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Heinrich Pesch, S.J.: Grandpere of Solidarist Economics

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 HEINRICH PESCH, S.J.:
GRANDPERE OF SOLIDARIST ECONOMICS
Edward J. O’Boyle, Ph.D.
Senior Research Associate
Mayo Research Institute
1217 Dean Chapel Road
West Monroe, Louisiana USA 71291
edoboyle737@gmail.com www.mayoresearch.org
March 31, 2001
Revised April 26, 2020

The economic-science component of solidarist economics is anchored firmly in the work of the
German Jesuit economist Heinrich Pesch. His Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie is regarded as a
commentary on Rerum Novarum and a source book for Quadragesimo Anno. His “religion cannot
produce grain; it cannot do away with physical evil” is a warning that in matters of human material
need more than faith alone is required.

Pesch was born in 1854, the third son of a Cologne tailor. After completing his legal studies at the
University of Bonn, he entered the Jesuit community where for the next fourteen years he applied
himself to the study of classical literature, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and the natural
sciences. Four of those years were spent at the Jesuit house of theological studies in England where
the wretched social conditions of the working class led to his resolution to search for a remedy
through the study of economics. Pesch was ordained to the priesthood in 1888, and completed his
formal training as a Jesuit two years later.

For the following ten years, Pesch engaged in the private study of economics and social conditions
and was successful in publishing several articles in the periodical Stimmen Aus Maria Laach
(Stimmen der Zeit). At age forty-seven Pesch took up the formal study of economics at the
University of Berlin, remaining there until 1903. For the next seven years he was assigned to a
Jesuit house of writers in Luxemburg until 1910. It was here that he began work on the Lehrbuch.
Pesch spent the next thirteen years working on the five volumes of the Lehrbuch, writing other
works on ethics in economics, on the differences between solidarism, liberalism (individualism),
and socialism, and serving as a spiritual director. Work on the Lehrbuch which was completed in
1923 had been so debilitating that Pesch was transferred to Holland for rest and recuperation. He
died in Holland on April 1, 1926. Over his lifetime, in addition to the Lehrbuch Pesch produced

1
more than 100 publications thereby setting a pattern of explicit concern for the working class and
for conditions in the workplace for like-minded economists to follow.

Absolutely central to Pesch’s economics is his conceptualization of humankind. Pesch rejected the
individualists’ conception of human beings as basically self-sufficient and self-determined and the
collectivists’ view of humans as mere members or functionaries of a homogenous,
self-dependent whole. Instead, humans are inseparably individual and social, simultaneously an
independent free being and a dependent social being.

Consistent with his foundations in Thomistic philosophy, Pesch regarded human beings as
body-soul composites. It is the body which gives the human being his/her materiality. It is the soul
which supplies him/her with the two characteristics -- free will and intellect -- which make him/her
truly unique. Most fundamentally, Pesch’s conception of humans was that they are made by God in
His own image and likeness, and that they truly exist whereas economic systems are a manner of
speaking. This view underpins literally the entire body of Peschian economic thought.

To Pesch, economics is a social science which is both practical and normative, relying importantly
on social philosophy and ethics for its foundations and employing a teleological approach. The
formal object of the science is the goal of the economy and that goal is to provide for the material
welfare of the people. Insofar as that welfare may be different in different places, times, and
circumstances, some differences in the details of solidarist economic systems are desirable, if not
necessary. This conceptualization of a goal for the economy of course put Pesch outside the
mainstream of conventional thought where efficiency is taken as the ultimate purpose of the
economy.

The centerpiece of Pesch’s Lehrbuch is his social system of labor which is a way of thinking about
economic affairs quite distinct from classical economics which rests on individualism and radical
economics which is based on collectivism. Though Pesch’s economics more commonly was called
“solidarist economics,” others more recently have taken to call it “personalist economics.”

The social system of labor draws upon the principle of subsidiarity and a three-fold solidarity. The
principle of subsidiarity limits a larger, more powerful unit of society such as the state to those
functions which smaller, less powerful units such as the family are unable to do for themselves.
Pesch’s three-fold solidarity refers to the natural unity among humankind in general, the unity
among citizens of the same state, and the unity of persons in the same vocation.

