901 Census sought to collect information on the
social hierarchy of caste this kind of direct attempt to count caste and to officially
record caste status changed the institution itself. Before this, caste identities had
been much more fluid and less rigid
• The land revenue settlements and related arrangements and laws served to give
legal recognition to the customary (caste-based) rights of the upper castes.
• At the other end of the scale, towards the end of the colonial period, the
administration also took an interest in the welfare of downtrodden castes, referred
to as the ‘depressed classes’ at that time. For e.g. the Government of India Act of
1935 gave legal recognition to the lists or ‘schedules’ of castes and tribes marked
out for special treatment by the state.
Caste considerations had inevitably played a role in the mass mobilizations of the
nationalist movement. The dominant view in the nationalist movement was to treat
caste as a social evil and as a colonial ploy to divide Indians.
Post-independence period
• After independence, the state was committed to the abolition of caste based
inequality and explicitly enshrined this into the Constitution. The political promise
of the constitution was accompanied by fast paced economic changes. Thus,
without sufficient measures to promote equality in the economic sphere caste
inequalities remained strong, caste based .
• The development activity of the state and the growth of private industry also
affected caste indirectly through the speeding up and intensification of economic
change. Modern industry created all kinds of new jobs for which there were no
caste rules.
• Urbanisation and the conditions of collective living in the cities made it difficult for
the caste-segregated patterns of social interaction

Student Notes:
• to survive.
• Caste proved to be strongest in cultural and domestic spheres. Endogamy
remained largely unaffected by modernization.
• The democratic politics in India is deeply conditioned by caste, thereby making
caste considerations important in electoral politics. In fact, 1980s witnessed the
emergence of caste based political parties.
• Reservation in jobs and education has contributed to caste consciousness and in
fact strengthened caste based movements that seek reservation.

1. The life cycle of a joint family depends on economic factors rather than social values.
Discuss.
2. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance
in building a national identity.
3. In the context of the diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units
rather than the States? Give reasons with examples for your view point.
4. The spirit of tolerance and love is not only an interesting feature of Indian society from
very early times, but it is also playing an important part at the present. Elaborate.


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES


Student Notes:
POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

Contents
1. Why to Study Population?.......................................................................................................... 3
2. What is Demography? ................................................................................................................ 3
3. How to Determine Population Trends? ...................................................................................... 3
4. How to Make Sense of Such Population Data? .......................................................................... 4
4.1. Distribution and Density of Population ............................................................................... 4
4.1.1. World Distribution of Population ................................................................................. 4
4.1.2. Distribution of Population in India ............................................................................... 5
4.2. Factors Influencing the Distribution of Population ............................................................. 6
4.2.1. Geographical Factors .................................................................................................... 6
4.2.2. Economic Factors ......................................................................................................... 7
4.2.3. Social and Cultural Factors ........................................................................................... 7
4.3. Determinants of Population Change ................................................................................... 7
4.3.1. Fertility ......................................................................................................................... 8
4.3.2. Mortality .................................................................................................................... 10
4.3.3. Migration .................................................................................................................... 12
4.4. Trends in Population Growth ............................................................................................ 12
4.4.1. Projected growth in the world population................................................................. 12
4.4.2. Trend in Growth of Indian Population ........................................................................ 14
5. Theory of Demographic Transition ........................................................................................... 15
5.1. Demographic Dividend ...................................................................................................... 16
5.2. Optimum Population ......................................................................................................... 18
6. Population composition ........................................................................................................... 18
6.1. Age Composition ............................................................................................................... 18
6.1.1. Dependency Ratio ...................................................................................................... 19
6.2. Sex composition ................................................................................................................ 19
6.3. Transgender composition.................................................................................................. 19
6.4. Divyang composition ......................................................................................................... 20
6.5. Literacy composition ......................................................................................................... 20
6.6. Working Population Composition ..................................................................................... 21
6.7. Adolescents ....................................................................................................................... 23
6.8. Issues related to Youth ...................................................................................................... 23
6.9. National Youth Policy ........................................................................................................ 24
7. The population pyramid (The age-sex pyramid) ...................................................................... 26
7.1. Expanding Population ....................................................................................................... 26
7.2. Constant Population .......................................................................................................... 26
7.3. Declining Population ......................................................................................................... 26
7.4. Regional variations in age-structure pyramid ................................................................... 27
8. Population Issues ..................................................................................................................... 28
8.1. Population Problems of Underdeveloped Countries ........................................................ 28
8.1.1. Problems of Over-population..................................................................................... 28
8.1.2. Problems of Under-Population .................................................................................. 29
8.2. Population Problems of Advanced Countries ................................................................... 29
8.3. Declining sex ratio in India ................................................................................................ 31
9. Population Policies in India ...................................................................................................... 32
9.1. National Population Policy 2000 ....................................................................................... 33
10. Appraisal of National Population Policy 2000 ........................................................................ 34
11. NPP-2000: The Way Forward ................................................................................................. 35

Student Notes:
An educated, enlightened and informed population is one of the surest ways of promoting the
health of a democracy – Nelson Mandela
1. Why to Study Population?

Indian population may overtake the population of China within the next couple of decades,
eventually making India the most populous nation of the world. It is in this way the population
is quite often seen as a liability, a major hindrance to development and quality of life of the
people. Such a large population invariably puts pressure on a country’s limited resources and is
also responsible for many socio-economic problems in the country. But is it true? Let’s think
and understand. Has population not been an asset, a resource for the country? Today, India is
considered as a leading nation in the world in terms of human power. One of the major
contributing factors for this global standing has been the young, educated and productive
people of our country. They are contributing to the development of not only our country, but
many of the foreign countries also. In this context, population is an asset for the economy, the
greatest resource of the country rather than a liability. Let us evaluate this resource. How? It’s
through the science of population, ‘Demography’.
2. What is Demography?
Demography is the science of systematic study of population. The term is of Greek origin and is
composed of the two words, ‘demos’ (people) and ‘graphein’ (describe), implying the
description of people. Demography studies the trends and processes associated with
population including – changes in population size; patterns of births, deaths, and migration; and
the structure and composition of the population, such as the relative proportions of women,
men and different age groups. There are different varieties of demography, including formal
demography which is a largely quantitative field, and social demography which focuses on the
social, economic or political aspects of populations. Formal demography is primarily concerned
with the measurement and analysis of the components of population change. Its focus is on
quantitative analysis for which it has a highly developed mathematical methodology suitable for
forecasting population growth and changes in the composition of population. Population
studies or social demography, on the other hand, enquires into the wider causes and
consequences of population structures and change. Social demographers believe that social
processes and structures regulate demographic processes; like sociologists, they seek to trace
the social reasons that account for population trends.
3. How to Determine Population Trends?

What is/are the primary source of such data?
All demographic studies are based on processes of counting or enumeration – such as the
census or the survey – which involve the systematic collection of data on the people residing
within a specified territory.
Census: The procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the
members of a given population. The term is used mostly in connection with ‘national
population and door to door censuses’ to be taken every 10 years. For example, the Economic
Census in India is a Central Sector Scheme, with 100% Central Assistance and is conducted in all
the States and Union Territories of the country, in collaboration with State/UT Governments.,
The Economic Census data, over the years, have provided a base for under taking follow up
surveys by NSSO and other governmental and non-governmental agencies to study the
structure and composition of the various industrial sectors and their contribution.
Survey: The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) in India is a unique setup to carry out
surveys on socio-economic, demographic, agricultural and industrial subjects for collecting data

Student Notes:
from house-holds and from enterprises located in villages and in the towns. It is a focal agency
of the Govt. of India (under the newly created Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation (MOSPI)) for collection of statistical data in the areas which are vital for
developmental planning.
4. How to Make Sense of Such Population Data?

The following three questions can holistically address our concerns about the population data.
Q.1. How many people are there and where are they located?
Q.2. How has the population grown and changed through time?
Q.3. What are their age, sex composition, literacy levels, occupational structure and health
conditions etc.?
Let us answer these questions one by one.
4.1. Distribution and Density of Population
Patterns of population distribution and density help us to understand the demographic
characteristics of any area. The term ‘Population Distribution’ refers to the way people are
spaced over the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90 per cent of the world population lives in about 10
per cent of its land area. India’s population as on March 2011 stood at 1,210 million, which
account for approx. 17% of the world’s population. These 1.21 billion people are unevenly
distributed over our country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km, which accounts for 2.4 per
cent of the world’s area.
4.1.1. World Distribution of Population
According to World Population Prospects: 2015, the world population reached 7.3 billion as of
mid-2015. Sixty per cent of the global population lives in Asia (4.4 billion), 16 per cent in Africa
(1.2billion), 10 per cent in Europe (738 million), 9 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean
(634 million),and the remaining 5 per cent in Northern America (358 million) and Oceania (39
million). China (1.4 billion) and India (1.3 billion) remain the two largest countries of the world,
both with more than 1 billion people, representing 19 and 18 per cent of the world’s
population, respectively.
2013 World population map: http://www.prb.org

In 2015, 50.4 per cent of the world’s population is male and 49.6 per cent is female. The median
age of the global population, that is, the age at which half the population is older and half is
younger, is 29.6 years. About one-quarter (26 per cent) of the world’s people is under 15 years
of age, 62 per cent are aged 15-59 years, and 12 per cent are 60 or over.

Student Notes:
4.1.2. Distribution of Population in India
India’s Population Distribution by Density:

Density of population is expressed as number of persons per unit area. It helps in getting a
better understanding of the spatial distribution of population in relation to land. Population
density provides a better picture than total population especially when the population is
unevenly distributed.

Student Notes:
The density of population in India (2011) is 382 persons per sq km. There has been a steady
increase of about 265 persons per sq km over the last 60 years as the density of population
increased from 117 persons/ sq km in 1951 to 382 persons/sq km in 2011.
4.2. Factors Influencing the Distribution of Population

4.2.1. Geographical Factors
• Availability of water: It is the most important factor for life. So, people prefer to live in
areas where fresh water is easily available. Water is used for drinking, bathing and cooking
– and also for cattle, crops, industries and navigation. It is because of this that river valleys
are among the most densely populated areas of the world. It is no wonder that civilizations
like the Indus and Mesopotamia developed at the banks of rivers which ensured adequate
and assured water supply for settlement. Deserts have low density of population due to
scarcity of water. Only oases within the deserts are densely populated and here the
population is limited by the availability of water.
• Landforms (Relief): People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. This is because
such areas are favourable for the production of crops and to build roads and industries. The
mountainous and hilly areas hinder the development of transport network and hence
initially do not favour agricultural and industrial development. So, these areas tend to be
less populated. The Ganga plains are among the most densely populated areas of the world
while the mountains zones in the Himalayas are scarcely populated. The thinness of the
atmosphere at latitudes above 4000m makes breathing difficult and exertion very fatiguing.
Therefore only those high plateaus where farming and communications have been
relatively easy have settlements and everywhere else the settlements are concentrated in
the valleys.
• Climate: An extreme climate such as very hot or cold deserts is uncomfortable for human
habitation. Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation
attract more people. Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low
population.
• Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. Therefore, areas which

Student Notes:
have fertile loamy soils have more people living on them as these can support intensive
agriculture.
4.2.2. Economic Factors
• Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities
generate employment. So, skilled and semi–skilled workers move to these areas and make
them densely populated.
• Urbanisation: Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical
facilities, better means of transport and communication. Good civic amenities and the
attraction of city life draw people to the cities. It leads to rural to urban migration and cities
grow in size. Mega cities of the world continue to attract large number of migrants every
year.
• Industrialization: Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of
people. These include not just factory workers but also transport operators, shopkeepers,
bank employees, doctors, teachers and other service providers.
4.2.3. Social and Cultural Factors
Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural significance. In the
same way – people tend to move away from places where there is social and political unrest.
Many a time governments offer incentives through various types of policies to people to live in
sparsely populated areas or move away from overcrowded places.
Population growth
The population growth or population change refers to the change in number of inhabitants of a
territory during a specific period of time. This change may be positive as well as negative. It can
be expressed either in terms of absolute numbers or in terms of percentage. Population change
in an area is an important indicator of economic development, social upliftment and historical
and cultural background of the region.
Growth of Population: Change of population in particular area between two points of time is
known as growth of population. For example, if we deduct the population of India 1991 (84.63
crore) from population of 2001 (102.70 crore) then we shall get the growth of population (18.07
crores) in actual numbers.
Growth Rate of Population: This is the change of population expressed in percentage.
4.3. Determinants of Population Change

Three factors determine the change in the size of the population of any country: how many
persons are born, how many persons die, and how many persons are added to the population
after considering the number of persons leaving the country and the number of persons coming

Student Notes:
into the country. The last of these factors, that is, migration does not play a large role in
determining population growth at the national level. However, it does have influence at local
and regional level. It, therefore, becomes necessary to consider in greater detail the other two
factors, that is, fertility and mortality. Migration, as such, would be discussed later.
4.3.1. Fertility
Fertility is an important determinant of population growth. In this section, we shall discuss the
measurement, levels and trends and implications of high fertility.
Measurement of Fertility
At the outset, it is necessary to differentiate between fecundity and fertility. Fecundity refers to
the physiological capacity to reproduce. Fertility, on the other hand, refers to the actual
reproductive performance of an individual or a group. While there is no direct measurement of
fecundity, fertility can be studied from the birth statistics. The crude birth rate is an important
measure of fertility for which only live births, that is, children born alive are taken into account.
The crude birth rate is calculated by dividing the number of live births occurring during a
calendar year in specified areas by the midyear population of that year. The crude birth rate is
generally expressed per thousand of population.
The crude birth rate directly points to the contribution of fertility to the growth rate of the
population. It suffers from certain limitations mainly because it has in the denominator the total
population which includes males as well as very young and very old women who are biologically
not capable of having babies.
There are other more refined fertility measures like the general fertility rate, the age-specific
fertility rates, etc., that overcome these limitations.
General Fertility Rate: It is the number of live births per 1000 women, aged 15-49 years (child
bearing age group), in a given period.
Age-Specific Fertility Rate: The number of live births occurring during a given year or reference
period per 1000 women of reproductive age classified in that age group.
ASFR = (Ba/Ea)* 1000, where
Ba – number of births to women in age-group in a given year or reference period.
Ea – number of person-years of exposure in that age-group during the specified reference
period.
Total Fertility Rate: The total fertility rate refers to the total number of live births that a woman
would have if she lived through the reproductive age group and had the average number of
babies in each segment of this age group as determined by the age-specific fertility rates for
that area.
Determinants of High Fertility
Several factors contribute to the high fertility of Indian women. Let us examine some of these
factors:
a) Religious Ideologies
b) Universality of the institution of marriage.
c) Early marriage and early child-bearing.
d) Preference for sons ingrained in the Indian culture.
e) Lack of right of self-determination with reference to reproduction.
f) High infant and child mortality rates - (unsatisfactory health, low nutritional status and
poverty) also contribute to a large family size.
g) Economic, social, cultural as well as religious value of children in the Indian society.

Student Notes:
h) Absence of adoption of methods of conception control.

It is important that none of these factors is to be seen in isolation. Indeed, it is the combination
of several factors that contribute towards the high fertility rate in India.
While considering the factors contributing to high fertility, it is also necessary to consider
traditional Indian norms which regulate the reproductive behavior of couples. Breast-feeding is
universally practiced in Indian sub-continent and this has an inhibiting influence on conception.
Certain taboos are also practiced during the postpartum period when the couple is expected to
abstain from sexual activity. The practice of going to the parental home for delivery, specially
the first one, common in some parts of the country also ensures abstinence after childbirth
leading to postponement of the next pregnancy. Cohabitation is also prohibited on certain
specified days in the month. It is also common knowledge that a woman would be ridiculed if
she continued to bear children after she had become a grandmother.
Implications of High Fertility
Apart from contributing in a big way to the population problem of the country, high fertility
affects the family and, in turn, society in many ways.
Women are tied down to child-bearing and child-rearing for the best years of their productive
lives. They are, therefore, denied the opportunity to explore other avenues for self-expression
and self-development. This could lead to frustration. Excessive child-bearing affects their own
health and that of their children. Looking after a large number of children puts a further strain
on the slender physical and emotional resources of such women.
The burden of providing for a large family sits heavily on the bread-winner of the family.
The constant struggle to maintain a subsistence level is exhausting. To escape from the
problems of everyday life, he may take to drinking. This would lead to further deterioration
of the economic and emotional well-being of the family.

Student Notes:
The children, often unwanted, unloved and neglected, are left to their own to make life
bearable. The children in large families often have to start working at a very early age to
supplement the slender financial resources of the family. They even indulge in delinquency
and are, therefore, denied the opportunity to go to school and get educated.
The girl child is the worst sufferer in these circumstances. She is often not sent to school at
all, or is withdrawn from school at an early age to help her mother in carrying out domestic
chores and to look after her younger siblings when the mother is at work. Early marriage
pushes her into child-bearing, and the vicious cycle continues. The children, both boys and
girls, in a large family are thus often denied the joys of childhood, and are pushed into adult
roles at a very early age.
FERTILITY RATE IN INDIA
As per Sample Registration System TFR in 2011 and 2012 was 2.4 and has declined to 2.3 in
2013. 24 States and UTs having already achieved the replacement level of fertility of 2.1.
It is to be noted that no targets were set under MDG for Total Fertility Rate (TFR).
4.3.2. Mortality
Measurement of Mortality
Out of many measures, it is sufficient to describe three basic measures of mortality: the crude
death rate, the expectation of life at birth, and the infant mortality rate.
• Crude Death Rate: It is the ratio of the total registered deaths occurring in a specified
calendar year to the total mid-year population of that year, multiplied by 1000.

Student Notes:
• Expectation of Life at Birth: The average expectation of life at birth is a good measure of
the level of mortality because it is not affected by the age structure of the population. The
term “average expectation of life” or life expectancy represents the average number of
years of life which a cohort of new-born babies (that is, those born in the same year) may
be expected to live if they are subjected to the risks of death at each year, according to the
age-specific mortality rates prevailing in the country at the time to which the measure
refers. This measure is complicated to calculate but easy to understand.
India’s life expectancy at birth
An Indian born in 1950 could expect to live for 37 years, whereas today India’s life
expectancy at birth nearly doubled to 68 years, by 2050, it is projected to increase to 76
years. As a result, India’s population will rise from 1.3 billion today to an estimated 1.7
billion by 2050, with a much larger elderly share of around 340 million. Including the pre-
retirement phase (i.e., population age 45+), the proportion will rise to over 30%, or almost
600 million persons. Between 2011 and 2050, the number of oldest old people of age 75
and above is expected to increase by 340%.
• Infant Mortality Rate: Infants are defined in demography as all those children in the first
year of life who have not yet reached age one. In countries like India, where health
conditions are poor, infant deaths account for a substantial number of all deaths. The infant
mortality rate is, therefore, often used as an indicator for determining the socio-economic
status of a country and the quality of life in it.
INFANT MORTALITY RATE IN INDIA
As per the Sample Registration System (SRS) Reports published by the Registrar General of
India, the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in the country has declined steadily from 47/1000
live births in 2010 to 40/1000 live births in 2013.
Under the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 4 target was to reduce Child Mortality
by two-third between 1990 and 2015. In case of India, it translated into a goal of reducing
Infant mortality rate from 88 per thousand live births in 1990 to 29 in 2015.
United Nations has recently set Sustainable Development Goals and Targets. The target
for India is to attain Under 5 Mortality Rate of 25/1000 live births by 2030.
• Maternal Mortality Rate: The maternal mortality ratio represents the risk associated with
each pregnancy, i.e. the obstetric risk. Maternal death is the death of a woman while
pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and
site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its
management but not from accidental or incidental causes. It is measured as number of
maternal deaths per 100000 live births.
Maternal Mortality rate in India
As per Sample Registration System (SRS), 2011-13 reports Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR)
is 167 per 1,00,000 live births in the Country.
Under the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 5, the target is to reduce Maternal
Mortality Ratio (MMR) by three quarters between 1990 & 2015. This translates to reducing
the MMR from 560 in 1990 to 140 in 2015.

Student Notes:
4.3.3. Migration
Apart from birth and death there is another way by which the population size changes. When
people move from one place to another, the place they move from Place of Origin to Place of
Destination. The place of origin shows a decrease in population while the population increases
in the place of destination.
Migration may be interpreted as a spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between
population and resources. Migration may be permanent, temporary or seasonal. It may take
place from rural to rural areas, rural to urban areas, urban to urban areas and urban to rural
areas.
Immigration: Migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants.
Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place are called Emigrants.
People migrate for a better economic and social life. There are two sets of factors that influence
migration.
The Push factors make the place of origin seem less attractive for reasons like unemployment,
poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics and
socio-economic backwardness.
The Pull factors make the place of destination seem more attractive than the place of origin for
reasons like better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life
and property and pleasant climate.
Migration can be internal (within the country) or international (between the countries).
Internal migration does not change the size of the population, but influences the distribution of
population within the nation. Migration plays a very significant role in changing the
composition and distribution of population.
(For more on Migration refer the material on migration)
Natural Growth of Population: This is the population increased by difference between births
and deaths in a particular region between two points of time.
Natural Growth= Births-Deaths
Actual Growth of Population=Births – Deaths + in Migration – out Migration
Positive Growth of Population: This happens when the birth rate is more than the death rate
between two points of time or when people from other countries migrate permanently to a
region.
Negative Growth of Population: If the population decreases between two points of time it is
known as negative growth of population. It occurs when the birth rate falls below the death
rate or people migrate to other countries.
4.4. Trends in Population Growth

4.4.1. Projected growth in the world population
Currently, the world population is growing slowly than in the recent past. Ten years ago, world
population was growing by 1.24 per cent per year. Today, it is growing by 1.18 per cent per
year, or approximately an additional 83 million people annually. The world population is
projected to increase by more than one billion people within the next 15 years, reaching 8.5
billion in 2030, and to increase further to 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion by 2100.

Student Notes:
• Africa is the fastest-growing major area: More than half of global population growth
between now and 2050 is expected to occur in Africa. Africa has the highest rate of
population growth among major areas, growing at a pace of 2.55 per cent annually in 2010-
2015. Consequently, of the additional 2.4 billion people projected to be added to the global
population between 2015 and 2050, 1.3 billion will be added in Africa. Asia is projected to
be the second largest contributor to future global population growth, adding 0.9 billion
people between 2015 and 2050, followed by Northern America, Latin America and the
Caribbean and Oceania, which are projected to have much smaller increments. In the
medium variant, Europe is projected to have a smaller population in 2050 than in 2015. A
rapid population increase in Africa is anticipated even if there is a substantial reduction of
fertility levels in the near future.
• High Population growth in least developed countries (LDCs)-High population growth will
remain the feature of a group of 48 countries designated by the United Nations as the least
developed countries (LDCs), of which 27 are in Africa. Although the growth rate of the LDCs
is projected to slow from its current 2.4 per cent annually. Between 2015 and 2100, the
populations of 33 countries, most of them LDCs, have a high probability of at least tripling.
Among them, the populations of Angola, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi,
Mali, Niger, Somalia, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania and Zambia are projected to
increase at least five-fold by 2100.
• Europe is projected to experience shrinking population: the populations of 48 European
countries or areas in the world are expected to decrease between 2015 and 2050. Several
countries are expected to see their populations decline by more than 15 per cent by 2050,
including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania,
Republic of Moldova, Romania, Serbia, and Ukraine. Fertility in all European countries is
now below the level required for full replacement of the population in the long run (around
2.1 children per woman, on average), and in the majority of cases, fertility has been below
the replacement level for several decades. Fertility for Europe as a whole is projected to
increase from 1.6 children per women in 2010-2015 to 1.8 in 2045-2050, but such an
increase will not prevent a likely contraction of the total population size.
• Most of the increase in world population can be attributed to a short list of countries: At
the country level, much of the overall increase between now and 2050 is projected to occur
either in high-fertility countries, mainly in Africa, or in countries with large populations.
During 2015-2050, half of the world’s population growth is expected to be concentrated in
nine countries: India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, United
Republic of Tanzania, United States of America, Indonesia and Uganda, listed according to
the size of their contribution to the total growth.
• Increasing longevity around the world; progress against major challenges: significant gains
in life expectancy have been achieved in recent years. Globally, life expectancy at birth rose
by 3 years between 2000-2005 and 2010-2015 (from 67 to 70 years). All major areas shared
in the life expectancy gains over this period, but the greatest increases were in Africa,
where life expectancy rose by 6 years in the 2000s after rising by only 2 years in the
previous decade.
Under-five mortality, expressed as the probability of dying between birth and a child’s fifth
birthday, is an important indicator of development and the well-being of children. Globally,
deaths among children under age five fell from 71 per 1,000 live births in 2000-2005 to an
estimated 50 per 1,000 in 2010-2015. Absolute declines were particularly large in Sub-
Saharan Africa (142 to 99 per 1,000) and in the least developed countries (125 to 86 per
1,000). The reduction of under-five mortality, which has received intense global attention as
the target of Millennium Development Goal 4

Student Notes:
• Populations in many parts of the world are still young; opportunity for demographic
dividend: Populations in many regions are still young. In Africa, children under age 15
account for 41 per cent of the population in 2015 and young persons aged 15 to 24 account
for a further 19 per cent. Latin America and the Caribbean and Asia, which have seen
greater declines in fertility, have smaller percentages of children (26 and 24 per cent,
respectively) and similar percentages of youth (17 and 16 per cent, respectively). In total,
these three regions are home to 1.7 billion children and 1.1 billion young persons in 2015
Proportions of children in the populations of many countries of these regions are projected
to decline further in the near-term future, while the size and the proportion of populations
in the prime working ages can be expected to grow. Countries with a relatively high ratio of
working to dependent populations have the possibility of benefitting from a “demographic
dividend,” provided that appropriate labour market and other policies allow for a
productive absorption of the growing working-age population and for increased
investments in the human capital of children and youth.
• Globally, population aged 60 or over is the fastest growing:
As fertility declines and life expectancy rises, the proportion of the population above a
certain age rises. This phenomenon, known as population ageing, is occurring throughout
the world. By 2050, all major areas of the world except Africa will have nearly a quarter or
more of their populations aged 60 or over.
Population ageing is projected to have a profound effect on the number of workers per
retiree in various countries, as measured by the Potential Support Ratio (PSR), defined as
the number of people aged 20 to 64 divided by the number of people aged 65 and over.
Currently, African countries, on average, have 12.9 people aged 20 to 64 for every person
aged 65 or above, while Asian countries have PSRs of 8.0, Europe and Northern America at
or under 4. Japan, at 2.1, has the lowest PSR in the world (although seven European
countries also have PSRs below 3). This will put fiscal and political pressures on the health
care systems as well as the old-age and social protection systems of many countries in the
not-too-distant future.
4.4.2. Trend in Growth of Indian Population
It is significant that the percentage decadal growth during 2001-11 has registered the sharpest
decline since Independence. It declined from 23.87% for 1981-1991 to 21.54% for the period
1991-2001, a decrease of 2.33 percentage points. For 2001-2011, this decadal growth has
become 17.64%, a further decrease of 3.90 percentage points.
Similarly, the average exponential growth rate for 2001-2011 has declined to 1.64% per annum
from 1.97% per annum during 1991-2001. The average annual exponential growth rate during
1981-1991 was 2.16.
How can we identify the trend?
The growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by annual
birth rate and death rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different trends. There are
four distinct phases of growth identified within this period:
Phase I: The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant or stationary phase of
growth of India’s population, since in this period growth rate was very low, even recording a
negative growth rate during 1911-1921. Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping
the rate of increase low. Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and
inefficient distribution system of food and other basic necessities were largely responsible for a
high birth and death rates in this period.

Student Notes:
Phase II: The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth. An
overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the
mortality rate. At the same time better transport and communication system improved
distribution system. The crude birth rate remained high in this period leading to higher growth
rate than the previous phase. This is impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic Depression,
1920s and World War II.
Phase III: The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India,
which was caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population in the
country. The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 percent. It is in this period, after the
Independence, that developmental activities were introduced through a centralised planning
process and economy started showing up ensuring the improvement of living condition of
people at large. Consequently, there was a high natural increase and higher growth rate.
Besides, increased international migration from neighbouring countries contributed to the high
growth rate.
Phase IV: In the post 1981 till present, the growth rate of country’s population though
remained high, has started slowing down gradually. A downward trend of crude birthrate is held
responsible for such a population growth. This was, in turn, affected by an increase in theme an
age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly education of females in the country. The
growth rate of population is, however, still high in the country, and it has been projected by
World Development Report that population of India will touch 1,350 million by 2025.
The analysis done so far shows the average growth rate, but the country also has wide variation
in growth rates from one area to another which is discussed below. Refer to Fig S4 and S5.
5. Theory of Demographic Transition

The demographic transition theory is a generalized description of the changing pattern of
mortality, fertility and growth rates as societies move from one demographic regime to another.
The term was first coined by the American demographer Frank W. Notestein in the mid-
twentieth century, but it has since been elaborated and expanded upon by many others.
The theory suggests that population growth is linked to overall levels of economic development
and that every society follows a typical pattern of development-related population growth.
There are four stages to the classical demographic transition model:
Stage 1: Pre-transition
The first stage is that of low population growth in a society that is under-developed and
technologically backward. Growth rates are low because both the death rate and the birth rate
are very high, so that the difference between the two (or the net growth rate) is low which is
characterized by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates.
Stage 2: Early transition
During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall. As birth rates remain
high, the population starts to grow rapidly. This ‘population explosion’ happens because death
rates are brought down relatively quickly through advanced methods of disease control, public
health, and better nutrition. However, it takes longer for society to adjust to change and alter its
reproductive behaviour (which was evolved during the period of poverty and high death rates)
to suit the new situation of relative prosperity and longer life spans. In India too, the
demographic transition is not yet complete as the mortality rate has been reduced but the birth
rate has not been brought down to the same extent( In fact there exists a demographic divide in
India with Southern stages showing advanced stage of demographic transition)

Student Notes:
Stage 3: Late transition

In this stage, the fertility rate declines and tends to equal the death rate. Birth rates begin to fall
due to various fertility factors such as access to contraception, increases in wages, urbanization
etc. . As a result, the rate of population growth decelerates.
Stage 4: Post-transition
Post-transitional societies are characterized by low birth and low death rates. In fact, birth rates
may drop to well below replacement levels. So, population growth is negligible, leading to a
phenomenon of shrinking population (like in Japan and Germany)
5.1. Demographic Dividend

Demographic dividend occurs when the proportion of working people in the total population is
high because this indicates that more people have the potential to be productive and
contribute to growth of the economy.
More than 63% of the population in India is in the age group of 15-59 years, broadly termed as
India’s demographic dividend.
This working age group must support itself as well as those outside this age group (i.e., children
and elderly people) who are unable to work and are therefore dependents. Changes in the age
structure due to the demographic transition lower the ‘dependency ratio’, or the ratio of non-
working age to working-age population, thus creating the potential for generating growth.
• As per Sample Registration System (SRS) (2013) data, the proportion of economically active
population (15-59 years) or, India’s ‘demographic dividend’, has increased from 57.7 to 63.3
per cent during 1991 to 2013. On account of better education, health facilities, and increase
in life expectancy, the percentage of elderly (60+) has gone up from 6.0 to 8.3 per cent
respectively in the same period.
• The growth rate of the labour force will continue to be higher than that of the population
until 2021. According to an Indian Labour Report (Time Lease, 2007), 300 million youth will
enter the labour force by 2025, and 25 per cent of the world’s workers in the next three
years will be Indians.
• It is projected that by 2020 the average age of India’s population will be the lowest in the
world—around 29 years compared to 37 years in China and the United States of America,
45 years in West Europe, and 48 years in Japan. Consequently, while the global economy is
expected to witness a shortage of young population of around 56 million by 2020, India will
be the only country with a youth surplus of 47 million (Report on Education, Skill
Development and Labour Force (2013-14) Volume III, Labour Bureau,

Student Notes:
But this potential can be converted into actual growth only if the rise in the working age group
is accompanied by increasing levels of education and employment. If the new entrants to the
labour force are not educated then their productivity remains low. If they remain unemployed,
then they are unable to earn at all and become dependents rather than earners. Thus, changing
age structure by itself cannot guarantee any benefits unless it is properly utilised through
planned development. Strategies exist to exploit the demographic window of opportunity that
India has today. But India’s recent experience suggests that market forces by themselves do not
ensure that such strategies would be implemented. Unless a way forward is found, we may miss
out on the potential benefits that the country’s changing age structure temporarily offers.
According to the United National population research, during the last four decades the
countries of Asia and Latin America have been the main beneficiaries of the demographic
dividend. Advanced countries of Europe, Japan and USA have an ageing population because of
low birth rates and low mortality rates. Neither the least developed countries nor the countries
of Africa have as yet experienced favourable demographic conditions according to the research
by UN population division. China’s one child policy has reversed the demographic dividend it
enjoyed since the mid 1960s according to a World Bank global development report.
Source: Economic Survey 2016-17

Student Notes:
5.2. Optimum Population

The size, distribution and structure of the population within the country must be viewed in
relation to its natural resources and the techniques of production used by its people. The extent
to which resources are used and the way in which they are used determine whether an area is
under- or overpopulated. A country is said to have an optimum population when the number of
people is in balance with the available resources. Optimum conditions can only be maintained if
the exploration of new resources or the development of other forms of employment keeps
pace with increases in population.
If the population becomes too large then the “law of diminishing returns” beginsto operate.
This implies that up to a certain point an increase in the number of people working on the land
leads to a marked increase in production. Once the optimum population has been reached,
however a further increase may increase production but at a decreasing rate, so that output per
capita declines. As more people become dependent on the same resource base each individual
will become poorer. On the other hand if there are not enough people to develop all the
resources of an area its standard of living may remain lower than it could be, were its full
potential realized.
For example in terms of present day technology, Central Asia may be considered under
populated. But in the past, Central Asia was inhabited by pastoralists who knew nothing of
modern technology. The resources which they were capable of exploiting were often
overstrained, so much in fact that the waves of Central Asian peoples invaded surrounding
areas in search of land and spread as far as eastern Europe, India and northern China. Thus the
region was over-populated during that period.
Under population and overpopulation therefore must be considered mainly in terms of the
stage of development of the country concerned. An advanced country can be considered as one
where agriculture is efficient, industry, communications, trade and commerce, and social
services are well developed and the resources of the country are fully utilized. There is no real
shortage of labour but unemployment is small.
6. Population composition
Population composition gives the description of population defined by characteristics such as
age and sex, place of residence, ethnic characteristics, tribes, language, religion, marital status,
literacy and education, occupational characteristics, etc.
6.1. Age Composition
The age structure of the population refers to the proportion of persons in different age groups
relative to the total population. The age structure undergoes a shift in response to changes in
levels of development and the average life expectancy. Initially, poor medical facilities,
prevalence of disease and other factors make for a relatively short life span. Moreover, high
infant and maternal mortality rates also have an impact on the age structure.
With development, quality of life improves and with it the life expectancy also improves. This
changes the age structure. Consequently, smaller proportions of the population are found in
the younger age groups and larger proportions in the older age groups. This is also referred to
as the ageing of the population.
The population of a nation is generally grouped into three broad categories:
Children (generally below 15 years): They are economically unproductive and need to be
provided with food, clothing, education and medical care.

Student Notes:
Working Age (15-59 years): They are economically productive and biologically reproductive.
They comprise the working population.
Aged (Above 59 years): They can be economically productive though they and may have
retired. They may be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment through
recruitment.
Trends in India: Observe Table T2 and Figure S7. What can you infer?
6.1.1. Dependency Ratio
The dependency ratio is a measure comparing the portion of a population which is composed
of dependents (i.e., elderly people who are too old to work, and children who are too young to
work) with the portion that is in the working age group, generally defined as 15 to 59 years. The
dependency ratio is equal to the population below 15 or above 60, divided by population in the
15-59 age group; the ratio is usually expressed as a percentage.
A rising dependency ratio is a cause for worry in countries that are facing an aging population,
since it becomes difficult for a relatively smaller proportion of working-age people to carry the
burden of providing for a relatively larger proportion of dependents. On the other hand, a
falling dependency ratio can be a source of economic growth and prosperity due to the larger
proportion of workers relative to non-workers. This is sometimes referred to as the
‘demographic dividend’, or benefit flowing from the changing age structure. However, this
benefit is temporary because the larger pool of working age people will eventually turn into
non-working old people.
6.2. Sex composition
Sex composition is a very significant indicator of the quality of population of a country as a
human resource. In fact, primarily it is understood on the basis of sex ratio.
The Sex Ratio refers to the number of females per 1000 males in a given area at a specified
time period.
The Child Sex Ratio is the sex ratio in the age group 0-6 years (child) in a given area at a
specified time period.
Natural Advantage v/s Social Disadvantage
Females have a biological advantage over males as they tend to be more resilient than males
yet this advantage is cancelled out by the social disadvantages and discriminations that they
face.
Life expectancy at Birth in India
67.3 years for male and 69.6 years for female in 2011-2015.
Trends in India: Observe Figure S8 – S12. What does it suggest?
6.3. Transgender composition
During Enumeration of Census 2011, for the first time three codes were provided i.e. Male-1,
Female –2 and others -3. In case the respondent wished to record neither '1' nor '2', then
enumerator was instructed to record sex as 'other' and give code '3'. Still, it is important to note
that the Census on India does not collect any data specifically on 'transgender'. Thus, the
category of 'other' would not only include 'transgender' but also any person who desires to
record sex under the category of 'other'. It is also possible that some transgenders would have
returned themselves either male or female depending upon their choice. The population of
'other' as per Census 2011 is 4,87,803.

