A Matter of Style: The Teacher as Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator, and

Delegator
Author(s): Anthony F. Grasha
Source: College Teaching, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Fall, 1994), pp. 142-149
Published by: Heldref Publications
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27558675
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 l||ll|||BlilllBillllll|

A Matter of
Style:
The Teacher as Expert, Formal Authority,
Personal Model, Facilitator, and Delegator
Anthony F. Grasha

y interest in teaching styles as any one or more of several dozen other a diverse, rich source of material about
was a natural extension of my names (cf., Abelson 1973; Lowman how and why people taught in particu
work over the past twenty 1990;Mann et al. 1970; Reinsmith 1992). lar ways. A thematic analysis of this in
M
years on student learning styles. During The problem with these approaches was formation eventually suggested that five
this period of time, I conducted re that they were largely descriptive. They teaching styles were pervasive in the col
search, wrote articles, and presented at did not deal with how various teaching lege classroom. They were the styles of
workshops and conferences on various styles could be modified or when it was expert, formal authority, personal
styles of students such as competitive, appropriate to use them. model, facilitator, and delegator. Table
collaborative, dependent, independent, Thus, in 1988 I began a program of 1 describes each one of them, along with
participatory, and avoidant. My re research to develop a conceptual model the advantages and disadvantages they
search described how
such characteris of teaching style. My goals were to de appeared to possess for teachers.
tics affected students' behavior in class scribe the stylistic qualities that college Although it might be tempting to
and how faculty members could accom teachers possessed and to offer sugges place teachers into one of "five boxes,"
modate such qualities in students tions for when and how to employ my initial observations suggested that
(Grasha and Riechmann 1975; Grasha them. I assumed that a teaching style such attempts at parsimony were
1983; Grasha 1990). represented a pattern of needs, beliefs, premature. Instead, it became apparent
Learning styles, unfortunately, were and behaviors that faculty displayed in that all teachers possessed each of the
only one-half of the teacher-student in their classroom. Style also was multidi qualities described in table 1 to varying
teraction. The personal qualities of col mensional and affected how people pre degrees. In effect, each individual style
lege teachers and their effects on the sented information, interacted with stu was like a different color on an artist's
learning styles of students and upon dents, managed classroom tasks, super palette. Like those colors, they could be
what transpired in the classroom were vised coursework, socialized students to blended together. In all, four combina
missing from my work. Such qualities the field, and mentored students. tions of styles were present in a thematic
are sometimes called teaching styles, analysis of my observations, interviews,
Elements of Style and workshop Each of
and a number of schemes for describing experiences.
them were mentioned in the literature. My first task was to determine what these four clusters is listed in table 2.
Current typologies allowed college qualities of faculty were pervasive My observations suggested that col
teachers to be classified as enthusiastic, across a variety of disciplines and class lege teachers used some styles more of
organized, intuitive, introverted, ego room environments. I turned to the lit ten than others. Thus, each cluster re

ideal, as a motivator, artist, dialogist, or erature on teaching and began extensive flects the fact that some blends of styles
observations of the ways people taught. are dominant and others are secondary.
I also interviewed faculty and held dis The primary or dominant styles are like
cussions with college teachers in the the foreground in a painting. They are
F. Grasha, an executive editor of
Anthony
College Teaching, is a professor of psychol workshops and seminars that I con easily seen and central to understanding
ogy at the University of Cincinnati. ducted nationally. Such efforts produced the artist's vision. The other qualities

142 COLLEGETEACHING
 Table 1.?Five Teaching Styles

Style Description Advantage Disadvantage

Expert Possesses knowledge and expertise that students The information, knowl If overused, the display of
need. Strives to maintain status as an expert edge, and skills such indi knowledge can be intimi
among students by displaying detailed knowledge viduals possess. dating to inexperienced stu
and by
challenging students to enhance their dents. May not always show
competence. Concerned with transmitting in the underlying thought proc
formation and ensuring that students are well esses that produced answers.

prepared.

Formal Possesses status among students because of knowl The focus on clear ex A strong investment in this

authority edge and role as a faculty member. Con pectations and acceptable style can lead to rigid, stan
cerned with providing positive and negative ways of doing things. dardized ways of managing
feedback, establishing learning goals, expectations, students and their concerns.
and rules of conduct for students. Concerned with
the "correct, acceptable, and standard ways to do
things."