Under the social system of labor, vocational groups are established in order to give organizational
substance to the solidarity among persons in the same vocation. Such vocational-group
organizations are not the same as free associations of persons in the same trade or business such as
labor unions and employer associations. Neither are they the same as producer and consumer

2
cooperatives. Nor are they to be restricted by political boundaries. Rather, they operate at the
supra-firm level. In the United States such organizations have been called industry councils. One
that comes to mind is St. Louis PRIDE 1 an entirely private organization involving all the
constituent parties to the metropolitan construction industry which focuses on problem-solving
specific issues before they degenerate into work stoppages. It serves the interests of the constituent
parties by doing collectively those things which cannot be done individually.

Pesch’s economics rests on the premise that enterprise and property, though primarily private in
nature, are to be employed to serve not just the interests of their owners but to serve the needs of
others and the common good as well. To be effective in that larger mission, three principles of
economic justice -- commutative, distributive, and contributive -- must be practiced faithfully.
Additionally, the principle of solidarity is necessary in order to organize economic affairs properly
because the individual firm relies not only on physical capital and managerial expertise but also on
its labor force, suppliers, and its customers. Thus, all factors of production, distribution, and
consumption of a given product or service must work together in order to serve the common good.

Pesch’s methodology emphasizes concrete, individual reality grounded in experience. It stands

opposed to the much more widely used methodology emphasizing a logically and mathematically
coherent system of quantitative propositions and judgments which reject as unscientific any
economic theory developed around goals, purposes, and other value-judgments. He rejects pure
economics especially in its reduction of the human person to “homo economicus.” In that sense,
Pesch’s economics converges with personalist economics. See the schematic in the appendix for
more on Pesch’s connection, notably to Aristotle, Aquinas, and Smith, and to his special role in the
development of solidarist economics.

Pesch regarded philosophy and economics as separate but related sciences. In relation to
economics, philosophy verifies basic theoretical concepts and demonstrates their epistemological
rightness. In relation to philosophy, economics contributes knowledge as to the essence of
economic phenomena.

Pesch directly influenced a small group of fellow Germans known as the “Study Group” or “Study
Circle.” The group included Gustav Gundlach, Oswald von Nell-Breuning, Franz Mueller, Goetz
Briefs, Wilhelm Schwer, Paul Jostock, Heinrich Rommen, and Theodor Brauer. Rupert Ederer
was greatly influenced and supported by Mueller.

Pesch’s influence extended to the United States in part as a consequence of the emigration of
certain members of the Study Group, including Mueller and Briefs. Two of his most influential

1
Now known as Saint Louis Construction Cooperative, available at https://stlouisconstructioncooperative.org/

3
American followers were the Jesuit economists Richard Mulcahy and Bernard Dempsey. Mulcahy
published The Economics of Heinrich Pesch in 1952 and until Ederer’s translation of the entire
Lehrbuch became available, Mulcahy’s book was the only extensive English-language
commentary on Pesch’s ideas. Dempsey prepared the English edition of von Nell-Breuning’s
commentary on Quadragesimo Anno, and referred to the Lehrbuch as “the supreme intellectual
achievement inspired by the encyclicals.” Dempsey’s The Functional Economy owes much to the
work of Pesch and is one of the finest examples of scholarly work in the solidarist-economics
tradition. Othmar Spann referred to the Lehrbuch as “the most comprehensive economic treatise
every produced in the German language -- a work instinct with true scholarship.”

Two other American Jesuit economists, Leo Brown and Joseph Becker, shared Pesch’s central
concern for the plight of the working class. Brown was a specialist in labor-management relations
and Becker wrote extensively on employment security. Both became leading experts in their
respective domains and probably are the most influential of the American Jesuits in practical
economic affairs. Brown became a major labor mediator and arbitrator; Becker became the most
outstanding student of unemployment insurance of his time.

There are several other Americans who should be included in a listing of economists who were
influenced by Pesch’s economics. Among others, they include Louis Buckley, Peter Danner,
Gladys Gruenberg, Catherine Knoop, Arnold McKee, Thomas Nitsch, Edward O’Boyle, Josef
Solterer, William Waters, and Stephen Worland. For those who would like to explore this body of
knowledge further, a selected reading list appears at the end of this preface.