Student Notes:
6.4. Divyang composition

The 2011 census shows 207.8 lakh households having disabled persons in the country
constituting 8.3 percent of the total households. Total households having disabled persons
show an increase of 20.5 lakhs from last census.
Out of the total disabled population of 2.68 crores in Census 2011, 1.46 crores (54.5%) are
literates and the remaining 1.22 crores (45.5%) are illiterates. One decade ago, the percentage
of literates among disabled population was 49.3% and the remaining 50.7% were illiterates.
6.5. Literacy composition
Literacy as a prerequisite to education is an instrument of empowerment. The more literate the
population the greater the consciousness of career options, as well as participation in the
knowledge economy. Further, literacy can lead to health awareness and fuller participation in
the cultural and economic well-being of the community. Literacy levels have improved
considerably after independence and almost two-thirds of our population is now literate. But,
literacy rate has struggled to keep pace with the rate of growth of the Indian population It
varies considerably across gender, across regions, and across social groups. As can be seen,
female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started from relatively
low levels. Literacy rates also vary across different social groups – historically disadvantaged
communities like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have lower rates of literacy, and
rates of female literacy within these groups are even lower. Regional variations are still very
wide, with states like Kerala approaching universal literacy, while states like Bihar are lagging far
behind. The inequalities in the literacy rate are especially important because they tend to
reproduce inequality across generations. Illiterate parents are at a severe disadvantage in
ensuring that their children are well educated, thus perpetuating existing inequalities. See Fig.
S 13 and S 14?

Student Notes:
EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES
• While only 73 per cent literacy has been achieved as per Census 2011, there has been
marked improvement in female literacy. Male literacy at 80.9 per cent is still higher than
female literacy at 64.6 per cent but the latter has increased by 10.9 percentage points
compared to 5.6 percentage points for the former.
• According to the DISE (District Information System for Education), total enrolment in
primary schools increased from 134 million to 137 million in 2011- 12 and then declined to
132 million in 2013-14 while upper primary enrolment grew from 51 million to about 67
million. This is in line with the changing demographic age structure.
• India has achieved near universal enrolment and enhanced hard and soft infrastructure
(schools, teachers, and academic support staff).
• However, the overall standard of education is well below global standards. PISA
(Programme for International Student Assessment) 2009 results ranked Tamil Nadu and
Himachal Pradesh 72 and 73 out of 74 participants, higher only than Kyrgyzstan, exposes
the gaps in our education system. PISA, which measures the knowledge and skills of 15-
year-olds with questions designed to assess their problem-solving capabilities, rates these
two states at the bottom, with the scores in mathematics and science falling way behind
the OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) average. India did
not participate in PISA 2012.
• ASER (Annual Status of Education Report) findings reported about low levels of learning
amongst the 5 to 16 age group in rural India since 2005. The worrying fact is that these are
floor level tests (basic 2-digit carry-forward subtraction and division skills), without which
one cannot progress in the school system.
• The policy prescription lies in shifting attention away from inputs to outcomes and focusing
on building quality education and skill development infrastructure
• With the changing demography and declining child population, the inadequacy of human
capital at the base of the pyramid leading to a huge backlog in basic skills could become a
big impediment in India’s growth.
6.6. Working Population Composition

The population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups, namely;
main workers, marginal workers and non-workers.
Standard Census Definition
Main Worker is a person who works for at least 183
days in a year.
Marginal Worker is a person who works for less than
183 days in a year.
Work participation rate is defined as the percentage
of total workers (main and marginal) to total population.
It is observed that in India, the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only 39 per
cent (2001) leaving a vast majority of 61 per cent as non-workers. This indicates an economic
status in which there is a larger proportion of dependent population, further indicating possible
existence of large number of unemployed or under employed people.
The proportion of working population, of the states and Union Territories show a moderate
variation from about 25 per cent in Goa to about 53 per cent in Mizoram. The states with larger
percentages of workers are Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh,

Student Notes:
Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya. Among the Union
Territories, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu have higher participation rate.
It is understood that, in the context of a country like India, the work participation rate tends to
be higher in the areas of lower levels of economic development since number of manual
workers are needed to perform the subsistence or near subsistence economic activities.
The occupational composition (see box) of India’s population (which actually means
engagement of an individual in farming, manufacturing trade, services or any kind of
professional activities) shows a large proportion of primary sector workers compared to
secondary and tertiary sectors. About 58.2 per cent of total working population are cultivators
and agricultural labourers, whereas only 4.2% of workers are engaged in household industries
and 37.6 % are other workers including non-household industries, trade, commerce,
construction and repair and other services. As far as the occupation of country’s male and
female population is concerned, male workers out-number female workers in all the three
sectors.
The number of female workers is relatively high in primary sector, though in recent years there
has been some improvement in work participation of women in secondary and tertiary sectors.
It is important to note that the proportion of workers in agricultural sector in India has shown a
decline over the last few decades (66.85% in 1991 to 58.2% in 2001).
Consequently, the participation rate in secondary and tertiary sector has registered an increase.
This indicates a shift of dependence of workers from farm-based occupations to nonfarm based
ones, indicating a sectoral shift in the economy of the country. The spatial variation of work
participation rate in different sectors in the country is very wide. For instance, the states like
Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have very large shares of cultivators.
On the other hand states like Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal
and Madhya Pradesh have higher proportion of agricultural labourers. The highly urbanised
areas like Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry have a very large proportion of workers being
engaged in other services. This indicates not only availability of limited farming land, but also
large scale urbanisation and industrialisation requiring more workers in non-farm sectors. (Table
T4 and Fig. S 15)
LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN INDIA
The Economic Survey (2015-16) states that the proportion of economically active population
(15-59 years) has increased from 57.7 per cent to 63.3 per cent during 1991 to 2013, as per
Sample Registration System (SRS) data for 2013.
• The Fourth Annual Employment-Unemployment Survey conducted by the Labour Bureau
during the period January 2014 to July 2014 has shown that the Labour Force Participation
Rate (LFPR) is 52.5 % for all persons.
• However, the LFPR for rural areas stands at 54.7% which is much greater than that for
rural areas i.e. 47.2 %.
• The LFPR for women is significantly lower than that for males in both rural and urban
areas.
• As per the Survey, the Unemployment Rate is 4.7 % in rural areas and 5.5% in urban
areas. The total unemployment rate reported is 4.9% as per the Labour Bureau Survey.
These figures are much higher than the all India unemployment rates of the National
Sample Survey Office (NSSO, 2012-11) which reported unemployment rate of 2.3% for rural
areas, 3.8% for Urban Areas and 2.7% for India as a whole.
For state wise labor participation rate refer TABLE T8.

Student Notes:
6.7. Adolescents
An important aspect of population growth in India is the growth of its adolescents. At present
the share of adolescents i.e. up to the age group of 10-19 years is about 21 per cent (2011)..
The adolescent population,
though, regarded as the
youthful population having
high potentials, but at the
same time they are quite
vulnerable if not guided and
channelized properly. There
are many challenges for the
society as far as these
adolescents are concerned,
some of which are lower age
at marriage, illiteracy –
particularly female illiteracy,
school dropouts, low intake of nutrients, high rate of maternal mortality of adolescent mothers,
high rates of HIV/AIDS infections, physical and mental disability or retardation, drug abuse and
alcoholism, juvenile delinquency and committance of crimes, etc. (Refer Table T5)
In view of these, the Government of India has undertaken certain policies to impart proper
education to the adolescent groups so that their talents are better channelized and properly
utilized.
The National Population Policy 2000 identifies them as an “under-served population group”,
because their needs have not been specifically addressed so far. The Policy describes various
strategies to address different needs of adolescents. These are:
(i) provide accurate information about physical, physiological, psychological and social
changes and developments that take place during adolescence;
(ii) develop the needed life skills to empower them to avoid risky situations and to attain
sound physical, mental and social health;
(iii) provide food supplements and nutritional services; and
(iv) make available the needed health and counseling services available to them.
6.8. Issues related to Youth
The National Youth Policy 2014 defines the age of youth as persons between the age 15-29
years. Youths in India today face various challenges related to employment, drug abuse, suicidal
tendencies, adverse impact of media and social-media and stress arising out of changing
societal structure especially due to emergence of nuclear families.
Employability Challenge- Over 30% of youth aged 15-29 in India are not in employment,
education or training (NEETs). This is more than double the OECD average and almost three
times that of China. NEET status of youths results due to not enough quality jobs being created
in the system and because youths have little incentives or face too high constraints to be in the
education and training systems.
Drug Abuse- Due to India’s close proximity with major opium growing areas of the region, India
is facing the serious menace of drug trafficking and as a spillover effect, drug abuse especially
among the youth is a matter of concern. Being signatory to all the three UN conventions and
SAARC convention, India has enacted Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985
and Prevention of Illicit Trafficking of Narcotics Drug and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1988
through which the country is addressing various aspects of drug problem.

Student Notes:
Suicidal Tendencies- Though India’s suicide rate is the 12th highest in the world, the country is
unfortunately home to the highest number of suicides among people in the 15-29 age group –
35.5 in 100,000 people. It is significant that the highest number of suicides is reported from
states with a high literacy level. Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Kerala and Karnataka
report more than 53 percent of the national total.
Radicalization- Recent reports about a group of Indians joining the ISIS have raised concerns
about the possibility of an increasing number of young professionals joining global jihadist
groups. Second area of concern is the recent trend in India's domestic politics where radical
groups and ideologies are being propagated, causing greater polarization among communities
Political exclusion- Young people have been excluded from development programs and
activities in numerous ways. As an age cohort, youth are less likely to be involved in governance
and decision-making processes, as a result of economic, political, and procedural barriers that
prevent their participation. As the beneficiaries of services, youth are also likely to face
marginalization due to their membership in excluded demographic groups, including: women,
indigenous, disabled, LGBTQI, refugee, ethnic minority, migrant, and economically
impoverished. Often marginalized from local and national development gains, youth are
particularly vulnerable to economic shocks, social instability, and conflicts.
The World Programme of Action for Youth (WPAY), adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly in 1995, provides a policy framework and practical guidelines for national action and
international support to improve the situation of young people worldwide.
6.9. National Youth Policy
The vision of NYP-2014 is to empower youth to achieve their full potential, and through them
enable India to find its rightful place in the community of nations. For achieving this vision, the
Policy identifies five well-defined objectives and 11 priority areas and suggests policy
interventions in each priority area. The priority areas are education, skill development and
employment, entrepreneurship, health and healthy lifestyle, sports, promotion of social values,
community engagement, participation in politics and governance, youth engagement, inclusion
and social justice.
The focused approach on youth development and empowerment involving all stakeholders, as
envisaged in NYP-2014, would result in development of an educated and healthy young
population, who are not only economically productive, but are also socially responsible citizens
contributing to the task of nation-building.
It will cover the entire country catering the needs of all youth in the age-group of 15-29 years,
which constitutes 27.5 per cent of the population according to Census-2011, that is about 33
crore persons. It will replace NYP-2003, to take care of developments since 2003 and future
policy imperatives.
The NYP-2014 proposes broad policy interventions for the youth consistent with the 12thPlan
priorities and does not propose any specific programme/ scheme, having financial implications.
All concerned Ministries/ Department would be requested to bring focus on youth issues within
the framework of their plans/ programmes/ schemes etc.

Student Notes:

Student Notes:
7. The population pyramid (The age-sex pyramid)

The age-sex structure of a population refers to the number of females and males in different
age groups. A population pyramid is used to
show the age-sex structure of the population.
The shape of the population pyramid reflects
the characteristics of the population. The left
side shows the percentage of males while the
right side shows the percentage of women in
each age group. The following three diagrams
show different types of Population Pyramids.
7.1. Expanding Population
The age-sex pyramid in such a case is a
triangular shaped pyramid with a wide base
and is typical of less developed countries.
These have larger populations in lower age
groups due to high birth rates.
7.2. Constant Population
Here, the age-sex pyramid is bell shaped and
tapered towards the top. This shows birth
and death rates are almost equal leading to a
near constant population.
7.3. Declining Population
This pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered
top showing low birth and death rates. The
population growth in developed countries is
usually zero or negative.
Population pyramid of India through years

Student Notes:
These pyramids show the effect of a gradual fall in the birth rate and rise in the life expectancy.
As more and more people begin to live in an older age, the top of the pyramid grows wider. As
relatively fewer new births take place, the bottom of the pyramid grows narrower. But the birth
rate is slow to fall, so the bottom doesn’t change much between 1961 and 1981. The middle of
the pyramid grows wider and wider as its share of the total population increases. This creates a
‘bulge’ in the middle age groups that is clearly visible in the pyramid for 2026. This is what is
referred to as the ‘demographic dividend’.
7.4. Regional variations in age-structure pyramid
As with fertility rates, there are wide regional
variations in the age structure as well. While
a state like Kerala is beginning to acquire an
age structure like that of the developed
countries, Uttar Pradesh presents a very
different picture with high proportions in the
younger age groups and relatively low
proportions among the aged. India as a whole
is somewhere in the middle, because it
includes states like Uttar Pradesh as well as
states that are more like Kerala.
The following diagram shows the estimated
population pyramids for Uttar Pradesh and
Kerala in the year 2026. Note the difference
in the location of the widest parts of the
pyramid for Kerala and Uttar Pradesh. The
bias towards younger age groups in the age
structure is believed to be an advantage for
India. Like the East Asian economies in the
past decade and like Ireland today, India is
supposed to be benefitting from a
‘demographic dividend’. This dividend arises
from the fact that the current generation of
working-age people is a relatively large one,
and it has only a relatively small preceding generation of old people to support. But there is
nothing automatic about this advantage – it needs to be consciously exploited through
appropriate policies.

Student Notes:
8. Population Issues
8.1. Population Problems of Underdeveloped Countries
There are underdeveloped countries where the level of technological development inhibits
agricultural efficiency and the establishment of industry even though the resources exist in the
country. Such countries have additional problems if they are overpopulated like China or India.
In these countries the modern industrial economy has been grafted on to a traditional
agricultural and the two have not been properly balanced. Another group of countries which
are underdeveloped are those which lack population, although they sometimes have advanced
societies and command modern technological methods. These countries, such as Brazil,
Colombia, Peru, Zaire or Russia have tremendous resources which cannot be fully because of
lack of population. Their problems are often accentuated by adverse climatic conditions.
8.1.1. Problems of Over-population
• Rapid population growth: Large populations increase rapidly especially in the absence of
family planning practices. This leads to a large population of young people who are
dependent on relatively small section of working population. At the same time the large
number of young people put extra strain on social services.
• Unemployment: In many underdeveloped countries industry is not well established and
there are few employment opportunities for unskilled workers. Unemployment is therefore
high. On the other hand there is a shortage of skilled workers because there are few
facilities for training. In overpopulated rural areas unemployment or underemployment is
also a major problem; people migrate to towns where it is often even more difficult to find
work. Moreover, the towns become overcrowded, making living conditions poor.
• Poor standards of living: Standards of health and hygiene and housing are low which leads
to health problems and malnutrition and the spread of diseases. Ignorance of people and
lack of financial resources further add to the problem.
• Under-utilization of Agricultural resources: Traditional methods of agriculture, outdated or
inadequate equipments. Lack of financial resources for improving farms, nonuse or misuse
of marginal agricultural land, such as highlands, may all help to keep agricultural production
much lower than its potential. Difficulties of rationalizing farming techniques and reforming
land tenure to give larger, more economic farms are aggravated by lack of capita and by
traditional attitudes of farmers who are often slow to adopt new ideas.
• Slow growth of industry: Apart from lack of capital which makes the actual exploitation of
resources difficult, the population factors are important. The labour force though large in
number is unskilled and has no background of industrial employment. Similarly, though a
large population should provide a good market for the finished goods, the majority of
people are poor and cannot afford to buy the products. To produce good cheaply for a small
market mechanized manufacture is most economical but this employs very few workers and
does not help the unemployment situation.
• Traditional attitudes militating against change: Traditional or religious attitudes may
militate against change or may make conditions worse. Birth-control is forbidden by
Catholic Church, for instance, and caste restrictions on occupations in India also help to
slow down development. Less important is the conservatism of rural people regarding
farming methods and the introduction of new crops (e.g. genetically modified crops). The
latter attitude can be modified by education but it is often hard to modify the religious
attitudes.

Student Notes:
8.1.2. Problems of Under-Population

• Uneven Distribution of Population: Average population densities for under populated
countries are low. Small populations increase slowly, even though birth rates are often high.
Immigration is an important source of people but it is usually to the towns and cities rather
that rural areas/countryside. At the same time cities with their better living conditions
attract people from the already sparsely settled countryside. Imbalance between town and
country is a major problem of under populated countries.
• Remoteness: It is difficult to increase settlement in sparsely populated areas because
people are unwilling to forego the amenities of the town. Where there are few people it is
uneconomic to provide elaborate communications, health, education or other facilities.
This in turn increases the unwillingness of people to settle in such areas.
• Under Utilization of resources: Lack of population makes it difficult for a country to
develop its resources to the full. Minerals will usually be extracted, especially precious
metals and petroleum, because the desire for wealth will overcome other considerations.
Agricultural resources are more difficult to develop because they require more and harder
work over a long period of years before they show a good return.
• Slow growth of Industry: This is due to shortage of labour, especially skilled labour in under
populated countries, e.g. in the South American and African countries. Imported skilled
labour raises the cost of industrial development. Moreover the small population does not
provide an adequate market even where the standard of living is high.
• Climatic Problems: Hostile climate or relief conditions make settlement difficult. Such
conditions obstruct development and are likely never to be fully overcome.
In under populated countries needs to be increased but this will only work if immigrants
possess the right skills and are prepared to live in sparsely populated areas. In the 19th century,
when the USA was settled people were prepared to develop the land because many of them
were landless peasants, but immigrants to under populated countries today generally prefer
town life. To open up under populated areas is both difficult and expensive and require huge
capital investments.
8.2. Population Problems of Advanced Countries
• Ageing Population: Due to low birth rate the proportion of young people in the population
is relatively small. Low death rate and high life expectancy mean that there is an ever-
increasing proportion of older people in the population. Many retire from active work in
their sixties and then become dependent on the working population. Provisions of pension
and other facilities, e.g. health services for elderly people pose financial challenges.
• Small Work force: As educational standards improve children remain longer at school and
join the workforce later. This, combined with the low birth rate, means that the labour force
expands only slowly while industrial and other employment opportunities continue to
multiply. Despite a high degree of mechanization in most industries many countries are
short of workers. Another problem is that the workforce is generally well educated and
skilled and there is a shortage of unskilled workers. Because the majority of workers are
skilled and the work force is relatively small wages are high.
• Rural Depopulation: Steady movement of population occurs from countryside to towns due
to the pull factors of city life. The fewer people in the countryside make it less economical
to provide services or do business. This creates disparity between towns and countryside.
• Urbanization: As towns expand, the pressure on transport, water supplies, sewage and
refuse disposal grows and creates problems. Smoke and chemical effluents from factories
produce air and water pollution. Traffic congestion and noise are other problems. A tension
created by urban life leads to far higher incidence of mental illness than in underdeveloped

Student Notes:
countries. Urban sprawl is another problem; the expanding towns engulf land which would
otherwise be suitable for agriculture and thus reduce self-sufficiency in many countries.
Most advanced countries have areas where agriculture or industry could be improved or where
the population is too large. Similarly the underdeveloped countries all have large towns where
the problems are similar to those of urbanized societies everywhere. It is also important to bear
in mind the differences between under developed countries. Some have a much better
resource base or a smaller population, and these, such as Argentina, Mexico and Malaysia, are
much more likely to be able to overcome their problem than countries with few resources and a
large population with fixed traditional ideas.
Factors that affect population growth
The overarching factor that affects population growth is low socio-economic development.
(Link literacy and population rates- TFR)
• For example, Uttar Pradesh has a literacy rate of 56%; only 14% of the women receive
complete antenatal care. Uttar Pradesh records an average of four children per couple.
• In contrast, in Kerala almost every person is literate and almost every woman receives
antenatal care. Kerala records an average of two children per couple.
Other factors
• Infant mortality
o In 1961, the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), deaths of infants per 1000 live births, was 115.
The current all India average is much lower at 57. However, in most developed
countries this figure is less than 5.
o IMR is the lowest at 15 in Kerala and the highest at 73 in Uttar Pradesh. Empirical
correlations suggest that high IMR leads to greater desire for children.

Student Notes:
• Early marriage
o Nationwide almost 43% of married women aged 20-24 were married before the age of
18. This figure is as high as 68% in Bihar. Not only does early marriage increase the
likelihood of more children, it also puts the woman’s health at risk.
• Level of education
o Fertility rate usually declines with increase in education levels of women.
• Use of contraceptives
o Temporary vs Permanent- According to NFHS III (2005-06), only 56% of currently
married women use some method of family planning in India. A majority of them (37%)
have adopted permanent methods like sterilization.
• Other socio-economic factors
o The desire for larger families particularly preference for a male child also leads to
higher birth rates. It is estimated that preference for a male child and high infant
mortality together account for 20% of the total births in the country.
8.3. Declining sex ratio in India
The sex ratio is an important indicator of gender balance in the population.
SEX RATIO TRENDS IN INDIA

The Sex Ratio in the country has shown an improvement. As per the Census, sex ratio has
increased from 933 females per thousand males in 2001 to 943 females per thousand males in
2011. State/UT-wise details of sex ratio are annexed.
As per the Census, 2011 the child sex ratio (0-6 years) has shown a decline from 927 females
per thousand males in 2001 to 919 females per thousand males in 2011.
Some of the reasons for neglect of girl child and low child sex ratio are son preference and the
belief that it is only the son who can perform the last rites, that lineage and inheritance runs
through the male line, sons will look after parents in old age, men are the bread winners etc.
Exorbitant dowry demand is another reason for female foeticide/infanticide. Small family norm
coupled with easy availability of sex determination tests may be a catalyst in the declining child
sex ratio, further facilitated by easy availability of Pre-conception sex selection facilities.
Refer Table T5 and T6.
Several factors may be held responsible for the decline in the child sex ratio including – severe
neglect of girl babies in infancy, leading to higher death rates; sex specific abortions that
prevent girl babies from being born; and female infanticide (or the killing of girl babies due to
religious or cultural beliefs). Each of these reasons point to a serious social problem, and there
is some evidence that all of these have been at work in India. Practices of female infanticide
have been known to exist in many regions, while increasing importance is being attached to
modern medical techniques by which the sex of the baby can be determined in the very early
stages of pregnancy. The availability of the sonogram (an x-ray like diagnostic device based on
ultra-sound technology), originally developed to identify genetic or other disorders in the fetus,
may be used to identify and selectively abort female foetus.
The regional pattern of low child sex ratios seems to support this argument. It is striking that
the lowest child sex ratios are found in the most prosperous regions of India. Punjab, Haryana,
Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat and Maharashtra are among the richest states of India in terms of
per capita incomes, and they are also the states with the lowest child sex ratios. So the problem
of selective abortions is not due to poverty or ignorance or lack of resources. For example, if
practices like dowry mean that parents have to make large dowry payments to marry off their
daughters, then prosperous parents would be the ones most able to afford this.

Student Notes:
However, strikingly the sex ratio is lowest in the most prosperous regions. It is also possible
(though this issue is still being researched) that as economically prosperous families decide to
have fewer children – often only one or two now – they may also wish to choose the sex of
their child. This becomes possible with the availability of ultra-sound technology, although the
government has passed strict laws banning this practice and imposing heavy fines and
imprisonment as punishment. Known as the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and
Prevention of Misuse) Act, this law has been in force since 1996, and has been further
strengthened in 2003. However, in the long run the solution to problems like the bias against
girl child depends more on how social attitudes evolve, besides laws and rules.
9. Population Policies in India

Population dynamics affects the developmental prospects of a nation as well as the health and
well-being of its people. This is particularly true of developing countries that have to face
special challenges in this regard.
Do you know that discussions on population growth and the need to adopt a population policy
had begun in India even before Independence? A Sub-Committee on population was set up by
the National Planning Committee appointed in 1938 by the Interim Government. This
Committee, in its resolution in 1940 said, “in the interest of social economy, family happiness
and national planning, family planning and a limitation of children are essential”.
In fact, India was perhaps the first country to explicitly announce such a policy in 1952. The
aim of the programme was to reduce birth rates “to stabilize the population at a level
consistent with the requirement of national economy”.
The population policy took the concrete form of the National Family Planning Programme. The
broad objectives of this programme have remained the same – to try to influence the rate and
pattern of population growth in socially desirable directions. In the early days, the most
important objective was to slow down the rate of population growth through the promotion of
various birth control methods, improve public health standards, and increase public awareness
about population and health issues.
The Family Planning Programme suffered a setback during the years of the National Emergency
(1975-76). Normal parliamentary and legal procedures were suspended during this time and
special laws and ordinances issued directly by the government (without being passed by
Parliament) were in force. During this time the government tried to intensify the effort to bring
down the growth The Family Planning Programme suffered a setback during the years of the
National Emergency (1975-76). Normal parliamentary and legal procedures were suspended
during this time and special laws and ordinances issued directly by the government (without
being passed by Parliament) were in force.
During this time the government tried to intensify the effort to bring down the growth rate of
population by introducing a coercive programme of mass sterilization. Here sterilization refers
to medical procedures like vasectomy (for men) and tubectomy (for women) which prevent
conception and childbirth. Vast numbers of mostly poor and powerless people were forcibly
sterilized and there was massive pressure on lower level government officials (like school
teachers or office workers) to bring people for sterilization in the camps that were organized for
this purpose. There was widespread popular opposition to this programme, and the new
government elected after the Emergency abandoned it.
The National Family Planning Programme was renamed as the National Family Welfare
Programme after the Emergency, and coercive methods were no longer used. The programme
now has a broad-based set of socio-demographic objectives. A new set of guidelines were
formulated as part of the National Population Policy of the year 2000.

Student Notes:
9.1. National Population Policy 2000

The National Population Policy 2000 has made a qualitative departure in its approach to
population issues. It does
not directly lay emphasis
on population control. It
states that the objective
of economic and social
development is to
improve the quality of
lives that people lead, to
enhance their well-being,
and to provide the
opportunities and choices
to become productive
assets (resources) in the
society. Stabilizing
population is an essential
requirement for
promoting sustainable
development. The
immediate objective of
the NPP 2000 is to address
the unmet needs for
contraception, health care
infrastructure, and health
personnel, and to provide
integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health care. The medium term
objective is to bring the total fertility rate (TFR) to replacement levels by 2010 through vigorous
implementation of inter-sectoral operational strategies. The long term objective is to achieve a
stable population by 2045 with sustainable economic growth, social development, and
environmental protection.
Total Fertility Rate at Replacement Level: It is the total fertility rate at which newborn girls
would have an average of exactly one daughter over their lifetimes. In more familiar terms,
every woman has as many babies as needed to replace her. It results into zero population
growth.
Stable Population: A population where fertility and mortality are constant over a period of
time. This type of population will show an unvarying age distribution and will grow at a
constant rate. Where fertility and mortality are equal, the stable population is stationary.
The history of India’s National Family Welfare Programme teaches us that while the state can do
a lot to try and create the conditions for demographic change, most demographic variables
(especially those related to human fertility) are ultimately matters of economic, social and
cultural change.

Student Notes:
10. Appraisal of National Population Policy 2000

In pursuance of the National Population Policy-2000, Government has taken a number of
measures under Family Planning Programme and as a result, Population Growth Rate in India
has reduced substantially which is evident from the following:-
▪ The percentage decadal growth rate of the country has declined significantly from 21.5%
for the period 1991-2001 to 17.7% during 2001-2011.
▪ Total Fertility Rate (TFR) was 3.2 at the time when National Population Policy, 2000 was
adopted and the same has declined to 2.3 as per Sample registration Survey (SRS) 2013
conducted by the Registrar General of India.
In spite of the perceptible decline in Total Fertility Rate (TFR) from 3.6 in 1991 to 2.3 in 2013,
India is yet to achieve replacement level of 2.1. Twenty four states/UTs have already achieved
replacement level of TFR by 2013, while states like UP and Bihar with large population base still
have TFR of 3.1 and 3.4 respectively. The other states like Jharkhand (TFR 2.7), Rajasthan (TFR

Student Notes:
2.8), Madhya Pradesh (TFR 2.9), and Chhattisgarh (TFR 2.6) continue to have higher levels of
fertility and contribute to the growth of population.
11. NPP-2000: The Way Forward

NPP-2000 cannot be solely judged a success or failure on the basis of Fertility rates alone. Total
fertility rates ignore the larger mission of NPP-2000, namely the promise of high quality
reproductive healthcare. While southern states like Kerala and Andhra Pradesh are successfully
prioritizing proper implementation and women’s health, the vast majority of states continue to
compromise reproductive health with poor service.
The solution to poor implementation is clear: state governments and other administrators of
NPP-2000 need to prioritize reproductive health at every level of the family planning program.
To do so, the family planning program must expand. Large scale networks are a crucial piece of
this recommendation. By formalizing the relationships among Panchayats, NGOs, grassroots
organizations, and state officials, the family planning program will likely garner greater support
and transparency. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare should take steps to attract health
care workers and doctors to the family planning field. In addition, staff must be properly trained
and held accountable for their work. Competitive pay should be offered to family planning
professionals so as to maintain high quality services in the long-term.
Further, transportation limitations must be addressed in order to reach men and women of
disadvantaged populations (i.e. slum residents, tribal castes, and rural residents). Finally, men
must be included in discussions of family planning practice. Ample evidence suggests that
husbands make decisions related to family planning and healthcare, yet data from the most
recent Demographic and Health Survey (2005) reveal that men are less knowledgeable of
contraceptive methods than their female partners. Collaborative family planning decisions
made by men and women are likely to yield fertility outcomes which satisfy both partners.
Thus, administrators of the National Population Policy (2000) should take steps to educate men
about the benefits of family planning.
What families lack is education, information, and adequate access to contraceptives. If the
National Population Policy (2000) is to eliminate the unmet contraceptive needs of all Indians,
implementation of the family planning program must reflect an appreciation of family
preferences and high quality healthcare.
What else should a future population policy address?
Apart from achieving the basic demographic goals, a future population policy must also address
the skewed female and child sex ratio which is spreading from urban into rural areas.
Discriminatory social barriers like the absence of women’s ownership rights over land and
property are responsible for the continuing son preference.
Second important area that a future population policy must address relates to migration. The
Census 2011 has given the picture of interstate and intrastate migration triggered by
employment, business, education, marriage and other variables. Unplanned migration to the
metros and large cities puts pressure on the infrastructure, housing and water availability and
creates insider-outsider tension. If this is factored into the population policy, it would make for
more foresight and greater coordination, and avoid the inevitable outcome of mushrooming
slums and unplanned habitations.
Next comes the ageing factor. The growing population of the elderly and the increase in life
expectancy accompanied by chronic diseases has the potential to deflect resources from the
primary task of providing education and skill development. Dependency ratios are increasing
rapidly while the joint family system has disintegrated. The market of caregivers is today

Student Notes:
unregulated, expensive and undependable. The business opportunity to match the growing
needs of this population cohort after factoring in their growing disability needs to be a part of
the population policy.
A population policy that protects our demographic assets while preparing for difficult
challenges that lie ahead will protect future generations from catastrophic consequences.
11.1. Measures taken to control the population growth of India
On-going interventions
• More emphasis on Spacing methods like IUCD.
• Availability of Fixed Day Static Services at all facilities.
• Quality care in Family Planning services by establishing Quality Assurance Committees at
state and district levels.
• Improving contraceptives supply management up to peripheral facilities.
• Demand generation activities in the form of display of posters, billboards and other audio
and video materials in the various facilities.
• National Family Planning Indemnity Scheme’ (NFPIS) under which clients are insured in the
eventualities of deaths, complications and failures following sterilization and the providers/
accredited institutions are indemnified against litigations in those eventualities.
• Compensation scheme for sterilization acceptors - under the scheme MoHFW provides
compensation for loss of wages to the beneficiary and also to the service provider (& team)
for conducting sterilisations.
• Increasing male participation and promotion of Non Scalpel Vasectomy.
• Emphasis on Minlap Tubectomy services because of its logistical simplicity and
requirement of only MBBS doctors and not post graduate gynecologists/surgeons.
• Accreditation of more private/NGO facilities to increase the provider base for family
planning services under PPP.
New Interventions under Family Planning Programme
• Scheme for Home delivery of contraceptives by ASHAs at doorstep of beneficiaries: The
govt. has launched a scheme to utilize the services of ASHA to deliver contraceptives at the
doorstep of beneficiaries.
• Scheme for ASHAs to ensure spacing in births: Under this scheme, services of ASHAs to be
utilised for counselling newly married couples to ensure delay of 2 years in birth after
marriage and couples with 1 child to have spacing of 3 years after the birth of 1stchild.
• Boost to spacing methods by introduction of new method PPIUCD (Post-Partum Intra
Uterine Contraceptives Device.
• Introduction of the new device Cu IUCD 375, which is effective for 5 years.
• Emphasis on Postpartum Family Planning (PPFP) services with introduction of PPIUCD and
promotion of minilap as the main mode of providing sterilisation in the form of post-
partum sterilisation to capitalise on the huge cases coming in for institutional delivery
under JSY.
• Compensation for sterilisation acceptors has been enhanced for 11 High Focus States with
high TFR.
• Scheme for provision of pregnancy testing kits at the sub-centres as well as in the drug kit
of the ASHAs for use in the communities to facilitate the early detection and decision
making for the outcome of pregnancy.
• RMNCH Counselors (Reproductive Maternal New Born and Child Health) availability at the
high case facilities to ensure counseling of the clients visiting the facilities.
• FP 2020- Family Planning Division is working on the national and state wise action plans so
as to achieve FP 2020 goals. The key commitments of FP 2020 are as under :

Student Notes:
o Increasing financial commitment on Family Planning whereby India commits an

allocation of 2 billion USD from 2012 to 2020.
o Ensuring access to family planning services to 48 million (4.8 crore) additional women
by 2020 (40% of the total FP 2020 goal).
o Sustaining the coverage of 100 million (10 crore) women currently using contraceptives.
Reducing the unmet need by an improved access to voluntary family planning services, supplies
and information. In addition to above, Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh/National Population
Stabilization Fund has adopted the following strategies as a population control measure:-
• Prerna Strategy: JSK has launched this strategy for helping to push up the age of marriage
of girls and delay in first child and spacing in second child the birth of children in the
interest of health of young mothers and infants. The couple who adopt this strategy
awarded suitably. This helps to change the mindsets of the community.
• Santushti Strategy: Under this strategy, Jansankhya Sthirata Kosh, invites private sector
gynaecologists and vasectomy surgeons to conduct sterilization operations in Public Private
Partnership mode. The private hospitals/nursing home who achieved target to 10 or more
are suitably awarded as per strategy.
• National Helpline: JSK also running a call centers for providing free advice on reproductive
health, family planning, maternal health and child health etc.
• Advocacy & IEC activities: JSK as a part of its awareness and advocacy efforts on population
stabilization, has established networks and partnerships with other ministries, development
partners, private sectors, corporate and professional bodies for spreading its activities
through electronic media, print media, workshop, walkathon, and other multi-level
activities etc. at the national, state, district and block level.

Student Notes:
12. Appendix (Population Maps and tables)
Fig. - S1

Student Notes:
Fig. - S2
Fig. - S3

Student Notes:
Fig. - S4
Fig. - S5

Student Notes:
Fig S6
Trivia: Population Doubling Time: Population doubling time is the time taken by any population
to double itself at its current annual growth rate.
Fig. - S7 – Age Structure in India 2011

Student Notes:
Fig. – S8

Student Notes:
Fig. - S9

Student Notes:
Fig. - S 10
Fig. - S 11
Fig. S 12

Student Notes:
Fig. - S 13
Fig. - S 14 – Literacy Rate – India 2011

Student Notes:
Fig S 15

Student Notes:
Fig. S16
Table T1

Student Notes:
Table T2
Table T3

Student Notes:
Table T4
Table T5
Table T6 – Old Age Population Projection

Student Notes:
TABLE T6-CHILD SEX RATIO in DIFFERENT STATES

Student Notes:

Student Notes:
TABLE T7-ADULT SEX RATIO IN DIFERENT STATES

Student Notes:
TABLE T8: State/UT-wise usual status (adjusted), Workforce Participation

Rates (%) in the rural and urban areas in the country during 2011-12.

1. Census 2011 indicates that there is a stark north-south divide with respect to the
ongoing demographic shifts in India. Explain this phenomenon and discuss its policy
implications for both northern and southern states?
Approach:
• Explain the difference between demographic shift taking place in northern and
southern states. For instance as per recent data, one in every 3 children in 0-14 is
from UP or Bihar. On the other hands southern states have stabilized their
population long back and are now seeing a rapid rise in their old age population.
• Policy implications such as – northern states need to invest more on education, skill
building etc. While southern ones due to their ageing population should invest
more on healthcare, pensions, insurance.
Answer:
There is a significant north-south divide on demographic growth in India as seen in the

2011 census.
• The southern states are showing faster decline in the population growth rate as
compared to the northern states. For instance as per recent data, one in every 3
children in 0-14 is from UP or Bihar. On the other hands southern states have
stabilized their population long back and are now seeing a rapid rise in their old age
population.
• As a result of this, there is scarcity of unskilled labor in the south which is currently
filled in by migration from other parts of the country.
• India will have extremely different structure of population across states; while in
some states the population age structure will be adult concentrated and will move
to old age, other states will have still more concentration of child and young
population. This implies that the governments need entirely different policies to
tackle issues in these contexts.
• It means that northern states need to invest more on education, skill building etc.
While southern ones due to their ageing population should invest more on
healthcare, pensions, insurance.

Student Notes:
2. What is reproductive health? How does it differ from the existing family planning and
maternal and child health programmes?
Approach:
• The answer should clearly define the concept of reproductive health. It should
bring out the basic ideas, motivations and the approaches taken by the existing
family planning and maternal and child health programmes and contrast it with the
ideas driving a reproductive health programme.
Answer:
According to WHO, reproductive health implies that “people are able to have a
responsible, satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce
and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so”. Implicit in this are the
right of men and women to be informed of and to have access to safe, effective,
affordable and acceptable methods of fertility regulation of their choice, and the right
of access to appropriate health care services that will enable women to go safely
through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a
healthy infant.
Reproductive health interventions are most likely to include attention to the issues of
family planning, STD prevention and management and prevention of maternal and
perinatal mortality and morbidity. Reproductive health can also address issues such as
harmful practices, unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, reproductive tract infections
including sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS, gender-based violence, infertility,
malnutrition and anemia, and reproductive tract cancers.
In India, the Reproductive and Child Health Programme, was launched in 1997.Its aim
was to integrate services for the prevention and management of unwanted pregnancy,
the promotion of safe motherhood and child survival, and the prevention and
management of reproductive tract infections and sexually transmitted infections. The
programme aimed at expanding services to meet the needs of hitherto under-served
and neglected population groups, including adolescents, and economically and socially
disadvantaged groups, such as urban slum and tribal populations.
How this concept is different from existing family planning and maternal and child
health programmes:
• The objectives, design and evaluation of family planning programmes were largely
driven by a demographic imperative, without due consideration to related health
issues such as maternal health or STD prevention and management.
• In general, such programmes exclusively targeted women, taking little account of
the social, cultural and intimate realities of their reproductive lives and decision-
making powers.
• They tended to serve only married people, excluding, in particular, young people.
• Services were rarely designed to serve men even though they have reproductive
health concerns of their own, particularly with regard to sexually transmitted
diseases.
Hence, a reproductive health approach would differ from a narrow family planning
approach in several ways. It would aim to build upon what exists and at the same time
to modify current narrow, vertical programmes to ones in which every opportunity is
taken to offer women and men a full range of reproductive health services in a linked
way.