Personal model Believes in "teaching by personal example" and The "hands on" nature Some teachers may believe
establishes a prototype for how to think and of the approach. An their approach is "the best
behave. Oversees, guides, and directs by showing emphasis on direct way," leading some students
how to do things, and encouraging students to observation and follow to feel inadequate if they
observe and then to emulate the instructor's ing a role model. cannot live up to such expec
approach. tations and standards.

Facilitator Emphasizes the personal nature of teacher The personal flexibility, the Style is often time consuming
student interactions. Guides students by asking focus on students' needs and can be ineffective when
questions, exploring options, suggesting alter and goals, and the willing a more direct approach is
natives, and encouraging them to develop criteria ness to explore options and needed. Can make students
to make informed choices. Overall goal is to de alternative courses of uncomfortable if it is not
velop in students the
capacity for independent action to achieve them. used in a positive and af
action and responsibility. Works with students firming manner.
on projects in a consultative fashion and provides
much support and encouragement.

Delegator Concerned with developing students' capacity to Contributes to students May misread students' readi
function autonomously. Students work inde perceiving themselves ness for independent work.
pendently on projects or as part of autonomous as independent learners. Some students may become
teams. The teacher is available at the re anxious when given
quest of students as a resource person. autonomy.

are like the background. When teachers For example, consider two of the exploring." The nature and quality of
lecture, one sees the expert and formal clusters depicted in table 2. An empha the interactions are different. Teachers
authority side of them much more easily sis on the expert/formal authority blend and students work together, share infor
than the modeling, facilitative, or dele sends a message to students that "I'm in mation, and the boundaries between
gative parts of their styles. charge here." It also creates a rather teacher and student are not as formal.
But teaching styles are more than in neutral or "cool" emotional climate. The emotional climate is "warmer."

teresting qualities. They also serve an As normally practiced, lectures transmit Also, there are more opportunities for
important function in the classroom. information to students who become participants to openly express how they
Consider the metaphor of an artist creat relatively passive. In this atmosphere, feel about tasks and perhaps about each
ing a painting. Colors on a canvas are the expression of emotions is usually other.
blended and organized in order to make held in check except for those rare in
some statement or to create a certain stances when sparks fly, and a lively de Constraints on the Expression
mood. In much the same each of bate occurs.
of Style
way,
the four clusters of teaching styles de In contrast, an emphasis on the ex An artist's imagination, her propen
picted in table 2 makes a statement pert/facilitative/delegative blend creates sity for taking risks, the subject matter,
about "who I am as a person." They a different picture. It sends a message to and the colors available on the palette
also help to create a particular mood or students that "I'm here to consult with place limits on artistic expression. In
emotional climate in class. you on the projects and issues you are much the same way, several factors ap

Vol. 42/No. 4 143

 Classroom observations suggested
Table 2.?Methods Associated with Each Teaching Style Cluster that faculty falling within each of the
clusters in table 2 were prone to use cer
CLUSTER 1 CLUSTER 3 tain teaching methods. My initial list of
Primary styles: Primary styles:
such methods was shared with partici
Expert/formal authority Expert/facilitator/personal model pants in my workshops and seminars.
Secondary styles: Secondary styles: Agreement with my initial scheme was
Personal Formal
model/facilitator/delegator authority/delegator high, and participants also provided ad
Lectures Small group discussion ditional items for my list. Table 2 repre
Term papers Laboratory projects sents the outcome of this effort.
Tutorials Instructor-designed group projects
Guest presentations Student teacher of the day
What Do Teachers Need to Know?
Video/audio presentations of content Self-discovery activities
Guest speakers Learning pairs/debates Next, I developed a model that de
Teacher-centered class discussions Case studies scribed the factors associated with
Strict standards/requirements Role plays/simulations
adopting and changing various combi
Grades/tests emphasized Problem-based learning
nations of teaching styles. I was inter
Practicum/guided readings
ested in answering the following two
CLUSTER 2 CLUSTER 4 questions:
Primary styles: Primary styles: "What do teachers need to take into
Expert/personal model/formal authority Expert/facilitator/delegator account to adopt
in order and effective
Secondary styles: Secondary styles: ly use the four clusters of styles?"
Facilitator/delegator Formal authority/personal model
"If someone wanted to modify their style,
Demonstrating ways of thinking/doing Student-designed group projects what factors would have to con
they
things Independent study sider?"
Coaching/guiding students Independent research projects
Illustrating alternatives Position papers Very little was found in the literature
Sharing personal viewpoints Student journals on how to adopt or modify particular
involved in Modular
Sharing thought processes instruction
styles, until I found the work of Paul
obtaining answers Self-discovery learning
to
Hersey and Ken Blanchard (1992). Al
Using personal examples illustrate projects
content though they wrote about leadership
points Contract teaching
Having students emulate the teacher's Cooperative learning activities styles in business and industry, their ob
example servations appeared relevant to the col

