Chapter 7 - Groundwater - Edit

HYDROLOGY
(BFC 32002)
By:-
WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

DEPT. OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
FAC. OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
e-mail: afnizan@uthm.edu.my
CHAPTER 7
GROUNDWATER
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

JKAP ; FKAAS
CONTENT
 INTRODUCTION
 MAIN PRINCIPLE OF GROUNDWATER FLOW
 PARAMETERS OF GROUNDWATER STORAGE

 PARAMETERS OF GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
 ONE DIMENSIONAL GROUNDWATER

FLOW IN STEADY CONDITION
 STEADY STATE FLOW EQUATION
 CONFINED FLOW TO A WELL
 UNCONFINED FLOW TO A WELL

CONTENT
... Cont ‘
 PUMPING TEST
 CONFINED AQUIFER PUMPING TESTS
 UNCONFINED AQUIFER PUMPING TESTS
 RECHARGE WELLS
 APPLICATION OF GROUNDWATER
FLOW

JKAP ; FKAAS
INTRODUCTION
 Factors influenced amount of groundwater :-
 Type of land surface.

- Porous  40 to 50 % water seep
- Less porous  5 to 20 % water seep
 Season.

JKAP ; FKAAS
INTRODUCTION
GROUNDWATER CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
Table 7.1 : Groundwater classification
Soil water zone Soil water
Intermediate Intermediate
Zone of aeration
zone zone water Water in
Zone of voids in
fissured rocks
Capillary
rocks Capillary zone (pore,
water
fissure,
Groundwater cavern
Zone of water)
(phreatic
saturation
water)
Zone of rock flowage Deep water

INTRODUCTION
Figure 7.2: Groundwater sources

JKAP ; FKAAS
MAIN PRINCIPLE OF
GROUNDWATER FLOW
What
is
Aquifer ?

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
 Aquifer  Water-bearing soil / rock formation  capable

yielding water.
 Mix clay, sand gravel & fine particles   water.
 Coarse-grain   water.
 Two categories :-
 Confined / Artesian Aquifer
 Unconfined / Water Table Aquifer

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
Figure 7.3 : Aquifer

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
CONFINED AQUIFER
Figure 7.4 : Confined aquifer

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
CONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
 Confined aquifer  groundwater trapped under

impermeable soil / rock  pressure exist !!
 If water rise above aquifer level  ‘Artesian well’

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
Figure 7.5 : Unconfined aquifer

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
 Unconfined aquifer  not confined under pressure.
 Water level inside well = outside well.
 Zone  3 parts :-
 Saturated
 Unsaturated
 Water Table

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
1. SATURATED ZONE
 Pores filled with water.

 Typically includes numerous water-filled  crevices (upper
layer of bedrock)
Figure 7.6 : Saturated zone

AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
2. UNSATURATED ZONE
 Between water level & land surface  pores partially

filled with water.
 Cannot provide water for well.
Figure 7.7 : Unsaturated zone

AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
2. UNSATURATED ZONE
Figure 7.8 : Unsaturated zone (enlarged)

AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
3. WATER TABLE
 At top of saturated zone.
 Rise & fall  according to the season.

JKAP ; FKAAS
AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
3. WATER TABLE
Figure 7.9 : Water table (normal & drought)

AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
... Cont ‘
3. WATER TABLE
Figure 7.10 : Illustration of water table

(normal & drought)
GROUNDWATER PARAMETERS
STORAGE
 Four important parameters for groundwater storage :-
 Porosity, n
 Specific Retention, Sr
 Specific Yield, Sy
 Storage Coefficient, S

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. POROSITY, 
 Capacity of soil / rock to hold water.
 Clay  not good water resource (small size openings)
Figure 7.11 : Porosity at various type of layers

... Cont ‘
2. SPECIFIC RETENTION, Sr
 Volume of water retained against gravity force compared to
the total volume of soil.
 Formula :-
Wr
Sr  ……. 7.1
V
Where ;
Wr = Volume of water retained