Student Notes:
3. Demographic Dividend, if not nurtured properly can become Demographic Disaster.

Explain in the context of India.
Approach:
• Focus should be on the initiative of Government to harness the huge demographic

dividend of the countries and the progress we made in this sphere till now.
• Also need some reference on the Ill-effects of Not Properly handling the vast
Demographic Dividend, which in absence of Skills and Employment, may result in
their disenchantment.
• Some facts regarding Demographic dividend.
Answer:
• Demographic dividend refers to a period, “when a greater proportion of population

are young and in working age group”.
• According to latest reports, 65% of India is under 35 year of age, 50% of India is
under 25 year of age. Average Age in India is 29 years, unlike other countries
including Japan with average age 47, China with 40+, Europe with 46, US with
average age of 40. Today India has Youthful, Productive and Dynamic population
ready to work and transform the world. According to ILO, by 2020, we will have 116
million people in the age group of 20-24 in comparison to China having only 94
million.
• A population bulge in the working age group is considered advantageous. Firstly
due to this bulge, the dependency ratio declines. Secondly, surplus available for
investment after the current consumption increases which results into spurring
economic growth.
• This situation just creates a potential for economic growth, it does not guarantee
it.It depends on two factors: firstly, on the quality of those entering the workforce
and secondly on the employment opportunities are available to them.
• Hence, if we educate and train these youth, we can transform not just our own
economy and society but the world.
• Moreover, youth is known for their idealism and energy and if their energy is not
properly harness by providing them skills and training, it may lead to youth unrest
and also pose security threat in the form of Maoist insurgency that include
unemployed, frustrated, under-educated youth in its cadre.
• Although, IT software, back-office services and research and development activities
are all booming. But none of these, however, has jobs for the underprivileged, the
undereducated and the under skilled.
• Jobs are the missing element in the Indian economy today and job-generation will
be the key to India sustaining its blistering growth rates. India will need to create
jobs in large-scale, labor-intensive manufacturing to stop these extremist
movements from turning into something even more serious.
• In order to get there, it will require the government to relax labor laws that
penalize large scale manufacturing and that force companies to use expensive
labor-substituting technology rather than the cheap manpower that India has in
abundance.
• It will, above all, require the government to create the fiscal space for massive
investment in human capital through health and education so that the productive
potential of India’s young workforce can be fully utilized.

Student Notes:
• It will also require a colossal investment in physical infrastructure, lifting

infrastructure spending as a share of GDP to 7-8 per cent from 4.6 per cent. If India
acts urgently, it may well be next global economic powerhouse, as everyone wants
to believe. If not, all bets are off.
4. What are the reasons behind National Population Policy failing to check population
growth in India?
Approach:
• Straight forward question. Write down few of the reasons.
• Conclude with few suggestions.
Answer:
• India was the first country to launch a national programme on population in 1952.
In fact India’s quest for population stabilization began in 1951 with the formulation
of the first five year plan. Yet more than 60 years goals remain elusive.
• In India, there has not been an effective institutionalized mechanism to reduce
birth rate. On the other hand, efforts to bring down the death rate have been quite
successful. Improvement in conditions of health and hygiene has lowered the death
rate. The family planning movement gains national importance in such a situation
of imbalance development and population growth.
• Hence, the government for the first time formulated a policy( effort to regulate
economic and social conditions which are likely to have demographic
consequences) in 1976, with an aim to decrease birth rate, legalize abortion, check
the concentration of population, giving incentives and disincentives. But it
boomeranged because of its coerciveness, overzealous attitude and compulsory
sterilization.
• Further, the government with a revived approach to fight the menace of population
growth introduced the national population policy in 2000. It aimed at achieving
the objective of stable population by 2045, at a level consistent with the
requirement of sustainable economic growth, social development and
environmental protection. Its objective was to address the needs for contraception,
healthcare, infrastructure and health personnel and to provide integrated service
delivery for basic reproductive and child health care. The policy had set goals for
2010 with respect to IMR, MMR, TFR, institutional deliveries etc. but it failed to
achieve these targets.
• The reasons for the failure were lack of political will, lack of responsive policy, lack
of awareness, cultural inertia etc. hence government came up with the revised
population policy in 2010.
• The aim of the national policy was to impress upon the people the need for small,
planned families for their own good as well as for the wellbeing of their children.
The 20 point programme envisages family planning on voluntary basis as a people’s
movement. What is needed to inculcate awareness among the people through the
media and oral communication about the significance of the small family norm.
Female literacy and education can play a decisive role in bringing down the rate of
population growth.
• The following suggestions have been put forward to curb population growth:
o Group acceptance of small sized family.

Student Notes:
o Personal knowledge about family planning methods.

o Ready availability of birth control devices and services.
• Hence, the crux of the population policy is the reduction of the national birth rate;
irrespective of social, cultural and economic milieu. Coercing people to adopt family
planning methods has not worked. Volition alone, created through awakening, can
be an effective measure.
5. How does economic development influence the demography of a society? Discuss in

the context of India.
Approach:
Basic theme of the question is relationship between economic development and
demographic changes. Answer can be approached in following ways:
• Explain briefly the general trend in demography with respect to economic growth in
India.
• Discuss in detail what demographic changes brought about by economic growth in
Indian society e.g. decreasing fertility rate, sex ratio etc.
Answer:
Economic development and demographic changes are intimately related with each
other. High level of economic development led to decline in fertility rate, population
growth, mortality rate and rise in life expectancy and literacy rate. Similarly, India have
experienced fundamental changes in population growth rate, fertility rate, life
expectancy and age structure in the process of economic development over the years.
Following are the nature of these changes:
• High level of economic growth (6-8 %) in last two decades favouring particular
regions have led to increasing concentration of population in urban areas. The ratio
of urban population have consistently rose to 31 percent in 2011 giving rise to
increased population density in urban areas.
• There is a steep decline in overall population growth rate from 24.5% in 1981 to
17.6% in 2011. This decline corresponds with increasing level of economic growth
and rise of service sector.
• The growing literacy rate from 54% in 1991 to 74% in 2011 can be attributed to
increasing economic development as demand for skill force and opportunities for
employment increases.
• Slow economic growth in rural economy in recent decades have led to large scale
migration leading to change in demographic structure of urban and rural areas.
• With the increasing level of economic development and growth of health services,
changing food pattern, the life expectancy of population is continuously increasing
in India.
• India is witnessing rise in proportion of working age population (15-64) called as
demographic dividend which is considered both the result of economic condition
of society and have implications for economic development.
• The participation of workers in labour market have increased over the years with
the growth of new sectors of the economy like in service sector.

Student Notes:
6. The uneven spatial distribution of population in India suggests its close relationship
with physical, social and historical factors. Elaborate.
Approach:
• Briefly discuss about the uneven spatial distribution of population in India.
• Discuss how it is closely related with physical, social and historical factors.
Answer:
• The spatial spread of population in India is not uniform. The uneven density of
population in India is clear from the fact that in Arunachal Pradesh the average
number of population is only 17 persons per km2, whereas it is 11,297 persons per
km2 in Delhi as per 2011 census.
Figure: Population density, 2011

Student Notes:
• There is a very wide regional variation in population distribution of India. An

uneven spatial distribution of population in India suggests a close relationship
between population and physical, socio- economic and historical factors.
• Physical factors
o As far as the physical factors are concerned, it is clear that climate along with
terrain and availability of water largely determines the pattern of the
population distribution.
o Like the North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of
population than the interior districts of southern and central Indian States,
Himalayas, some of the North-Eastern and the western states.
o However, development of irrigation (Rajasthan), availability of mineral and
energy resources (Jharkhand) and development of transport network
(Peninsular States) have resulted in moderate to high concentration of
population in areas which were previously very thinly populated.
• Socio-economic and historical factors
o Among the socio-economic and historical factors of distribution of population,
important ones are evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural
development; pattern of human settlement; development of transport
network, industrialisation and urbanisation.
o It is observed that the regions falling in the river plains and coastal areas of
India have remained the regions of larger population concentration. Even
though the uses of natural resources like land and water in these regions have
shown the sign of degradation, the concentration of population remains high
because of an early history of human settlement and development of transport
network.
o On the other hand, the urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore,
Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and Jaipur have high concentration of population
due to industrial development and urbanisation drawing a large numbers of
rural-urban migrants.
We can conclude that in any region the density and distribution is influenced by
more than one factor. Take for example of North-Eastern region of India. Here
several factors are responsible for low density of population. These factors are high
rainfall, rough terrain, dense forests and poor quality of soil and many socio-
economic and historical factors.
7. India was one of the first countries to explicitly announce an official population policy
in 1952. Critically analyse various aspects of the population policy of the country over
the years.
Approach:
• Introduction to the answer should breifly define population policy. Also, briefly
contextualize evolution of the population policy beginning with the National Family
Planning Programme in 1952.
• Provide the features of the population policy as it has evolved over the years in
terms of different approaches adopted and important policy documents such as the
National Population policy 2000. Critical analysis could be presented through the
achievements and failures of the policies over the year.
• Conclude on a positive note acknowledging the progress made as well as the
ingoing efforts.

Student Notes:
Answer:
A population policy is one which seeks to influence various demographic variables, such
as rate and pattern of growth, birth rate, mortality rate and more. Population was
identified as a strategic component of the development plan in independent India. This
led to the introduction of National Family Planning Programme in 1952 which was
mainly aimed at controlling the rate of growth of population through the means of birth
control methods.
• During the National Emergency, efforts to control population intensified.
Unfortunately, coercive methods, such as forcible mass sterilization, were used
which caused resentment amongst the people towards the population policy.
• Subsequently the programme was renamed as National Family Welfare Program,
wherein the focus shifted to controlling population through welfare of the people.
The coercive methods to control population were dropped and broad-based socio-
demographic objectives were adopted instead.
• A new Set of guidelines were formulated as part of the National Population Policy,
2000. It set forth targets to be achieved by 2010, which were holistic in nature,
covering wide areas which impacted public health and pattern of population
change.
• The overall performance has been less than satisfactory, both in terms of
implementation and achieving targets. The focus areas, initially, were too narrow,
such as population control by contraception and sterilization. Rather, the focus
should have been on socio-economic factors which cause high rate of population
growth. The targets of NPP, 2000 remain unachieved even in 2015.
• That being said, there have been many significant achievements in the fifty years
since the formation of the first policy. There have been reductions in the Crude
Birth Rate, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and a vast improvement in the life
expectancy. The population has stabilized as the Total Fertility Rate reduced to
below 3, but it has taken too long to achieve.
Over the decades, the population policy has undergone transformation in terms of
policy and actual programme implementation and currently being repositioned to not
only achieve population stabilization goals but also promote reproductive health and
reduce maternal, infant & child mortality and morbidity.
Recent steps such as National Rural Health Mission, will certainly improve our
performance in achieving the targets. India should take inspiration from neighbors like
Sri Lanka with better record on population parameters.

1. Review the population policy of the Govt. of India giving the distinguishing features. (2001)
2. Outline the main targets fixed in the National Population Policy 2000. What have been the
follow up measures to this policy? (2002)
3. Define Sex ratio in the population of India. What is its present status ? (2002)
4. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the
mains cause of population increase in India. (2013)


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
REGIONALISM


Student Notes:
1. Region
The term region is difficult to define. It is understood in different ways in different contexts.
However, it has been generally defined as “a homogeneous area with physical and cultural
characteristics distinct from those of neighboring areas”.
A region is a relative term, the meaning of which changes with its usage. When we talk of a
region, what we generally imply is that it is socio-culturally distinct and that it is sufficiently
unified to have a consciousness of its customs, traditions, values and ideals. Because of this
consciousness the people of the region possess a sense of identity distinct from the rest of the
regions be it a nation or a continent or the earth itself.
A region is characterized by a widely shared sense of togetherness among the people. This
togetherness results from a wide variety of sources like geography, topography, religion,
language, customs and mores, political and economic stage of development, way of living,
commonly shared historical experiences, etc.
Region provides the basis for the emergence of regional identity. It results in loyalty towards
the region and ultimately takes the shape and form of regionalism. It gives way to regional
politics.
The politics of regionalism in India has both positive and negative aspects. Speaking in positive
terms, it implies an intense desire for concretizing an identity based on such interest as ethnic,
language, religion, etc. For example, the erstwhile Jharkhand movement which covered wide
regions of Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh, had come together as a unified
group to protect and promote their socio-economic and political interests. This process involves
reaffirming their identity as tribal groups. The movement finally succeeded in forcing the
government in reorganizing the states and the formation of Jharkhand State came about on 15 th
November 2000 as the 28th State of the Indian Union. It has been carved out of the State of
Bihar and it largely comprises forest tracks of Chhotanagpur plateau and Santhal Paragana.
The negative aspects of regionalism is that it can threaten nation-building efforts such as, the
demand for Khalistan in Punjab which is giving rise to terrorism and violence within and outside
Punjab. The positive aspect has been ignored by most of the analysts of Indian political
situation. This phenomenon reflects the psychology of relative deprivation on the part of
people of an area. They point out that deprivation is deliberately inflicted on them by those in
power, particularly when socio-economic programmes have resulted in wide economic
disparities among various regions. This has led to discontentment and agitation among the
backward or not so developed regions of the country.
The concept of region is therefore, closely linked with the concept of regionalism. Now let us
see what regionalism means.
Regionalism: Regionalism can be defined as a phenomenon in which people’s political loyalties
become focused upon a region. In other words, it implies people’s love of a particular region in
preference to the country and in certain cases in preference to the state of which the region is a
part. Thus the phenomenon of regionalism is centered around the concept of region.
Regionalism in India is rooted in India’s diversity of languages, cultures, tribes, and religions. It is
also encouraged by the geographical concentration of these identity markers in particular
regions, and fuelled by a sense of regional deprivation. Indian federalism has been a means of
accommodating these regional sentiments.

Student Notes:
1.1. Characteristics of regionalism

• Regionalism is conditioned by economic, social, political and cultural disparities.
• Regionalism at times is a psychic phenomenon.
• Regionalism is built around as an expression of group identity as well as loyalty to the
region.
• Regionalism presupposes the concept of development of one's own region without taking
into consideration the interest of other regions.
• Regionalism prohibits people from other regions to be benefited by a particular region.
1.2. Regionalism in Indian Politics

Regionalism is a pre-independence phenomenon. It became predominant in post-
independence period. The politics of regionalism started with the implementation of
constitutional reforms under Government of India Acts of 1909, 1919, and 1935. The
establishment and role of Justice Party in Chennai, and to a lesser extent, of Akali Dal in Punjab
in pre-independence period are examples of emerging regionalism in India.
After independence there are four major landmarks in the development of regional politics.
• After independence, democratic form of government was established. Its main aim was
nation-building on the principles of democracy, secularism national unity and social justice.
All parts of the country wanted a fair deal in nation-building. They started competing with
each other for their development. Anything short of expectation led to disenchantment and
it resulted in the emergence of regional politics.
• There was integration of the Princely States. Small states were integrated with the big
states. People continued to nurse loyalties to old territorial units. This was the most
important factor for the success of Princes in elections. The Princes often received
overwhelming support in their former territories in the newly created states and relatively
much less in other parts of the same state.
• Reorganization of states on linguistic basis also played a very vital role in the development
of regional politics. Twenty eight states were reshaped and reduced to 14 states along with
centrally administered territories. Later new states were created, then for example Bombay
was divided into Gujarat and Maharashtra, Punjab into, Punjab and Haryana. But these
states were not constituted entirely on linguistic basis. Many other factors like ethnic-cum-
economic considerations gave us Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura, Jharkhand,
Haryana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh. Language-cum-culture factors created Maharashtra,
Gujarat and Uttaranchal; historical and political factors are responsible for U.P. and Bihar;
integration of princely states in and need for viable groupings gave birth to M.P. and
Rajasthan; language and social distinctiveness resulted in the creation of Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Mysore, Bengal and Orissa. Thus various factors have played a decisive role in the
composition of the Indian federation.
In spite of all these considerations, language remained the most important factor in the
reorganization of states. It became such an important force in the context of regionalism
that linguistic regionalism gained ground in Indian politics.
• Another factor which gave rise to regional and parochial tendencies in the country was the
personal and selfish ends of politicians. Immediately, after Independence the struggle for
power started among some parties. For enhancing their own authority and prestige, the
regional and state leaders did not hesitate to weaken the authority of the center or in some

Student Notes:
cases of states. The creation of more states meant more governors, chief ministers,
Members of Legislative Assembly or MLAs etc. The professional politicians explored the
narrow and sectarian sentiments of ignorant masses for fulfilling their personal and selfish
ends.
Keeping these landmarks in mind, can you now identify the bases of regionalism in India?
1.3. Bases of Regionalism

Regionalism is a multidimensional phenomenon. Its bases are varied. Here we will discuss the
geographical, historical, cultural, economic and politico-administrative bases of regionalism.
• Geographical Bases: Usually people relate their regional identity to certain specific
geographical boundaries. After independence integration of Princely States resulted in the
merger of small states into new big states. The loyalties of citizens were torn between old
territorial boundaries and new territorial structures. As pointed out earlier this was the
major factor responsible for the success of princes in elections particularly when they
contested from their former territories in the newly created states. However, it would be
wrong to over-estimate the importance of geographical boundaries. It is true that
memories of old geographical boundaries of princely states still haunt the people and are
exploited by political leaders but it can hardly be denied that they are yielding place to new
and bigger territorial identities like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
• Historical and Social Bases: Historical and social bases constitute the bedrock of the politics
of regionalism. Several components in this category are not only important individually but
also in conjunction with each other.
o History: It supported regionalism with cultural heritage, folklore, myths and symbolism.
The most striking example is that of Dravida Kazhagam (DK) and the Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra and Telugu Desham (TDP)
in Andhra Pradesh. But history cannot be considered as the most important basis of
regionalism. Economic and political factors have combined with history to generate
regionalism. This can again be seen in the change in the stand of DMK from secession
to one of autonomy within the federal framework of the Constitution.
o Language: Language is perhaps the most important mark of group identification.

Language expresses the shared life, thought structure and value patterns of people. It
has the capacity to unite the people together and make them work to improve their
common destiny. In this sense linguistic homogeneity strengthens a positive movement.
As early as 1920, Congress had accepted the principle that language must be adopted
as criterion for demarcating the territorial boundaries of provincial units. Establishment
of State Reorganization Commission (SRC) in 1955 was the result of demand for
formation of regional units based on linguistic regionalism. SRC could not completely
follow the principle of one language one state. This could not be treated as the sole
criteria for the demarcation of state boundaries. Bilingual states like Bombay, Punjab,
etc. were created. However, splitting up of Bombay in 1960, Punjab in 1966, and Assam
since mid-sixties into linguistically more homogeneous states gave further impetus to
linguistic regionalism in Indian politics.
If language had been synonymous with region, the political aspiration of every linguistic
group would have been satisfied by the formation of separate states. This, however, is
neither a reality nor a foreseeable possibility. The first reason being that languages

Student Notes:
spoken in India run into hundreds. Even if major languages are taken into account, large
groups of linguistic minorities are bound to be left inside the state whose language
cannot be enshrined in the constitution as an official language.
Secondly, Hindi speaking people are distributed over a very large territory. Their
number is over 300 million at the beginning of twenty first century. One state cannot be
created for them. They have been divided into six states namely, U.P, Bihar, M.P.,
Rajasthan, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh and a couple of Union territories. There has
rarely been a demand for the formation of single state of Hindi speaking people. On the
contrary there have been demands for separate states comprising languages or dialects
within this wider linguistic group. This can be found in the occasional demand for a
Maithili or for recognition of Rajasthani, Haryanvi, etc. as scheduled languages in the
Constitution.
Thus regionalism is closely associated with language but is not synonymous with
linguism. Regionalism can take place inside a linguistic state (for example creation of
Marathi speaking Maharashtra). The seven states of North East India refer to
themselves as seven sisters. They have tried to form common bonds on the basis of
their problems of development. They have also tried to develop a regional identity.
These seven states include Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland and Tripura. In other words, language is not the sole generator of regionalism.
It is one of the several bases of regionalism in India. In most cases of linguistic
regionalism many interrelated factors are usually found to be working together.
o Caste: An important example of the caste factor providing impetus to linguistic

regionalism can be seen in the case of Tamil Nadu. Tamil regionalism gained ground as a
result of non-Brahmin movement. Non-Brahmin castes of Tamil speaking region had
been able to provide a powerful united thrust against Brahmins who had earlier
enjoyed unquestioned dominance in economy, society and polity.
o Religion: Religion like caste does not play a significant role except when it is combined
with dominance and linguistic homogeneity as in Punjab or fed on a sense of religious
orthodoxy and economic deprivation as in Jammu and Kashmir.
If casteism reinforced and propelled linguistic regionalism in cases of Tamil Nadu, the
demand for the formation of Punjabi Suba though presented in linguistic garb had
religious overtones. They were mainly responsible for evoking people’s political
loyalties on massive scale rather than their love for their mother tongue. It is difficult to
qualify the mix of communalism and linguism in this particular case. But some studies
make it very clear that demand for Punjabi language state was certainly reinforced by
regular invocation of Punjabi speaking masses’ loyalty towards Sikh religion.
Taking into account these three factors i.e. language, caste and religion one can say that
the study of regionalism in Punjab and Tamil Nadu makes it very clear that political
movements for regional demands were carried out formally in the name of language
but in reality they had substantive non-linguistic bases too.
• Economic Bases: Economic factor is the crux of regional politics. India is a developing
country. The resources are limited while the demand for resources for the development of
various regions is unlimited or disproportionate to resources. Economic policies have led to
regional imbalances and wide economic disparities among various regions resulting in
discontentment among them. It may be recalled that most of the demands for constituting

Student Notes:
new states were primarily based on allegedly unfair and unequal distribution of
development benefits and expenditure in multi-lingual states. The erstwhile movements for
a separate Uttarkhand state in the hill districts of U.P., a Jharkhand state carved out of parts
of Bihar and the demand for a state of Bodoland comprising a part of Assam may be
counted as examples of this type. The demand for separate states in these instances are
mainly on the belief that these regions have been economically deprived by their respective
states. Economic factors have usually assumed prime importance in regional politics.
• Politico-Administrative Bases: The politico-administrative basis of regionalism is also

important but politics as such does not create regionalism. It only accentuates regionalism.
Politicians take advantage of the situation of regional discontentment and unrest. They
convert it into movements for strengthening their individual and factional support bases. It
is a known fact that fighting within Congress gave rise to Telangana agitation. Regional
political parties like TDP (Andhra Pradesh), DMK (Tamil Nadu), Akali Dal (Punjab) have been
surviving because of regional sentiments. Border dispute, like the one between
Maharashtra and Karnataka, is also based on regional sentiments. Other important facts of
politics of regionalism are the real or assumed charges of political discrimination among
various regions by the central ruling elite.
1.4. Forms of Regionalism

• Demand for State Autonomy: The first and the most challenging form of regional politics
was in the demand of people in certain states or regions to secede from the Indian Union
and become independent sovereign states. Such demands occurred soon after
independence but they are mostly non-existent now. The important examples in this
context are that of the Plebiscite Front (Kashmir), Mizo National Front (Lushei Hills of
Assam), Nagaland Socialist Conference (Naga Hills District of Assam) etc.
• Supra-state Regionalism: This implies that more than one state is involved in the issue of
regionalism. It is an expression of group identity of some states. They take a common stand
on the issues of mutual interest vis-a-vis another group of states. The group identity is
usually in relation to certain specific issues. It does not in any way imply the total and
permanent merger of identity of the states into the identity of group. Rivalries, tensions
and even conflicts do take place among a few states belonging to a group.
For example, the rivalry existing between south and north India on such issues as language
or location of steel plants illustrates the point. The grouping of the North Eastern States for
greater access to economic development is another instance. Let us refer to the language
issue once again in order to illustrate how supra-state regionalism is found In India.
South India is separated from North along several differentials, geographically south is
composed of peninsular uplands or Deccan, the mountain ranges of Eastern and Western
Ghats and coastal plains.
In terms of political history too, south has never been incorporated into the empires of the
North. This was done for the first time during the British regime.
After independence a major rift was caused over the issue of the official language for India.
The Constitution envisaged the replacement of English by Hindi for official purposes of the
Union as the language of communication between the centre and the states and between
states. The state legislatures of Indian Union were given authority to adopt one or more
languages including Hindi for use as the state language. The Constitution provides that the

Student Notes:
official language of the union should be Hindi with Devanagiri script, with international
numerals for a period of 15 years from the commencement of the Constitution.
However, parliament could by law extend the use of English as the link language. The
attempt to introduce the provision regarding the official language has generated more
intense language rivalry than unity. The opposition to Hindi found its strongest political
expression in the southern states. Most of the people in these states as well as those in the
non-Hindi speaking areas of Eastern India objected to the imposition of Hindi. It was feared
that their own languages would be ultimately replaced by Hindi, which they considered
inferior. The adoption of Hindi as an official language and as a compulsory subject in
schools was seen as imposition of a comparatively underdeveloped language upon those
whose language contains a richness of thousands of years.
In the 1950’s several movements to oppose the imposition of Hindi sprang up. In 1956, the
Academy of Tamil Culture convened in Chennai the Union Language Convention which
stated in a resolution that it would be greatly unjust to make any other language (meaning
Hindi) take the place of English when a population of 100 million are totally unacquainted
with that language.
Significantly this Convention included representatives from different political organisations

i.e., Rajagopalachari (Swatantra), Ramaswamy Naickar (D.K.), Rajan (Justice Party),
Annadurai (DMK) and many others. At a National Conference held on 8th March 1958,
Rajagopalachari declared that ‘Hindi is as much foreign to non-Hindi speaking people as,
English to protagonists of Hindi’.
Growing opposition to Hindi in south India led Nehru in 1959 to assure the people of South
that (a) there will be no imposition of Hindi on them and that (b) English will be an
associate regional language which can be used for official purpose so long as people require
it. The decision would be left not to the Hindi speaking people but to the non-Hindi
speaking people.
In late 1964 many things revived the southern fears of “Hindi Imperialism”. With the death
of Pt. Nehru the southern fear about imposition of Hindi had revived. The alarm grew at the
expiry of 15 years when Hindi was to be used in place of English as the official language.
The fears of Southern non-Hindi states could not be removed even by the Official Language
Act, 1963 which made possible the continued use of English both at the centre and in the
states.
On the Republic Day in 1965, in pursuance of Act 343 of Indian Constitution Hindi became
the official language of India. The southern states reacted vehemently. The DMK party
designated 26th January 1965 as a day of mourning. The student community started an
agitation, against the imposition of Hindi. The DMK, which led this agitation, gained greater
prestige. It became the ruling party in the state of Tamil Nadu when the elections took
place after two years.
The DMK urged that all the fourteen languages be the official languages of the respective
states with English as the link language between the states and the centre. The communists
as well as Kamaraj favored a three-language formula (viz. English, Hindi and the mother
tongue). In June 1965 it was announced that proposal given by Kamaraj (the president of
the Congress) has been accepted. The language policy resolution of the Government of
India gave official recognition to Hindi, English as well as the regional language.

Student Notes:
The policy resolution also indicated that steps should be taken to develop Hindi. English
continued to be recognized as an important link language. The events described above
show that the language became an important issue around which supra-state regionalism
developed.
• Inter-state Regionalism: It is related with state boundaries and involves overlapping of one
or more state identities, which threaten their interests. River water disputes, in general, and
other issues like the Maharashtra-Karnataka border dispute in particular can be cited as
examples.
• Intra-state Regional Politics or Sub-regionalism: This refers to regionalism, which exists

within a state of the Indian Union. It embodies the desire of a part of a state for the identity
and self-development. It may also reflect a notion of deprivation or exploitation of a part of
the state at the expense of another. This type of regionalism can be found in many parts of
India. The important examples of this kind of sub-regionalism are a Vidarbha in
Maharashtra, a Saurashtra in Gujarat, a Telangana in Andhra Pradesh, an East U.P. in Uttar
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh in Madhya Pradesh.
• Son of Soil theory: It ties people to their place of birth and confers some benefits, rights,
roles and responsibilities on them, which may not apply to others. It is accentuated by
factors such as competition for resources, jobs, economic disparities, etc. Examples of
implementation of the concept to further the cause of regionalism include campaign for
safeguard of interests of Maharashtrians by the Shiv Sena, clashes among Bodos and
Bengali speaking Muslims in Assam, among others.
1.5. Positive Impacts of Regionalism

• It can lead to inter-group solidarity in a particular region. People belonging to a region may
feel the need to come together to protect their vested interests, setting aside their
differences.eg. Tripura Tribal Autonomous District Council that was formed in 1985 has
served to protect an otherwise endangered tribal identity in the state by providing a
democratic platform for former separatists and has reduced the bases of political
extremism in the state.
• Given the increasing uncertainty in the contemporary globalized world, regionalism has
become a source of identity among people. The accommodation of such identities is
healthy for maintaining the socio-cultural fabric of India.
• It may induce competition among people of a region and propel them to do better to
improve the status of their region. Eg. Competitive federalism in India and ensuing
competition among states regarding resources, setting up of industries, infrastructural
facilities, etc.
1.6. Negative Impacts of Regionalism

• It can have adverse impacts on national integration, as loyalty to a particular region remains
stronger than loyalty to the nation.
• It can be exploited and used for political leverage in order to garner votes.
• Development plans can be implemented unevenly, in order to curb regionalist and
secessionist demands. Thus, it can lead to unbalanced development.
• When agitations to satisfy regional demands occur, law and order situation is disturbed. It
can also result in violence.
• It can give a leeway to external factors (E.g. terrorist groups, extremist groups) to get
involved in regional issues and create disruption by inciting the masses.

Student Notes:
1.7. Is Regionalism a threat to National Integration?

Regionalism is not significant merely as a disintegrating force. Regionalism is not opposed to
national integration. Both can exist together in a creative partnership. Both are in favor of
development.
Regionalism stresses the development of a region and national integration for the development
of the nation as a whole. If we want to reconcile the competing claims of regionalism and
national integration the political system of the country should remain federal and democratic.
Regionalism is not disruptive of national solidarity. The important condition for national
solidarity is that nationalism should be able to hold the different types of regional sub-
nationalities together. In other words, there should be healthy reconciliation between
regionalism and nationalism.
Regionalism can make federalism a greater success. In this aspect the accentuation of regional
identities should not-become problematic. It is quite natural that regional communities, who
are conscious of their distinctive culture, should interact with federal government on the basis
of more equal partnership.
It will reduce the centralizing tendencies in a nation and power will shift from the centre to the
states. Conceived in any form, regionalism and sub-regionalism are unavoidable in a country as
vast and diverse as India. Their existence is not only an important condition for the expression
of genuine national sentiment, but it is logically generated because of the establishment of the
nation state. Nothing is, therefore, more basic to the concept of federalism than regionalism
and sub-regionalism.

1. There have been instances of people advocating that they be given the major, if not
the sole, right to work in their states or regions. Analyze the economic, demographic
and socio-cultural factors which have given rise to these ‘sons of the soil’ movements.
Approach:
• The question asks about the issue of ‘sons of the soil’ or nativist movements.
Explain what nativist movements are. While giving the explanation try to bring out
the features, reasons for their rise, context etc. clearly so that no confusion remains
regarding the distinction between nativist movements and linguistic or secessionist
movements. There is no need to talk about these other two kinds/waves of regional
movements. But your explanation of nativist movements should be clear in itself, so
that one is able to comprehend clearly what nativist movements are..
• Then explain the socio-cultural, demographic and economic factors that may give
rise to these movements.
Answer:
The ‘sons of soil’ or nativist movements emerged in the sixties and seventies in some
parts of India. The ‘sons of the soil’ began to demand that they be given the major, if
not the sole, right to work on the soil of their linguistic states and reap the economic
benefits therein without interference from people belonging to other linguistic
communities. The demand was economic but was mediated through specific linguistic
identities. The Shiv Sena of the sixties and seventies and the Assam movement, which
culminated in 1985, may be considered to belong to this genre. In both cases the
enemy is within, the ‘aliens’, who by careful manipulation deny the native sons of the
soil the benefits of economic advancement that their native state offers.

Student Notes:
These movements thus carry with their economic demands a vital linguistic element,
and it is on the basis of discrimination on linguistic grounds that the economic demands
are sought to be worked out. Other states and that too, some linguistic groups from
these other states are seen as threats by the natives and singled out as particularly
offensive. Never is the whole country held responsible. They acknowledge that it is only
through the machinery at the Centre that their grievances can be redressed. Though
these movements usually have strong popular support, but they lead to an intractable
conflict as they press actively for discrimination against other citizens who, in principle,
should enjoy equal rights in matters of state employment.
Factors responsible:
Socio-cultural and demographic factors:
• Cultural prejudice can be one of the reasons behind the rise of nativist movements.
More dissimilar the immigrant population is ethnically or culturally, stronger is likely
to be the opposition.
• It is possible that racial and cultural prejudices that inform opinions on immigration
are really epiphenomena of economic self-interest concerns.
• Normally, an increase of labour supply, such as that due to immigration, increases
labour competition and depresses wages, hurting the low skilled most. That union
members, in some cases, have been found to favour immigration restrictions
supports this line of argument. Further, it has been found that less-skilled want
more restrictions on immigration and the more skilled want fewer.
• As communities and groups that were once backward in education become
educationally more advanced, they could demand that their states ensure them a
larger share of jobs in public services.
• Areas with nativist movements are found to be mainly those which have
experienced a rapid growth of educational opportunities for the lower middle
classes.
• Political Competition is another factor. The desire of regional elites to capture
power has also led to the rise of nativist movements. Many states in India have
more than two significant parties and interstate migrants often are an ethnic
minority, living amidst a native, ethnic majority. In such a situation, a party may
seek to make ethnic identities relevant through actions against a minority.
Economic factors:
• Economic self-interests. While the poor believe easily that immigration hurts them
the most, workers can be led to believe that it depresses wages.
• There is also a widespread notion that migration from other states burdens the
public budget of the state as well.
• During economic downturns, the frequency and intensity of nativist movements
generally see a rise.
• Growing unemployment, particularly among the educated.
• Uneven development. Continuous neglect of an area or region by the ruling parties
may be another factor.

Student Notes:
2. Post-independence India has witnessed many instances of extreme form of

regionalism. Is regionalism a threat to national integrity? How can regional
aspirations be addressed within the constitutional framework?
Approach:
• Give a brief definition of regionalism.
• Give an account of rise of sense of regionalism in India.
• Describe how it becomes a threat to national integrity.
• Bring out some Constitutional provisions which try to deal with regional
aspirations.
Answer:
Regionalism, as an ideology and political movement, seeks to advance the causes of

regions. If the interest of one region or a state is asserted against the country as a
whole or against another region or state in a hostile way, and if a conflict is promoted
by such alleged interests, then it is called regionalism.
Post independence, India has witnessed many instances of regionalism maifested in:
the demand of Dravida Nadu, Telangana movement, Bodoland movement in Assam,
Khalistan movement. Interstate disputes also carried regionalist undertones. The
underlying causes range from regional disparity to the son of soil concept as well as
diversity of languages, cultures, ethnic groups etc.
Regionalism is often seen as a serious threat to the development, progress and unity of
the nation. Internal security challenges by the insurgent groups, who propagate and are
motivated by the feelings of regionalism pose grave challenge to the internal security of
the country.. Regionalism at times transforms into secessionism, especially in border
areas often getting support from neighboring countries.
The Constitution of India has adequate provisions to address the issue of regional
aspirations.
• Indian federalism provides a mechanism for addressing regionalism and reconciling
of regional identities within the democratic framework.
o The 73rd and 74th Amendment acts further addressed the regional aspiration by
devolving power and resources to be used as per regional needs.
• The regions under 5th and 6th Schedule enjoys certain autonomy which give them
scope to maintain their own culture and develop according to their own need.
• The provision of PESA Act, 1996 is a step towards bringing reconciliation with the
regional aspirations.
• Art 371 has special provisions helpful in addressing concerns of some states.
These provisions need to be implemented in true spirit and with adequate political will
to address the issues engendering regionalism.

Student Notes:
3. Ethnic similarities are as important as territorial boundaries in promoting the feeling

of common brotherhood among the citizens of a country. In context of the above
statement, examine the problems faced by people from North-East in other parts of
India. Also analyse the steps taken by the government in this regard.
Approach:
Examine the various instances of name-calling e.g. Nido Tania murder case in Delhi and
Bangalore exodus to portray how lack of ethnic similarity of North-East Indians creates
a foreign feeling among the people from those of mainland and how this leads to
friction among them. Further one should give an account of the measures taken by
government and also suggest further measures.
Answer:
The mysterious death of Loitam Richard in Bangalore, the murder of Ramchanphy
Hongray in New Delhi, the suicide by Dana Sangma and other such incidents serve as
reminders of the insecure conditions under which people, particularly the young, from
the north-east of India have to live with in the metros of this country. Major problems
faced by people from north east in other parts of the country are:
• Pervasive racial discrimination that people from the region face in metropolitan
India.
• Despite hailing from an integral part of India, these survivors of racial abuse feel
compelled to overlook instances of mental, physical and verbal assault on a daily
basis.
• People from North-East have to suffer jibes and verbal or non-verbal abuse due to
their different facial look.
• Time and again, male students from the northeast have been compelled to
relocate elsewhere after the locals ganged up against them.
Some of the steps taken by the government
• Delhi Police has announced an array of steps, including setting up of a new unit
and a helpline number to address any grievance faced by people from the north
east.
• Ministry of Home Affairs constituted a committee in February, 2014 to look into
the various concerns of persons hailing from the North Eastern States who are
living in different parts of the country, especially the Metropolitan areas, and to
suggest suitable remedial measures which could be taken by the Government
• The Government has already encouraged to include history of North-East in
school curriculum which can be a way to bring North-east closer to the main
stream.
Some other possible steps
• Unless there is legal protection for the north easterners, their rights will always be
trampled by those who have no regard for their existence. An anti-racism law is an
important measure that the Indian government must take.
• Racism is a social problem and it can only be solved at the societal level. This can
be done through awareness, campaign, educating the mainland people about the
unique history, culture, languages of north-east India.
• A great initiative to end this disjuncture of knowledge would be by introducing
more information about the North Eastern region or the southern region, or any
other regions which have been ignored since years, into the curriculum of state
education boards and other central educational boards, especially NCERT books.