lege classroom: The classroom teacher

could be viewed as a leader and/or a
manager of classroom resources. Her
pear to confine the expression of teach proach to teaching was popular when sey and Blanchard argued that the cap
ing styles. When asked the question classes were large, required in the ma ability of people, their interest in con
"What influences your teaching jor, the students were mostly freshmen trolling tasks, and their concerns for
style?", 560 college teachers in my vari and sophomores, there was time pres building interpersonal relationships
ous workshops and seminars frequently sure to cover material, or they had to were important determinants of leader
listed the following items: prepare their students for taking stan ship style. My translations of the latter
dard exams. They also indicated that concepts to the classroom are described
The nature of the course (required/not re
they preferred the expert/formal au in table 3.
quired; major/nonmajor)
Size of the class thority blend because it provided an ac What do teachers need in order to
The subject matter (hard sciences versus ceptable way to "go through the mo adopt and effectively employ the four
humanities) tions" of teaching courses they disliked. clusters of styles? Consider for a mo
Level of the students (freshmen, seniors, In addition, it was popular because it ment the combination of styles and
graduate)
helped them to easily meet the expecta teaching methods in cluster 1 of table 2.
How much they liked the class
Time
tions of colleagues for "how I should Here the expert/formal authority blend
pressure
Need to prepare students for standard teach." is dominant. My observations suggested
exams In contrast, participants using an ex that such styles worked best when deal
Information about alternative to blend of
ways pert/facilitative/delegative ing with students who were less capable
teach
styles reported they were more willing to with the content and when instructors
Willingness to take risks
take risks. They also had information were willing to personally control class
Not wanting to deviate from department
and norms for about collaborative and active learning room tasks. Although itmight be enjoy
college teaching
strategies and stated they were more able, it did not appear necessary for a
For example, participants reported likely to employ such styles when teach teacher to devote time to building rela
that the expert/formal authority ap ing upper level and graduate courses. tionships with students or for students

144 COLLEGETEACHING
to build relationships with each other. teaching them how to work closely to
Table 3.?Three Factors
One need only observe how this teach gether. For their part, students must be
Associated with Selecting a
ing style is played out in large classes to willing to take initiative and accept re
Teaching Style
appreciate the latter point. sponsibility. But they do not have to be
In contrast, consider the demands of as competent in this regard as they
the expert/facilitative/delegative blend would for the activities in cluster 4. 1. Capability of students to handle
course demands.
depicted in cluster 4 of table 2. This
Modifying Teaching Styles Capability determined by
combination of teaching styles works students*:
best when students are capable and have If someone
wanted to modify their course
Knowledge of content
appropriate levels of knowledge, can styles of teaching, what factors would Ability to take initiative/
take initiative, and can assume responsi they have to consider? Once again, responsibility
bility. To use the student-centered those identified in table 3 provide one Emotional maturity
Motivation and ability
teaching methods of cluster 4 means way to answer this question. To move,
that teachers must be willing to give up for example, from the combination of
2. Need for teacher to directly
some control over tasks. After all, an the expert/formal authority styles to the control classroom tasks.

independent study or collaborative expert/facilitator/delegator blend, a Control maintained by how

project would be less interesting if the teacher would need to exercise flexibil instructor:

teacher planned every little detail for ity. Direct control of classroom tasks Organizes course and defines

would need to decrease; work would what must be learned

participants. Consequently, the combi
Specifies performance levels for
nation of the expert/facilitative/dele need to occur on building relationships
students
gative styles demands that teachers em with and among students, and the cap Maintains control over classroom
power and that faculty show
students ability of students to handle the content Closely monitors student
some concern
for building relation would have to be high. progress