Solidarist economics which owes much to Pesch and the Study Group for its origins and
development is barely visible in academic circles today. Today there are no American universities
including Jesuit institutions which offer a doctorate in economics with a concentration in solidarist
economics. At the present time, virtually none of the persons enumerated above would be
identified by the typical economics student and, for all intents and purposes, their life work is
entirely hidden from view in today’s mainstream classroom. Worse yet, none of their professional
work would be recognized much less respected by the typical economics faculty even at Catholic
institutions. Pesch’s legacy along with the legacies of the others in this small company of
like-minded students of economics is being buried by an economics profession which accepts only
mainstream thought as having any authenticity. In that sense, Pesch and all the others share the
same fate as their professional associates in economic history and history of economic thought.

A colleague on the economics faculty at a major American Catholic university several years ago
recounted his efforts urging the economics department to afford wider acceptance of intellectual
perspectives outside the mainstream. He suggestions were roundly rejected by the faculty. Years
before, another colleague at the same institution stated that it would be a grueling if not impossible

4
task for a person with a specialization and publication record in solidarist economics to get tenured
there.

One of the sad consequences of the dismantling of this tradition is that very few are left who are
able to give solidarist economics an articulate voice and apply it to the problems of the
contemporary economic order. Though the future of solidarist economics is not promising, three
developments are encouraging. First, there is some concern among United States Catholic bishops
that the Church’s own social teaching is not known and understood “by ordinary Catholics on the
job, around the home and in the community.” Indeed, a recent report prepared for the bishops’ task
force on higher education states that “there is little systematic attention given to incorporating
gospel values and Catholic social teaching into general education or into departmental majors.”

Second, in spite of their very small numbers, the Saint Louis Jesuits revolutionized sacred music in
countless parishes in the United States. This great service to the Church originated in a university
community which does not have a school of music! It is conceivable that something similar could
take place in economics if some of the remaining American Jesuit economists and knowledgeable
lay persons were centered in one place as they were for many years in the Institute for Social Order
at Saint Louis University and later in the Jesuit Center for Social Studies at Georgetown
University.

Third, John Paul II has articulated a magnificent vision of economic affairs driven by a different
set of premises than the individualism which governs Western economies and contemporary
economic thought. There is much work to be done in re-thinking economics with these different
premises and in finding various ways to apply this thinking to current economic affairs and
problems -- a worthy undertaking for any economics faculty free to explore beyond the boundaries
of mainstream economic thought.

Thanks entirely to Ederer’s unrelenting commitment to bring the Lehrbuch to English-speaking

students of economics, those who are laboring in the vineyard of solidarist or personalist
economics have available for the first time the full length and breadth of Pesch’s premises, ideas,
concepts, arguments, and tools of economic science for describing and understanding economic
affairs. Further, Ederer’s translation gives us a towering body of knowledge to reinforce the claim
that solidarist economics is worthy of study. Someday, perhaps, Ederer’s efforts will be rewarded
with the establishment of a doctoral-degree program in which solidarist economics is one of the
areas of concentrated study and research.

5
 SELECTED READING LIST

Becker, Joseph M., S.J. The Adequacy of the Benefit Amount in Unemployment Insurance,
Kalamazoo: The W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, May 1961.

Becker, Joseph M., S.J. Experience Rating in Unemployment Insurance: An Experiment in

Competitive Socialism, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1972.

Becker, Joseph M., S.J. Guaranteed Income for the Unemployed: The Story of SUB, Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968.

Becker, Joseph M., S.J. (editor). In Aid of the Unemployed, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press,
1965.

Becker, Joseph M., S.J. “Looking Back from the Last Turn in the Road,” The Unemployed as
Human Beings in Need: A Symposium on the Works of Joseph M. Becker, S.J., in Forum for Social
Economics, Spring 1991.

Becker, Joseph M., S.J. The Problem of Abuse in Unemployment Benefits: A Study of Limits, New
York: Columbia University Press, 1953.

Becker, Joseph M., S.J. Shared Government in Employment Security, New York: Columbia
University Press, 1959.

Besse, Clifford S., S.J. Economic Theory and Social Order, Cincinnati: Xavier University, 1965.

Briefs, Goetz A. The Solidarist Economics of Goetz A. Briefs, edited by William R. Waters for
Review of Social Economy, December 1983.