Student Notes:
• The responsibility of the police also lies in registering an FIR and then taking quick
action in cases of racial abuse.
• Another important step could be to create sustainable employment opportunities
in the North Eastern Region to prevent the distress migration of the people from
north east.
4. What is regionalism? Despite persistent regional inequalities, it is increasingly

becoming less important in the Indian scenario. Analyse.
Approach:
• Definition of regionalism.
• Explain regional inequality in brief.
• Then explain why it has been becoming less important – social, economic, political
factors.
Answer:
• Regionalism stands for the love of a particular region or an area in preference to
the nation or any other region. In Indian context, regionalism refers to assertion of
distinct ethnic, linguistic or economic interests by various groups within the nation.
Since the roots of regionalism lie in linguistic, ethnic, economic and cultural
identities of the people living in specific geographical area, political scholars have
treated various forms of regionalism which include economic regionalism, linguistic
regionalism, political regionalism and even sub-regional movements in the general
frame of regionalism.
• India since Independence has witnessed different forms of regional inequalities in
terms of economic growth, resources , infrastructure, etc. giving rise to sub-
regional feelings , hence demand for separate states ex. Movements in Vidarbha
region, Darjeeling / Gorkhaland in West Bengal , demand for Telangana ( now a
State), etc. disputes like water sharing construction of irrigation and power dams ,
etc. ( between Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala ,Karnataka, Haryana , Delhi ,
etc.).
Thus, even though inequality among different states and regions could be a potential
source of trouble but despite breeding discontent and putting pressure on the political
system, this problem has not so far given rise to regionalism or feeling of a region being
discriminated against the other.
Reasons for lack of Regionalism or regional feelings:
• Economic interdependence between different regions has necessitated the need
for migration to different cities and states, thereby reducing loyalties towards a
particular region.
• Political-Central government influence the rates of growth in poorer states and
regions so as to reduce their economic distance from the richer states and regions.
Planning Commission, BRGF, Special category status, grants etc. to poorest states
have tried to bridge the gap between rich and poor states. Thus, we can say that,
‘Son’s of soil’ doctrine has tended to be an aberration but it has more to do with
political opportunism rather than a general feeling.
• Thus contributing to reducing the regional disparities and regional and sub-regional
feelings.

Student Notes:
• Socio-cultural-The demand for creation of states on linguistic basis had also been
given importance since 1962 and more recently with the creation of Telangana.
• Students belonging to different states come to metros to take admissions in
Universities, which also aids in diluting parochial regional ideals and values and
developing an all-India perspective.
• Regional feelings are also being subsumed under the wave of globalization which is
making India more homogenous in culture and way of living.
Thus, we can say that due to the efforts of Central Govt. the regional feelings have so
far been kept under limits. Also, Regionalism in its entirety is not negative as it plays a
vital role in preserving cultural diversity of the country and can also at the same time be
of great help in removing regional disparities in development. However, if uncontrolled,
it can also become a cause of national disintegration.
5. Regionalism in India is not only rooted in India's diversity of languages, cultures,

tribes and religions but also fuelled by a sense of regional deprivations. Discuss.
Approach:
• Introduction should briefly define regionalism in the Indian context.
• The discussion should involve various factors that engender regionalism and the
role played by sense of regional deprivations in exacerbating the phenomenon.
• Conclude with underlining the strengths that have enabled India to address the
challenges emanating from regionalism
Answer:
As an ideology and political movement regionalism seeks to advance the causes of
regions. It involves a process in which sub-state actors become increasingly powerful.
Within India, regionalism has been based on the diversity of culture, language, tribes,
religions and other socio-cultural factors as seen below:
• Language: Language, which forms a core tenet of identity, has led to feelings of
regionalism as seen in various parts of India. A nefarious manifestation of this has
been the sons of soil doctrine which argues that particular state belongs to majority
linguistic group inhabiting it or constitutes an exclusive "homeland" for regional
language speakers. Politically, regional aspirations have been sought to be assuaged
by the creation of linguistic states such as Maharashtra and Gujrat.
• Tribal Identity: The regional aspirations of North-east were mainly based on the
distinction of tribal identity. These aspirations becamebecame more focal and
prominent in the 1980's. The whole North-East region has witnessed altogether
different political reorganization aimed at preservation of the distinct identities
and meeting regional aspirations.
• Economic inequality and Regional deprivation: Increasingly along with
geographical concentration of diversity, regional deprivations, perceived and real,
have provided a bulwark to the development of regionalism in India. For Instance,
the partition of India turned the North-East region into a land locked region and
affected it economically. Due to this isolation from the mainstream India, the region
remained backward in terms of developmental parameters. Hence, from the
beginning, the national government felt a responsibility to counter the imbalance in
regional development. Recently the creation of Telangana after a long struggle
underscores the significance of regional deprivation all the more.
• Combination of multiple factors: in the creation of three new states in 2000,
namely Chhatisgarh, Uttaranchal and Jharkhand language did not play a prominent

Student Notes:
role. Rather, a combination of ethnicity based on tribal identity, language, regional

deprivation and ecology provided the basis for intense regionalism resulting in
statehood.
Being a vast and diverse country India has seen multiple challenges emanating from
regionalism based on multiple factors. However, the spirit of unity in diversity and
constitutional mechanisms of democracy and federalism has enabled it to ward of
these challenges from becoming destabilizing.
6. Regional aspirations in the North East have been dominated by demands for
autonomy, movements for secession, and opposition to ‘outsiders’. Discuss with
relevant examples.
Approach:
• Discuss various demands for autonomy, movements for secession, and opposition
to outsiders in N-E region.
• Briefly discuss the reasons for the above and give a suitable conclusion.
Answer:
Many issues like poverty, under-development, identity, extremism, insurgency etc.
plague the North East (NE) region. However, three issues have dominated politics of NE
while other issues of the region are closely related to these three issues.
Demands for autonomy:
• At independence entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised State of
Assam. Demands for political autonomy arose when non-Assamese felt that Assam
government was imposing Assamese language on them.
• Even post completion of reorganisation of NE in 1972, demands for autonomy
didn’t end. In Assam, communities like Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas demanded
separate States.
• Karbis and Dimasas have been granted autonomy under District Councils while
Bodos were granted Autonomous Council within constitutional provisions.
Secessionist movements:
• Mizoram: After independence a movement for secession in Mizo hills gained
popular support. Two decades of insurgency led by Mizo National Front under the
leadership of Laldenga and backed by Pakistan ended after a peace agreement in
1986.
• Nagaland: Led by Phizo, a section of Nagas declared independence from India in
1951. After a period of violent insurgency a section of Nagas signed an agreement
with government of India but this was not acceptable to other rebels. The problem
in Nagaland still continues.
• Assam: The United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) is a separatist outfit operating
in Assam. It seeks to establish a sovereign Assam with an armed struggle. The
government of India banned the organisation in 1990 citing it as a terrorist
organisation.
Movements against outsiders:
• Large scale migration into north-east gave rise to a special kind of problem that
pitted ‘local’ communities against people who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or migrants.
• These latecomers are seen as encroachers on scarce resources.

Student Notes:
• The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 led by All Assam Students’ Union (AASU)
is best example of such movements against ‘outsiders’. Assamese suspected that
there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh.
Problem of immigration has remained a political issue which is reflected in frequent
clashes in Assam.
• Sme feeling informs the hostility of local population to Chakma refugees in
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Recent demand of inner line permit system and the associated violence in Manipur
is another example of movement against outsiders.
The isolation of the region, its complex social character, backwardness, laxity of political
class, vast international border and weak communication between and rest of India
have further added to the delicate nature of politics here.
However, efforts are being made and should be further scaled to address the region’s
concerns:
• Continuous dialogue between Centre, state governments, rebel groups and civil
society. Rebel groups need to understand that their demands of independence and
autonomy based on ever-narrowing identities cannot be fulfilled without
comprising external and internal security of country.
• Steps for better development and connectivity in the region by apt implementation
of policies and able administration.
Effective implementation of the Sixth Schedule provisions.
3. Past Year UPSC GS Mains Questions

1. Growing feeling of regionalism is an important factor in generation of demand for a
separate state. Discuss.
2. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribution of benefits of development
on regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your answer.


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANIZATIONS


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
Imagine the following scenarios:
• You are waiting for a bus at the bus stop and a young man takes out a knitting needle and
wool and starts knitting. A school girl who is also waiting for a bus climbs a tamarind tree to
look for a raw tamarind.
• A couple lives in your neighbourhood. The husband stays at home and takes care of their
two-year-old daughter and manages other household chores while the wife works in a bank
as a manager.
Do these events surprise you? What reactions do you expect to hear from people with respect
to these incidents? What is so unique about these scenes / events that people have to express
their surprise or pass such comments? Why cannot a man knit or a girl climb a tree? What is
wrong if a man stays at home and takes responsibility for child care and house work? Why
cannot a woman give full time attention to her career? These images surprise people because
they are contrary to the existing practices, which they usually see in society. It is our culture,
which has built many stereotype images of men and women, and over a period of time most
people have come to accept it as the right image.
Women can thus be described as a social category. There have been a series of women’s issues
in terms of low access to productive resources, medical facilities, educational and employment
opportunities and various other social and economic discriminations faced by them. Women
play various roles in their lifetime ranging from a mother to that of a breadwinner but are
almost always subordinated to male authority; largely excluded from high status occupation
and decision making both at work and at home. Paradoxically, even in our Indian society where
women goddesses are worshipped, women are denied an independent identity and status.
In recent years, particularly with the rise of Women’s Liberation Movement, this discrimination
against women has been widely debated. Two main positions have emerged from this debate.
• One maintains that this inequality between the two sexes is determined to some degree by
the biologically or genetically based differences between men and women.
• As against this, the second position argues that they result from socially constructed power
relations and are culturally determined.
2. The Profile of Women in India

As per World Economic Forum survey, India’s Global Gender Gap Index, 2017 ranking is 108 out
of 144 countries, behind neighbours China and Bangladesh, primarily due to less participation of
women in the economy and low wages.
1) Sex Ratio & Mortality Rate–Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of
males. As per census 2011 sex ratio for India is 940 females per 1000 of males, i.e. females
form a meager 47% of the total population. The State of Haryana has the lowest sex ratio in
India and the figure shows a number of 877 females to that of 1000 males while Kerala has
the highest of 1084 females per 1000 males.
Mortality rate or the death rate measures the frequency of deaths. This is an annual rate
and is calculated for different age groups as number of deaths for 1000 live births. The age-
specific death rate data indicates high rate of female infant mortality (0-4 years) and
maternal mortality (5-24 years). The life expectancy rate represents the mean life length an
individual is expected to survive given the prevailing mortality conditions. It has been
observed that the chances of longer life expectancy is higher among women during older
years, whereas women in the younger years continue to have relatively higher death rates.

Student Notes:
Declining Child Sex Ratio

• As per the Census, 2011 the child sex ratio (0-6 years) has shown a decline from 927
females per thousand males in 2001 to 919 females per thousand males in 2011
• Some of the reasons for neglect of girl child and low child sex ratio are son preference and
the belief that it is only the son who can perform the last rites, that lineage and
inheritance runs through the male line, sons will look after parents in old age, men are the
bread winners etc.
• Exorbitant dowry demand is another reason for female foeticide/infanticide.
• Small family norm coupled with easy availability of sex determination tests may be a
catalyst in the declining child sex ratio, further facilitated by easy availability of Pre-
conception sex selection facilities.
The consequences of declining child sex ratio:
• It has led to a sharp increase in violence against women.
• Increased violence against women has led to more son preference, as parents feel it is
difficult to keep women safe.
• In a study conducted by the Centre for Social Research, Haryana, fear of violence against
women is a major cause of female foeticide.
• Apart from this, there have been increasing cases of polygamy due to shortage of women.
There are cases of forcible marriage of widows.
• There has been commodification of women as well, with practices of purchasing of brides
from poor areas.
• Economic consequences are that there is a huge proportion of productive population
which is missing. Lack of women impairs the ability of men to work, and has led to
increased work pressure on the men.
The government has tried to counter the declining sex ratio through initiatives like Beti
Bachao, Beti Padhai; Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana etc.
2) Health - Studies on hospital admissions and records have shown that males get more
medical care compared to girls. 2% of the female population is absolute anaemic. 12% of
the female population of the country suffers from repeated pregnancy (80% of their
productive life is spent in pregnancy) & lack of nutrition.
Reproductive Health
• Maternal Mortality Rate in India has dropped from 167 to 130
• The number of contraceptives has increased, but is far from reaching the 100% mark
• Institutional deliveries: Number of institutional deliveries rose by 15% from 2004 to 2014,
mostly aided by JSY.
o Deliveries in government hospitals rose by 22%, and it fell by 8% in private hospitals
o Home births dropped by 16%
• But JSY has not been able to cater to the lowest most rung of the society. This is primarily
due to lack of facilities in rural areas, and lack of doctors there
• Also, quality of antenatal care is vital to reduce the risk of still births and pregnancy
complications, and that is not in a very good position in India.
3) Literacy - The female literacy levels according to the Literacy Rate 2011 census are 65.46%
where the male literacy rate is over 80%. While Kerala has the highest female literacy rate
of 100% , Bihar is at the lowest with only 46.40%

Student Notes:
4) Employment – Of the total female population 21.9% are a part of Indian workforce.
Majority of women are employed in the rural areas and in agriculture. Amongst rural
women workers 87% are employed in agriculture as laborers, cultivators, self-employed like
hawkers etc., i.e. in the unorganized sector which almost always remains invisible. Despite
the equal remuneration Act 1976, women are paid lower wages, occupy lower skilled jobs,
have less access to skill training and promotion.
5) Political status – Though India had a first women Prime Minister Late Ms. Indira Gandhi,
nonetheless women are not fairly represented in the Parliament & other State & Local
bodies. With only around 9 per cent women in upper house and around 11 per cent in the
lower house of parliament, India ranks 99th in the world in terms of female representation
among MPs.
However, 73rd & 74th amendments to the constitution have ensured the participation of
women in PRIs with a reservation of 1/3rd for women. Today more than 30 million women are
actively participating in the political decision making process at the grass root.
Political Status of Women

• Women have a very low status in the political scenario in the country.
• The number of women in the Parliament has never crossed the 20% mark till now. 50% of
the population is represented by less than 20% participation is a clear indication of the
poor political status of women.
• The government had proposed a reservation for women in the Parliament, but the bill has
still now been passed.
• In the Panchayats, 33% of the seats are reserved for women. This has led to development
of many women leaders, but in many places the concept of sarpanch pati has emerged
where the women is just the nominal sarpanch, whereas her husband is the real decision
making authority.
• Such practices needs to be discouraged, and women should be provided with more
political empowerment.
• Political empowerment to women can have the following impacts:
o More focus on women related issues
o More sensitive handling of women related issues at the top level can have an
immense impact on the status of women
o It would help in inspiring other women to take up such roles, and thus it can help
create multiple women leaders
What are the reasons behind such a low status being accorded to women in India?
Let us explore these reasons in the social structure and social processes characterizing Indian
society.
2.1. Social Structure, Social Processes and Women
In this section let us try to understand the various structures that create the secondary status of
women and perpetuate the discrimination through various social processes.
i) The Caste Structure
The subordination of women was crucial to the development of caste hierarchy. The higher
the caste the greater were the constraints on women. It is observed that the development
of gender division, based on the control of female sexuality, was integral to the formation of
the social structure.

Student Notes:
It might be relevant to ask: What was the need to control women’s sexuality? What was it
that women’s power would endanger? How was it linked to material resources? For
unravelling these questions it is important to understand the system of caste.
Historically, Indian society is categorized into thousands of sub-castes regionally known as
‘jatis’. However, the pan-Indian social hierarchy is based on the ‘varna’ hierarchy, which
divides the Hindu population in four major groups: the Brahmin (priestly caste) at the top,
followed by the Khatriya (warrior caste), then the Vaishya (commoners, usually known as
trading castes) and at the bottom the Shudra (agricultural laborers and artisan). Some who
are beyond the caste hierarchy were considered to be untouchables. The caste boundaries
are maintained through strict purity – pollution principles, rules of commensality and
endogamy, commitment to caste occupation and ascribed life-style. Ritual purity is in the
nature of religious status but also coincided with economic wealth and social esteem. That
is, the upper castes own more property and the lower castes are property less or have the
least property. Over the decades the association of ritual status and economic status has
undergone change. The concept of ‘dominant caste’ demonstrates this.
Three of the major signs of purity: vegetarianism, teetotalism and tight constraints on
women, indicate that a significant degree of ritual purity comes through domestic activities.
The control on women comes from two major aspects-
1. Women’s disinheritance from immovable property, removing them from the public
sphere and limiting them to the domestic sphere in the form of seclusion.
2. Far greater control is exercised by men over women’s sexuality through arranged
marriage, child marriage, the prohibition of divorce, and strict monogamy for women,
leading to sati and a ban on widow remarriage, including infant or child widows.
These strictures were enforced most strictly by the upper castes to maintain ritual purity,
biological purity, caste supremacy and economic power. Lower caste groups attempting to
achieve upward status mobility with improvement in economic power, also imbibe upper
caste norms of constraining women’s freedom.
The ideological and material basis for maintaining the caste system was closely regulated by
religious scriptures and the patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal family ideology.
ii) The Institution of Family
Family is the most important social unit in which members live in a network of mutual ties,
roles and obligations, that it is a unit of procreation, it nurtures the young and socializes
them (i.e. transmits tradition, culture, religious and social values) to enable them to
perform various roles in the society. Family performs the function of continuity of
generations and the transmission of private property. The role of the family in procreation
is closely intertwined with the pattern of descent and religious prescriptions/priorities.
Descents are of two types: patrilineal and matrilineal. In the patrilineal descent system the
property of the family is transmitted through the male offspring for example, father to son.
In the matrilineal system the property is transmitted through the women, for example,
mother to daughter.
At present, barring the Nair community of Kerala, the Khasis of the north-east, the Garos of
the North-eastern India, and certain tribes in the Lakshdweep, all the other communities
practice patrilineal descent system. The worship of mother goddesses is prevalent in all
parts of India.
Closely connected to the patrilineality is the practice of patrilocality, i.e., the transfer of
residence of women to the village/residence/family of the husband, after marriage. The
sons stay with the father. The property laws, therefore, forbade daughters from inheriting

Student Notes:
immovable property, since such property would pass to their husband’s family on marriage.
Instead women were given a portion of movable property (like jewellery) to take with them,
known as dowry.
This provides material reason for anxiety over the birth of daughters. Moreover, the
religious scriptures, especially the Hindu religion place a high preference for sons.
According to the code of Manu, a man could achieve merit only by protecting the purity of
his wife and through her, of his sons. A son is necessary for lighting the funeral pyre of the
father, propitiating the souls of agnatic ascendants through ‘shradha’ and thereby enabling
the father and agnatic ascendants to attain moksha (to be relieved from rebirth). The role
of the women is to beget sons, perpetuate the male descent and facilitate the performance
of rituals. This hierarchy of male and female roles create differential evaluation of children
with a strong son preference on the one hand and daughter neglect on the other, in terms
of access to food, health care, education, freedom, rights and justice.
iii) Socialization within the Family
Socialization performs the function of transmitting culture, tradition, social values and
norms. Apart from parental socialization in the family, various agencies like the schools,
peer groups, literature and films play a role in early socialization and adult socialization.
Girls and boys receive differential socialization, which further perpetuate asymmetric roles
and relationship. Boys are equipped with higher education and skills in order to perform
the ‘breadwinner’s’ role and the girls are initiated into domestic chores at an early age,
given lesser education, trained to work hard and to develop low self-esteem. Boys receive a
status of permanence as against girls who are seen as temporary members of the family.
Very few families enable their daughters to develop an independent identity and dignity.
The family ideology which determines ‘suitability’ and ‘unsuitability’ of certain jobs for
women is also reflected in job stereotyping in labor market.
It has been observed that school books perpetuate images of mother as the ‘housewife’,
father as the ‘breadwinner’; boys playing with guns and trucks and girls playing with toys
and dolls. Though several schools encourage involvement in sports for boys and girls, there
are stereotyped patterns of playing. Boys play football, basketball and cricket and girls skip
and involve in restricted games. Media messages about women and girls perpetuate
stereotyped sexist images which enable the media industry to maintain its market.
iv) Class Structure and Women’s Work
Class is defined primarily by the ownership of property or capital or economic resources. In
simple terms, in a capitalist structure hierarchy is determined by wage, relation viz., people
who work for a wage and people who hire workers for wages in rural areas, where the
social, economic and political power coincide with caste structure. The constraints on
women that vary from upper to the lower castes are reinforced by the class structure as
well. Women of upper castes/classes are secluded, and participate in activities in the
domestic sphere.
Women from middle castes with medium and small holdings are more likely to work on
their own fields and in certain cases work for wages. Women from artisan castes/classes
contribute to the home-based production They belong to the bottom of the hierarchy
where seclusion and restriction on social mobility are not practiced.
In the urban context, where there is a transition to non-agricultural occupations (from an
‘ascribed’ to ‘achieved’ status situation) the upper castes form the predominant group
among middle classes. Women of this class emerged from seclusion during the century to
acquire education and employment. The important aspect is that the economic

Student Notes:
dependence on men is broken. However, this did not drastically change the subordination
of women. The class structure appears to build upon the existing gender hierarchy in the
caste structure. The family within the class structure also derives status from women’s
education and employment. Women perform status – maintaining and enhancing activities
to the family – as educated housewives, mothers and earners. Advertisements in
matrimonial columns are ample evidence of this trend.
Women’s subordination is entrenched in the caste and class hierarchies which have to be
understood. Otherwise, women’s issues will be misunderstood as mere cultural accidents
and violence on women as stray incidents.
3. Nature, Range and Patterns of Women’s Work

Women do various types of work. Their household work remains mostly invisible and
unrecognised. Here it is essential to categorise various types of work done by women in terms
of paid and unpaid work. This will give us a broad idea to understand the significance of
women’s work both in the family and in the society.
3.1. What is Women’s Work?

Women were the major producer of food, textiles and handicrafts throughout human history
and continue to provide a major labour input where production is still in the small scale
subsistence sector.
Defining the exact nature, scope and magnitude of women’s work remains a problem area
because a good deal of women’s work is either invisible or is only partially accounted for in the
data on workforce participation.
Components of women’s work include housework, paid and unpaid work related to home-
based craft activities, family enterprise or business and paid work outside home. You must have
observed differential work participation of men, women and children within the family both in
quantitative and qualitative terms. The kind of work women do is determined by women’s
position in the society and family’s location in the social hierarchy.
The basic elements of women’s work within the home are related to the division of labour
between men and women. Activities included under ‘housework’ broadly differ according to
age, gender, income, occupational group, location (rural/urban), size and structure of the
family.
3.2. Unpaid Work in Home-Based Production and Family Farms
Economists distinguish between production for self-consumption and production for the
market. Only the latter is counted as ‘work’. The parameters of work used in official data reflect
this bias. Much of the work that women do in household industries and processing of
agricultural products, if unpaid, is not recognised as ‘work’ in the data systems.
In rural areas the women from the poorer households engage in various activities such as
cooking, processing of food for household consumption, storing grains, childcare, fetching
fuelwood, fodder and water, collection of forest produce, preparation of cow dung cakes, care
of livestock and cattle and house repair and maintenance. Much of this work, which is
important for the maintenance of families, is largely done by women. However, this work is
unpaid and is not accounted for as productive work as it is meant for self-consumption. The
conventional definition of ‘work’ does not include activities, which are of ‘use-value’ and do not
have ‘exchange-value’.

Student Notes:
Activities like dairying, small animal husbandry (poultry, piggery, goatery etc.) fisheries,
handloom weaving, handicrafts, pottery etc. are family activities and every member assists in
some aspects of production. A major part of the work is done within the home and yet a
woman is not accorded the status of a worker. Non-valuation of women’s unpaid work within
the home results in non-recognition of women’s crucial economic contribution.
Quantifying Women’s Work in GDP

Quantifying women's work in GDP:
• Women play a very important role in households, but their contribution is not a part of the
GDP calculation and hence goes unnoticed or rather not quantified
• This is because it is very difficult to quantify the work done by women.
• In the contemporary society, working women are facing double exploitation because they
are forced to do the household work even after working at homes.
• This quantification of women's work is important for them to gain recognition, and for their
roles to be given more importance.
• If this cannot be quantified, then atleast there needs to be more value given to their work.
Missing Women
Lack of participation of women in workforce:
• According to IMF working paper: India has one of the lowest female labour force
participation (FLPF) rates among emerging markets and developing countries.
• 20.5% women employed in organized sector in 2011
• Women's participation in workforce is skewed towards certain sectors: unorganized sector;
manufacturing and services (just 18% of rural employment for women); agriculture
(dominates at 75%); blue collar jobs (women are losing blue collar jobs, while gaining white
collar ones)
Reasons for low labour force participation:
• Increased income of men: as men start to earn more, women tend to cut back their work to
concentrate more on household activities.
• Caste factor: in some upper castes, there is a stigma attached to women working outside
the home
• Safety issues and harassment at work place
• Increasing numbers of women of working age are enrolling in secondary schools.
(economic survey 2014-15)
• Nature of eco growth: not been able to create large number of jobs in sectors that could
readily absorb women, especially those in rural areas.
How to bring women into workforce:
• Bridging gender gaps in secondary and tertiary education.
• Creating employment opportunities in male dominated sectors.
• Ensuring skill training for women in key sectors
• Increasing reach of financial sector in order to service the women entrepreneurs better
• Strengthening legal provisions for women and the enforcement of these laws (like
harassment at work place)
• Reshaping societal attitudes and beliefs about women participation in the labour force.

Student Notes:
3.3. Female Child Labour

Girls continue to provide free labour in home-based production system. Studies on rural girl
child labour show that she works nine hours a day providing goods and services, which keep her
out of school. She works on an average 318 days a year in the fields and at home providing free
labour.
More girls are being inducted into work while more boys are sent to school thus widening the
gap between boy’s and girl’s opportunities. They are employed in agricultural and related
industries in large numbers. Girls are also employed in large numbers in carpet industry of
Kashmir, in lock making in Aligarh, in gem polishing in Jaipur, in match industry in Sivakasi and in
bidi rolling. In fact, in the match industry of Sivakasi, ninety per cent child workers are girls
under the age of fourteen, working under hazardous conditions. Female children working in
home based industries are beyond the purview of child labour laws. These laws are not
enforced even in factory based industries. Even in piece-rate system, her labour is seen as an
extension of her mother’s labour and is not given an independent value. Such work cuts them
off from schooling, literacy, learning technical skills and improving their job prospects. These
handicaps remain insurmountable throughout the life.
Right to Education
• As per RTE, all children (both girls and boys) are entitled to free primary school education
till the age of 14. But still, primary education in India is not universal. The most
disadvantaged of the lot include the girls, for whom education is not seen as necessary.
• Reason for this:
o Parents consider teaching household chores to girls are more important than
education, and this is due to the ingraining of patriarchy and the confinement of girls
inside the house.
o Another reason which keeps girls away from school is the concern for their safety and
sexuality.
o Also, schools are generally located at a distance, with zero or very few number of
female teachers.
o No bathrooms inside the school premises or lack of separate bathrooms for girls and
boys is another disincentive
• As per statistics, the Literacy Rate for Women is 65%, whereas it is 82% for men. This
difference reflects how far women are behind men in terms of education
• Illiteracy of women has far reaching consequences, and it has an impact on their children
also. Also, low schooling leads to poor quality of care for their children, leading to higher
infant and child mortality, and it sometimes leads to malnutrition because lack of education
makes it difficult for women to adopt appropriate health promoting behavior such as
immunization of children.
• Government measures: 'Sarva Siksha Abhiyan' and 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' are initiatives
to promote the education of girl child.
3.4. Paid Work

Women also work for wages in fields, forests, mines, factories, offices, small-scale and
household industries. The nature and extent of such work differs according to the location of
family in the social hierarchy. In the rural sector the subsistence work burden falls heavily on
women, while in higher castes and higher income groups ‘non-work’ of women is given more
value. Many micro studies have reported inverse relationship between income level of the
household and nature of women’s work participation. Women in the subsistence sector have no
option but to work. However, their options are limited as they are non-entrants or drop-outs

Student Notes:
from school. They are often the primary breadwinners of the family, but the ideological bias
views men as the primary breadwinner of the family.
i) Education, Paid Employment and Household Responsibilities
The spread of education among the middle and upper class women has opened up new
avenues of employment. However, education does not necessarily lead to employment. On
one hand, illiteracy among the majority of women in the lower socio-economic group
constitutes a major barrier to increasing and diversifying work and training opportunities.
On the other hand, pre-defined roles, ideology and labour market forces in a labour surplus
economy effectively restrict women’s work opportunity among educated women of certain
sectors.
In middle class families, women work for improving or maintaining the standard of living of
the family or to provide a cushion against rising cost of living. Working outside home on the
same terms and conditions, as men, does not absolve them from their domestic
responsibilities. As a result, the dual burden of work exerts physical, mental and emotional
strain on them. One of the consequences of double burden may be delayed promotions or
sacrificing new job opportunities due to family responsibilities.
ii) Agricultural and Industrial Sectors
Gender inequalities exist in all sectors. Inequalities are reflected in distribution of women
workers in different sectors, across job hierarchies and in wages and earnings between men
and women.
In the latter half of the twentieth century there was very little structural change in women’s
employment. The proportion of female agricultural workers which was less than one-third
of the total workforce in 1951 rose to more than fifty per cent, which means greater
dependence on agriculture sector. In 1993-94, as many as 86.2 percent female workers
were engaged in the primary sector, which includes agriculture and allied sector such as
forestry, livestock etc., in the rural areas. Within agriculture they mostly work as agricultural
labourers or cultivators.
The wave of Industrialisation has created more work opportunities for a small section of
educated women but at the same time reduced work opportunities for unskilled women
workers working in textiles, jute industries etc. As a result, women workers got
concentrated in plantations, food products, tobacco and textiles, cane and bamboo work,
silk worm, rearing coir products, domestic services, education and health services. The high
concentration of women in household industries rather than factory-based production
affects their status as workers with no control on their labour and earnings.
iii) Women in Services and Professions
As far as women in services and professions are concerned there is no wage discrimination
but they are concentrated in certain types of soft skill jobs like teachers, nurses, typists and
stenographers and very few occupy higher positions in administration, business and
technical jobs.
Despite impressive increase in the number of educated women in urban areas the gap
between men and women in the services and professions is large. It can be attributed to
the following factors-
a) Girls are generally socialised for their domestic roles.
b) Less investment in the vocational and technical training of women
c) Male stereotypes determine attitude to work and differential expectations from girls
education, which is rarely seen as an investment for future.

Student Notes:
d) Higher concentration of girls is found in humanities and social sciences rather than
vocational and technical courses.
e) There is less physical mobility among women after marriage.
Women in Leadership Role

• Many reports have pointed out that the number of women in leadership roles in India is
very low.
• But this number is gradually increasing, which is a very positive sign.
• Many big corporates are headed by women, example Pepsi by Indra Nooyi, Axis Bank by
Shikha Sharma, ICICI Bank by Chanda Kocchar (who just quit) etc.
• Many argue that there is existence of a glass ceiling, which restricts the promotion of
women to the top most positions. This glass ceiling exists due to the persistence of
patriarchy in the society, and also due to the fact that the present leadership consists of
men who promote the interests of men only
• But it is very inspiring to see that many women have been successful in breaking this glass
ceiling.
• More focus on social, economical and political empowerment, and better education
facilities for women can help more women in reaching the leadership roles in the society.
iv) Earning Differentials

An expression of discrimination against women in labour market is wage differential. They
not only get unequal pay for equal work but many jobs that women do are categorised as
low skilled jobs for which lower wages are paid. For example, men usually do weaving
which is better paid while spinning, usually done by women, is low paid. In construction
also men are supposed to do skilled jobs and women do unskilled work and get lower
wages. Sexual divisions of labour and lower duration of women’s work are reflected into
lower wages for women. Earning differentials also reflect differences in skill acquisition,
education and training.
3.5. Women Workers and the Growth of Unorganized Sector

A majority of women are working in the rural and urban unorganized sector without the
protection of labour legislation regarding wages, hours of work, working conditions, health and
maternity benefits and childcare services. Those women workers include agricultural and
construction labourers, women in dairying, small animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry,
handlooms and handicrafts, small vendors and hawkers selling vegetables and food items,
washer-women, scavengers, domestic servants, crafts workers and piece-rate workers in home
based production. The labour force in this sector is characterised by higher incidence of casual
labour and intermittent nature of work, low wages, and low capital incentives.
4. Women’s Issues: A Manifestation

There are different forms of violence on women, which act as threats to women’s independent
identity and dignity. Some forms of violence are:
1) Female foeticide & infanticide- According to a survey by British medical journal, Lancet,
nearly 10 million female abortions have taken place in India in the last 20 years, which is
rampant amongst the educated Indian middle class as well.
There are organizations like Swanchetan, which are working towards educating and bringing
awareness in people against the ghastly act.
2) Rape, sexual harassment & abuse- It acts as a deterrent to women’s freedom and
perpetuates the notion that women are the weaker sex.

Student Notes:
The recent Dec. 16 Delhi Gang rape case, shook the entire country and led to protests all
across the country, setting up of Justice Verma panel & helped in the fast track judgment of
the case. However rampant cases of rape of Dalit women, acid attacks and eve teasing go
unnoticed.
3) Domestic violence and dowry deaths- Violence on women in the family were considered
family problems and were never acknowledged as “crimes against women” until recently. It
is prevalent in all classes of society.
4) Prostitution- A large number of women destitute or victims of rape who are disowned by
family fall prey to prostitution forcibly. There are no governmental programs to alleviate the
problem of prostitution.
5) Objectification of women- Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986
prohibits indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications,
writings, paintings etc. However, a whole lot of indecent representation of women is done
through literature, media, paintings etc. upholding the “right to freedom of expression”.
5. Women’s Issues: Responses

5.1. Women’s Movements
The roots of the Indian women’s movement go back to the nineteenth century male social
reformers who took up issues concerning women and started women’s organizations. Women
started forming their own organization from the end of the nineteenth century first at the local
and then at the national level. In the years before independence, the two main issues they took
up were political rights and reform of personal laws. Women’s participation in the freedom
struggle broadened the base of the women’s movement.
In post-independence India, large number of women’s autonomous groups has sprung up
challenging patriarchy and taking up a variety of issues such as violence against women, greater
share for women in political decision making, etc. both at the activist and academic level. India
has a rich and vibrant women’s movement but it has still a long way to go to achieve gender
equality and gender justice
5.1.1. Women’s Movement as a Social Movement
Conventionally social movements are viewed as intended and organized collective actions
based on certain defined aims, methodology for collective mobilization, distinct ideology,
identified leadership and organization. A social movement involves collective action that is
distinct from individual action. Thus a social movement essentially involves sustained collective
mobilization through either informal or formal organization.
5.1.2. Dimensions of Indian Women’s Movement
Unlike the women’s movement in the West, the Indian women’s movement began in the
shadow of colonial rule and the commitment to attain freedom from colonial rule. Thus, the
Indian women’s movement transcended the limited gender framework unlike the women’s
liberation struggles in the other parts of the world, especially in the West where the principal
purpose was to address the relationship between women and men in the private and public
spheres. Questions of independence and freedom from the colonial power were inextricably
linked with the consciousness of the Indian women’s movement, a consciousness of women in
relation to the larger society, not only to men.
Since the late 19th century Indian society, witnessed an active feminist movement. The early
attempts at reforming the conditions under which Indian women lived were mainly carried out
by western educated middle and high-class men. Soon they were joined by the women of their
families. These women along with the men began organized movements fighting against the

Student Notes:
oppressive social practices such as female infanticide, sati, child marriage, laws prohibiting
widow remarriage, etc.
The public participation of these women of middle and high caste and class background led to
the birth of women’s organizations in the early 20th century. They began fighting for the status
and rights of women but this task was unambiguously located within the agenda of the
freedom struggle as a whole. Another strand in the women’s movement developed roughly
around this time. The Left-radical tendency was shaped in women’s movement by their
activities among women of the working class. Women with Left political leanings were involved
in working class and revolutionary peasant struggles, such as the struggle in Telangana.
After Independence, many of the bourgeois-liberal section advocated for representation of
women within the system. Late 1960s and early 1970s witnessed the resurgence of women’s
movement, mainly due to the repercussion of the problems that cropped up at the national
front (such as price rise) and the women’s active mobilizations at the international front. The
struggle against the Emergency saw the rise of many new women’s groups, which rejected the
politics of earlier women’s organizations. These groups sprang up as part of the movement for
democracy and against gender discrimination and later emerged as autonomous organizations
without any explicit party affiliations though many of them were drawn from political parties.
They mainly intended to raise feminist issues in mass organizations such as trade unions or
kisan samitis. Many autonomous groups, which were mostly women-only groups, without party
affiliations and conventional hierarchical organizational structures, were also formed mainly
dealing with domestic issues such as domestic violence.
Women’s movement of the late 1970s and early 1980s were dominated by such autonomous
women’s groups, which were mostly city based. At the same time feminist consciousness had
taken place in some of the rural movements too. Overall, Indian Women Movement witnessed
three tendencies in terms of their affiliations- the bourgeoisie liberals, the left radicals and the
autonomous groups.
5.1.3. Pre-Independence Women’s Movements
The roots of the Indian women’s movement go back to the early nineteenth century when
social reformers, beginning with Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), began to focus on issues
concerning women. Following them, improving the condition of women became the first tenet
of the Indian social reform movement. Women’s inferior status, enforced seclusion, early
marriage, condition of widows and lack of education were the main facts documented by
reformers throughout the country. However, women’s movement is linked to both social reform
movements & the nationalist movement.
5.1.3.1. Socio-Religious Reform Movement
Women’s Organizations Started by Men
Men who belonged to the socio religious reform associations began the first organization for
women. They are as follows:
1) Brahmo Samaj: It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1825 & attempted to abolish
restrictions and prejudices against women, which included child marriage, polygamy,
limited rights to inherit property. Education was seen as the major factor to improve the
position of women.
• Civil Marriage Act, 1872 was passed, which permitted inter-caste marriage, legalized
divorce and fixed 14 and 18 as the minimum age of marriage for girls and boys
respectively.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy played an important role in getting Sati abolished.