ships. The teacher must be viewed as

in order to consult effec
Resistance to Change 3. Willingness of teacher to build
approachable and maintain relationships.
tively with students. In turn, students My working with college
experiences Interest indicated by how much
must learn how to improve their interac faculty suggested that changing from teacher:
tions with each other to work effectively existing practices was difficult. This was communi
Encourages two-way
together. particularly true of making the large cation
to students
The combinations of styles in clusters leaps from the teacher centered methods Listens carefully
Assists with conflicts
2 and 3 depicted in table 2 also are asso of cluster 1 to the student centered proc resolving
Provides positive feedback and
ciated with variations in the three fac esses described in clusters 3 and 4. One
encouragement
tors described above. The expert/per of the attractions of the expert/formal Stresses good interpersonal
sonal model/formal authority styles are authority style, for example, is the con communication skills
seen in teachers who rely on personal trol it provides over a classroom envi Is concerned with building
and coaching. For this blend ronment. It is not to take a less cen rapport
modeling easy
to work
Shows students how
to work well, students need to be more tral role and to empower students. I
together
capable than the level required in cluster have had colleagues tell me, "I could
1. Teachers must build relationships never show a video tape or hold a small
with students in order to coach effec group discussion in my classes. Such
tively. They must have control of the things would take valuable time away was only done by a couple of them."
task but also must empower students to from what I have to offer." Or, as an
students with the needed
Furthermore,
take initiative to apply what is learned. other person said, "I would consider it who can take initiative and re
expertise
The demands for adopting the ex an insult for someone to ask me to teach
sponsibility for their learning are a mi
pert/facilitator/personal model styles in that independent study section of intro a certain amount
nority. Consequently,
cluster 3 are similar to those in cluster 4. ductory psychology. It assumes I have of frustration with cluster 3 and 4 teach
The teacher is in the role of designing nothing to tell the students, and they
ing processes was inevitable for those
opportunities for learning that stress can learn everything they need on their brave souls willing to innovate.
collaborative and self-directed experi own!"
ences. An important difference is that I also knew that many faculty were Overcoming Resistance to Change
the expert/facilitator/personal model uncomfortable with nontraditional
Adopt a New Perspective on Control
styles require someone to supervise teaching methods for other reasons. A
learners and to play a more central role frequent comment from workshop par Concerns about "losing control over
in designing projects and activities for ticipants was, "I tried group projects what happens in class," "being taken
students. In addition, some attention once, and they did not work. All the advantage of by students," or "having
must be paid to developing good inter students did was socialize." Or, "I put my role diminished" are understand
personal relationships with students and people in small groups, but the work able. What most teachers do not recog

Vol. 42/No. 4 145

nize is that the underlying elements of checks to ensure that everyone gets a For example, in one study students
control and authority found in the lec chance to speak, or if appropriate, even were randomly assigned to two sections
ture-discussion method are identical to a devil's advocate. Finally, hold partici of the same course. One group was
those required by all classroom proce pants accountable for acquiring the in taught using teacher-centered methods
dures. The key is to use control with formation. The outcomes of the small for two semesters. Thus the expert/for
methods that do not rely on the style of group discussions should be shared with mal authority blend of styles prevailed.
expert/formal authority. the whole class. The instructor may
The elements of control in the lec comment or ask members of the class to
ture-discussion method are clarify certain points. The remarks of
the teacher and participants can be used
The authority of the teacher is re
to develop exam questions about the is
spected.
sues discussed. Or students might write
How time is spent in class is strictly
a short reaction paper or list two or
managed.
three new ideas that the discussion raised.
Outcomes of the time spent are spec
ified.
Adopt a New Perspective on
Teachers and students have clearly Students* Capability
defined roles.
are held accountable for Capability can be viewed as static or
Participants as something that students may or may
learning the material.
not possess. The disadvantage of this at
The important point is that the ele titude is that one must wait for a group
ments of control in the expert/formal of "mature" students to show up be
authority styles of teaching can be fore trying new strategies. But capabil
transferred to other situations. In such ity in students can be dynamic and can
cases, control is not given up. Rather, it be seen as something the teacher devel
is redirected toward a broader set of ops over time. Thus, teachers can go be
goals and objectives such as developing yond the expert/formal authority
criticalthinking, teamwork, or the ca modes to foster improvements in stu
pacity to work independently. Consider dents. When facilitative and delegative
how this can be done in a cluster 3 modes of teaching are used, students Teacher as formal authority
teaching method such as small group can learn to take initiative, assume
discussions. responsibility, and develop their knowl
edge and skills.
Use Control over Small Groups