Briefs, Henry W. “Goetz Briefs on Capitalism and Democracy: An Introduction,” Review of

Social Economy, December 1983.

Brown, Leo C., S.J. “The Responsibility of the Entrepreneur in Modern Industrial Society,”
Review of Social Economy, March 1950.

Buckley, Louis F. “Ethical Aspects of Social Insurance,” Review of Social Economy, May 1948.

Danner, Peter L. (editor). The Anniversary Issue: Centennial of Rerum Novarum and
Semicentennial of the Founding of the Association, in Review of Social Economy, Winter 1991.

Danner, Peter L. Getting and Spending: A Primer on Economic Morality, Kansas City: Sheed &
Ward, 1994.

6
Danner, Peter L. “Personal Values and the Anguish of Affluence,” Review of Social Economy,
April 1974.

Dempsey, Bernard W., S. J. “Ability to Pay,” Review of Social Economy, January 1946.

Dempsey, Bernard W., S.J. The Frontier Wage: The Economic Organization of Free Agents,
Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1960.

Dempsey, Bernard W., S.J. The Functional Economy: The Bases of Economic Organization,
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958.

Divine, Thomas F., S.J. “On the Place of ‘Profit’ in a Capitalistic Economy,” Review of Social
Economy, January 1944.

Ederer, Rupert J. “Capitalism, Socialism, and the Social Market Economy,” Review of Social
Economy, March1969.

Ederer, Rupert. J. Heinrich Pesch on Solidarist Economics: Excerpts from the Lehrbuch der
Nationalökonomie, Lanham (MD): University Press of America, 1998.

Ederer, Rupert J. “Heinrich Pesch, Solidarity, and the Social Encyclicals,” Review of Social
Economy, Winter 1991.

Ederer, Rupert J. “The Industry Council Arrives in America, Review of Social Economy,”
September 1961.

Ederer, Rupert J. “Toward the Concept of an Optimum Money Supply,” Review of Social
Economy, September 1958.

Gruenberg, Gladys W. “The American Jesuit Contribution to Social Action and Social Order after
Rerum Novarum,” in Review of Social Economy, Winter 1991.

Gruenberg, Gladys W. Labor Peacemaker: The Life and Works of Father Leo C. Brown, S.J.,
St. Louis: The Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1981.

Knoop, Catherine T., C.S.J. “Teaching Values in Economics,” Review of Social Economy,
September 1972.

McKee, Arnold F. “Market Failures and the Place of Government in Social Economy,” Review of
Social Economy, April 1984.

Mueller, Franz H. “I Knew Heinrich Pesch: The Formative Influence of a Human Scholar,” Social
Order, April 1951.

Mueller, Franz H. “In Memoriam: Gustav Gundlach, S.J. 1892-1963,” Review of Social Economy,
September 1964.

7
Mueller, Franz H. “The Principle of Solidarity in the Teachings of Father Henry Pesch, S.J.,”
Review of Social Economy, January 1946.

Mueller, Franz H. “Rejecting Right and Left: Heinrich Pesch and Solidarism,” Thought, Fordham
University Quarterly, Volume 26, Number 103, 1951-1952.

Mueller, Franz H. “Social Economics: The Perspective of Pesch and Solidarism,” Review of
Social Economy, December 1977.

Mueller, Franz H. “The Solidarist Middle Road,” Central-Blatt and Social Justice, February 1940.

Mulcahy, Richard E., S.J. The Economics of Heinrich Pesch, New York: Henry Holt and
Company, 1952.

Mulcahy, Richard E., S.J. “Equity Issues in the Economics of the New Individualism,” Review of
Social Economy, March 1964.

Mulcahy, Richard E., S.J. “The Peschian Value Paradox: A Key to the Function of Vocational
Groups,” Review of Social Economy, March 1952.

Nitsch, Thomas O. “Social Economics: The First Two Hundred Years,” Social Economics:
Retrospect and Prospect, edited by Mark A. Lutz, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990.

O’Boyle, Edward J. Personalist Economics: Moral Convictions, Economic Realities, and Social
Action, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998.

O’Boyle, Edward J. (editor). Teaching the Social Economics Way of Thinking, Lewiston (NY):
The Edwin Mellen Press, 1999.