Student Notes:
2) Prarthana Samaj: It was founded by MG Ranade & RG Bhandarker in 1867. Its objectives
were more or less similar to that of Brahmo samaj but remained confined to western India.
Justice Ranade criticized child marriage, polygamy, restriction on remarriage of widows and
non access to education.
3) Arya Samaj: It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. Unlike the above two it was a
religious revivalist movement, revitalizing the ancient Hindu traditions. It advocated reform
in the caste system, compulsory education for men and women, prohibition of child
marriage by law, remarriage of child widows. It was opposed to divorce & widow
remarriage in general.
4) Social reformers mentioned above eulogized the position of women in ancient India.
However radicals like Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Jyotibha Phule and Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari
Deshmukh accused the caste system responsible for the subjugation of women in society.
5) Similar movements began in Islamic community as well. Begum of Bhopal, Syed Ahmad
Khan & Sheikh Abdullah in Aligarh and Karmat Hussain in Lucknow spearheaded a
movement to improve women’s education.
The male-inspired and male-guided organizations for women did valuable work in educating
women and giving them their first experience with public work. While the men wanted the
women to be educated and take part in public activities, but at the same time they regarded
the home as the primary focus for women. Gender equality was never an agenda for any of the
movements mentioned above. They had a very limited perspective of changing the position of
women within the family through education, as education would improve women’s efficiency as
housewives and mothers!
Women’s Organization Started by Women
By the end of the nineteenth century, a few women emerged from within the reformed families
who formed organizations of their own. One of the first to do so was Swarnakumari Devi,
daughter of Devendranath Tagore, a Brahmo leader, and sister of the poet Rabindranath Tagore,
who formed the Ladies Society in Calcutta in 1882 for educating and imparting skills to widows
and other poor women to make them economically self-reliant. She edited a women journal,
Bharati, thus earning herself the distinction of being the first Indian woman editor.
In the same year, Ramabai Saraswati formed the Arya Mahila Samaj in Pune and a few years
later started the Sharda Sadan in Bombay. The National Conference was formed at the third
session of the Indian National Congress in 1887 to provide a forum for the discussion of social
issues. The Bharat Mahila Parishad was the women’s wing of this and was inaugurated in 1905.
It focused on child marriage, condition of widows, dowry and other “evil” customs. The Parsis,
the Muslims and the Sikhs all formed their own women’s organizations.
Women in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and other smaller cities formed associations whose
members were drawn from among a small group of urban educated families. They were useful
in bringing women out of their homes, giving them an opportunity to meet other women, doing
philanthropic work, encouraging them to take an interest in public affairs and thus broadening
their horizon. It also gave them the experience of managing an organization.
National Women’s Organization
The early women’s organizations were been confined to a particular locality or city. In 1910,
Sarala Devi Chaudhurani, daughter of Swarnakumari Devi formed the Bharat Stree Mandal
(Great Circle of India Women) with the object of bringing together “women of all castes, creeds,
classes and parties… on the basis of their common interest in the moral and material progress
of the women of India.” It planned to open branches all over India to promote women’s
education. Branches were started in different cities such as Lahore, Amritsar, Allahabad,
Hyderabad, Delhi, Karachi and other cities. Purdah was regarded by Sarala Devi as the main

Student Notes:
obstacle for women’s education and teachers were sent round to women’s homes to educate
them. She wanted women to escape male domination and as a result only women were
allowed to join her organization. However, the Bharat Stree mahila Mandal proved to be a
short lived venture.
5.1.3.2. National Freedom Movement
“Women is the companion of man gifted with equal mental capacities”
-Mahatma Gandhi
At the time when women’s organizations were fighting for women’s political and economic
rights and trying to improve their position by education and social reform, women’s struggle
entered a new phase with the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi on the Indian political scene. Women
had been associated with the freedom struggle before that too. They had attended sessions of
the Indian National Congress and taken part in the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, 1905-11 and
in the Home Rule Movement. But the involvement of really large number of women in the
national movement began when Gandhiji launched the first Non Co-operation Movement and
gave a special role to women. Peasant women played an important role in the rural satyagrahas
of Borsad and Bardoli. Women participated in the Salt satyagraha, in the Civil Disobedience
Movement, in the Quit India Movement and in all the Gandhian satyagrahas. They held
meetings, organized processions, picketed shops selling foreign cloth and liquor and went to
jail.
Gandhiji took interest in collective mobilization of women to fight for political freedom as well
as for their social and political rights. He felt that women were most suited for Satyagraha as
they have great qualities appropriate for non-violent struggle. While thousands of women
joined the freedom movement in response to Gandhi’s call, there were others who could not
accept his creed of non-violence and joined revolutionary or terrorist groups. Their hatred of
the British was intense and their plan was to make attempts on European lives as widely as
possible. They believed in individual acts of heroism not in building a mass movement.

Student Notes:
Women participated in the freedom movement because they were inspired by patriotism and
wanted to see the end of foreign rule. It is debatable as to how far this participation liberated
them. Women’s participation in the freedom movement did not lead to a separate autonomous
women’s movement since it was part of the anti-colonial movement. While women who
picketed shops, marched in processions or went to jail or threw bombs did not question male
leadership or patriarchal values, it did generate in them a sense of self-confidence and a
realization of their own strength. Many returned to their homes but others continued their
activities in the public arena. It transformed the lives of many young widows such as Durgabai
Deshmukh or Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya. Women won respect for their courage and the large
numbers in which they participated in the freedom struggle. The first woman to participate in
the nationalist movement during salt march was Sarojini Naidu who later became the first
woman president of the Congress.
Women’s participation in the national movement helped in breaking several of the old barriers
of tradition and custom. Women’s organization side by side raised their voices for removal of
social injustice meted to them, which resulted in passing of the resolution on Fundamental
Right of equal rights for both the sexes at the Karachi session of the Indian National Congress in
1930. The declaration reads as follows:
1. All citizens are equal before the law, irrespective of religion, caste, creed or sex.
2. No disability attaches to any citizen, by reason of his or her religion, caste, creed or sex, in
regard to public employment, office of power or honour, and in the exercise of any trade or
calling.
3. The franchise shall be on the basis of universal adult suffrage.
4. Woman shall have the right to vote, to represent and the right to hold public offices.
Agrarian Struggles and Revolts
It is often assumed that only middle class educated women participated in social movements.
Part of the struggle has been to remember the forgotten history of women’s participation.
Women participated along with men in struggles and revolts originating in tribal and rural areas
in the colonial period. The Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana arms struggle from the
erstwhile Nizam’s rule, and the Warli tribal’s revolt against bondage in Maharashtra are some
examples.
Women in Labour Movement
In 1917 Anasuya Sarabhai had led the Ahmedabad textile workers’ strike and in 1920 under her
leadership the Majoor Mahajan, the Ahmedabad textile mill workers union was established. By
the late 1920s, the presence of women in the workers’ movement was noticeable. There were
several prominent women unionists and women workers were consciously organized and a
special role was given to them in the workers’ movement. Bombay was the center of this
development and Maniben Kara emerged as the socialist leader of railway workers and Ushabai
Dange and Parvati Bhore as Communist leaders of textile workers. In the 1928-29 Bombay
textile mill workers’ strike, women played a leading role, as they did in the Calcutta strike during
the same years.
Other Major Organizations
The early 20th century saw the growth of women’s organisations at a national and local level.
The Women’s India Association (WIA) (1917), All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (1926),
National Council for Women in India (NCWI) (1925) are ready names that we can mention. The
Women’s India Association (WIA) was formed in 1917 by Margaret Cousins, an Irish and an
Indian nationalist. This was followed by the formation of the National Council of Indian Women
(NCIW) in 1926 and All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) in 1927. The first of all India women’s

Student Notes:
organisation came into existence in 1926, with the setting up of the National Council for
Women in India (NCWI). The NCWI aimed at securing women’s rights through social reforms
and women’s and children’s welfare. The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) was set up in
1927 in Poona. Its members were primarily women from the upper and upper-middle classes
and princely families, women members of the Indian National Congress Party, the Communist
Party, professional women like doctors and educationalists, and social workers. The AIWC took
up the questions of women’s education, and it was at its initiative that the Lady Harding College
for women was set up in Delhi in 1932. It also organized a large number of literacy schools and
handicraft centres, which helped women from poor families learn basic skills in order to earn
and be relatively independent economically.
A significant concern for women’s group in this period, in particular the AIWC, was the
campaign against child marriage. As a result of this struggle the Sarada Act was passed in 1929,
fixing the age of marriage at fourteen for girls and eighteen for boys. In the 1930’s the AIWC
directed its energies towards fighting for women’s equal rights in inheritance and marriage, and
reforms in the personal laws of different communities. Jyoti Singh in Gujarat (1934) played an
active role in harnessing energies of women. Several women active in the nationalist movement
became founders of women’s organizations. While many of them began with a limited focus,
their scope extended over time. For instance, the AIWC began with the idea that ‘women’s
welfare’ and ‘politics’ were mutually exclusive.
5.1.4. Post-Independence Women’s Movements
In the post-Independence period a series of institutional initiative has been introduced for the
emancipation of women in the society. The most important of these pertain to the
constitutional provisions and social legislation for women and planned economic development.
Women’s movement has been widely influenced by these broad socio-economic and political
processes of this period.
5.1.4.1. Constitutional Provisions and Social Legislation
The Constitution of independent India followed the basic principle of women’s equality as
accepted in the Fundamental Rights Resolution of the Karachi Congress. The provision of Article
15(3), which empowered the state to make special provisions for women and children, suggests
that there was a realization of women’s disadvantaged position and the need for the state to
enact special measures to bring them at par with men.
During freedom movement it was felt that with the nation’s Independence would disappear
many of the disabilities, and problems of women attributed to colonial rule. The national
government undertook to remove the legal disabilities suffered by women and initiated major
reforms in Hindu family laws. The legal reforms in the 1950s sought to provide greater rights to
Hindu women in marriage, inheritance and guardianship. However, they failed to bridge the gap
between legal and social realities. Similar changes in the family laws of other communities like
Muslims, Christians, Parsis and Jews, have not yet come up due to political resistance despite
the Directive Principle of State Policy clearly stating the need for uniform laws for all the
communities.
With these legislative measures in the fifties women’s organisation became passive and lost the
vigour shown during the pre-Independence period. Several of these organisations received
government grants and their activities were shaped by the grants they received for activities
like adult education, nutrition programmes for children, tailoring classes under vocational
training programmes and family planning programmes. Most of these organisations were urban
based and the leadership came from the educated middle and upper class women.

Student Notes:
In the post-Independence period, two important organisations for rural women were set up,
i.e., Kasturba Memorial Trust and Bharatiya Grameen Mahila Sangh(Indian Rural Women’s
Organisation). Their main objective was to assist the rural women in developing leadership
potential.
5.1.4.2. Planned Development and Women’s Issues
In the post-Independence period it was assumed that economic development policies i.e.,
agriculture development and modernization, industrialization, technological development etc.,
will bring about better life for everyone including women. The overall growth strategies failed
to take note of the existing class, caste and gender inequalities. Planned development in India
increased socio-economic inequalities. Let us discuss the observation in more detail.
The Five Year Plans
From Welfare to Development to Empowerment

Over the year the planning strategies (line of action) for women have shifted from Welfare to
Development and to Empowerment. It is this shift which needs to be critically examined if we
wish to understand the role of the state in women's empowerment.
First to Fifth Five Year plans

The approach of the First Five Year Plan (1951-56) was to provide adequate services to promote
the welfare of women so as to enable them to play their legitimate role in family and
community. Here, the emphasis was on welfare and hence women were treated as mere
recipients of incentives, which the state chose to give. The plan called for setting up of special
organizations both at the central and state levels for promoting the welfare of women. The
Central Social Welfare Board was set up in 1953. It has its branches in the states. These boards
have been supporting and conducting a number of programmes, mainly with a thrust on (with
an emphasis on) economic advancement.
The approach of the Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Five Year Plans was in no way different
from that of the First Five Year Plan. The welfare approach still guided policies and programmes,
which were launched for women's development. Only two special schemes were introduced
during this period. These were, the condensed Course of Education and Women and Socio-
Economic Programme introduced during the second plan (1956-61) and Working Girls Hostels
and Short Stay Homes introduced during the Fourth Plan (1969-74).
Towards Equality- A Report, which Actually Set the Government and Voluntary Groups
Thinking.
Conceding to the representations made by the international women’s movement, the United
Nations declared 1975–1985 as the International Decade of the Woman and organised the
World Conference on Women in Mexico (1975). The World Plan of Action formulated during the
Conference stressed the need for research, documentation and analyses into processes in
society that create structures of gender inequalities. In India, the National Committee on the
Status of Women had been set up to examine the status of women in the country and to
investigate into the extent to which the constitutional and legal provisions had impacted on
women’s status including their employment and education.
The Committee was the first major attempt to review and evaluate data on various aspects of
women’s status. It was also empowered to comment on the directions of change in women’s
roles, rights and opportunities due to development.

Student Notes:
The Committee came out with its findings in the form of a report, popularly known as the
Towards Equality Report (1974), which became a major landmark for the women’s movement.
The beginnings of the women’s movement in India, has often been traced back to this report.
The report revealed the deplorable condition of women in the country evident from
demographic data, an analysis of the socio-cultural conditions prevalent, the legal provisions
and safeguards, economic role played by women in all sectors, women’s access to education,
political participation, the policies and programmes for welfare and development, the impact of
mass media, etc.
This Report, paved the way for serious thinking on the status of women in different social
institutions in India, because it showed that women far behind men in enjoying the equal rights
conferred on them by them by the constitution. This Report led to a debate in the parliament
and showed the failure of the welfare approach, which treated women as recipients of benefits
and not as equal partners in the development efforts.
The report also made several recommendations which included stressing the important role of
the State and the community in the achievement of ‘gender equality’. It highlighted the need
for a concerted effort to eradicate oppressive practices such as dowry, polygamy, bigamy, child
marriage, ostentatious expenditure on weddings, and it emphasised the need for a campaign
on legal awareness, the provisions of crèches, better working conditions for women including
equal remuneration for equal work, the compulsory registration of marriages, law reform on
aspects concerning divorce, maintenance, inheritance, adoption, guardianship maternity
benefits, the universalisation of education, etc.
The new consciousness that emerged after the publication of Toward Equality has to the setting
up of the Women's Welfare's and Development Bureau in 1976 under the Ministry of Social
Welfare. Four Separate working groups on employment of Women, Adult Education
Programmes for Women, Women in Agriculture and Rural Development were also up to work
out strategies for action.
Sixth Five Year Plan: The Shift from Welfare to Development
From the Sixth Plan (1980-85) onwards, a marked shift took place from the Welfare to a
Development approach. While the welfare approach treated women as beneficiaries or
recipients of benefits, the development approach recognized women as participants in
development and not as development targets. It was not enough to introduce a few women
specific schemes, but there was need to strive for an all-round development of women. Look at
the examples given below:
Example 1: A women in the village was given tailoring lessons under one of the government
schemes. But, she had no other means of economic needed to open a small tailoring business.
So her training was going waste. She was treated as a target of a welfare programme and
afterwards nobody asked her what she really wanted. This is an example of the welfare
approach with fixed targets.
Example 2: Before sanctioning women's development programme in a village, a meeting of the
women who were residents of the village was called. They were asked to name a few
programme which they thought would be helpful to them to better their economic status. They
were also asked to give suggestions as to how best these programmes could be implemented.
Since the women identified the setting up of a milk- cooperative and basket weaving as their
priorities, the development agency started a milk co-operative and provided the initial funding.
Training in basket weaving, especially keeping the market needs in view was also given. In this
case women were not treated simply as beneficiaries or receivers of a welfare programme, but
they were consulted about their choice of a programme and also involved in managing the
programme. This is an example of the development approach.

Student Notes:
Towards the end of the Sixth Five Year Plan i.e., Plan i.e., in 1985, the Department of Women
and Child Development was set up as part of the Ministry of Human Resource Development.
This Department was created to function as a central agency to formulate and implement plans,
policies and programmes for the development of women and children.
The Seventh Five Year Plan
The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) laid emphasis on generation (creation) of employment
opportunities for women. Two new schemes-Support to Training and Employment (STEP) and
Awareness Generation Programme for Rural and poor Women (AGP) were introduced. Three
important Reports, which were to serve as useful guidelines for future development
programmes of the government were also released during the seventh plan period. These
were:
• Sharma Shakti (Report of the National commission on Self-Employed Women and Women
in the Informal Sector).
• National Perspective Plan on Women in (1988-2000).
• SAARC Guide Book on Women in Development.
The Decade 1990-2000 was declared as the SAARC decade of the Girl Child and as part of this
event, programmes laying special thrust on (giving special importance to the ) the overall
development of girl children were launched.
Landmarks (highlights) of the Eighth Plan
The Eighth plan period also saw a revolutionary amendment to the Constitution of India, which
provided for the reservation of one-third of the seats in Panchayat raj institutions and urban
local self-governing bodies such as municipalities and corporations to women. The 73rd and
74th constitutional amendments, which made this reservation possible, have gone down in the
in the history of women's empowerment in India as a 'democratic revolution'. Today, there are
more than 40.000 women in local governing bodies across the country, a phenomenon (an
occurrence), which would never have been possible, if a provision for reservation of 1/3 seats
for women had not been made.
The Ninth Five Year Plan- From Development to Empowerment-
It was during of the Ninth Five Year plan (1997-2002) that two significant development took
place in the framework (outline) for chalking out women's development programmes. Hitherto,
women were either being treated as target for development programmes or as participants.
But not much attention was paid for creating an environment that would enable women to
exercise their rights or enjoying their freedom. The Ninth Plan put forth the concept of
Empowerment, which would create an enabling environment where, women can experience
freedom not just in letter, but also in action. To achieve this goal, a National Policy for the
Empowerment of Women was accepted by the Government of India in 2001. The second
significant development, which took place during the Ninth Plan period was the adoption of a
Women’s Component Plan. This plan directed both the Central and State governments to
earmark (set apart) at least 30 per cent of the funds/benefits in all sectors for women's
development.
Women's Empowerment Year, 2001
The Government of India declared 2001 as the year of Women's Empowerment. Three primary
objectives were set to be achieved during this year. These were:
• Creating and raising large scale awareness of women's issues with active participation and
involvement of women and men.

Student Notes:
• Initiating and accelerating action for improvement access to and control of resources by
women.
• Creating enabling environment for enhancing self-confidence and autonomy of women.
A number of policies and programmes were initiated during this year to ensure equal
participation of women and men in the social, economic and political life of the nation.
Two prominent schemes that were launched for women during 2001 were: Swayamsiddha and
Swadhar.
Swayamsiddha is an integrated programme, which supports the empowerment of women
through a network of Self-Help Groups of women. It aimedto bring together all the women
related schemes of the central and state governments at the block level. The government also
launched the Swashakti Project to help the setting up of women's Self-Help Groups in villages
by giving financial incentives. In many villages, Self Help Groups have been doing great work is
not only encourages savings but also mobilizing women to fight against oppression in their
families and villages. Self Help Groups also offer essay credit to members to start or improve
small-scale business enterprises.
Whereas Swadhar was launched to prove rehabilitation to women in difficult circumstances
such as destitute windows, women prisoners released from jail and without family support,
women survivors of natural disaster and victims of sexual crimes. Shelter homes are planned to
be constructed in which rehabilitation programmes will be offered a holistic basis.
The Tenth Plan (2002-07)
A Working Group on Empowerment of women was constituted to prepare a base paper, to
provide guidelines for future programmes for women's empowerment. This paper has made
the following recommendations:
• Women must be helped to equip themselves to face the challenges being thrown up by
globalization.
• Even through a number of development policies and programmes have been formulated to
empower women, not all women could make use of these programmes because of the
prevailing social discrimination against them. So investments on health, education and
capacity building must be stepped up in future.
• During the last 10 years there has been a decline in expenditure on health, education and
welfare. Since this affects women's development seriously, efforts must be made to
increase investments on those sectors, which actually help women's development.
The concept of Gender Budgeting was also incorporated during this Plan. Alongside NREGA
scheme specially targeting women was also started.
MGNREGA and Women

• MGNREGA provides a legal guarantee for one hundred days of employment in every
financial year to adult members of any rural household willing to do public work-
related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage.
• Act covers entire country except for districts which have 100% urban population.
• More than 65 per cent of the works taken up under the programme are linked to
agriculture and allied activities.
• In the initial years, MNREGA was a true game-changer, rural wages started climbing
and reports also pointed towards a decline in migration to urban centres.
• More than half the jobs going to women workers and almost a third to members of
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

Student Notes:
• 57% of all workers are women, more than the statutory requirement of 33% and the
highest in three years.
• It gave a large number of women their first opportunity to earn income in cash, reduced
reliance on moneylenders
• It has led to a substantial increase in women’s control over resources, including cash in
hand and the likelihood of having a bank account, and improvement in women’s ability to
make independent decisions about their health.
The Eleventh and the Twelfth Plan

The idea of ‘Inclusive Growth’ related to inclusion of various marginalized groups, of which the
women category has also been specifically addressed too. The Current Plan has also to take up
various provisions which include the – All India Mahila Bank and the Nirbhaya Fund.
The 12th Five Year Plan Working Group (WG) on ‘Women’s Agency and Empowerment’ builds
on the view that development is a process of expanding freedoms equally for all individuals,
and considers gender equality as a core development goal in itself. It expands the definition of
women’s empowerment by looking at it as a process, which enables women to have a notion of
dignity and self-worth, bodily integrity, freedom from coercion and control over resources. It
affirms that empowerment is achieved when, along with the condition of women, their position
improves and their freedoms and choices are enlarged economically, socially and politically.
Empowerment must enable all women to negotiate these freedoms and increase their
capabilities. The overall framework takes steps to advance substantive equality by addressing
the causes and consequences of social, economic and political exclusion on all women
especially the dalits, tribals,minorities, women with disability, migrant, displaced and trafficked
women, women in the unorganized workforce, women infected and affected by HIV/AIDS,
single and excluded women especially widows and women in conflict zones.
The Plan advocates a shift from mere ‘income’ poverty of women to the adoption of a ‘multi-
dimensional’ approach to poverty and wellbeing. The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
complements the income poverty measures by reflecting all the other deprivations with respect
to education, health and living standard that a poor person simultaneously faces.
Overall review of the Plans Since the planning period began in 1951, a number of programmes
have been designed and implemented for women's empowerment. But all these efforts have
not been able to remove gender discrimination inherent in such sectors as family life, health,
education, employment and political participation. Dedicating one year to women's
empowerment or one decade to girl children will not automatically bring about women's
emancipation. There must be a commitment to make all these programmes functional in a way
as to remove gaps between men and women on the one hand, and among women of different
groups on the other. The need of the hour is an Action Plan, which believes in action and not
just in taking about women.
5.1.4.3. Role of Voluntary Organizations
One of the weaknesses in the political strategies of women’s organisations in the 1950s and
1960s was their inability to mobilise ordinary women and failed to address the issues that
concerned them. The lack of efforts to reach to the masses and expand the base of women’s
movement limited its effectiveness and agenda for action. The position of peasant and working
class women deteriorated and only a small minority of women benefited.
Resurgence of Women’s Movements in the 70s: Issues and Actions
The late 1970s and 1980s was marked by a resurgence of women’s struggle and emergence of
new women’s groups and organisations. After their participation in nation’s independence

Student Notes:
struggle women again withdrew from public life and the debate on women’s issues also faded
out from the public arena.
However, many women activists, who were working with political parties, trade unions, peasant
and workers movements, realised that they were hesitant to take up issues which concerned
women exclusively. The issues women raised were the retrenchment of women from textile
mills and other industries due to technological changes and replacing them by men who
received training on new machines, lack of maternity benefit to women workers, lack of
provision of children at work place, wage discrimination between men and women, inadequate
education and training facilities for women workers and discrimination at work places. This led
to the emergence of separate women’s organisations in various parts of the country, which
seriously attempted to organise poor women for a positive change.
Emergence of New Organizations and Approaches
The growing economic hardships of rural poor and urban women (fifty percent of the
households were below poverty level at the end of the Sixth Five Year Plan) and failure to take
up women’s issues by the general agrarian and industrial workers’ movements resulted in
women labourers organising separately. Let us now look at the new organisations and
approaches in more detail.
i) Organisation
New organisations such as Self-Employment Women’s Association (Gujarat), Working
Women’s Forum (Tamil Nadu), Sramik Mahila Sangathna (Maharashtra) concerned
themselves with the plight of women workers in the unorganised sector. Organising women
labour and taking up the issues of their wages, working conditions, exploitation and health
hazards became an important task for these women’s organisations. Research on women in
the unorganised sector helped in developing new strategies for dealing with the problems
of poor rural and urban workers. Anti-price rise movement in 1973-74 was a united front of
women’s organisations belonging to several parties.
ii) Approaches
In the late nineteen seventies several women’s organisations emerged which were not
affiliated to political parties or to trade unions. They were called ‘autonomous women’s
organisations’. They rejected the ‘welfarist’ approach adopted by the previous women’s
organisations, many of which were set up during the pre-Independence period, and
adopted ‘protest polities’ for mobilising women on specific issues.
Deforestation and Ecological Movement
Economic hardships faced by women in the Himalayan region due to cutting down of
forests resulted in spontaneous mobilisation of women. They hugged the trees to prevent
the contractors from felling them. This is popularly known as Chipko movement. The
disappearance of forests means acute hardships to women who are primarily responsible
for the collection of fuel, fodder, fruits, herbs for medicine and other forest produce which
give them income and employment. This is why we find that women are even now in the
forefront of these ecological agitations.
Issue Based Movements in the 1970s and 1980s
The autonomous women’s organisations’ took up issues related to women’s oppression like
dowry, violence within the family, alcoholism among men and wife-beating, discrimination
at the work place etc. to mobilise women for collective action. For the first time some
groups in Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Patna etc. raised issues such as sexual exploitation of
poor scheduled castes and scheduled tribe women by upper caste landlords.

Student Notes:
Issues of rape, dowry murders, crime and violence against women were taken up. All India
anti-dowry and anti-rape movements were launched by women’s organisations and Civil
liberties and democratic rights organisations also joined them. They launched important
issue based movements. Let us examine few of these movements.
iii) Anti-dowry Movements
Dowry murders have witnessed a sustained campaign by several women’s organisations
and civil rights groups. Journalists wrote extensively about the dowry problem. In the 1980s
several women’s and other progressive organisations formed a joint front in Delhi called
“Dahej Virodhi Chetna Manch”. Organisations in other major cities also campaigned
through protest, demonstrations, discussions, street theatre, posters etc. against the
ghastly murders of young brides for dowry. After much deliberation, the Dowry Prohibition
(Amendment) Act, 1984 was passed. The Act sets a limit to the amount given in dowry but
does not ban dowry. While cruelty by the husband and his relatives leading to suicide or
death has become an offence, punishable with imprisonment, still dowry deaths continue.
iv) Anti-sati Movement
In 1829 the practice of Sati was abolished through a legislation which marked the
culmination of a debate initiated by the British. The burning of a young widow Roop Kanwar
in 1988 on the funeral pyre of her husband in Deorala, Rajasthan, sparked off strong
protests by women’s organisations. The delayed response of the government came in the
wake of mounting agitation in the shape of Commission of Sati (Prevention) Bill, which was
hurriedly passed in the Parliament. The Act assumes that it is a practice sanctioned by the
custom. It does not seek to punish those who profit by raising money by selling
photographs and raising donations in the name of so called ‘sati’. There is nothing on
preventive action. It is strange that the barbaric practice, against which social reformers
raised their voices, still persists in a country, which reveres mother goddesses.
v) Anti-rape Movement
An anti-rape movement was launched in the last decade demanding review of the Supreme
Court judgment in a rape case, which acquitted the culprit. Women activists forced the
government to review Rape Laws. Several women’s organisations and legal and social
activists held discussions with the Law Commission to amend the law and in 1983 Criminal
Law (Amendment) Act was passed.
In the 1990s women took up the issue of communalism and globalisation through a wider
networking both at the national and international level. At the beginning of the twenty-first
century the women’s organisations in India are linked together through networks on
different issues and campaigns. While former methods of protest and advocacy are still
used, new methods of resistance and mobilisation for change are also being evolved.
Nirbhaya case and Verma Committee

• Justice JS Verma Committee was formed in the aftermath of the Nirbhaya rape case.
• Some of the recommendations of the committee are:
o It sought comprehensive amendments to the criminal laws, seeking 20 years
imprisonment for gang rape and lfie term for rape and murder.
o To implement police reforms to provide them with better autonomy, and for better
functioning of the police force
o An officer who doesn’t report a FIR or delays it for a rape case should be punished
o It had framed a protocol for medical examination of a rape victim
o The government should tackle the issue of trafficking of children and it should also
maintain data on the same

Student Notes:
o All marriages in India should be registered mandatorily in the presence of a magistrate

who would ensure that no dowry has been taken for the marriage
o It also argued to make marital rape a punishable offence
Other Organizations in Voluntary Sector

NFIW: The National Federation of Indian Women in India (NFIW) is amongst the largest
women’s organization in India today. It was founded in 1954 as the women’s wing of the
Communist party of India (CPI), with Aruna Asaf Ali among its prominent leaders.
AIDWA: The All India Democratic Women’s Association (AIDWA) (1981) takes upon itself the
task organising the masses of women in town and villages of India and of building a powerful
broad based women’s movement for the uplift and betterment of the lot of the women as a
whole, to remove all discrimination between man and woman, to fight for democracy, equal
rights and emancipation of women, in a society free from exploitation. It is the women's wing
of the Communist Party of India (Marxist).
The women’s movement during 1970s and 1980s while being effective in bringing women’s
issues back into the arena of public debate was only a beginning of the long struggle ahead for
equality, justice and dignity to all women.
SHGs and Women

• SHGs have been successful in fulfilling their aim of empowering women, and to help
eradicate poverty in rural areas.
• The impact of SHGs on women are as follows:
o It has led to their social and economical empowerment
o It has helped women gain more control over decision making in households
o It has been helpful in providing women with financial autonomy, in participation in
community driven program, self employment autonomy
o It has helped instill a saving spirit among the members
• Though SHGs have had an immense impact on the status of women, but they can be made
more effective in the following ways:
o Through proper capacity building, training and skill upgradation of women
o Motivating SHG women to participate in government sponsored community driven
programs
o Proper rating and categorization of SHGs
o Providing technical help to the SHGs so that they can also utilize the ongoing ICT
revolution and grow further
6. An Analysis of Women’s Current Situation

According to Census-2011, India has reached the population of 1210 million, as against 301
million in 1951, of which 58, 64, 69,174 (48.5 %) were females. The population of India
accounted for 17.5% of the total world population and occupied second place. The sex ratio
was 930 in 1971 and it has increased to 940 according to 2011 Census. The female literacy also
increased from 18.3% in 1961 to 74.0% in 2011 and a decrease in male-female literacy gap from
26.6% in 1981 to 16.7 per cent in 2011.
Women empowerment in India is heavily dependent on many different variables that include
geographical location (rural/urban), educational status, social status (caste and class) and
age. Policies on women empowerment exist at national, state and local levels in many
sectors including health, education, economic opportunities, gender based violence and
political participation. The scope and coverage of the schemes launched has been expanding

Student Notes:
that include initiatives for economic and social empowerment of women and for securing
gender equality. The following schemes at present are aiming at women empowerment and
gender equality in India:
• Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) (1975)
• Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG) (2010)
• The Rajiv Gandhi National Crèche Scheme for Children of Working Mothers.
• Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS) (2009-10)
• Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)
• Dhanalakshmi (2008)
• Short Stay Homes
• Swadhar
• Ujjawala (2007)
• Scheme for Gender Budgeting (XI Plan)
• National Mission for Empowerment of Women
• Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (1993)
• Beti Bachao Beti Padao
• SABLA-Scheme for Adolescent Girls
In spite of the above schemes and programmes, there are significant gaps between policy
achievements and actual practice at the community level. The Global Gender Gap Index (2017)
ranking of the country has fallen from 87 in 2016 to 108 in 2017 out of 144 countries according
to the recent report of the World Economic Forum. According to the 2017 report, India has
closed 67% of its gender gap, but this is less than many of its neighbours such as Bangladesh,
which ranked 47, and China, which was placed 100. Also, on an average 66% of women’s work
in India is unpaid, compared to 12% of men’s. India’s greatest challenges were in the economic
participation and opportunities for women. India did not perform too well in the health and
survival pillar either. India, however, fully closed the gap in primary and secondary education
enrolment for the second year in a row.
Global Gender Gap Index

The index measures gender gap as progress towards parity between men and women in four
indicators
• Educational attainment,
• Health and survival
• Economic opportunity and
• Political empowerment.
Countries are ranked based scores on scale ranging from 0 (highest imparity) to 1 (least
imparity). It is released every year by World Economic Forum since 2006.
Iceland is most gender-equal country with score of 0.878. It is followed by Norway (2nd rank),
Finland (3), Rwanda (4) Sweden (5), Nicaragua (6), Slovenia (7), Ireland (8), New Zealand (9) and
the Philippines (10).
Overall 68% of global gender gap has been closed, deterioration is seen compared to 2016
when gap closed was 68.3%. At current rate of progress, global gender gap will take 100 years
to bridge, compared to 83 last year. The case is worse in terms of workplace gender divide as it
will take 217 years to close.
• EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS
No doubt, India has attained significant improvement in women’s literacy which was 8.9 %

Student Notes:
in 1951, improved to 65.5 % as on 2011. As a result the male-female gap in literacy has
narrowed down from 26.6% in 1981 to 16.7% in 2011. However, the Human Development
Report-2011 observed that the population with at least secondary education (% age 25
and above) was only 26.6% for females as against 50.4% for males.(Human Development
Report-2011).
Net Attendance Ratio at primary and upper primary levels in rural areas and in urban areas
was found for females were completely low during 2007-08 (India Human Development
Report-2011). Net Attendance Ratio at higher secondary level for females was only 20.0% in
rural areas and 39.0% in urban areas. Inspite of the implementation of programmes like
“Sarva Siksha Abhiyan”, still 21.8% of the girl children (6-17 years age) were found out of
schools.
Although the gender differential in literacy has declined over time, the differential remains
high even in the youngest age group among those 15-19 years of age, the percentage
of females who are literate (74%) is 15%, which is less than the males (89%). The
National Family Health Survery-3 (2009) observed that there are great disparities in literacy
by wealth especially for Women.
• ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION AND OPPORTUNITY
Women’s participation in labour force is seen as a signal of declining discrimination and
increasing empowerment of women. It is thought that feminization of the workforce is also
a sign of improvement of women’s opportunities and position in society. In India, the
statistics show that in both rural and urban areas, the Labour force Participation Rate had
declined in 2009-10 as compared to 1003-94 particularly for females.
Surveys reveal the fact that in India there are considerable gender disparities in Labour
force Participation Rates. The female labour force participation rate has declined from
49.0% to 37.8% and from 23.8% to 19.4% in rural and urban areas respectively between
1993-94 and 2009-10. The second conclusion is that in 2009-11, the female labour force
participation rate is only 19.4% as against 76.2% for males.
The low labour force participation rates are attributed to reasons that women’s work is
statistically less visible, non-monetized and relegated to subsistence production and
domestic side and estimation reveal that this proportion accounts for 60.0% of unpaid
work and 98% of domestic work. The India Human Development Report-2011 observed
that poor access to education was one of the reasons for higher labour force participation
rate in rural areas particularly for females. Further, there is huge gender disparity in both
rural and urban areas for females with reference to Worker Population Ratio.
Women’s workforce participation rate was almost half of that of men in rural areas and less
than a third in urban areas. These figures make it clear that the achievement of economic
development for the past 60 years did not had a telling effect on Workforce
Participation Rate for females in India as almost no change took place in this vital index of
women empowerment.
• EMPLOYMENT SCENARIO
Employment can also be an important source of empowerment for women, particularly for
cash and in the formal sector. Employment empowers women by providing financial
independence, alternative source of social identity and exposure to power structures.
It is observed that women’s employment both in rural and urban areas is very low
compared with men, particularly in urban areas. It is also found that 49.4% of the women
are employed in rural areas (as against 88.7% of males) as the agricultural work is typically

Student Notes:
more compatible with women’s responsibilities as well as with low education. Employment
by age also exhibits a serious gender gap. Employment is found at peak in all the age groups
for men, whereas for women it is found at peak in the age group of 30-39 years (also for
males). In each and every age group, the percentage of women employment is low
compared to that of men in our country.
• ACCESS TO RESOURCES
Access to resources is important for economic freedom of women as freedom of movement
is linked with their economic independence and also infuses with power and expands
agency. The National Family Health Survey-3 has identified five important variables
namely: knowledge of loan programme, get loan, having bank account, higher educational
attainment and working outside as a measure of economic independence.
NFHS-3 has also captured “exposure to media” through four variables namely: reading
newspaper every day, listening radio every day, watching TV every day and knowing
about modern contraceptives, as the measurement indicators of women’s empowerment.
The media is important source of information and exposure to new ways of thinking and
doing things. Besides, radio listening, TV watching and reading newspapers or magazines
are important leisure activities and represent an important indication of women’s
empowerment and have the potential for enabling environment by facilitating greater
control over their own time use.The survey showed that women’s access to resources is
dismally poor in our country.It is quite disappointing to note that the women who have a
bank saving account was found very low at 15.07% and in spite of knowing about loan
programmes, they have failed to secure a loan. 36.4% of the women had the freedom to
work in outside. These variables are closely associated with level of education and the
higher education, a potent source of empowerment was found at only 7.3% for women.
It is also evident that women have least exposure to mass media and almost all women
know (98%) about modern contraceptives. The percentage of women who read
newspapers and listen to raid every day was estimated at 12.5% and 17.1% only. However,
about the modern contraceptives had a great bearing on the estimation of index for access
to resources at 0.7259
• CONTROL OVER OWN EARNINGS
“Empowerment” also means “to invest with power”. In the context of women
empowerment, it refers to increased control over their own lives, bodies and environment.
Hence, an important indicator of “agency” is decision making power. For women
particularly the post-marriage phase of life decides the capability of women to overcome
barriers all translate into increased/decreased agency.
According to NFHS-3, married men are more likely to be involved in decisions about the use
of their own earnings than married women. The data also show that men have higher level
of decision making power compared to women to use their own earnings. Further, it is
evident that most than two third of women are unable to make decisions alone about the
use of their own earnings.
• PARTICIPATION IN HOUSEHOLD DECISIONS
NFHS-3 has collected data on how women are participating in several other decisions and
who usually makes them. Specifically, decisions related to own health care, large household
purchases and visits to family or relations are considered for analysis.
The data on specific decisions and how they are being taken by the women exhibit that
73%, 91% and 89% of women even today are not able to take decisions alone with

Student Notes:
respect to their own health care, large household purchases and could not decide
themselves even to visit their family or relatives respectively. Less than 50% of women
have participated in decisions about visits to their family or relations jointly and only
35.1% of women have participated in decisions about their own health care jointly.
• SPOUSAL VIOLENCE
Domestic violence is one of the most common forms of gender-based violence experienced
by women across the world. Domestic violence results into violation of human rights and
economic costs. It leads to both short term and long term detrimental effects on the health
and welfare of women and their children. Living with constant threat of domestic violence
is, as considered by experts, acts as a source of disempowerment of women.
Domestic violence takes the forms like emotional, physical and sexual violence by their
husbands. It was observed that 27% of currently married women age 15-49 have
experienced the violence during a survey period of 12 months according to NFHS-3. 55% of
women who have experienced physical and sexual violence reported that they were injured
by their husbands. Cuts, eye injuries, sprains, dislocations, deep wounds, broken bones,
broken teeth and other serious injuries were the types of injuries reported.