As is true in the lecture method, per

mission is not needed. Students will re
spect the teacher's authority to have
them break into small groups. The time
on task, however, must be strictly man
aged. Announce an agenda for the ses
sion and indicate how much time will be
VlieialaaaHv^fleHB??lHK??^
aaaaaaafleflaaaa^^ '^It?tf
T&'?'
spent discussing issues. Ensure that stu
dents know what to expect from their
time together. Tell them the purpose be
hind the small group format and what
you hope to accomplish. You might
want them to define concepts, integrate
issues from the text, apply principles
and concepts, or simply have someone '
"* '' aff^EOa^EI
f iT'^fl?eaaaHB^eBeafe^^eallH^^^^^^^?^B>E^^B>^HEIiw^f?^?^fe^^|9kJb1JB'
else listen to their ideas. "^PtL

Assign participants clear roles to

play. People interact better in any set
ting when their roles are clearly defined.
In a small group discussion, several
roles are possible. They include a re
corder of the group's deliberations, a
time keeper, a discussion monitor who Teacher as facilitator

146 COLLEGETEACHING
 In the second group, however, attempts the id, ego, and superego in Sigmund of my approach to teaching this
a 7 =
were made gradually to increase the Freud's theory. course"; and "Very important
capability of students to take initiative 2. Specify how you would teach that aspect of my approach to teaching this
and have responsibility for their learn material in at least two of the following course." Examples of items associated
with each style are as follows:
ing. The second group started out with styles: expert/formal authority; per
the lecture-discussion method but was sonal model; and facilitative/delegative.
Expert: "Facts, concepts, and principles
gradually introduced to more student For example: stu
are the most important things that
centered approaches. Thus, methods dents can acquire."
with the facultative and Expert/Formal Authority
compatible Formal Authority: "I set high standards
I can give a lecture on each personality
delegative styles were progressively em
and how interact.
in this class."
component they
ployed. The results were remarkable. Personal Model: "What I say and do
Personal Model
to students with a steady diet models appropriate ways for students to
Compared I can students with an
provide example think about content issues."
of the lecture-discussion method, those from my life where each compo
personal "Small discussions are
Facilitator: group
exposed to more student-centered teach nent was for attention. I
competing Or,
employed to help students develop their
ing showed significant gains in master could design a role play situation and have
several students act out each component. ability to think critically."
ing content, were more satisfied with
"Students in this course
Observers should then be able to see how Delegator:
the course, had higher levels of enthusi engage in self-initiated, self-directed learn
each part occurs in everyday functioning.
asm and morale, and were less tardy ing experiences."
Facilitator/Delegator
and absent from class (Hersey, Blan
I can give students a study guide. I could
chard, and Caracushansky 1992). have an equal number of students focus
The Teaching Style Inventory was
But students may not have the skills on each one of the in a li then administered to 381 faculty mem
components
needed to work together. Some remain brary search. In class, I would place peo bers representing 200 U.S. public and
silent or do not contribute to the work ple into small groups of three and have
private colleges and universities. Two
them share what found.
of the group. A few may try to domi they Everyone hundred and seventy-five professors
would then have tocomplete the study
nate discussions or create conflicts with were participants in national and re
guide using information obtained from
other members. The underlying prob gional workshops that I conducted. The
group members. other
lem is a lack of skill in how to work to remaining 106 teachers were selected
gether. Thus, the teaching methods in Vary how content goals are taught from random samples within two large
clusters 3 and 4 of table 2 demand that within and across class sessions. Thus, universities. Everyone was instructed to
college faculty spend some time teach
some goals would be taught in an ex select two courses they taught and to
pert/formal authority mode while rate the extent to which each of the forty
ing students how to work together.
others would emphasize the personal items on the inventory applied to those
One of the best ways to accomplish
model or the facilitative/delegative courses. Overall, information on 762
the latter goal is to require that groups
styles of teaching. In a given class or classrooms across ten groups of disci
process their interactions. At the end of
across class sessions, students would be
a collaborative activity, people share plines was obtained.
to a variety of teaching meth
events that assisted or hindered their exposed In order to simplify the presentation
ods. The specific teaching processes of the data, the overall scores for each
ability to work together. They develop
mentioned in table 2 provide examples of the samples were combined in all fur
ideas for how future sessions could be
of teaching strategies to achieve a vari The scores on the
improved. The instructor should moni ther analyses. average
tor such comments and periodically ety of content goals. inventory for each academic rank and
summarize issues that everyone in class course level are depicted in table 4. The
Distribution of Teaching Styles
must consider. higher the mean score, the more that
in the Classroom
particular style was endorsed by partici
Develop Options for How The final phase of the teaching styles' pants. The only changes in teaching
to Teach Content project examined how the five styles style that were statistically reliable (i.e.,
were distributed across grade levels, the not likely due to chance) were those as
Sometimes faculty members fall into
rank and gender of the instructor, and sociated with the expert and formal au
a rut, and their teaching becomes very
various academic disciplines. To ac thority styles. Faculty holding the rank
predictable. A process for developing
complish this latter goal, the Teaching of professor tended to employ these two
new practices can break this cycle. One
Styles Inventory was developed. It con styles more often than did other teach
suggestion I have recommended to col
tains forty items that assess attitudes ers. For the most part, the adoption of
lege teachers is to do the following: and behaviors associated with each of different teaching styles did not appear
1. Think of a class session you will the five styles.1 Teachers rated them to depend on the academic rank of the
soon teach and list two or three goals selves on the extent to which each item teacher.