Pesch, Heinrich, S.J. Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie, a five-volume work originally published in
German by Herder and Company between 1905 and 1926.

Purcell, Theodore V., S.J. “The Ethics of Corporate Governance,” Review of Social Economy,
December 1982.

Purcell, Theodore V., S.J. “Institutionalizing Ethics on Corporate Boards,” Review of Social
Economy, April 1978.

Roets, Perry J., S.J. “Bernard W. Dempsey, S.J.,” Review of Social Economy, Winter 1991.

Schuyler, Joseph B., S.J. “Heinrich Pesch, S.J.: 1854-1926,” Social Theorists, edited by Clement
S. Mihanovich, Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1953.

Solterer, Josef. “Quadragesimo Anno: Schumpeter’s Alternative to the Omnipotent,” Review of

Social Economy, 1951.

8
Von Nell-Breuning, Oswald, S.J. “The Concept of the Just Price,” Review of Social Economy,
September 1950.

Von Nell-Breuning, Oswald, S.J. The Reorganization of Social Economy: The Social Encyclical
Developed and Explained, English edition prepared by Bernard W. Dempsey, S.J., New York: The
Bruce Publishing Company, 1936.

Von Nell-Breuning, Oswald, S.J. “The Social Structural Order and European Economic Unity,”
Review of Social Economy, September 1952.

Von Nell-Breuning, Oswald, S.J. “Some Reflections on Mater et Magistra,” Review of Social
Economy, Fall 1962.

Von Nell-Breuning, Oswald, S.J. “The Vocational Order and Monopoly,” Review of Social
Economy, September 1951.

Waters, William R. “Evolution of Social Economics in America.” Social Economics: Retrospect

and Prospect, edited by Mark A. Lutz, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990.

Waters, William R. “The Moral Dimension in Economics: Review Essay,” Review of Social
Economy, 1990.

Waters, William R. “On the Theory of Social Economy,” Review of Social Economy, September
1965.

Waters, William R. “Schumpeter’s Contributions and Catholic Social Thought,” Review of Social
Economy, September 1961.

Waters, William R. “Social Economics: A Solidarist Perspective,” Review of Social Economy,

October 1988.

Waters, William R. “The Thrust of Solidarity, An Introduction,” Review of Social Economy,

December 1984.

Worland, Stephen T. “Justice and Welfare Economics,” Review of Social Economy, September
1959.

Worland, Stephen T. “On the Uncertain Future of Social Economics,” Review of Social Economy,
October 1978.

Worland, Stephen T. “Philosophy, Welfare, and ‘The System of Natural Liberty’,” Review of
Social Economy, September 1963.

Worland, Stephen T. “Social Economy and the Theory of Justice: Two New Dimensions,” Review
of Social Economy, December 1977.

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Worland, Stephen T. “The Preferential Option, Pope Pius XI, and the Foundations of Social
Economics,” Review of Social Economy, Winter 1991.

APPENDIX1

ORIGINS OF PERSONALIST ECONOMICS

The schematic at the end of this introduction traces the origins of personalist economics to
Aristotle and Aquinas and incorporates Adam Smith without ever embracing the individualism of
the Enlightenment which continues to dominate neoclassical economics today. To limit this
schematic to a single page, it was necessary to leave out much which specialists in the history of
economic thought would like to see included. …

The papal encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891) helped inspire the development of solidarist
economics in Germany under the guidance of Heinrich Pesch who was deeply troubled by the
abject poverty he observed in England in the late 1800s. Pesch rejected as seriously flawed the
individualism at the center of economic thought at that time, and set out to construct economics on
the foundations of the much older philosophy of the scholastics. Solidarism in turn found an
important though silent outlet in the encyclical Quadragesimo Anno (1931). Pesch established a
study group which included Goetz Briefs, Franz Mueller, and two younger Jesuits -- Gustav
Gundlach, and von Nell-Breuning. Briefs and Mueller emigrated to the United States and along
with the American Jesuits Dempsey and Divine established the Catholic Economics Association in
1941 (reconstituted and renamed the Association for Social Economics in 1970).