Student Notes:
Domestic violence act

Domestic Violence Act:
• The act defines the term 'domestic'. The scope of term women has been widened and it
now includes 'live in partners', wives, sisters, widows, mothers, single women, divorced
wife.
• Definition of domestic violence has been widened- includes actual abuse or threat of abuse
that is physical, sexual, verbal, emotional and economic
• It provides the right to secure housing in the matrimonial or shared household.
• It provides for appointment of protection officers and NGOs to provide assistance to
the woman for medical examination, legal aid and safe Shelter.
• Non-compliance or discharge of duties by the protection officer is also sought to be made
an offence under the Act with similar punishment.
• A progressive piece of legislation in the direction of providing equal socioeconomic
rights and empowerment to the women in the country.
• Non bail-able offence if booked under this act
Criticism of the act:
• Gender biased- There are increasing number of false cases
• Verbal abuse and mental harassment are open to subjective interpretation- this is being
misused
• Lack of awareness, especially in rural areas
• Insensitivity of male police officers, judicial magistrates during hearing
• Absence of economic, psychological and support system for victim women
• Excludes marital rape
• Insufficient budgetary allocation to states: states could not assign 'Protection officers'
Way forward:
• NGOs relating to women empowerment should be encouraged to protect women from
domestic violence
• Faster delivery of cases
• PRIs should play a progressive and empathetic role towards such cases
• More sensitive training to be given to officers concerned at every stage
• More awareness drive especially in rural areas
• Long term solution: Women should be financially empowered through various govt
schemes and programs
• AUTONOMY OF WOMEN
Autonomy of women in control over decision making freedom in sexual relations, freedom
of movement and women's attitude towards wife-beating are considered as indicators of
women empowerment by the experts. Autonomy of women in refusing sexual intercourse
with their husbands is a very forceful expression of women's control over their sexuality
and control over one’s sexual life is integral to women’s well-being and autonomy.
According to NFHS 3, the data analysed on female autonomy deals with two important
determinants of autonomy of women as indicators of empowerment. The data reveal that
more than 78% of women in India had hold on sexual intercourse with their husband. Wife
beating is found in India as one of many types of domestic violence on women. It is
observed that it is fairly accepted by the women themselves. Wife beating was justified by
the women to the extent of more than 64% of women were found must assertive in
rejecting the wife beating as the overall index worked out to 0.9599.

Student Notes:
Marital Rape Debate

Why marital rape must be a crime?
• Arguments against making it a crime:
o There is too little education and too many customs and beliefs in the Indian society
• Arguments in favour of making it a crime:
o Justice JS Verma committee, which recommended sweeping changes in the law relating
to offences against women, called for marital rape to be made an offence.
• The present Indian law exempts non-consensual sex between a husband and wife, not
being less than 15 years of age, from being charged with rape. However, by another
provision it makes rape of a wife who is living separately a criminal offence.
• The age limit of 15 years above which marital rape is not an offence is inherently
problematic, as normally sex with a girl up to the age of 18 is an offence regardless of
consent.
• The exemption given to marital rape, as Justice Verma noted, “stems from a long out-dated
notion of marriage which regarded wives as no more than the property of their husbands”.
Marital rape ought to be a crime and not a concept.
• There will be objections such as a perceived threat to the integrity of the marital union and
the possibility of misuse of the penal provisions. It is not really true that the private or
domestic domain has always been outside the purview of law. The law against domestic
violence already covers both physical and sexual abuse as grounds for the legal system to
intervene.
• It is difficult to argue that a complaint of marital rape will ruin a marriage, while a
complaint of domestic violence against a spouse will not. It has long been time to jettison
the notion of ‘implied consent’ in marriage. The law must uphold the bodily autonomy of
all women, irrespective of their marital status.
Uniform Civil Code and Women

Art 44: state shall endeavor to secure a UCC for its citizens, throughout the territory of India.
Uniform Civil Code essentially means a common set of laws governing personal matters for all
citizens of the country, irrespective of religion.
Arguments in favour of UCC:
• Article 25 of the Constitution empowers the State to frame any law to regulate or restrict
“secular activity which may be associated with religious practice”-therefore, it is argued,
Article 25 is no bar to having a Uniform Civil Code.
• DPSP as per Art 44 of the Constitution
• Inconsistency in personal laws has been challenged as it violates Art 14, which ensures the
right to equality. Litigants have contended that their right to equality is endangered by
personal laws that put them at a disadvantage.
Benefits of UCC:
• Divest religion from social relations and personal laws, ensuring equality, unity and
integrity of the nation and justice to both men and women.
• All the laws related to marriage, inheritance, family, land etc. would be equal for all
Indians.
• Help improve condition of women in India.
• Will help society move forward, and take India towards its goal of becoming a developed
nation where women are treated fairly and given equal rights.

Student Notes:
• Various personal laws have loop holes which are exploited by informal bodies like
Panchayats etc.
• Help reduce vote bank politics-- as politicians will have less to offer to communities in
exchange for their votes.
• help in integration of India
• Could induce custodian of faith to look inwards and seek to codify and reform age old
personal laws in conformity with current modernizing and integrative tendencies.
• UCC is present in countries like Germany, Italy, Egypt and Turkey.
Challenges in implementing:
• Law Ministry: 3 chief impediments: separatism, conservatism and misconceived notions
about personal laws.
• India has a strong and long history of personal laws and it cannot be given up easily.
• Broad consensus must be drawn among diff communities.
• Biggest obstacle in implementing the UCC, apart from obtaining a consensus, is the
drafting. How to blend all the set of personal laws which are present in society will be a
major challenge.
Way forward:
• Take an evaluation survey of all communities to suggest reforms within personal laws on
modern and liberal lines.
• Need for bringing awareness among citizens through discussion, deliberations, and
academic seminars among members of various communities.
• Need of piecemeal reform rather than a holistic reform starting with what minorities
are most comfortable of doing away with.
7. National Policy for Women

7.1. National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2001
The Government of India had adopted the National Policy for Empowerment of Women on 20th
March, 2001 with the objective to bring about the advancement, development and
empowerment of women and to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women.
Given the long term nature of issues which impact on women, need was felt to strengthen the
processes that promote all-round development of women by focussing on a coordinated
approach for implementation of the schemes of the concerned Ministries/Departments and by
creating an enabling environment conducive to social change. With this in view, the
Government has set up National Mission for Empowerment of Women in 2010 with the
objective of convergence of schemes/programmes of different Ministries/Departments of
Government of India as well as State Governments/UT Administrations.
7.2. Priority Areas for a New National Policy for Empowerment of Women
• Health including food security and nutrition
• Education
• Economy
• Governance and Decision Making
• Violence Against Women
• Enabling Environment
• Environment and Climate Change

Student Notes:
Policy also describes emerging issues such as making cyber spaces safe place for women,
redistribution of gender roles, for reducing unpaid care work, review of personal and
customary laws in accordance with the Constitutional provisions, Review of criminalization of
marital rape within the framework women’s human rights etc. relevant in the developmental
paradigms.
8. Conclusion
Looking back at the last four decades we can say with a fair amount of certainty that women’s
position in Indian society has changed. This change has been to women’s advantage. There has
no doubt been a wider recognition of women’s rights, several steps taken towards equality
among genders, a greater sensitivity towards gender discrimination, etc. The women’s
movement comprising of autonomous women’s organisations, other women’s groups, women’s
studies centres, etc., has played no small role in the bringing about of this change. We can,
therefore, say without hesitation that, over the last 40 years, the women’s movement has
affected the socio-political environment in India. However, this change has been at a gradual
pace and has even affected certain sections more than others leaving yet much to be desired.
Despite the current fragmentation, women’s groups have come together with one concerted
voice on certain issues such as violence, health, employment conditions including wages, legal
rights and law reform. The issues today are sexual harassment at the work place, the violence of
development, caste and communal violence, lobbying for increased political participation of
women in the highest levels of decision-making, etc.
The list will go on as long as there is a women’s movement. Many scholars have illustrated how
the women’s movement has not been static but has been compelled to respond to changing
political, social, economic and other national realities and not exclusively influenced by women-
specific issues and problems.
9. Appendix
9.1. Legislative Acts
Parliament from time to time has passed several legislations to empower women & to provide
them a legal basis in their fight for equality & justice. Some of them are:
1) Sati (Prevention) Act 1987 – The practice of Sati which was first abolished in 1829, was
revised and made illegal in 1887. It provided for a more effective prevention of the
commission of sati and its glorification and for matters connected therewith.
2) Amendment to criminal Act 1983- This Act talks about domestic violence as an offence,
rape is also made a punishable offence.
3) Special Marriage Act 1954- It has been amended to fix the minimum age of marriage at 21
yrs for males & 18 yrs for females.
4) Hindu Succession Act 1956- Equal share to daughter from property of father, while a widow
has the right to inherit husband’s property. An amendment in this Act in 2005 enabled
daughters to have equal share in ancestral properties.
5) Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (ITPA), 1986- Suppression of Immoral Trafficking in women
and girls Act (SITA) 1956 was amended in 1986 & renamed ITPA. SITA was enacted to
prohibit or abolish traffic in women and girls for purposes of prostitution. It was amended
to cover both the sexes & provided enhanced penalties for offenses involving minors.
However the system has failed to crack the mafia working both at interstate and
international levels.
6) Dowry Prohibition Act 1961- Now court is empowered to act in his own knowledge or on a
complaint by any recognized welfare organization on dowry murder. Indian Evidence Act is

Student Notes:
also amended to shift the burden of proof to husband & his family where bride dies within
7 yrs of marriage.
7) Maternity benefit Act 1961- An Act to regulate the employment of women for certain
period before and after childbirth and to provide for maternity benefits like paid leaves for
6 months.
8) Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971- Legalize abortion in case if fetus is suffering
from physical or mental abnormality, in case of rape & unwanted pregnancy within 12
weeks of gestation period & after 12 th week, before 20th week if the pregnancy is harmful
for the mother or the child born would be severely deformed.
9) Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986- This Act prohibits indecent
representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings,
and figures or in any other manner and for matters connected therewith.
10) Domestic Violence Act 2005- It seeks to determine domestic violence in all forms against
women & make it a punishable offence.
11) Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 – In the backdrop of Dec 16 gang rape, this Act was
passed amending the CrPC. The new law has provisions for increased sentence for rape
convicts, including life-term and death sentence, besides providing for stringent
punishment for offences such as acid attacks, stalking and voyeurism. Through the revised
Bill, the government has amended various sections of the Indian Penal Code, the Code of
Criminal Procedure, the Indian Evidence Act and the Protection of Children from Sexual
Offences Act.
9.2. Constitutional Provisions for Women in Our Constitution

1) Article 14 - Men and women to have equal rights and opportunities in the political,
economic and social spheres.
2) Article 15(1) - Prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race,
caste, sex etc.
3) Article 15(3)- Special provision enabling the State to make affirmative discriminations in
favor of women.
4) Article 16- Equality of opportunities in matter of public appointments for all citizens.
5) Article 23- Bans trafficking in human and forced labor
6) Article 39(a)- The State shall direct its policy towards securing all citizens men and
women, equally, the right to means of livelihood.
7) Article 39(d)- Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
8) Article 42- The State to make provision for ensuring just and humane conditions of work
and maternity relief.
9) Article 51 (A)(e)- To renounce the practices derogatory to the dignity of women
10) Article 300 (A)- Right of property to women
11) 73rd & 74th Amendment Act 1992- Reservation of 1/3rd of seats in local bodies of
panchayats and municipalities for women.
(The day on which 73rd amendment became operational i.e April 24th is also declared as
Women’s Empowerment Day).
9.3. Government Response
1) Committees on the status of women in India (CSWI) – This was set up in a response to
United Nation’s general assembly Declaration of Elimination of Discrimination Against
Women 1967. It submitted its report in 1974, which stressed the fact that poor are not a
homogenous group & highlighted the unequal burden of poverty on women.
2) Draft National Plan of Action for Women- GoI has drawn up a national plan based on CSWI
report. The plan accords priority to the need of concrete action in the areas of education,

Student Notes:
health, welfare and employment with special reference to weaker section of society
especially women.
3) It was only in 1980s that women were recognized as a separate group and a separate
chapter viz “Women and Development” was included in the 6 th Plan Document (1980-
1985) for the first time. Then subsequently it was included in the 5 year plans to ensure
that fruits of development & benefits of Govt. programs do reach women.
4) National Commission for women 1991 - The National Commission for Women was set up
as statutory body in January 1992 under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 to:
• Protect and promote the interest and safeguard the right of women.
• Study all matters related to constitutional and legal safeguards provided for women, to
review existing legislation & suggest amendments if necessary.
• Look into the complaints and take notice of the cases involving deprivation of women &
provide support legal or otherwise to helpless and needy women.
• It recommended the Govt. to play an active role by incorporating a component of
organizing in all govt. schemes, project etc for the poor, to promote organization of
women at a broader level.
National Commission for Women: A toothless tiger?

• NCW is the apex national level organization of India with the mandate of protecting and
promoting the interests of women.
• The major functions of NCW include:
o Investigating and examining all the matters relating to the safeguards which women
are provided under the Constitution
o It presents reports to the central government on the work done by the commission
o It also makes recommendations for effective implementation of safeguards to the
central as well as state governments
o It reviews the legislations related to women, and points out the shortcomings
o It looks into complaints, and can take suo moto action in such cases
o It works towards women rights and women empowerment
• But the NCW has not been able to play a very effective role. This can be clearly seen by the
slow improvement in the status of women in India, and also the increasing cases of
violence against women.
• Some of the reasons for this are:
o The financial assistance provided to the commission is less to cater to its needs, and to
fulfill its mandate
o The members are appointed by the government, and this is a major shortcoming, as
the commission cannot select its own members
o The recommendations of the commission are not mandatory; therefore the NCW lacks
any concrete legislative power. Recommendations of the commission are not binding
on the government
• All these reasons have led the commission to be more of a toothless tiger.
5) National Institute of Public Cooperation and child Development- NIPCCD, New Delhi is an
autonomous organization under the aegis of Department of women and child
development. Its objective is to:
• Develop and promote voluntary action in social development through training &
capacity building of Govt. and Non Govt. functionaries
• Take a comprehensive view of women and child development & develop and promote
programs in pursuance of national policy of children.
• Develop measures for coordination of governmental and voluntary action in social
development.

Student Notes:
9.4. Women Empowerment Programs/Schemes by GoI

For empowering the women, various program have been initiated by GoI as below:
1) Gender Budgeting- This concept was first introduced in Australia in mid 1980s & India
incorporated this in its budget since 2005-06.
It is not an accounting exercise but an ongoing process of keeping a gender perspective in
policy/ program formulation, its implementation and review. GB involves dissection of the
Government budgets to establish its gender differential impacts and to ensure that gender
commitments are translated in to budgetary commitments.
• Nirbhaya fund- In a tribute to the recent Delhi gang-rape victim of Dec 2012,
government in the union budget 2013-14,announced setting up of a 'Nirbhaya Fund' of
Rs 1,000 crore for safety and empowerment of women.
• An all-women bank was also proposed to be set up by October, 2013 with an initial
capital of Rs 1,000 crore for the purpose to facilitate women empowerment
2) Working Women Hostel- The objective of the scheme is to promote availability of safe and
conveniently located accommodation for working women, with day care facility for their
children, in urban, semi urban, or even rural areas where employment opportunity for
women exist.
3) Support to training cum employment for women (STEP)- Ministry of Women and child
development launched this program in the year 1986, for training and employment for
women below poverty line in traditional sectors like agriculture, small animal husbandry,
dairying, fisheries etc. where women are employed on a large scale. Its basic aim is to
upgrade skills of women for self and wage employment.
4) Swayamsidha- It is an integrated program, seeks to empower women through awareness
generation, achievement of economic independence through micro-level income-
generating activities and by establishing convergence of various services such as literacy,
health, rural development etc. It also aims at organizing women into Self-Help Groups,
developing access to micro credit.
5) Swa Shakti – This project aims at establishment of more than 16000 self reliant women
SHGs(Self Help Groups) having 15-20 members each & thereby enhance women’s access to
and control over resources for betterment of their lives. Also to sensitise and strengthen
the institutional capacity of support agencies to pro actively address women’s need.
6) Rashtriya Mahila Kosh – It is a national level mechanism to meet the micro credit needs of
the poor and asset-less women in the Informal Sector. From inception in 1993 till February
2001, total credit worth Rs. 100 crore was sanctioned to benefit more than 400,000 women
through 827 NGOs spread over the country. RMK has a very good recovery rate of 90 to 95
per cent.
7) Swadhar- This scheme aims to provide basic necessities to marginalised women and girls
who are living in difficult circumstances without any economic or social support. Under this
scheme women are provided with emotional support and counselling. The target group is
mainly women who are victim of violence or survivors of natural disaster, trafficked women,
and women without no families.

Student Notes:

1. Any discourse on environmental movements in India is incomplete without analysing
the role of women in it. Comment.
Approach:
• Elaborate on the basics of environmental movements in India. Then argue how,
access to natural resources is central to Women’s lives in India, which is the basis of
environmental movements in India.
• Further, an analysis could be given of CHIPKO movement, which is indeed the
starting of environmental movements in post-independent India. Conclude w.r.t.
the birth of ecofeminism in India.
Answer: [Student Note: Answer has been kept long to discuss the issue in detail.]
• Environmental movement is a “diverse scientific, social and political movement for
addressing environmental issues.”
• Environmental movements in developing countries are struggles of the
dispossessed, the marginalized, the victims of discrimination, among whom can
be counted women, tribal and the non-commercial farmers.
• Reasons for the movement are control over natural resources; resistance offered
by ecosystem people to the resource capture by omnivorous; environmental
degradation; socio-economic reasons (tribal issues).
• Hence, any discourse on environmental movements in developing countries cannot
be complete without understanding how they are related to livelihood issues & its
gendered context. This is in contrast to the discussions on environment
conservation in developed countries which often revolves around the issues of
quality of life, animal rights etc.
• Women have direct contact with natural resources like fuel, food and fodder,
forest, water and land especially in rural areas where 70% of Indian population
reside and directly dependent upon natural resources. Women are also responsible
for using these resources to satisfy the basic needs of their families.
• Women have given different perspective to the environmental issues due to their
different experience base. They view the issue in a broad and holistic manner
aiming at long term benefits of subsistence and survival as against short term
commercial gains.
• Therefore, conservation of natural resources and promotion of environment
cannot be done without involving the women in planning and training for
promoting the values for conservation and promotion of environment.
• The emergence of the Indian environmental movement can perhaps be dated to
1973, when the famous Chipko movement began in the central Himalayas. The
Chipko movement emerged as a protest against granting of permission for access to
the forests to commercial timber operators, while the local people were refused
access to the forests for making agricultural implements.
• The movement which spread rapidly to other villages saw the active involvement of
women. They worked jointly with the men of their community, and in some cases
even against them, when they differed with them over the use of forest resources.
Women were more concerned with the long-term gain of saving the forests and
environment, and hence, subsistence and survival issues, rather than short-term
gain through commercial projects like monoculture forests, potato-seed farms, etc.
• The scope of the movement broadened and involved issues of male alcoholism,
domestic violence, women’s representation in village councils, as well as against

Student Notes:
mining in the hills. It helped women recognize the inter-connections between

nature and human sustenance. The movement was carried forward largely by
women using Gandhian techniques of protest.
• It was just the beginning, which was followed by several other movements such as
Green Belt movement in 1977 (planting trees), Appiko movement (hugging the
trees) , Narmada Bachao Aandolan etc. which saw significant participation of
women at all levels.
• We need to analyze women’ s interaction with nature and their responses to
environmental degradation with respect to the material reality of gender, caste,
class and race based division of labor, property and power. It is the poor, lower
class and lower caste, and within them, the peasant and tribal women, who are
worst, affected and hence, they are the most active in the protests. Women are
victims of environmental degradation as well as active agents in the regeneration
and protection of the environment. The adverse class-gender effects of these
processes are reflected in the erosion of indigenous knowledge systems and
livelihood strategies on which poor, rural women depend.
• The history of environmental movements in India shows that women have bear the
major brunt of environmental degradation & hence have also been the first ones to
spearhead conservation movements from Chipko to the Narmada Bachao Andolan.
• Moreover the strong connection between women and the issues of the
environment led to the emergence of the concept of ecofeminism. The term which
grew out of the various social movements that were occurring all over the world
involves the concept of feminism, peace and the ecology and signifies the role of
women in environmental conservation.
2. Feminization of agriculture has led to women empowerment in rural India. Critically

analyse.
Approach:
• Define first what do we mean by two terms-feminization of labour & feminization
of poverty & relate it to Indian agriculture. Next would be to talk about how both
of them are related to the invisible hand of patriarchy & finally to point out how
feminization or defeminisation of labour force is determined by the intertwining of
market forces with patriarchy.
Answer:
The gendered division of labour under the pervasive influence of patriarchy has
traditionally ensured that women are restricted to household work which is easily
passed off as unpaid domestic labour. However the invisible hand of patriarchy is not
only at work within the household but also in cases where women manage to gain an
entry into the labour market.
The participation of women in agriculture & thus outside the traditional domain of
domestic work has been in the backdrop of agrarian distress in agriculture which
forced the male members of families to move out of rural-agriculture - low wages
sector into the relatively better paying jobs in the informal sector in urban economies.
It is believed that this phenomenon has been induced by casualization of work,
unprofitable crop production and distress migration. Migration has been noticed to
other rural areas, to urban slums and to highly labour-exploitative sectors of the
economy such as construction.

Student Notes:
This trend in the agriculture sector was most visible during 1999-2005 period in India
marked by declining agriculture growth rates which saw a distress migration of male
members to relatively better paying jobs either in the urban informal economy or the
agriculturally prosperous states and “distress employment” of 17 million females in this
sector.
This phenomenon of increased participation of women workforce in the agriculture
sector was termed as feminization of agriculture which itself was a manifestation of
feminization of poverty- the fact that in a market economy functioning under a
patriarchal mind set females often find themselves cornered into relatively lesser
paying jobs with minimal rights, no job security, sexual harassment at workplace & a
gender insensitive policy framework which has failed to take up the issue of capacity
building of female farmers on a priority basis.
For example: Women employed as wage labour receive lower wage than men do. Even
when women are categorised as cultivators, their ownership and control over resources
such as land, livestock, farm machinery, and transport equipment are limited. In
addition, their access to credit, technology and market information is highly
restricted. Their opportunities for education, skill formation and of shifting to better
paid work are also narrow. Disadvantages experienced by women become apparent
once women’s work comes out into the open, as in the case of female wage labour and
women-headed households. Female wage labourers are the lowest paid in the
economy. The women-headed households in rural areas are seen in the lowest income
class. Hence, the major implication of feminisation of agriculture is the increasing
burden of work on them and lower compensation.
Therefore, it is evident from above illustration that increase in female participation in
agriculture was thus driven by the need to supplement declining family income (or
rather male income) termed as “distress employment” & not by any desire to give them
an equal status either in the formal economy or within the household with the result
that females worked on wages that their male counterparts found to be below
subsistence level in the first place.
Feminization being an unintended consequence of the low agricultural growth did not
lead to the women empowerment in true sense. Moreover, the limited increase in
bargaining power of rural women within family fuelled by participation in formal
economy itself was short lived. This is exemplified by the fact that women labour force
participation in rural areas declined again in 2005-2009 period which was marked by
relatively better agricultural growth rates & increasing wages as a result of positive
influence of MGNREGA &Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), a phenomenon which
has been termed as defeminisation of agriculture leading to withdrawal of 19 million
females from this sector during this period
Thus while increasing labour force participation of women definitely carries the
potential of uplifting their position within the family & society, no sustainable gains
can be made unless the gendered division of labour is frontally attacked by gender
sensitive policies of the state which actively support women employment. Moreover,
the nexus between market forces & patriarchy will have to be broken in the first place
for which the state & civil society will have to play a vibrant role.

Student Notes:
3. Why is it that the societal trends that maintain a violent order against women have
remained intact, when there has been a legal expansion of women’s rights in India?
Approach:
• Argue on the lines that -Rights may be self-evident or constitutionally secured;
however they do not automatically implement themselves.
• Comment on why, despite far reaching legislations, rape and sexual assault are still
common and how caste based institutions (Khap Panchayats, Kangaroo Courts)
have asserted their rights over that of the Women. – i.e. Societally sanctioned rape
and assault cases in India
Answer:
The gravest issue which has confronted the Indian society over the years is the violent
order against women. "Violence against women is a manifestation of historically
unequal power relations between men and women" and that "violence against
women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a
subordinate position compared with men". These include violence carried out by
‘individuals’ as well as ‘states.’
It has got manifested in the form of rape; domestic violence; sexual harassment;
coercive use of contraceptives; female infanticide; prenatal sex selection; as well as
harmful customary or traditional practices such as honor killings, dowry
violence, female genital mutilation, marriage by abduction and forced marriage.
Some forms of violence are perpetrated or condoned by the state such as war
rape; sexual violence and sexual slavery during conflict; forced sterilization; forced
abortion; violence by the police and authoritative personnel; stoning and flogging.
Many forms of violence such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often
perpetrated by organized criminal networks.
In Indian context, past year has seen a much delayed yet needed discussion on women
security & related issues in the civil society, media & legal domain which fuelled the
establishment of Justice Verma committee, the passage of sexual harassment at
workplace bill and a proactive supreme court taking up gender related issues in a big
way. Yet, the paradoxical finding has been a study in 2011 conducted by the
International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) on gender attitudes which
showed that 68 per cent of the Indian men surveyed agreed that women should
tolerate violence to keep their families together, while 65 per cent believed that
sometimes a woman deserves to be beaten. The most interesting finding from the
study was this one — 92 per cent of those surveyed knew of the laws pertaining to
violence against women. The figure quoted above tells us that legislation alone is not
going to stop violence against women from occurring.
This apparent paradox of expanding legal rights on one hand& a backlash from a
society can be seen either in the form of either poorly formulated or poorly
implemented laws dealing with gender related issues in India, whether it is the case of
laws relating to foetal sex determination or the poor conviction rate in rape cases or the
persistence and thriving of Khap Panchayats in rural areas despite the Supreme Court
describing them as unconstitutional and illegal; lack of adequate institutional
mechanism to ensure its implementation, lack of awareness amongst the women
about their rights.
However this ‘apparent paradox’ has a simple logical explanation- the deeply
patriarchal nature of society which legitimises the use of violence to discipline women.

Student Notes:
The hegemony of this parochial mind-set and lack of gender sensitivity, which can be
seen in the fact that some degree of violence against women is considered as both
necessary and desirable not only by males but also by females in Indian society. The
gross under reportage of violence related cases against women in India is a result of
this basic fact.
Against this backdrop of a patriarchal society, the state passes some progressive laws
but lacks the capacity to effectively implement them because the vital political will is
missing in the first place. Secondly “The Law decides the direction in which society
might go, it is the culture and family which decides the direction in which the society
actually goes”. Hence it’s the failure on the part of institutions such as education
system, family values and norms etc. to deal with the menace of the violence against
women.
The only way out of this trap is to bring the society out of the cultural inertia which has
adversely affected the supposedly progressive laws to fight the violent order at all its
stages: formulation, implementation, evaluation.
Perhaps a good point to start is by providing reservation to women in the legislative
bodies so that instead of viewing women in development, we ensure women and
development.
4. What are the factors responsible for high infant mortality rate in India? Discuss its
implications for Indian women. Suggest steps that have been taken by the
government to address this problem.
Approach:
Answer can be divided in three parts:
• First discuss the socio-economic and cultural factors that lead to high infant
mortality in India along
• In few concrete points discuss the implications of the phenomena for women.
• Enumerate important steps taken by the government for reducing infant mortality.
Answer:
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is the number of infants dying before reaching one year of
age, per 1,000 live births in a given year. According to the 2011 Census report IMR in
India stands at 40. India is unlikely to achieve the targets under the Millennium
Developmental Goals. Many research studies conducted so far have indicated that,
besides medico-clinical causes, the SOCIO-ECONOMIC factors are important
determinants in high infant mortality.
• Economic Factors- Household income is measure determinant in the facilities that
can be availed during maternity and after birth. Access to healthcare, prenatal care,
nutrition, immunization and information about the care to be taken during
pregnancy directly depends on the economic profile of the family. Rampant poverty
and unemployment leads to absence of toilet facilities, sanitation and hygiene,
particularly menstrual hygiene. It directly contributes in higher rates
• Social and cultural factors- Girls are married young & pressurized after marriage to
conceive early. Resorting to foeticide to get rid of the girl child still is a common
practice. Pregnant women are not fed adequately due to superstitious belief and a
fear of growth of the foetus, lending the delivery difficult. Immunization of
pregnant women is avoided as also the vaccination of the child. Restrictions on girls

Student Notes:
in terms of education social roles reduce awareness about standard health

practices leading to higher mortality.
Implications for Women:
• Health: Women suffer from mental and physical agony because of high infant
mortality. Trauma of infant death affects the mental health of women. A low or sad
mood, loss of interest in fun activities, changes in appetite, sleep, and energy,
feelings of worthlessness, shame, or guilt and thoughts that life is not worth living
are common implications because of infant mortality.
• Social: Social stigma attached to infant deaths leads to harassment, domestic
violence and falling prey to superstitions.
• Economic: Morbidity and mental illness induced by infant mortality reduces
capacity to participate in economic activity thereby increasing economic hardships
for women.
Under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) the following programmes/schemes
and awareness campaign is launched by the Government to reduce infant mortality
rate:
• Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK) has been launched on which entitles all
pregnant women delivering in public health institutions to absolutely free and no
expense delivery including Caesarean section. The initiative stipulates free drugs,
diagnostics, blood and diet, besides free transport from home to institution,
between facilities in case of a referral and drop back home. Similar entitlements
have been put in place for all sick infants accessing public health institutions for
treatment.
• Navjaat Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (NSSK), a programme for training health care
providers on essential newborn care and resuscitation.
• Village Health and Nutrition Days in rural areas as an outreach activity, for provision
of maternal and child health services.
• Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK), an introduction of child health screening
for 4Ds i.e. defects at birth, deficiencies, diseases, development delays and their
management among the children.
• Improving Infant and young child feeding practices including breastfeeding
promotion.
5. Investment in the future of girl child is not only a question of economic priority but
also one of social attitude. Comment. How can the government schemes help change
entrenched social attitudes vis a vis the girl child?
Approach:
• Explain both the economic and social imperative in investment for a girl child.
• Focus on the need for attitude change.
• Discuss the role of government schemes in bringing attitude change.
• Futuristic and positive conclusion.
Answer:
Investment in the future of a girl child is inextricably linked to the goal of gender
equality and women empowerment. This includes investing in their education, health,
skill development, etc. McKinsey’s 2015 report, ‘The Power of Parity: Advancing
women’s equality in India’, estimates that India can add $700 billion of additional GDP

Student Notes:
in 2025 by matching the momentum towards gender parity to the fastest country in the
region. A majority of this would come from improving labour force participation by 10
percentage points. This will require bridging both social and economic gaps.
Some of the ways in which investment in the future of girl child can help improve social
attitude are:-
• Greater participation of men in women empowerment programmes like He4She
campaign
• Innovative methods such as nukkad nataks
• Naming and shaming of the perpetrators of women related crimes.
• Making women more aware of their rights and involving them in formulating
policies.
Role of government
Government welfare schemes bring out change in attitude of society and address the
gender discrimination by creating a positive environment in favor of the girl child. The
roles played by such schemes are as follows
• Elimination of all forms of violence against women and the girl child.
• Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of gender
discrimination - enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by
women on equal basis with men in all political, economic, social, cultural and civil
spheres
• Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for full
development of girl child in order to enable them to realize their full potential.
• Equality in decision making in social political and economic spheres.
• Equal access to health care, quality education at all levels, career and vocational
guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social
security and public life etc.
Examples
• Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (BBBP) Scheme was launched to empower the girl child
and enable her education and bring positive change in the societal attitude towards
the birth of the girl child.
• The Sukanya Samriddhi Scheme help in encouraging people to save for a girl child
and discourage child marriages
• The Ladli Scheme Implemented by Delhi & Haryana Government aims at curbing
female foeticide and improving the social state of the girl child by supporting
education and protecting them from discrimination.
There is a necessity for people’s involvement for success of any programme. For
women, the ability to exercise choice will be limited unless there is a change in social
attitude.
6. Even though the provision of reservation for women has enhanced their presence and
visibility, this has not necessarily translated into their empowerment. Do you agree?
On what grounds is the reservation for women in Parliament opposed?
Approach:
• The first part of the question demands to analyse if their has been any progress in
providing real empowerment to women by providing political rights to them.

Student Notes:
• The second part of the question demands to list down the various causes or views
that are opposing the bill to guarantee reservation for women in parliament.
Answer:
Women in India represents nearly 50% of the total population yet has mere 12%
representation in parliament . Though India embarked on a journey of universal adult
franchise even after 5 decades the statistics show that the political equality has not
transformed into social and economic equality for women in India.
• Visibility is taken for tokenism, an oft quoted example is that women sarpanches
survive because of the sarpanch pati or beta .
• HDI report ranks india 132 out of 148 countries on gender inequality index.
• Female labor participation is mere 29% as compared to 80% of men.
• Women ownership is still 4% whereas 73% of food production is done by rural
women.
The above statistics are disheartening but it cannot be ruled out completely that
reservation do not have a positive impact on status of women in the society.
In favour:
• In states like M.P , kerala , chattisgarh, rajasthan where the reservation has been
extended to women in local municipal corporations and PRIs , positive impact on
governance is visible where they are headed by women.
• They have contributed immensely in overcoming social taboos and constraints like
removal of ghunghat , sitting at same height as men on chairs etc.
• Though it begins at token equality that caused acute discomfort and even
confrontation, women especially dalit has been able to push boundaries and create
space in the decision making sphere across all sectors.
All this may lead to a gradual change in cultural values of community which will slowly
lead to not only equality in socio-economic area but also commensurate political
equality with decision making capability.
Opposition to the 108th constitutional bill providing reservation to women are on
following grounds:
• India being a Patriarchial society, thereby denying women any role in political
participation
• Traditional orthodox groups like khap panchayat etc in opposition and political
pressure over parties as loss of vote bank, electoral calculations.
• Fear of usurpation of power by few in the form of entry of related women of
politician in parliament, thus capturing the whole process under the aegis of
nepotism and favoritism.
• Disincentive for MP and MLA as seats will be on rotation basis so they might not
focus on their constituencies.
• Reservation do not lead to real empowerment as seats are contested by women
from rich families, business and political families.
• Denies equality of opportunity to males to contest from those seats.
Though the bill is opposed, still it should be pursued so as to enable inclusive growth to
all in the society and also to guarantee democratic rights to women at par with men.