V = Total of water volume

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
Capillary pressure, Pc
Specific retention
Volumetric-moisture content, w
JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
Ground level
Height above water table

For level-1
For level-2
Amount of water
Level-1 drained off
Level-1
Level-2
Level-2
Volumetric-moisture content (%)

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
3. SPECIFIC YIELD, Sy
 Volume of water released from storage in a water table
aquifer per unit horizontal area of aquifer with unit decline
of water table.
 Formula :-
1 dv
Sy  . or S y  n  Sr ……. 7.2
Where ;
A dh
Sy = Specific yield
Sr = Specific retention
A = Area of soil formation
dv = Volume of water drained
dh = Change in water table
 = Porosity
... Cont ‘
Specific Yield
Material
(%)
Gravel, coarse …………………. …………….. 23

Gravel, medium ……………….. ……………. 24
Gravel, fine …………………….. …………….. 25
Sand, coarse …………………… …………….. 27
Sand, medium …………………. …………….. 28
Sand, fine ………………………. …………….. 23
Silt ………………………………. …………….. 8
Clay …………………………….. ……………. 3
Sandstone, fine-grained ………. ……………. 21
Sandstone, medium-grained …. ……………. 27
Limstone ………………………... ……………. 14
Dune sand ……………………… ……………. 38
Loess ……………………………. ……………. 18
Peat ……………………………... ……………. 44
Schist …………………………… ……………. 26
Sillstone ………………………… …………….. 12
Till, predominantly silt …………. ……………. 6
Till, predominantly sand ………. ……………. 16
Till, predominantly gravel ……... ……………. 16
Tuff …………….. 21
... Cont ‘
Figure 7.12 : Specific yield for various materials

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

(For confined aquifer)
 Volume of water that is released or taken into storage per

unit head fluctuate.
 1 1 
S   w b   
 w
E  E s 
Storage Coefficient
S  gb  
S
Ss  (Jacob)
b
Specific Storage
S s   w 1     (DeWeist)
... Cont ‘
4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

(For confined aquifer)
S = Storage coefficient
b = Thickness of aquifer
 = Porosity
w = Specific gravity of water
Ew = Bulk modulus of elasticity of water
(3105 psi at ordinary temperature)
Es = Bulk modulus of elasticity of soil solids
 = Aquifer compressibility (1/Es)
 = Water compressibility (1/Ew)
Ss = Specific storage

JKAP ; FKAAS
MOVEMENT
 Three important parameters for groundwater movement :-
 Hydraulic Conductivity, K
 Transmissivity, T
 Coefficient of Leakage, Le

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY, K
 Rate of water flow through opening soil / rock.

  K  less water seeps.
 Unit : m/day or m/year.

K k OR q = Ki

K = hydraulic conductivity
k = intrinsic permeability (refer Table 7.2)
 = specific weight of fluid
 = dynamic viscosity of fluid
q = specific discharge
i = hydraulic gradient = Dh/L

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
STORAGE
1. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY, K
Table 7.2
Parameter Unit Unit Conversion
(multiply by)
Intrinsic Darcy cm2 ft2
permeability
1 Darcy 0.987  10-8 1.062  10-11
Hydraulic Meinzer or
ft/day m/day
conductivity gpd/ft2
1 Meinzer 0.134 0.041
Transmissivity gpd/ft ft2/day m2/day
1 gpd/ft 0.134 0.0124

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Cont ‘
2. TRANSMISSIVITY, T
 Capability of water passes through media (in aquifer).
 Unit : m2/day or m2/year or m2/sec.
 Formula :-
T  bK ……. 7.3
Where ;
b = Aquifer thickness (m/s)

K = Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
JKAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
FLOW RATES
 Moves very slow to discharge points.
 Long distance  movement may take years / decades /

centuries.
 Faster in large rock openings / crevices.
 Moves in parallel & slow   turbulence occur 

important factor to trace contaminants.

JKAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER THEORY
FLOW RATES
... Cont ‘
Figure 7.13 : Groundwater flow rates

JKAP ; FKAAS
Let’s take a
break!!!

JKAP ; FKAAS
GROUNDWATER FLOW ANALYSIS
ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW
Datum
Figure 7.14 : Simple column

JKAP ; FKAAS

... Cont ‘
 Flow rate, Q can be calculated using :-
Dh
Q  KA
L ……. 7.4
Where ;

A = Flow area perpendicular to L (m2)
Dh = Hydraulic head difference (m)
L = Flow path length (m)
JKAP ; FKAAS

... Cont ‘
 The hydraulic head, h can be calculated using ;
P
h z
g ……. 7.5
Where ;
P = Water pressure (N/m2)

 = Water density (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration of gravity (= 9.81 m/s2)
z = Elevation (m)
JKAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
 Darcy’s equation  derive simple mathematical expression for

flow regime in the ground.
 Assume two-dimensional radial flow.
 Condition in well & ground  equilibrium (discharge constant,

drawdown & radius of influence stabilized).
 Condition is divided into two (at steady state) :-
 Steady UNCONFINED radial flow toward a well

 Steady CONFINED radial flow toward a well

JKAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
... Cont ‘
1. STEADY UNCONFINED FLOW
 Assumptions made :-
 Flow is radial
 Original water table is horizontal
 Well is fully penetrated
 At steady state conditions.

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t WELL HYDRAULIC
r2
r1
Ground
Observation
Original water table wells
S dx
dy
Cone of depression b
Drawdown
hw y h1 h2 h0
Pumped well
Impervious x
stratum
Figure 7.15 : Well in an unconfined aquifer
JKAP ; FKAAS
 Formula to calculate flow rate :-
K ( h 2 2  h12 )
Q
r 
ln  2 
 r1  ……. 7.6
Where;

h1 = Hydraulic head at observation well 1 (m)
r1 = Radial distance from observation well 1 to pumped well (m)
JKAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 7.1
A 24 cm well fully penetrates an unconfined

aquifer of 35 m depth. Two observation
wells located 30 m and 80 m from the
pumped well are known to have drawdown of
8 m and 7.5 m, respectively. If the flow is
steady and K = 200 m/day, find the
discharge from the well.
Given :
r1 = 30 m S1 = 8 m
r2 = 80 m S2 = 7.5 m
K = 200 m/day b = 35 m
Q ???
SOLUTION
Using steady confined aquifer flow formula ;
K ( h 2 2  h12 )
Q
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
Find h2 & h1 ;
h1 = b – S1
h1 = 35 – 8 = 27 m
h2 = b – S2
h2 = 35 – 7.5 = 27.5 m

JKAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
... Con’t
Therefore ;
(  )( 200) ( 27.52  27 2 )
Q
 80 
ln  
 30 
Q  17,456 m 3 /day OR
m3 1 day
Q  17,456 
day 24  60  60 s
Q  0.202 m 3 /sec

JKAP ; FKAAS
WELL HYDRAULIC
2. STEADY CONFINED FLOW

r2
r1 Observation
wells
Ground
Original
S1 S2 piezometric
Pumped well surface
x
Piezometric surface
y h1 h2 h0
Aquifer
Impervious
thickness
strata
Figure 7.16 : Well in an confined aquifer

2. STEADY CONFINED FLOW
 Formula to calculate flow rate :-

( h 2  h1 )
Q  2Kb
r 
ln 2 
 r1  ……. 7.7
Where;

b = Aquifer thickness (m)
EXAMPLE 7.2
Find the permeability of an artesian aquifer

being pumped by a fully penetrating well.
The aquifer is 33 m thick and composed of
medium sand. The steady-state pumping
rate is 0.07 m3/s. The drawdown at an
observation well 18 m away is 3.5 m; in a
second observation well 180 m away, it is
0.5 m. Given :
r1 = 18 m S1 = 3.5 m
r2 = 180 m S2 = 0.5 m
Q = 0.07 m3/s b = 33 m
K ???
SOLUTION
Using steady confined aquifer flow formula ;
( h 2  h1 )
Q  2Kb
 r2 
ln 
 r1 
Find h2 & h1 ;
h1 = b – S1
h1 = 33 – 3.5 = 29.5 m
h2 = b – S2
h2 = 33 – 0.5 = 32.5 m

JKAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
... Con’t
Therefore ;
( 2)(  )( K ) (33)( 32.5  29.5)
0.07 
 180 
ln  
 18 
K  2.59  10 4 m/s OR
m 24  60  60 s
K  2.59  10 4 
s 1 day
K  22.38 m/day

JKAP ; FKAAS
PUMPING TEST
 Objective  capability of aquifer to provide water.
 How ???  measure hydraulic CONDUCTIVITY &

TRANSMISSIVITY.
 Then ???  Plot drawdown (S) vs time.

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t PUMPING TEST
Figure 7.17 : Measurement of Q during pumping test

... Con’t PUMPING TEST
(m)
Susutan (m) 4
3 s2 = 3.1 m
Drawdown
Ds
2
s1 = 1.37 m
1
1 cycle
log to = - 0.76
0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Log
Log masa
time (jam)
(hour)
Figure 7.18 : Step to get K value from pumping test

RECHARGE WELLS
Construction includes :-
 Construct the holes
 Installations
 Pumping tests (Quantity)
 Pre-development well
 Chemical tests (Quality)

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t RECHARGE WELLS
Figure 7.19 : Jetting technique

Figure 7.20 : Rotary wash boring method

JKAP ; FKAAS
Figure 7.21 : Groundwater from confined aquifer

JKAP ; FKAAS
TIME’S UP …
THANK YOU
JKAP ; FKAAS

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HYDROLOGY

WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 PARAMETERS OF GROUNDWATER STORAGE

 ONE DIMENSIONAL GROUNDWATER

 CONFINED FLOW TO A WELL

 UNCONFINED FLOW TO A WELL

 UNCONFINED AQUIFER PUMPING TESTS

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Factors influenced amount of groundwater :-

 Type of land surface.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Table 7.1 : Groundwater classification

Soil water zone Soil water

Zone of rock flowage Deep water

Figure 7.2: Groundwater sources

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Aquifer  Water-bearing soil / rock formation  capable

 Mix clay, sand gravel & fine particles   water.

 Confined / Artesian Aquifer

 Unconfined / Water Table Aquifer

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Figure 7.3 : Aquifer

Figure 7.4 : Confined aquifer

 Confined aquifer  groundwater trapped under

 If water rise above aquifer level  ‘Artesian well’

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Figure 7.5 : Unconfined aquifer

 Unconfined aquifer  not confined under pressure.

 Water level inside well = outside well.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Pores filled with water.

Figure 7.6 : Saturated zone

 Between water level & land surface  pores partially

Figure 7.7 : Unsaturated zone

Figure 7.8 : Unsaturated zone (enlarged)

 At top of saturated zone.

 Rise & fall  according to the season.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Figure 7.9 : Water table (normal & drought)

Figure 7.10 : Illustration of water table

 Four important parameters for groundwater storage :-

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Capacity of soil / rock to hold water.

 Clay  not good water resource (small size openings)

Figure 7.11 : Porosity at various type of layers

Wr = Volume of water retained

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Height above water table

Volumetric-moisture content (%)

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Gravel, coarse …………………. …………….. 23

Figure 7.12 : Specific yield for various materials

4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

 Volume of water that is released or taken into storage per

4. STRORAGE COEFFICIENT, S & SPECIFIC STORAGE, Ss

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Three important parameters for groundwater movement :-

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Rate of water flow through opening soil / rock.

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Capability of water passes through media (in aquifer).