Schumpeter’s economics entered the Association initially through Briefs and Dempsey. …
Schumpeter was Dempsey’s mentor at Harvard University where Dempsey earned his doctorate in
economics. Schumpeter challenged Briefs to design an economic system that would replace
socialism as the only alternative to the capitalist system which he regarded as in permanent decline
(Waters, pp. 136-137). Personalist economics emerged on its own as the offspring of solidarist
economics principally at the hands of William Waters who was greatly influenced by the teachings
of Aristotle and Schumpeter, and Danner whose work draws heavily on John Paul II and Mounier.

The schematic also provides a timeline which connects the three stages of human communication
-- the oral/aural stage, the script stage, the electronic stage -- to the evolution of economics since
the Enlightenment. In the oral/aural stage, human communication was strictly face to face thereby

1
Taken with deletions from the introduction in LOOKING BEYOND THE INDIVIDUALISM &
HOMO ECONOMICUS OF NEOCLASSICAL ECONOMICS. A collection of ten essays dedicated to the
memory of Peter Danner. Edited by Edward J. O’Boyle. Marquette University Press, 2010. ISBN
13:978-0-87462-066-5, 180pp.

10
drawing humans closer together and requiring economic agents to interact face to face,
underscoring their human sociality. Teachers and their students were actively engaged in a way
which emphasized thinking and speaking as critical to learning.

In the script stage, especially after the invention of the printing press, interaction between
economic agents could occur at great distances over an extended period of time without their ever
meeting face to face, accentuating their human individuality. Under the influence of 16th century
professor, Peter Ramus, learning became a process in which teachers lectured and students were
expected to listen, take notes, and follow in the textbook (see Ong).

Virtually everyone who teaches economics employs Ramist pedagogy in the classroom, thereby
reflecting and reinforcing the individualism which dominates the neoclassical economics way of
thinking. The Ramist pedagogy extends naturally enough to the university library – the official
depository for books rolling off the printing press assembly line -- where the cardinal rule of
silence still is observed and enforced.

Homo economicus was a good fit in the typographical culture of the 17th-18th centuries in which
inward-directedness, listening and reading, and self-reliance are esteemed while
outward-directedness, thinking and speaking, and co-existence are not. The library replaced the
forum or as Simon Blackburn put it, citing Schopenhauer, reading is “a mere surrogate for
thinking” (Blackburn, p. 5).

In the electronic stage which began with the telegraph economic agents interact over long
distances in a short period of time, making them more other-reliant in day-to-day economic affairs
without suppressing their human individuality. The economic agent in the electronic stage is an
individual being and a social being, no longer just an individual but a person. Ong asserts that
personalism emerged in the electronic stage which enhanced human awareness of self and of
others. …

The individual as the basic unit of economic analysis is a creature born of the individualism which
originated in the typographical culture of the script stage. The person is the new economic agent
for the electronic age and the globalized economy of the 21st century.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11
 References

Blackburn, S. (2007), Plato’s Republic: A Biography, Atlantic Monthly Press, New York.

Ong, W. (2004), Ramus: Method and the Decay of Dialogue, University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.

Waters, W. (1961), “Schumpeter’s Contributions and Catholic Social Thought,” Review

of Social Economy, Volume 19, Number 2, pp. 133-141.

12
 ORIGINS OF PERSONALIST ECONOMICS: Aristotle, Aquinas, Smith, Weber, Schumpeter, John Paul II

Oral/Aural Communication
► Printing Press Reformation Ramist Pedagogy Aristotle language

Scholasticism (Aquinas)
Enlightenment: Age of Reason Faith and Reason

Script Communication
Individualism (Locke - Hobbes - Hume) typescript

Wealth of Nations ---------- Smith ---------- Moral Sentiments

Orthodox Economics

Ricardo

Malthus
Radical Economics Sozialökonomik Rerum Novarum
J.S. Mill Electronic Communication
Marx Weber Solidarist Economics telegraph
Marshall - Fisher - Walras telephone
PESCH radio
J.M. Keynes Schumpeter
Briefs Mueller - Gundlach - von Nell-Breuning

Quadragesimo Anno
+
Catholic Economics Association television

Chicago School Dempsey Divine

Waters Danner fax

+ internet
Personalism (Mounier - John Paul II) e-mail
wireless

Personalist Economics

13
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