Student Notes:
7. Over the past few years, there have been innumerable cases of domestic workers,
nearly all of them female, being abused and exploited by their employers. What are
the factors that make domestic workers vulnerable to abuse and exploitation?
Enumerate the provisions in Domestic Workers Welfare and Social Security Act 2010
to prevent their exploitation.
Approach:
• Briefly discuss the case of exploitation of domestic workers.
• Enumerate the factors that make them vulnerable.
• Enumerate the provisions in Domestic Workers Welfare and Social Security Act
2010.
Answer:
Every year thousands of complaints of exploitation and abuse of domestic workers are
received with most of them about unpaid wages, food and sleep deprivation and long
work hours with verbal, physical and sexual abuse. The reported cases are miniscule per
cent of actual abuse of a workforce consisting of 80% of women.
Several factors have led to such state:
• Absence of legal protection through a specific law.
• Paid domestic work continues to be excluded from the central list of scheduled
employments under the Minimum Wages Act of 1948. It is also not covered under
Payment of Wages Act (1936), Workmen’s Compensation Act (1923), Contract
Labor Act (1970) or the Maternity Benefit Act (1961).
• Only seven states have the provision of minimum wages for them. Hence, wage
fixation and payment is arbitrary. Even, where it has been fixed, the wage rate is
very low.
• Sector is dominated by women. In India, 73% of working women are illiterate or
educated upto primary level. Thus, they are unaware of their rights and fail to unite
themselves.
• Majority of domestic workers are distress migrants, SCs/STs and EWS, seeking
employment desperately. They accept work under any conditions and become
vulnerable to exploitation as well as caste and class discrimination.
• Mobilizing domestic workers to assert their rights is difficult. Also, workplace is an
extremely amorphous term in this particular context, as it typically connotes more
than one household. The isolated and unprotected nature of the activity makes
workers vulnerable.
To improve the situation of domestic workers, NCW drafted ‘Domestic Workers Welfare
and Social Security Act, 2010’ Bill. Some important provisions are as follows:
• It brings domestic workers under the ambit of organized sector.
• Three tier architecture of Central Advisory Committee to implement and review the
Act, State Advisory Board for implementation in states and District Boards at the
district level.
• It creates a Domestic Workers Welfare Fund.
• Defines rights of full-time domestic workers and process of their registration and
identification.
• It also has provisions for registering part-time helps and migrant domestic workers.
• It seeks to regulate minimum wages, working conditions and working hours..
• The bill mandates domestic worker to be above 18 years.
Since, India is signatory to ILO Convention on Domestic Workers, it is high time that we
pass this bill which is hanging since years to protect the rights of the domestic workers.

Student Notes:
8. Gender justice is often hindered by religious sensitivity over women related issues. In
this context, discuss how gender justice can be ensured while also keeping in mind
religious sensitivity of different communities.
Approach:
• Citing examples, discuss how gender justice reforms are affected due to religious
sensitivities.
• Discuss the need for consideration of religious sensitivity while pursuing reforms.
• Suggest ways through which the two can be balanced.
Answer:
Abolition of sati and child marriage and progressive legislations like Widow Remarriage
or Hindu Remarriage Act were opposed on the basis of religious and patriarchical
traditions. Similarly, Shah Bano judgement was opposed as it was seen interfering with
the personal laws of Muslims. Presently, many steps to render gender justice are being
opposed by citing their interference with the fundamental right to freedom of religion.
For example:
• Abolition of Triple Talaq.
• Reform of personal laws and implementation of Uniform Civil Code.
• Entry of females in the inner sanctum of temples and dargah.
• Nullifying rulings of personal law courts amongst minorities.
It is often argued that these steps amount to interference of State in the personal lives
of people.
Religious texts provide sufficiently as to how people should operate in matters of
worship, marriage, divorce or adoption. Misinterpretation of these texts by some
religious bodies however block progressive legislations and create a rift in the society
between various communities. As a result, minorities perceive such reforms as a threat
to their identity. They start believing that steps like Uniform Civil Code amount to
imposing majoritarian culture and practices on them.
But, social reformers believe that practices which undermine the independence and
integrity of women amount to gender injustice. That these practices are out of time and
reflect gender prejudices. They point out that the interpreters of religion have mostly
been men which is a reason for perpetuation of such practices.
Hence, the issue of gender injustice vis-à-vis religion is a sensitive issue and needs to be
tackled cautiously. Perception that the State is interfering in the religious and cultural
practices does not augur well for peace and unity of the country. It should also be
remembered that social, religious and cultural beliefs that are correct in one age may
have been unacceptable at another time. For example slavery was the economic
bedrock of the imperial age which is however a reprehensible belief today.
Ensuring Gender Justice while respecting religion
• Promoting education and awareness among women about civil rights and liberties.
If women themselves take up their issues it would create a greater impact. Role of
educators and family is critical in these efforts.
• A change that comes from within is widely accepted. Hence, the notion of gender
equality should be promoted using community leaders and religious texts. This will
force people to consider dichotomy of their thinking and they would be more open
to reforms.
• Citing examples of suffering of women due to some religious diktats.

Student Notes:
• Upward socio-economic mobility of women.

• Gradual exposure to reforms after extensive dialogues with the various
stakeholders involved. Avoiding hasty legislations.
• Upholding constitutional values of freedom of religion without constricting the
universal rights of women.
It should be kept in consideration that social reforms cannot be enforced by
governmental or judicial diktats overnight. They have to be nurtured through patient
persuasion, enlightened leadership and personal examples and only then they will be
acceptable widely.
9. It has been observed by some that emergence of a distinct “female vote bank” has
made political parties and leaders take women related issues seriously. Critically
examine in the context of electoral mobilisation in India in the recent times.
Approach:
• Contextualise the argument with recent examples.
• Highlight the limitations of the argument on multiple fronts.
• Provide a balanced conclusion on the issue.
Answer:
In recent times the importance accorded to issues affecting women in the electoral
agendas of political parties has been attributed to the emergence of a ‘female vote
bank’.
• For instance, in the most recent assembly elections in Bihar the issue of prohibition
was widely perceived to be influenced women voters.
• Similarly, in the recent assembly elections in Goa the issue of ban on casinos has
been described to be influenced by the consideration of female votes.
• Statistically, the participation of women in last few assembly elections in states like
Bihar has outstripped that of the male voters, giving further credence to the idea.
• Issue of women safety and women related violence and abuse has become an
important issue during elections.
However, this idea has certain limitations:
• The phenomenon has been observed in only a few states and any wide spread
study is lacking.
• Many, observers argue that the lack of attention to women is due to a lack of
women as a consolidated voting bloc. Their interests stand to be a function of their
socio-economic class, race, religion, ethnicity, and other demographic
characteristics of age and location rather than gender alone.
• The arguments about the ‘female vote bank’ as an important consideration in the
calculation of political parties and leaders are also not reflected in the number of
female candidates proportionate to their population.
• The lack of reservation for Women in Parliament and State assemblies also weaken
the argument.
On the positive, the governments across the country irrespective of ruling political
parties have initiated policies and schemes for the welfare of females. These include
maternity benefit programmes, nutrition and education of girl child and reservation for
women in local government. These have been influenced by a wider activism and
participation of women rather than being a direct outcome of the ‘female vote bank’
considerations.

Student Notes:
The ‘female vote bank’ is only a reflection of a wide range of tactics being adopted by
women to make their voices heard and their issues addressed. The concept of ‘vote
bank’, tied to a particular party and community, might not be conducive for advancing
the cause of the females in the long term. Rather, the empowerment of women and
their full participation in all walks of life as citizens is a far more powerful idea.
10. Portrayal of stereotypical sensational images of women not only reduces their
identity to a mere object of desire but also reinforces the patriarchal structure of the
society. Discuss with examples.
Approach:
• Introduce by giving the current status of women i.e. how they are portrayed.
• With examples provide the true picture of different sectors which portray women
as commodities.
• Discuss how it reinforces patriarchy.
• Conclude by providing a solution to this problem.
Answer:
It is said that there is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment
of women but many a times this empowerment gets disguised when women are
portrayed on various forums in either of the two characters - as an object of desire or
as their all-pervasive stereotypical roles.
Literature and media are two streams which portray women in different yet similar
light. Though the recognition of women’s identity in literature and media is similar to
each other but both claim to redefine the women’s position in their own ways.
Literature promises a holistic representation of women’s self, lending them an enviable
comparable status with men. On the one hand women is portrayed as divine in our
classical literature, on the other hand, poets like Harivanshrai Bachchan and Mirza
Ghalib identify the romantic glory associated with women. However, media believes in
only exposing their physical domains to make them commercially viable.
Advertisements in particular reinforce this notion. For ex- deodorant ads have explicit
sexual suggestions, even ads relating to men undergarments show woman. Another
aspect of advertisements is its act of creating a world of perfection where women
remain pretty angels sans any blemishes or scars on their body. It casts precarious
psychological impact on women not being an “ideal women” created in the ads.
Hindi and particularly regional cinema also reinforces women‘s traditional role as wife
and mother mostly. The women are made to look alluring and appealing to attract
sections of the audience. Defining women as sex objects has become the leading
representation in the media. Women are presented as sexual objects to be enjoyed by
men, which in turn leads to false consciousness.
Such representations reinforce patriarchal structure in a society, in the sense that they
are believed to be less competent even after being equal or more qualified and also
less paid than their male counterparts.
This representation of women is based on the gender discrimination. Right now
dissemination of feminist sensitivity is the only remedy for effecting the desirable
change.

Student Notes:
However, things are improving a little bit and signs of change are seen in certain recent
instances such as women march against President elect Trump for his remarks
admitting to sexual misconduct and harassment allegations against him, women in
progress ad campaign which shows independent women along with their emotional
side, example of Roshni Misbah – “hijabi biker” from delhi. All these shows a ray of
hope for a better future for women.

1. “Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women’s organization free
from gender bias.” Comment.
2. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle class working woman in India?
3. Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing
feminization of agriculture in India.


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
SECULARISM


Student Notes:
1. Meaning of Secularism
Secularism is a principle which advocates the separation of religion from politics. It is the
principle of separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state
from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. Thus, religion should be separate from
aspects of state and governance.
Secularism is a normative doctrine which seeks to realize a secular society that is, one devoid of
either inter-religious domination or the intra-religious domination. It promotes freedom within
religions and equality between, as well as, within religions. It also includes separation between
the state and religion. In fact the nature and extent of separation may take different forms,
depending upon the specific values it is meant to promote and the way in which these values
are spelt out.
2. Difference Between Western Concept of Secularism and

Indian Secularism
Indian secularism Western secularism
Equal protection by the state to all religions. Separation of state and religion as mutual
It reflects certain meanings. First secular exclusion it means both are mutually exclusive
state to be one that protects all religions, in their own spheres of operation.
but does not favor one at the cost of other
and does not adopt any religion as state
religion.
The idea of inter-religious equality is at the Interpreted liberty as liberty of individual and
core of Indian secularism. Equal focus has freedom as freedom of the individual and
been given on the inter-religious and the equality as equality between individuals. There
intra-religious equality. It not only deals with is little scope for community based rights or
the religious freedom of the individuals but minority based rights.
with the minority communities also.
It promotes state sponsored reforms in the There is a mechanism for the intra-religion
religious sphere on equal footing. equality in the western notion of secularism,
not of inter-religion equality thus state
maintains an arm’s length distance from religion
in all matters.
Indian secularism allows for principled state West adopted this model due to the two
intervention in all religions. Such reasons it was more or less homogenous society
intervention betrays disrespect to some in comparison to India so they naturally focus
aspects of every religion. The secular state on the intra-religious domination and strict
does not have to treat each aspect of every separation of the state from the church is
religion with equal respect. It allows equal emphasized to realize the individual freedom.
disrespect for some aspects of organized
religions. Example practicing social evils as
essential part of religion.
In the context of India, it is sometimes argued that the concept of secularism has been
imported from the west. But it is clear from the above differences that in the west, strict church
and state separation is the main area of focus; while in India peaceful co-existence of all
religions is the focus.

Student Notes:
Constitutional Provisions Regarding Secularism in India

In India, freedom of religion is a Fundamental Right and is guaranteed through the following
provisions:
• Article 25: guarantees freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation
of religion.
• Article 26: every religious denomination has the freedom to manage its religious affairs.
• Article 27: Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
• Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain
educational institutions.
Other Constitutional safeguards regarding religion include the following:
• Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth.
• Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and no citizens shall be
ineligible for employment on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of
birth.
• Article 29: Protection of distinct language, script or culture of minorities
• Article 30: Rights of all minorities, whether based on religion or language, to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.
• The Preamble of India states that India is a secular country (added after 42 nd Amendment
Act, 1976).
3. Distinctive Features of Indian Secularism

The Indian idea and practice of secularism, though was inspired by its western origins yet, was
firmly rooted in India’s own unique socio-historical circumstances- i.e. the remarkable religious
diversity in contrast to the mono-religious nature of western societies, the freedom struggle
which advocated an equal support & equal respect for all religions, upon the fact that the
practice of one’s religion was not seen as antithetical to practice of democracy but as one which
would strengthen it in the long run.
The Indian conception of secularism thus recognized the deeply religious nature of Indian
society & infused the principle of equality within the practice of religion. Secularism was turned
into an non-negotiable basic feature of constitution & the term itself was reinvented to allow
intervention of state into religious matters when it was being done to promote not only inter
religious equality ( ie equal rights for all citizens irrespective of their religious preferences, along
with added protection for religious minorities) but also intra religious equality ( by ensuring that
one sect of a religion does not dominate over other).
The desirability of state intervention into religious matters has been upheld under the Indian
conception of secularism to give space to progressive voices within every religion and to allow
disagreement with some aspects of religions. For example, the abolition of untouchability, sati,
dowry, the amendment of Hindu marriage & inheritance laws & the demand for establishing
the uniform civil code etc. can be seen as an application of this concept.
At the same time, the Indian ideal of secularism clearly cautions against allowing religion to
interfere in state matters, thereby disallowing mobilizing the electorate on religious lines for
winning elections on one hand while strictly spelling out that the Indian nation-state shall have
no state religion.

Student Notes:
Some Judicial Pronouncements Regarding Secularism in India

• Secularism has been deemed as one of the pillars of “Basic Structure of the Indian
Constitution”. The Supreme Court in the Keshavanada Bharati case (1973) held that the
basic structure of the Constitution cannot be altered by the Parliament.
• In the S. R Bommai vs Union of India case (1994), the Supreme Court observed the
following, “Notwithstanding the fact that the words 'Socialist' and 'Secular' were added in
the Preamble of the Constitution in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment, the concept of
Secularism was very much embedded in our constitutional philosophy” Thus, secularism
which was implicit in the Constitution was made explicit.
• In Stanislaus vs State of Madhya Pradesh case (1977), The Supreme Court held that the
right to propagate religion (under Article 25) does not include right to forcible conversion as
it may disturb public order.
• In Ratilal vs State of Bombay (1954), it was held that regulations by the state should not
interfere with essentials of religion.
• In the Church of God (Full Gospel) in India vs K. K. R. Majestic Colony Welfare Association
(2000), it was held that as the right to religion is subject to public order, no prayers (through
voice amplifiers or beating of drums) should be performed by disturbing the peace of
others.
• In St. Stephen’s College vs University of Delhi (1992), the court held that autonomy of a
minority institution cannot be taken away as it will defeat the purpose of right to establish
and administer educational institutions by minorities.
4. Contemporary Issues
In contemporary times, various issues regarding secularism and freedom to practice and
administer religion have come to the forefront. These include the following:
4.1. Uniform Civil Code (UCC)

Article 44 of the Constitution states that "the State shall endeavour to secure for citizens a
uniform civil code throughout the territory of India." It essentially means a common set of laws
governing personal matters for all citizens of the country, irrespective of religion.
Positive aspects of Uniform Civil Code include
• It will divest religion from social relations and personal laws and will ensure equality in
terms of justice to both men and women regardless of the faith they practice.
• There will be uniform laws for all Indians with regard to marriage, inheritance, divorce etc.
• It will help in improving the condition of women in India as Indian society is mostly
patriarchal whereby old religious rules continue to govern the family life and subjugate
women.
• Various personal laws have several loopholes, which are exploited by those who have the
power to do so. Due to uniformity, such loopholes will cease to exist or will be minimised
• Informal bodies like caste panchayats give judgements based on traditional laws. UCC will
ensure that legal laws are followed rather than traditional laws.
• It can help in reducing instances of vote bank politics. If all religions are covered under
same laws, politicians will have less to offer to communities in exchange of their vote.
• It will help in integration of India as a lot of animosity is caused by preferential treatment by
the law in favour of certain religious communities.

Student Notes:
Challenges in Implementing Uniform Civil Code Include

• Implementation of UCC might interfere with the principle of secularism, particularly with
the provisions of Articles 25 and 26, which guarantee freedom relating to religious
practices.
• Conservatism by religious groups, which resist such changes as it interferes with their
religious practices.
• It is difficult for the government to come up with a uniform law that is accepted by all
religious communities. All religious groups- whether majority or minority have to support
the change in personal laws.
• Drafting of UCC is another obstacle. There is no consensus regarding whether it should be a
blend of personal laws or should be a new law adhering to the constitutional mandate.
4.2. Issue of Instant Triple Talaq

Instant triple talaq is a form of Islamic divorce practiced in India, whereby a Muslim man can
legally divorce his wife by stating the word talaq three times in oral, written or more recently
electronic form. The practice has raised several controversies and discussions regarding issues
of justice, gender equality, human rights and secularism.
In Shayara Bano vs Union of India case (2017), the Supreme Court declared the practice of
triple talaq as unconstitutional by a 3:2 majority.
Positive Outcomes of the Judgement
• It ensures equality by upholding fundamental rights guaranteed by Articles 14 and 21 of the
Constitution.
• It ensures gender equality especially for Muslim women as the provision of triple talaq
resulted in feelings of insecurity among them. Arbitrary talaq also impacted their social
status and dignity.
• It upholds core constitutional provisions, as fundamental rights guaranteed by the
Constitution override the provisions of personal laws
Negative outcomes of the judgement
• It goes against Article 26 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees freedom in matters
of religion every religious denomination and sect (including Hanafi school, which is followed
by Shayara Bano).
• Opponents contend that it is not the court’s role to “determine the true intricacies of faith”.
Also, there is contention that Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Act 1937, has not codified
talaq-e-bidat (triple talaq) into a statutory law, thus, it does not fall under Article 13.
• The challenge is to inform the Muslim masses that the abolition of the practice does not go
against the Shariah but it is closer to the original tenets of Islam.
4.3. Entry Movements to Places of Religious Worship Led by Women’s

Organizations
• Shani Shignapur Temple: A group of women called the Bhumata Rangaragini Brigade led a
movement to break the 400 year old tradition of the Temple barring women from entering
its inner sanctum. Eventually, the Bombay High Court stated that “No law prevents women
from entering a place of worship and if men are allowed, then women too should be
permitted.”
• Sabrimala Temple: In Sabarimala temple, Kerala, women between the ages of 10 and 50
are not allowed to enter the temple, since they are in the menstrual age group. A 1991
Kerala High Court judgement supported the ban on women. However, the case has been

Student Notes:
referred to a three judge bench of the Supreme Court to deem whether excluding
menstruating women constitutes “essential religious practice.”
• Haji Ali Dargah: In 2012, the Dargah Trust barred women from entering the sanctum
sanctorum of the Haji Ali dargah. The trust cited verses from the Quran and Prophet
Mohammed to claim that Islam does not permit women to enter dargahs/mosques. The
trust also claimed the fundamental right “to manage its own affairs” under Article 26 of the
Indian Constitution. This was opposed by several women’s organizations. Eventually, the
Bombay High Court lifted the ban saying it contravenes the Constitution and women should
be allowed entry “at par with men”. It also held that the Trust cannot enforce a ban
“contrary to the fundamental rights” (i.e. Art 14, 15 and 25) enshrined in the Constitution.

1. "Secularism cannot exist as a positive value in society without equality, social justice
and democracy". Examine in the context of India.
Approach:
• First explain briefly what secularism means.
• Next analyze the Indian conception of secularism – secularism equated with
religious harmony. Argue how secularism is a pre-requisite for harmony, not the
other way around. Also examine whether secularism should be seen exclusively
through the prism of religion or is it a much wider concept.
• While doing so, consider the three keywords mentioned in the question – equality,
social justice and democracy. Analyze how these are a prerequisite if secularism is
to be conceived as a positive value.
Answer:
Secularism implies not only the separation of religion and state but also religious
freedom, the autonomy of religious groups, withdrawal of state sanction for religious
norms and a minimization of religious groups as categories of public policy and as
actors in public life.
The debate on secularism in India has been mainly political: relationship between state
and religion, interrelationship between different communities, and interdependence of
secularism and democracy. A common quest connecting these three issues has been
the quest for religious harmony, which in the course of time came to be identified with
secularism.
However, it has been argued that secularism is not a product of religious harmony. In
fact, religious harmony is achievable only if secularism is in place. This is particularly
true for a multi-religious society like India. The answer to what constitutes secularism in
such a society lies in the ability of the state and society to internalize values and ethics,
informed by reason and humanism. It is also important to ensure that secularism is not
posited exclusively within the realm of religion, but other areas of human existence,
such as culture and economy are also incorporated into the secular conception.
This is important to ensure that religious differences recede to the background and a
common bond unites different groups. This is why some like Pt. Nehru had also argued
that secularism could be a reality only within the rubric of social justice. He had
emphasized the role of economy in the construction of a secular society. According to
him the real thing was the economic factor. He had argued that if were to lay stress on
the economic factor, religious differences would automatically recede to the
background and a common bond would unite different groups. This opinion of Nehru

Student Notes:
has been interpreted to mean that secularism could be a reality only within the rubric
of social justice. Others like Dr. Ambedkar also considered secularism not only a political
issue but also a moral issue.
Further, the basic aim of secularism being to ensure equality of all religious
denominations, it implies, the concept of secularism is derived from the principle of
democratic equality. In fact, it has been argued that secularism gains meaning and
substance only when it refers to the principle of democratic equality. Logically, a prior
commitment to the principles of democracy is a condition for equality of all religious
groups.
Still further, the conception of secularism as only religious harmony is based on a
monolithic view of religion. Such a view does not take into account the differentiation
within it. The fact is that within each culture there are several cultural and social groups
between whom contradictions and complementarities exist. Due to the prevalence of
the cultural and social hierarchies that exist within religion, attempts to bring about
religious harmony cannot cover all followers of any religion.
Thus realizing communal harmony without creating material and ideological
foundations to generate and sustain it seems extremely difficult. The importance
attributed to religious harmony is indeed logical, given the reality of a multi-religious
society. But it is not sufficiently inclusive to reconcile the cultural differences. For
realizing inclusiveness, cultural plurality is not sufficient; what is essential is cultural
equality. Integral to the concept of secularism, therefore, is cultural equality; so also are
democracy and social justice. Without these three interrelated factors – equality,
democracy and social justice – secularism cannot exist as a positive value in society.
2. How are minorities defined in India? Does the commitment to ensure special rights for
minorities contradicts the idea of secularism? Discuss in the context of India.
Approach:
• Explain how minorities are defined in India.
• Discuss the special rights given to minorities in India and whether it contradicts
secularism.
Answer:
The Constitution of India uses the word ‘minority’ (in Article 29 to 30 and 350 A to 350
B) but does not define the word ‘minority’ as such. The minorities in India include:
• Religious minority- As per National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992 it include
Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Jains. Sects within a
religion are not considered a religious minority.
• Linguistic minority -They pertain mainly to a State and not at the National level.
The linguist minority must have a separate spoken language. It is not necessary that
the language must have a distinct script.
It is to be noted that, a group which constitutes a ‘statistical minority’ at national level
may not enjoy minority status in all State/UTs. Supreme Court in TMA Pai Foundation
case considered the question of the unit for the purpose of determining the definition
of ‘minority’ within the meaning of Article 30(1).
It held that ‘a minority either linguistic or religious is determinable only by reference to
demography of the State and not by taking into consideration the population of the

Student Notes:
country as a whole’. Thus, religious and linguistic minorities, have to be considered

State-wise for the application of central and state laws.
Special rights to minorities and secularism
In India, the safeguards for minorities under the constitution of India are firstly in the
form of fundamental rights (Article 25 to 30). Article 29 talks about preserving the
distinct language, script or culture of any citizen, while Article 30 is more specific and
talks about right of religious and linguistic minorities to administer educational
institutions and non-discrimination by State in granting aids to such institutions.
However, at times these safeguards invites the accusations of favouritism or
‘appeasement’ and of being anti-secular (a secular state being one that doesn’t favour
any particular religion over others). In reality, the Protection of minorities requires that
they be given special consideration especially in a context where the normal working of
the political system places them at a disadvantage vis-à-vis majority community.
In India, even economically strong minorities like Sikhs and Parsis may be disadvantaged
in a cultural sense because of their small numbers relative to overwhelming majority of
Hindus. Without special protection, secularism can turn into an excuse for imposing the
majority community’s values and norms on the minorities.
The idea of giving some special right to the minorities is not to treat them as a
privileged section of the population but to give to the minorities a sense of security.
Special rights for minorities were designed not to create inequalities but to bring about
equality by ensuring the preservation of the minority institutions and by guaranteeing
autonomy in the matter of administration of these institutions.
Hence, deeming these special rights as contradiction will be to take a lop-sided
understanding of secularism without attending to the needs of all sections of society.
Counter-views and debate on this arrangement should be seen as the trait of a healthy
democracy.

1. How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West?


VISION IAS
www.visionias.in

PAPER I: SOCIETY
URBANIZATION


Student Notes:
1. Introduction
Urbanization, indeed is the process of becoming urban, moving to cities, changing from
agriculture to other pursuits common to cities, such as trade, manufacturing, industry and
management, and corresponding changes of behaviour patterns. It is the process of expansion
in the entire system of interrelationships by which population maintains itself in the habitat.
An increase in the size of towns and cities leading to growth of urban population is the most
significant dimension of urbanization. In ancient times there have been great many cities such
as Rome or Baghdad, but ever since industrialization and increasing industrial production cities
have grown phenomenally and now urbanization is very much part of our contemporary life.
GLOBAL URBAN POPULATION

As per World Urbanization Prospects, 2014 just a few countries are home to half of the world’s
urban population. China has the largest urban population (758 million), followed by India (410
million). These two countries account for 30 per cent of the world’s urban population and, with
another five countries, the United States of America (263 million), Brazil (173 million), Indonesia
(134 million), Japan (118 million) and the Russian Federation (105 million), account for more
than half of the world’s urban population.
Urbanization in India was mainly a post-independence phenomenon, due to adoption of mixed

system of economy by the country, which gave rise to the development of private sector.
Urbanization has been taking place at an increasingly fast rate in India. Population residing in
urban areas in India, according to 1901 census, was 11.4%. This count increased to 28.53% in
the 2001 census, and has crossed 30% as per the 2011 census, standing at 31.16% to be exact.
2. Urbanization and Associated phenomenon

There is no common global definition of what constitutes an urban settlement. As a result, the
urban definition employed by national statistical offices varies widely across countries, and in
some cases has changed over time within a country. The criteria for classifying an area as urban
may be based on one or a combination of characteristics, such as: a minimum population
threshold; population density; proportion employed in non-agricultural sectors; the presence of
infrastructure such as paved roads, electricity, piped water or sewers; and the presence of
education or health services.
In this section, we will discuss different definitions and phenomenon’s associated with the
urban areas. It includes Census definition of Urban areas, Urban Agglomeration, Over-
Urbanization, Sub Urbanization, Counter Urbanization and Census towns.
In 1961 census, 'town' was defined and determined on the basis of number of empirical tests:
• a minimum population of 5000
• a density of not less than 1,000 per square mile,
• three-fourth of the occupations of the working population should be outside of agriculture.
• the place should have a few characteristics and amenities such as newly founded industrial
areas, large housing settlements and places of tourist importance and civic amenities.
2.1. Urban Agglomeration
This term was introduced in 1971 census. Very often large railway colonies, university
campuses, port areas, military camps etc. come up outside the statutory limits of the city or
town but adjoining it. Such areas may not themselves qualify to be treated as towns but if they
form a continuous spread with the adjoining town, it would be realistic to treat them as urban.
Such settlement has been termed as outgrowths, and may cover a whole village, or part of a

Student Notes:
village. Such towns together with their outgrowths have been treated as one urban unit and
called 'urban agglomeration'.
2.2. Over-Urbanization
It refers to the increased exemplifications of the characters of urbanization in a city or its
surrounding rural area. It results from excessive development of urban traits. Due to the
expansion of the range of urban activities and occupations, greater influx of secondary
functions like industry, increasing and widespread development of an intricate bureaucratic
administrative network, the increased sophistication and mechanization of life and the influx of
urban characters into the surrounding rural area, over urbanization gradually replaces the rural
and traditionalistic traits of a community. Mumbai and Kolkata are two such examples of cities.
2.3. Sub-Urbanization
It is closely related to over-urbanization of a city. When cities get over-crowded by population,
it may result in sub-urbanization. Delhi is a typical example. Sub-urbanization means
urbanization of rural areas around the cities characterized by the following features:
• a sharp increase in the ‘urban (non-agricultural) uses’ of land
• inclusion of surrounding areas of towns within its municipal limits, and
• intensive communication of all types between town and its surrounding areas
2.4. Counter-Urbanization
It is a demographic and social process whereby people move from urban areas to rural areas. It
first took place as a reaction to inner-city deprivation and overcrowding. Counter urbanization
occurs when some large cities reach a point where they stop growing further or actually begin
to decrease in size as their population start moving into suburban areas or smaller cities
thereby leapfrogging the rural-urban fringe. There are instances which show that the
phenomenon of counter urbanization is occurring in India.
2.5. Census Towns
In 2011, a new definition of census town has been developed. This urban classification of
'census towns' helps differentiate between India's small farming communities and the larger
market town-type settlements that are experiencing rapid and haphazard growth.
To be classified as a census town, a village must fulfil three criteria;
• it need at least 5,000 inhabitants,
• a density of 400 people per sq. km, and
• at least three quarters of its male working population must be "engaged in non-agricultural
pursuits".
GLOBAL TRENDS IN URBANIZATION

Globally, more people live in urban areas than in rural areas. In 2007, for the first time in
history, the global urban population exceeded the global rural population, and the world
population has remained predominantly urban thereafter. The planet has gone through a
process of rapid urbanization over the past six decades. The urban population is expected to
continue to grow, so that by 2050, the world will be one third rural (34 per cent) and two-thirds
urban (66 per cent).

Student Notes:
Urban and rural population of the world, 1950–2050.

(World Urbanization Prospects: the 2014 Revision)
3. Process of Urbanization
Urbanization as a structural process of change is generally related to industrialization but it is
not always the result of industrialization. Urbanization results due to the concentration of large-
scale and small scale industrial ,commercial, financial and administrative set up in the cities;
technological development in transport and communication, cultural and recreational activities.
The excess of urbanization over industrialization that makes it possible to provide employment
for all persons coming to urban areas is, in fact, what sometimes leads to over urbanization. In
India, a peculiar phenomenon is seen: industrial growth without a significant shift of population
from agriculture to industry and growth of urban population without a significant rise in the
ratio of the urban to the total population. While in terms of ratio, there may not be a great shift
from rural to urban activities, but there is still a large migration of population from rural areas
to urban areas. This makes urban areas choked; while at the same time there is lack of
infrastructural facilities to cope with this rising population.
In context of India, the process of urbanization is seen as a socio-cultural process, economic
process and a geographical process.
• As a socio-cultural phenomenon, it is a melting pot of people with diverse ethnic, linguistic
and religious backgrounds.
• As an economic process, the city is a focal point of productive activities. It exists and grows
on the strength of the economic activities existing within itself.
• Under the geographical process, it deals with migration or change of location of residence
of people and involves the movement of people from one place to another.
The process of urbanization has thus been associated with important economic and social
transformations, which have brought greater geographic mobility, lower fertility, longer life
expectancy and population ageing.
3.1. Expanding Cities
• Most megacities and large cities are located in the global South. Four of India’s cities with 5
to 10 million inhabitants presently are projected to become megacities in the coming years
(Ahmadabad, Bangalore, Chennai and Hyderabad), for a total of seven megacities projected
in the country by 2030.

Student Notes:
• Tokyo is the world’s largest city with an agglomeration of 38 million inhabitants, followed by
Delhi with 25 million.
• Several decades ago most of the world’s largest urban agglomerations were found in the
more developed regions, but today’s large cities are concentrated in the global South.
• Some cities have experienced population decline in recent years. Most of these are located
in the low-fertility countries of Asia and Europe where the overall population is stagnant or
declining. Economic contraction and natural disasters have contributed to population losses
in some cities as well.
(World Urbanization Prospects: the 2014 Revision)
4. Urbanization in India
India has a long history of urbanization with spatial and temporal discontinuities. It is an
ongoing process that has never stopped and has rarely, slowed down since its beginning.
Urbanization in India is divided into different phases, beginning from Indus valley civilization to
reaching watermark during the Mughal period and also contribution from the British made to
the process of urbanization in India. Post-independence witnessed rapid urbanization in India
on a scale never before achieved. The major changes that have occurred in India's urban scene
after India's urban independence are the building of new administrative cities, the construction
of new industrial cities and township near major cities, the rapid growth of one-lakh and one
million cities, the massive growth of slums and rural-urban fringe, the introduction of city
planning and the general improvement in civic amenities.
The pace of urbanization in India is now set to accelerate as the country sets to a more rapid
growth. Economic reform has already unleashed investment and growth offering its citizens rich
opportunities. Surging growth and employment in cities will prove a powerful magnet. If not
well managed, this inevitable increase in India’s urban population will place enormous stress on
the system.
For India to be more inclusive, it is imperative that both economic growth and urban population
be more equitably distributed. Therefore, any meaningful long-term vision for India would be
incomplete without planning for the cities of tomorrow.
Urban India today is “distributed” in shape—with a diverse range of large and small cities
spread widely around the nation. India will probably continue on a path of distributed model of
urbanization because this suits its federal structure and helps to ensure that migration flows
aren’t unbalanced toward any particular city or cities.
As the urban population and incomes increase, demand for every key service such as water,
transportation, sewage treatment, low income housing will increase five-to seven fold in cities
of every size and type. And if India continues on its current path, urban infrastructure will fall
woefully short of what is necessary to sustain prosperous cities.
There has been an incomplete devolution of functions to the elected bodies as per 74th
Constitutional Amendment Act, possibly because of the unwillingness of the state
governments. In addition, very few Indian cities have 2030 master plans that take into account
peak transportation loads, requirements for low-income affordable housing and climate
change. In general, the capacity to execute the urban reforms and projects at the municipal and
state level has been historically inadequate.
As per 2011 Census, 377 million Indians comprising 31.1% of the total population live in urban
areas. The United Nations (UN) Habitat World City’s 2016 Report estimates that urban
population in India reached 420 million in 2015.

Student Notes:
During 1981-2001, urbanization in India was mainly driven by natural increase in the population
of cities (around 60%), followed by rural-urban migration, expansion of boundaries of cities and
re-classification of rural areas into urban areas. However, between 2001 and 2011, the share of
natural increase in the cities’ population declined to 44% while the share of reclassification of
rural areas into urban areas strengthened and the share of rural-urban migration increased to
24%.
While this progress is welcome, the extent of urbanization in India remains significantly below
those in other major developing countries. According to the World Bank, urban population as a
proportion of the total population in 2015 stood at 86% in Brazil, 56% in China, 54% in
Indonesia, 79% in Mexico and 82% in South Korea
5. Social effects of Urbanization

Urbanization has far reaching effects on larger societal process and structures. Following are
some of the sections-
5.1. Family and kinship
Urbanization affects not only the family structure but also intra and inter-family relations, as
well as the functions the family performs. With urbanization, there is a disruption of the bonds
of community and the migrant faces the problem to replace old relationships with new ones
and to find a satisfactory means of continuing relationship with those left behind.
I.P. Desai (1964) showed that though the structure of urban family is changing, the spirit of
individualism is not growing in the families. He found that 74 percent families were residentially
nuclear but functionally and in property joint, and 21 percent were joint in residence and
functioning as well as in property and 5 percent families were nuclear.

Student Notes:
Aileen Ross (1962) in her study of 157 Hindu families belonging to middle and upper classes in
Bangalore found that
• about 60 percent of the families are nuclear
• the trend today is towards a break with the traditional joint family form into the nuclear
family form into the nuclear family unit.
• Small joint family is now the most typical form of family life in urban India.
• Relations with one’s distant kin are weakening or breaking.
5.2. Urbanization and Caste
• It is generally held that caste is a rural phenomenon whereas class is urban and that with
urbanization, caste transforms itself into class. But it is necessary to note that the caste
system exists in cities as much as it does in villages although there are significant
organizational differences.
• Caste identity tends to diminish with urbanization, education and the development of an
orientation towards individual achievement and modern status symbols. It has been
pointed out that among the westernized elite, class ties are much more important than
caste ties.
• However, caste system continues to persist and exert its influence in some sectors of urban
social life while it has changed its form in some other sectors. Caste solidarity is not as
strong as in urban areas as in the rural areas. Caste panchayats are very weak in cities.
There exists a dichotomy between workplace and domestic situation and both caste and
class situations co-exist.
5.3. Urbanization and the Status of Women

• Women constitute an important section of rural urban migrants. They migrate at the time
of marriage and also when they are potential workers in the place of destination. While
middle class women get employed in white collar jobs and professions, lower class women
find jobs in the informal sector. Women are also found in the formal sector as industrial
workers.
• Increasing number of women have taken to white-collar jobs and entered different
professions. These professions were instrumental in enhancing the social and economic
status of women, thereby meaning increased and rigorous hours of work, professional
loyalty along with increased autonomy. The traditional and cultural institutions remaining
the same, crises of values and a confusion of norms have finally resulted. The personally
and socially enlightened woman is forced to perform dual roles - social and professional.
• The status of urban women, because of being comparatively educated and liberal, is higher
than that of rural women. However in the labour market, women continue to be in a
disadvantaged situation.
6. Problems of Urbanization
The patterns of urbanization in India has been marked by regional and interstate diversities,
large scale rural to urban migration, insufficient infrastructural facilities, growth of slums and
other allied problems. Some of the major problems of urbanization faced in different parts of
India are as follows:
6.1. Housing and Inflated Land Prices
A key factor contributing to inflated land prices in India has been the flow of illicit money into
real estate. Therefore, attacking black money would have the important beneficial side effect of
bringing land prices down and making housing more affordable for low-income families. One

Student Notes:
important factor encouraging the flow of black money into land is high stamp duty. Working
with states to lower this duty would help bring land prices down.
At least four supply side factors have also contributed to the artificially high urban property
values in India.
• First, as a legacy of the Urban Land Ceilings and Regulation Act, 1976, large chunks of
vacant land have disappeared from urban land markets.
• Second, many sick public sector enterprises (PSEs) own large pieces of unused land in prime
urban areas. Closure of these units can help bring substantial land on the market.
• Third, central and state governments own substantial urban land that remain unused or
subject to encroachment. For example, railway, defence and civil aviation ministries of the
central government own valuable unused urban land that they could monetize to finance
infrastructure and other critical expenditures while also making the land available for
housing and other uses.
• Finally, the Land Acquisition Act, 2013 fixes compensation for acquired land at rather high
levels. In turn, this makes land acquired for affordable housing expensive and contributes to
high costs. Short of amending the Land Acquisition Act 2013 for the purpose of acquiring
land for affordable housing, there is no simple solution to this source of high price of land.
A further constraint on the supply of urban land is the stringency of land conversion rules. Vast
tracts of land on the outer periphery of cities are potentially available for urban expansion. But
this requires conversion of the tracts from agricultural to non-agricultural uses. For historical
reasons, the power for such conversion has been vested in the state revenue departments,
which are reluctant to allow the conversion. Shifting this power to agencies in charge of
urbanization and making conversion transparent and flexible would go a long way towards
creating a vibrant land market in Indian cities.
Scarcity of horizontal space can be countered by expanding space vertically through the
construction of taller buildings. The availability of this avenue depends on the permitted floor
space index (FSI), which measures the floor-space in a building as a proportion of the area of
the plot on which the building stands. Unfortunately, permitted FSI in Indian cities is extremely
low, ranging from 1 to 1.5. Consequently, tall buildings are virtually absent from Indian cities.
The topology of Mumbai closely matches that of Manhattan and Singapore but it has few tall
buildings when compared to the latter cities. Available urban space can be expanded manifold
by relaxing the permitted FSI.
Traditional rent control laws which disproportionately protect the tenant have led to
paradoxical situation of unsatisfied demand for rental housing while many units lie vacant.
There is clearly need for replacing the current rent control laws by a modern tenancy law, which
would give full freedom to tenant and owner to negotiate the rent and the length of the lease.
6.2. Housing and Slums
There is acute shortage of housing in urban areas and much of the available accommodation is
of sub-standard quality. This problem has tended to worsen over the years due to rapid increase
in population, fast rate of urbanization and proportionately inadequate addition to the housing
stock.
With large scale migration to urban areas many find that the only option they have is
substandard conditions of slums. Slums are characterized by sub-standard housing,
overcrowding, lack of electrification, ventilation, sanitation, roads and drinking water facilities.
They have been the breeding ground of diseases, environmental pollution, demoralization and
many social tensions.

Student Notes:
6.3. Over Crowding

In major cities in India like Mumbai, Kolkata, Pune and Kanpur, somewhere between 85% and
90% of households lives in one or two rooms. In some homes, five to six persons live in one
room. Over-crowding encourages deviant behaviour, spreads diseases and creates conditions
for mental illness, alcoholism and riots. One effect of dense urban living is people’s apathy and
indifference.
6.4. Water supply, Drainage and Sanitation
No city has round the clock water supply in India. Intermittent supply results in a vacuum being
created in empty water lines which often suck in pollutants through leaking joints. Many small
towns have no main water supply at all and are dependent on the wells. Drainage situation is
equally bad. Because of the non-existence of a drainage system, large pools of stagnant water
can be seen in city even in summer months.
Removing garbage, cleaning drains and unclogging sewers are the main jobs of municipalities
and municipal corporations in Indian cities. There is a total lack of motivation to tackle the basic
sanitation needs of the cities. The spread of slums in congested urban areas and lack of civic
sense among the settlers in these slums further adds to the growing mound of filth and
diseases.
6.5. Transportation and Traffic
Absence of planned and adequate arrangements for traffic and transport is another problem in
urban centres in India. Majority of people use buses and tempos, while a few use rail as transit
system. The increasing number of two-wheelers and cars make the traffic problem worse. They
cause air pollution as well. Moreover, the number of buses plying the metropolitan cities is not
adequate and commuters have to spend long hours to travel.
The design and maintenance of city roads is a major challenge in Indian cities. The roads are
notorious for being pedestrian-unfriendly, poorly surfaced, congested, and constantly dug up.
An important and urgent transformational reform is to draw up national design standards and
contracting standards for city roads to address these challenges.
The flow of traffic also needs special attention in Indian cities. Unlike western cities, motorized
vehicles in India change lanes with high frequency and in unpredictable ways. This creates
unnecessary traffic jams and delays.
Metro rails can be an efficient source of public transportation in many cities. The success of
some initial metro projects has led to demands for the same in other cities.
6.6. Pollution
Our towns and cities are major polluters of the environment. Several cities discharge 40 to 60
percent of their entire sewage and industrial effluents untreated into the nearby rivers. Urban
industry pollutes the atmosphere with smoke and toxic gases from its chimneys. All these,
increase the chances of disease among the people living in the urban centres. According to
UNICEF, lakhs of urban children die or suffer from diarrhoea, tetanus, measles etc. because of
poor sanitary conditions and water contamination. As a long-term remedy, what is needed is
using new techniques of waste collection, new technology for garbage-disposal and
fundamental change in the municipal infrastructure and land-use planning.
The above is not an exhaustive list of the problems of urbanization. A whole lot of other
problems including increasing rate of crime in the cities, increasing old age population and
absence of social security for them, enhanced role and sphere of market has led to the poor
and marginalized suffering the most. Studies have also shown that stress levels are found high

Student Notes:
in cities, which in turn has deleterious impact on the health of the people.
7. Urbanization and Governance

Governance forms an integral part of Urbanization. Governance is the weakest and most crucial
link which needs to be repaired to bring about the urban transformation so urgently needed in
India. Financing the large sums required to meet the investment needs of urban infrastructure
is crucially dependent on the reform of institutions and the capacity of those who run the
institutions for service delivery and revenue generation. It is seen that large expenditures on
Indian cities and towns have to be combined with better governance structures, strong political
and administrative will to collect taxes and user charges, and improved capacity to deliver.
Cities must be empowered, financially strengthened, and efficiently governed to respond to the
needs of their citizens and to contribute to the growth momentum.
The municipal entities need to be strengthened as local governments with ‛own’ sources of
revenue, predictable formula-based transfers from state governments, and other transfers from
the Government of India and state governments to help them discharge the larger
responsibilities assigned to them by the 74th Constitutional Amendment. Improved tax
revenues combined with rational user charges will enable cities to leverage their own resources
to incur debt and also access new forms of financing through public private partnership (PPP).
Only then can they augment the urban infrastructure base, provide improved quality of services
on a sustainable basis to their residents, and contribute to the growth momentum of the Indian
economy.
Administrative reforms commission in its 6th report mentioned measures to strengthen the
urban governance. Some of its important recommendations are-
• Urban local bodies should be given responsibility for water supply and distribution in their
territorial jurisdiction whether based on their own source or collaborative arrangements
with other service providers.
• Sanitation, as a matter of hygiene and public health, must be given priority and emphasis in
all urban areas. In all towns, advance action for laying down adequate infrastructure should
be taken to avoid insufficiency of services.
• Community participation and co-production of services should be encouraged by municipal
bodies. This should be supplemented by awareness generation.
• In all towns and cities with a population above one lakh, the possibility of taking up PPP
projects for collection and disposal of garbage may be explored.
• Municipal bodies should be encouraged to take responsibility of power distribution in their
area.
• Urban Transport Authorities, to be called Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities in the
Metropolitan Corporations, should be set up in cities with population over one million
within one year, for coordinated planning and implementation of urban transport solutions
with an overriding priority to public transport.
As per NITI Ayog, well-run ULBs should have the power to raise financial resources including
through municipal bonds. Introduction of Standardised, time-bound, audited balance sheets
across ULBs would help improve financial management as well as spur further reforms in this
area. Indian cities also need to overhaul their municipal staffing and introduce appropriate skills
to achieve administrative efficiency
Similarly, to speed up the process of cleaning up municipal solid waste, NITI Ayog suggests the
creation of an authority at the Centre to spread the use of Waste to Energy plants. Such an
authority may be called Waste to Energy Corporation of India (WECI) and placed under the
Ministry of Urban Development. WECI may set up world class Waste to Energy plants through

Student Notes:
PPP across the country. It can play a key role in fast-tracking coverage of waste to energy plants
across 100 smart cities by 2019. Its mandate may include key functions of preparing standard
tender documents, prequalify vendors and allot to ULBs and cluster of ULBs, and ensure priority
clearance for qualified vendors, among others.
Strict enforcement of traffic rules through fines in case of violations can induce behavioural
change and could greatly reduce both the travel time and pollution. Additionally, incentives
may be created to encourage vehicle-sharing systems such as Ola and Uber. This will reduce the
number of vehicles on the road reducing both congestion and pollution. Also, there is a need
for a national metro rail policy that will ensure that metro projects are not considered in
isolation, but as part of a comprehensive plan of overall public transportation. Further, the
policy should provide clear guidelines on various aspects of metro projects, such as planning,
financing, PPP, etc.
8. Major Programmes Currently in the Area of Urban Development

• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana - Housing for All (HFA) (Urban Mission) was launched in June
2015 to provide housing to all in urban areas by 2022.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)- launched with the
objective to provide hard infrastructure for universal coverage of piped drinking water,
sewerage and green spaces and parks. AMRUT also incentivizes governance reforms in the
cities.
• Developing Smart Cities- Launched in June 2015, Smart Cities Mission aims at driving
economic growth and improving the quality of life through area based development and
city-level smart solutions. The mission would convert 100 existing cities into smart cities
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban)- Launched on 2nd October 2014, Swachh Bharat Mission
(SBM) (Urban) is the key mission driving the campaign to make our cities clean. The mission
aims to eliminate open defecation in all statutory towns by 2nd October 2019. It also
proposes to eradicate manual scavenging, introduce modern and scientific solid waste
management, induce behavioural change with respect to healthy sanitation practices and
generate awareness for sanitation and its link to public health, augment the capacity of
ULBs and create an enabling environment for the private sector in waste management.
• Deen Dayal Antodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY – NULM)- aims at
creating opportunities for skill development leading to market based employment and
helping the poor to set up self-employment ventures. This Mission’s interventions are
implemented through five key components: 1) Social Mobilization and Institutional
Development (SMID); 2) Self-Employment Programmes (SEPs); 3) Employment through
Skill, Training & Placement (EST&P); 4) Shelter for Urban Homeless (SUH); and 5) Support to
Urban Street Vendors (SUSV).
• National Heritage City Development & Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) Mission was
launched in January 2015 with an aim to rejuvenate the heritage cities, with special
attention to others issues such as sanitation, tourism, and livelihood. The Mission is
targeted for completion by November 2018. The HRIDAY mission will be concluded in 12
heritage cities as per the Detailed Project Reports submitted upon commencement.
9. Way Forward
India needs to work on several areas to manage its urbanization: The following are perhaps the
most important: Inclusive cities, funding, planning, capacity building and low-income housing
India also needs to start a political process where the urban issues are debated with evolution
of meaningful solutions:

Student Notes:
9.1. Inclusive Cities

The poor and lower income groups must be brought into the mainstream in cities. Regulations
intended to manage densities and discourage migration both limit the supply of land and
require many households to consume more land than they would choose. This drives urban
sprawl and pushes up the price of land and the cost of service delivery for all. High standards
for parking, coverage limits, setbacks, elevators, road widths, reservations for health centres,
schools etc. (often not used) prevent the poor from choosing how much to consume of the
costliest resource (urban land) to put a roof over their heads, and comply with legal
requirements.
9.2. Financing
Devolution has to be supported by more reforms in urban financing that will reduce cities’
dependence on the Centre and the states and unleash internal revenue sources. Consistent
with most international examples, there are several sources of funding that Indian cities could
tap into, to a far greater extent than today: Monetizing land assets; higher collection of
property taxes, user charges that reflect costs; debt and public-private partnerships (PPPs); and
central/state government funding. However, internal funding alone will not be enough, even in
large cities. A portion has to come from the central and state governments.
9.3. Planning
India needs to make urban planning a central, respected function, investing in skilled people,
rigorous fact base and innovative urban form. This can be done through a “cascaded” planning
structure in which large cities have 40-year and 20-year plans at the metropolitan level that are
binding on municipal development plans. Central to planning in any city is the optimal
allocation of space, especially land use and Floor Area Ratio (FAR) planning. Both should focus
on linking public transportation with zoning for affordable houses for low-income groups. These
plans need to be detailed, comprehensive, and enforceable.

Student Notes:
9.4. Local capacity building

A real step-up in the capabilities and expertise of urban local bodies will be critical to
devolution and improvement of service delivery. Reforms will have to address the development
of professional managers for urban management functions, who are in short supply and will be
required in large numbers. New innovative approaches will have to be explored to tap into the
expertise available in the private and social sectors.
Over the longer term, India needs to introduce more fundamental changes to turn our cities
into 21st century spaces. We need to introduce spatial planning that simultaneously addresses
developmental needs of metropolitan, municipal and ward-level areas. We need to genuinely
devolve power to urban local bodies and financially empower them.
The outcome of the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, “The
future we want”, recognized both the plight of the urban poor and the need for sustainable
cities as matters of great urgency for the United Nations development agenda. Time has come
to forge a new model of urban development that integrates all facets of sustainable
development, to promote equity, welfare and shared prosperity in an urbanizing world.

1. “As opposed to conventional urban sprawls, the new urbanization is rapidly
incorporating villages into its fold.” Elaborate this statement in the context of the
growth of census towns in 2011 census.
Approach:
• First, give some facts / statistics from the census to ‘show’ that the given statement
in the question is indeed correct.
• Then explain ‘what’ are census towns and how are they classified.
• Then briefly explain ‘why’ census towns have indeed grown at faster pace.
• The question doesn’t demand a response about the constraints faced by census
towns, so there is no need to go into that aspect.
Answer:
• Between the two censuses of 2001 and 2011, India’s urban population grew by 33
per cent.
• During this period, the combined population growth of India’s six largest urban
centres (metro cities), was quite close to the overall population growth of India.
Thus the growth in these urban centers was not the main reason for this urban
growth. It wasn’t even the growth in the population of smaller towns and the
booming state capitals that drove this urbanisation.
• It was a dramatic 54 per cent increase in the number of habitations called urban -
almost all of this increase came from a tripling of the number of “census towns”,
rising from around 1300 to 3900.
• This urban classification of ‘census towns’, which exists on census paper only, helps
differentiate between India’s smaller farming communities and the larger market
town-type settlements that are experiencing rapid and haphazard growth.

Student Notes:
• To become a census town, a village must fulfil three criteria—

o it needs at least 5,000 inhabitants,
o a density of 400 people per sq. km, and,
o at least three quarters of its male working population must be “engaged in non-
agricultural pursuits”.
• Simply put, census towns are populous places where farming is no longer viable
and people have turned to other professions.
• Census towns are poised on the threshold of the rural-urban divide. Semi-urban
though they might feel, census towns are still run by panchayats and classified as
rural for all official purposes, allowing them to draw on Union government
development schemes and exempting them from property taxes.
• Studies show that there is a sharp drop in male employment in agriculture over the
last few years. This is mainly due to the available machine inputs for agriculture and
also due to creation of better job opportunities in manufacturing and service
sectors
• Due to factors like lower real estate prices in rural India, improving education
facilities and improving infrastructure like roads, electricity etc, over 75 per cent of
new factories during the last decade came up in rural India. Manufacturing in rural
India is now 55 per cent of India's manufacturing GDP. Growth in services is equally
robust in rural India.
• Thus we can see census towns as a growing number of village clusters coming
together to create viable production and consumption units.
2. Describe “counter-urbanization” and “suburbanization” in the context of India.
Approach:
• Define both counter urbanization and suburbanization

• Then mention, how they are being manifested in India
Answer:
• Counter-urbanization is a “demographic and social process whereby people move

from urban areas to rural areas as a reaction to inner-city deprivation, pollution
and overcrowding”
• Suburbanization is the “growth of areas on the fringes of cities”. It is one of the
many causes of the increase in urban sprawl. Many residents of metropolitan
regions work within the central urban area, and choose to live in satellite
communities called suburbs and commute to work via automobile or mass transit.
Others have taken advantage of technological advances to work from their homes.
The skyrocketing real estate prices are one of the main reasons for suburbanization
process.
• In India, suburbanization as a process is being witnessed in areas around
metropolitans. The trend is strongest in cities like Delhi where a more efficient
public transport system allows people residing on the periphery of the urban sprawl
to commute to the cities.
• True counter-urbanization marked by taking up typical rural occupations is almost
non-existent in India, notwithstanding the mushrooming ‘farm houses’ on city

Student Notes:
outskirts. The situation as it exists may be taken as a cross between sub-

urbanization and counter urbanization.
3. Urbanisation and migration have increased the vulnerability of elderly in India.

Comment. Also, discuss the measures which should be taken to address their
vulnerabilities.
Approach:
Basic theme of the Question is vulnerabilities faced by elderly people due to social
changes engendered by increased urbanisation and migration. Answer can be
structured in following ways:
• Explain how elderly people in Indian demography have become vulnerable due to
Urbanization and migration. What are the challenges or drawbacks they face should
be listed.
• Suggest some measure to deal with issues of elderly.
Answer:
Growing number of elderly people (60 years or above) in India (7.4% of total population
in 2001) and various vulnerabilities they faces demands an urgent attention from policy
makers and society. The elders are increasingly susceptible to issues of health care,
livelihood and security. The vulnerabilities of elderly can be largely attributed to the
phenomenon of migration and urbanization in following ways:
• Migration and urbanisation gradually weakens traditional family patterns that
provide centrality and social roles for older persons.
• The drift away from rural areas to urban centres is not only causing a high rate of
unemployment and overcrowding in towns, among other social and economic
problems, but it is also contributing to the isolation of the aged in rural areas and
the deprivation of their usual sources of social and economic support.
• Moving to plantations, mines and factories is now causing physical separation of
family members, often by great distance, thus weakening the traditional family ties.
• The ability of modern families to care for their elderly relatives in the urban context
is seriously impaired by crowded housing, limited financial resources and increasing
education and employment of women, who are the main caregivers of the elderly.
• Urban accommodation is subject to the number of persons entitled to live in a
place which mainly depends on landlord's decision pressures on families, especially
where family size is large, which leads to subdivision of smaller family units
(rural/urban).
The following recommendations are specially aimed at improving the living standards
of older persons in India to deal with problems of Urbanisation and migration that is
affecting elderly.
• Since older people constitute an increasing portion of the rural agriculture labour
force, economic policies should aim at enhancing their farming performance.
• They will need credit and extension services and assistance in adopting improved
farming practices and technologies that are suited to their capabilities.

Student Notes:
• Efforts should be made to encourage older persons to engage in self-employment,

which would not only enable them to do things at their own pace but would also
encourage them to introduce innovations for productivity and profit.
• Cooperative ventures can play a key role in strengthening the capacity of the ageing
to contribute to rural development.
• Although old age signifies an increase in the need for health care, there is low
utilization of health care services among older people, the primary health centres
should also take care of the rural old people like the importance is given to
Children.
• The utilisation of all the social schemes is abysmally low, therefore awareness of
concessions and benefits should be made to reach them through various media,
and policies should be strengthened.
Income insecurity, illiteracy, age related morbidity, and physical and economic
dependency are factors that tend to make the Indian elderly vulnerable. So the
approach needs to be holistic and multidimensional; at the individual, family,
community, governmental and non-governmental levels.
4. In post-independence India, cities were expected to be a vehicle for social change, but
they also became the symbols of contradictions, which had been plaguing the
countryside for a long time. Comment.
Approach:
Basic theme of the question is failure of cities to realize goals of modernity in Indian
context. The answers can be structured in the following ways:
• Explain how establishment of modern cities was considered as transformative
method of social change and panacea for all social ills plaguing Indian society.
• Explain in detail how Indian cities is known more for reproducing the socio-
economic disparities which is present in rural India.
Answer:
In post-independence period, the state gave modern cities the primary responsibility to
develop Indian society on lines of democratic values enshrined in the Constitution.
The development of cities in India however shows that cities in India have failed to
fulfill the promises invested in them. Instead of reforming the social ill present in the
countryside, they have reproduced the social disparities existing there in following
manner:
• India: Urban Poverty Report 2009 (UNDP) identifies that poverty in India has
become urbanized and it is more widespread in large cities. Overall It is over 25
percent; some 81 million people live in urban areas on incomes that are below the
poverty line.
• Large cities like Mumbai (41.3%), Vishakhapatnam (44%), Kolkata (30%), Chennai
(29%) and Delhi (15%) have the high proportion of slum-dwelling households. Lack
of proper housing and basic services like health and education in cities has
reproduced the precarious living conditions due to segregation as present in
villages for poor.
• In the process of economic development, cities were believed to provide dignified
employment opportunities to majority of working poor who become surplus in

Student Notes:
rural economy. However, Indian cities have become home to large informal sector
as in villages providing subsistence jobs to poor.
• Women security has been the major issue in villages known for regressive attitude
towards them. However modern cities which are supposed to provide safe living for
them have itself become most unsecured place for them. e.g. recent incidence of
rape in Delhi.
• Political mobilization based on ascriptive identities are widely prevalent in cities as
it has been in countryside.
In this scenario there is an urgent need to rethink what role the cities will play in our
social progress. Cities should be made more inclusive space according to civic and
democratic values promoted by our constitution.
5. Rapid urban growth in the context of scarce socio-economic and legal support to the
poor is an inevitable recipe for mass production of slums. Discuss in the context of
India.
Approach:
Basic theme of the Question is about determinants of increasing slum population in

India in contemporary times. Answer can be approached in following ways:
• Explain in brief how urban growth is growing with slum population in India.
• Discuss in detail how lack of socio-economic support (housing, amenities etc.), legal
support (lack of laws for social security) combined with increasing urban growth is
creating conditions for higher incidence of slum population in India.
Answer:
According to 2011 Census, for the first time since Independence, the absolute increase
in population is more in urban areas that in rural areas. Also number of million plus
cities have increased from 23 (1991), 35(2001) to 63 (2015). This tremendous urban
growth however is taking place with equally high slum population growth in India as
roughly 17.4% of urban households lived in the slum in 2011 (Census 2011).
One of the concerning issue with the urban growth in India is that it's happening in the
situation of lack of basic amenities like housing, health, education and social security to
the poor. As a resulted urban growth instead of positive social development is
becoming nightmare for people who flocked to cities from countryside in search of
livelihood and living due to following reasons:
• Slow growth in agriculture and distressed rural sector is pushing the people to
urban areas for livelihood in non-agricultural sector. Most of the people are poor
small/marginal farmers or landless labour or artisans who cannot afford living in
cities unless some kind of social support is provided by the government. Urban area
in India starkly lack such facilities as a result urban poor has to survive in slums.
• Indian city planners increasingly overlooking the need of poor for low cost housing
as a result poor are flocking to urban slums.
• Most of migrants have no legal identity hence they can not avail the existing
facilities available in urban areas hence they have to live in slums for living.

Student Notes:
• Little enforcement of migrants rights as workers as their coverage with social

protection programmes of government mean for the poor, also left large gaps. Such
condition push further poor into poverty trap and in abject conditions of living in to
slums.
• Lack of formal sector employment in urban areas pushes the migrants to informal
sector for subsistence living. Due to prevalence of low wages and absence of social
support informal sectors workers have to live in informal settlements.
6. With overpopulated cities and their strained infrastructure, India is in the midst of an
urban crisis. How far can the Smart Cities Mission help in upgradation of existing
cities in the country? What are the reservations of local bodies with respect to this
mission?
Approach:
• Briefly describe the issue of unplanned cities and how the current state of affairs is
seemingly an urban crisis.
• Mention the features of a smart city- ICT enabled features, healthcare, policing etc.
How will this help in overcoming the aforementioned problems in existing cities?
• Finally, mention the reservations of local bodies wrt the features of this Mission.
Conclude by giving some suggestions to overcome these issues.
Answer:
Most Indian cities are examples of unplanned urbanization. Physical infrastructure like
public transport, housing, hospitals and schools etc is inadequate for sustaining the
growing population pressure, both quantitatively and qualitatively resulting in urban
dreams becoming urban nightmares.
The Smart Cities Mission is an attempt to upgrade existing infrastructure and ensure
sustainable development through focus on sustainable and inclusive development. It is
concerned with converting certain areas of an existing city into a “smart city” by city
improvement (retrofitting), city renewal (redevelopment) or city extension (Greenfield
development). Assured water and power supply, sanitation and solid waste
management, efficient urban mobility and public transport, robust IT connectivity, e-
governance and citizen participation along with safety of its citizens are its aims.
With credible financial backing promised by the government, the mission if
implemented earnestly has potential to transform the urban landscape.
The Mission puts the onus on Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in providing the roadmap of
smart city. However, centre has proposed Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) constituted in
each city with powers to implement the mission. It will plan, appraise, approve, release
funds, implement, manage, operate, monitor and evaluate the Smart City development
projects.
Many Municipal Corporations fear that they would get side-lined and their autonomy
compromised due to SPVs. ULBs will have a stake in SPVs, but an SPV is also empowered
to enter into PPPs.
The Mission encourages State government and urban local bodies to delegate the rights
and obligations of the municipal council with respect to the project to SPV. Hence the
influence of private investors and consulting firms in urban governance is likely to
increase with Smart Cities and this is worrying for ULBs.

Student Notes:
Concerns regarding the stifling of local autonomy and democracy are valid since,
instead of the democratically elected local government, it will be an SPV mandated by a
central policy that will govern the smart city.
Admittedly, our local governments are not the most efficient or responsive, but an SPV-
driven Smart City is not a lasting solution to the ills of city governance.
A sustainable urban future would require comprehensive governance reforms that
empower city governments with more administrative and financial powers and devolve
functions further to lower units within the city government in true democratic spirit.
7. Give an account of the factors driving people to migrate from the countryside to
urban areas even if it entails living in slums. Highlight some important facts about
slums unique to India. Also discuss some strategies which can be adopted for
transforming India's slums.
Approach:
• Introduce upon Rural-Urban migration in India and resultant growth of slums.
• Discuss the factors that drive people to migrate to cities and even live in slums.
• Discuss the important facts about slums unique to India.
• Discuss strategies to transform India’s slums.
Answer:
Urbanization accompanied by large scale migration leads to mushrooming slums.
India's slum population will constitute roughly 9% of the total projected national
population of 1.28 billion in 2017.
Driving factors
• A Higher and More Stable Income: Productive employment opportunities in an
urban centre likely generate a higher and more consistent personal disposable
income than in the place of origin – likely a rural, farming centre.
• Social Mobility for the Next Generation: Raising children in an urban environment
creates a higher “option value” for the next generation. Typically, cities offers a
wider choice of education and employment opportunities.
• Distress Migration: Political disturbances and inter-ethnic conflicts forces people
away from their homes. People also migrate to urban areas in the aftermath of
major natural disasters.
• No other option except slums: Poor migrant families are unable to afford decent
housing and transportation cost which forces them to settle in slum areas in the
city near to their work place.
Unique Facts
• Unprecedented Scale: No country has or is facing the issue of slums on the scale at
which India is. By 2017, India is expected to have over 100 million people living in
slums and another 10 million migrants moving to the cities each year.
• Political Clout Cuts Both Ways: India’s slum-dwellers are fully enfranchised and
actively vote for national and local leaders who they feel will protect their
interests. Slum-dwellers’ today know they represent a strong and highly influential
vote and politicians know that delivering things of value to this constituency plays
an important part in their ability to win their vote.

Student Notes:
• No Control: Some other developing countries have more effective political tools to
control urban migration. However, India’s democracy which assures the free
movement of people throughout the country prevents any such controls from being
even remotely feasible.
Strategies for Transformation
A viable solution to transform the slums would have to take a holistic view dealing with
India’s larger macro challenges. Such a solution should include the following
strategies:
• Rural Re-Visioning and Investment: There is need to create other cities as counter-
magnets so that the migration to major cities like Mumbai can be arrested.
Infrastructure, employment opportunities and the overall quality of life in India’s
small towns and rural areas should be improved.
• Industrial Revolution and Continued Development: The solution to slums is not to
reverse industrialisation or to try and contain urbanisation, but indeed to press
forward with it more aggressively so that businesses can afford to provide jobs to
slum-dwellers and pay them a proper wage.
• Slum Architecture: Building high-quality, low-cost, multi-storied, diverse formats in
the current slum areas such that these become integrated with the rest of the city.
• Sustainable Continuous Dynamic Infrastructure Provisioning: The government
needs to create a framework for gradual and continuous upgrading of slum
infrastructure.
8. Whereas the UN Habitat report calls cities “the highest pinnacles of human creation”,
the moot question is what form the cities of developing world should take. In context
of this statement, examine the contending strategies of urbanisation, with respect to
India.
Approach:
• In the introduction briefly explain the context in the statement and provide the
reason for a careful consideration of the shape cities would take in developing
world.
• Further delineate the strategies involving large and small cities as models of
urbanisation.
• Conclude by underlining the optimal combination required for future urban growth.
Answer:
Cities have been termed as pinnacles of human creation owing to their historic role and
future potential as sites of human collaboration, engines of growth and vehicles of
social mobility. The UN habitat estimates that by 2050 2/3rd of the global population
would reside in cities. According to the World Bank 90 % of the urban growth would
occur in the developing world. Thus, the inevitability of urbanization and concerns of
sustainability call for greater attention to cities in the developing world.
In this context cities in India have largely grown organically and in an unplanned
manner, this has led to pressure on the resources at disposal. Similarly the tier two
cities would be expanding in the future. Thus, India requires strategies suited to both
traditional urban centers as well as future ones:

Student Notes:
• Megacities and Concentred Urbanisation: Cities like Mumbai or Delhi are examples
of megacities (10 million or more population) and Concentred Urbanisation. They
have attracted large number of immigrants and over the years have proven to be
engines of growth. However, these cities have increasingly become dependent on
resources from outside and face pressure of density over land resources, housing
and public amenities. As such they would require strategies of urban renewal and
rejuvenation.
• Smaller Cities and Distributed Urbanisation: The growth of a number of tier two
cities is a future trend for India. This would require Distributed urbanization where
a large number of cities are developed simultaneously. United States which has
many medium-sized cities with population in the range 1.5-5 million. These are
easily manageable, minus the problems of large cities, and provide services to
surrounding countryside as well. By functioning in a typical ‘hub-and-spoke’ model
these cities can complement each other in terms of services and resources. With
the right resources, they can provide better services and environment for its
inhabitants. The 12th plan also leaned towards this trend which is reflective of
India’s federal structure as well.
Learning from international experience, models such as Transport Oriented
Development (TOD) with dense core district of high rises such as in Hong Kong can be
adopted. Similarly, many argue that the Houston or Atlanta Models i.e. population
spreading further away from the core should be avoided.
There are strategies suited for both small and large cities. A rapidly urbanising India
needs cities that are planned and inclusive hubs with enough fiscal resources and
institutional decentralisation.
9. Rather than being a transitory phenomenon of fast-growing economies, today's slums

pose deeper, persistent structural problems and represent major policy challenges.
Discuss in the context of India.
Approach:
• Discuss how slums have become a persistent issue.
• Enumerate policy challenges in this context.
• Conclude with government efforts, SDG 11 and other recommendations.
Answer:
Slums have often been defined by developmental theories as a transitional
phenomenon characteristic of fast-growing economies. But these theories are being
proven wrong as slums have become a persistent problem. Millions of households find
themselves trapped in slums for generations. According to 2011 census, around 17.4 %
urban Indian households live in slums. (Slum population is projected to increase from
93.1 million in 2001 to 104.7 million in 2017).
Today’s slums pose a deeper, persistent structural problem caused by multiple market
and policy failures, poor governance and management hindering investment, and poor
and unsanitary living conditions. Issues include:
• The slum region is marked by lack of adequate living space, insufficient provision of
public goods, and the poor quality of basic amenities like clean drinking water and
sanitation. All of which lead to extremely poor health and diminishing human
capital not only for the slum dwellers but for the vicinity as well.

Student Notes:
• Congestion, environmental mismanagement, degradation of natural resources.

• Poor education and opportunities, increased incidence of crime, vulnerability of
women, substance abuse, crowding and depersonalisation and other social and
humanitarian problems.
• Other issues relate to displacement of population from settlements, unregulated
encroachment cases such as Kathputli Colony in Delhi.
Policy challenges
• Tackling rural urban migration–It is closely relate to factors like globalisation and
lack of income opportunities in rural areas. Experts estimate that by 2050 approx.
60 % of the population shall live in cities. This invariably requires complimentary
schemes to develop smart villages on the lines of smart cities.
• Developing social security nets for slum dwellers in cities.
• Sustainable urban development-Making cities safe and sustainable means ensuring
access to safe and affordable housing, upgrading slum settlements, ensuring basic
necessities like clean drinking water, health clinics and toilets. It also includes
reducing vulnerability of women and elderly.
• Employment generation-need to create opportunities for migrants and avenues for
skill development.
• Capacity building in urban local bodies- This will include devolution of authority,
ensuring availability of funds (for example through Municipal bonds, devolving
taxes like entertainment tax etc.) and developing human resources.
• Affordable housing- With rising cost of land there exist an urgent need to develop
affordable housing for slum dwellers. One of the major components of “Housing for
All by 2022” is to utilize in-situ slum rehabilitation, through which the government
has devised a strategy to incentivize private developers to use land as a resource.
The policy also includes a slum upgradation component.
As SDG-11 talks about making cities sustainable, it is imperative that Government
initiatives such as AMRUT, SMART cities etc. must extend the benefits of these
initiatives to slum dwellers who are currently excluded from the benefits of social and
economic security.
10. While suburbanisation is a common phenomenon in most urbanising countries, it is

occurring at a relatively early stage of India’s urban development. Enumerating the
reasons behind this development, highlight the challenges it is creating for Indian
cities.
Approach:
• Give a brief introduction about suburbanisation phenomenon in most urbanising
countries.
• Enumerate the reasons as to why it is occurring at a relatively early stage of India’s
urban development.
• Highlight the challenges it is creating for Indian cities and ways to tackle them.
Answer:
A 2013 World Bank report, “Urbanization beyond Municipal Boundaries”, found that
suburban areas are generating higher economic growth and employment than the city.
Although “suburbanization” is a worldwide phenomenon, it usually occurs in middle to
advanced stages of development. In India, it’s happening much more quickly than
expected.

Student Notes:
Reasons:
• Suburbs are seen as safer and cheaper place to live and raise a family due to lower
population density, lower crime, and a more stable population.
• Increasing land prices and office rents have pushed companies to suburban areas.
• With increased incomes, people have the ability to pay more for travel and
commute longer distances to work and back home.
• Indian cities impose quite draconian land use regulations, rent control system and
building height restrictions on their cities leading to excessive suburbanization.
• Suburban municipalities offer tax breaks and regulatory incentives to attract
industrial land users to their area.
• The development of robust and sophisticated infrastructure is possible only in the
peripheries of the city where land is available in plenty and the cost of acquisition is
low.
Growth of urban agglomerations poses many economic, ecological and institutional
challenges which are as follows:
• Access to – and the quality of – water, sanitation, and electricity is much worse in
the urban periphery than at the core.
• Access to quality and affordable health and education services.
• With commercialization of agricultural land and encroachment on forest areas
ecosystem of the region is threatened.
• Unplanned urbanisation and uncontrolled encroachment of natural water storage
and drainage systems has spelt disaster.
• The fiscal deficit grows as a result of suburbanization, mainly because in less
densely populated areas, property taxes tend to be lower.
• Proponents of containing suburbanization argue that it leads to urban decay and a
concentration of lower income residents in the inner city.
Third and fifth five year plans advised urban planning to adopt regional approach and
to create metropolitan planning regions to take care of the growing areas outside
administrative city limits.
Way Forward:
• Address the lacunae in the current rural-urban categorization system. This would
ensure that new areas come under municipality limits and enjoy municipal services.
• Affordable and modern housing within already developed area with intelligent use
of space.
• Provide efficient services and reform governance structures to boost overall
economic development.
• Use zoning and other land use regulations to create development patterns that
make active transportation, in the form of walking and cycling, practical for shortest
of trips.
• Assuring that development is spread out fairly city-wide so that issues of
accessibility to housing and work don’t arise.
• Ensuring that tax incentives given by one suburb do not penalize other suburbs or
the central city.
Inadequacy of cities to provide affordable and quality options has resulted in
suburbanization. We need to improve existing urban amenities while simultaneously
addressing the problems of suburban sprawls.

Student Notes:

1. Discuss the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of
urbanization in India. (2013)
2. Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart vilages. Discuss this statement in the
backdrop of rural urban integration. (2015)
3. With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and
strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme.” (2016)



Vision IAS GS 1 VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vision IAS GS 1 VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

https://t.me/UPSC_PDF Website ➡ https://upscpdf.com https://t.

GS 1 POST INDEPENDENT INDIA VISION IAS VALUE ADDITION.pdf

VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL – 2018

Copyright © by Vision IAS

DELHI JAIPUR PUNE HYDERABAD AHMEDABAD LUCKNOW

Post-Independence Consolidation and Reorganization

1 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

CHAPTER 1: NATION BUILDING AND CONSOLIDATION: PROCESS

A. Partition and its Aftermath

3 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

B. Integration of Princely States

5 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

6 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

7 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

8 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

9 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

11 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

CHAPTER 2: DEMOCRATISATION: PROCESS, CHALLENGES AND

A. Emergence of Electoral Politics

12 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

B. Dominance of Congress System

13 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

C. The Opposition Parties

14 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

15 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

16 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

CHAPTER: 3 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

A. Mixed Economy Model (Socialism)

B. Planning and its Impact

18 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

Achievements of Plans from 1947–65

19 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

20 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

D. Land Reforms and the Cooperatives

At the time of independence

21 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

• To increase employment opportunities in the rural sector.

Encouragement of co-operative • To overcome the difficulties presented by tiny holdings.

Opposition to the Land Reforms

22 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

23 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

24 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

• Service cooperatives reinforced the casted based hierarchical structure.

25 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

CHAPTER 4: INDIA'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS

26 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

Salient features of the Idea of Non-alignment:

B. Relations with Neighbors: An Overview

27 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

28 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

II. Relations with China:

C. India's Nuclear Policy

29 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

CHAPTER 5: THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC ORDER

30 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

31 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

C. Naxalite Movement and Maoist Insurgency

32 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

33 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

CHAPTER 6: REGIONAL DISCONTENT AND ITS SOLUTION

34 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

B. Issue of J & K, Punjab

35 www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

C. Problems with North-East Region