you want to achieve. For example: I described a particular class they taught. The personal model style changed
want students in my introductory class A 7 point rating scale was employed very little with the level of courses. The
to understand the distinction between where a 1 = "Very unimportant aspect other styles, however, were used differ

Vol.42/No. 4 147
 are likely to be more democratic (i.e.,
Table 4.?Mean Teaching Style Ratings for Faculty Rank and Course Level collaborative and participative) in deal
ing with subordinates than men are
Formal Personal (Eagly and Johnson 1990; Eagly and
Expert authority model Facilitator Delegator Karau 1991). These latter qualities are
very much a part of the facilitative and
Rank delegative styles of teaching.
Instructor = 3.90 4.51 5.16 3.92
5.17 Variations in teaching style occurred
(n 23)
= 4.29 4.93 5.29 3.68
5.02
Assistant Prof, (n 193) among the ten groups of academic disci
Associate Prof, = 4.35 4.84 5.22 3.80
4.93
(n 258)
= plines reported in table 5. The expert
Professor (n 286) 4.37a 5.01a 5.25 3.70
4.85
style was used more frequently by fac
Level of Course ulty teaching in the areas of mathemat
4.39 5.02 5.24 4.72
3.50 ics/computer science and arts/music/
Freshman-Soph.
= theater. It was used less often by those
(n 365)
Junior-Senior = 4.33 4.93 5.32 3.87
5.08 in the humanities and education. The
(n 260)
Graduate = 4.10a 4.63b 5.17 5.19b 4.13b
(n 130) formal authority style appeared to a
higher degree in foreign language and
n = the number of classrooms in that group.
business administration classrooms;
aThe differences in mean ratings on this teaching style were statistically reliable or significant (i.e.
a MANOVA whereas, education, humanities, and ap
not likely to be due to chance) as determined by analysis (p < .05).
bThe variations in mean ratings on this teaching style were statistically reliable or significant (i.e., plied science teachers used this style less.
to be due to chance) as determined by a MANOVA analysis (p < .01).
not'likely Those teaching in the arts/music/theater
disciplines reported using the personal
model style more often than did faculty
Differences in teaching styles among elsewhere. Finally, the facilitator and
ently in upper versus lower level classes.
Participants were less likely to assume men and women faculty were noted. delegator teaching styles occurred to a
the expert and formal authority styles Compared to their male counterparts, lesser extent
in the classrooms of mathe
with their advanced undergraduate and women reported somewhat lower scores matics/computer science teachers than in

graduate courses. In contrast, they were on the expert and formal authority other academic areas. These styles were

more to use
the facilitator and scales of the Teaching Styles Inventory observed more often among teachers in
likely
in more advanced and somewhat higher scores on the fa education and in the arts/ music/ theater
delegator styles
courses. If one assumes that upper level cilitator and delegator styles. These areas.

classes attract a better prepared student, findings are consistent with other re The data also allowed the number of
then faculty were responding appropri ports showing that women in positions faculty who fit into each of the four
in the capabilities of of authority are more likely to down clusters identified in table 2 to be deter
ately to differences
their students. play their expertise and authority and mined. To do this, the number of par

Table 5.?Mean Teaching Style Ratings for Each Discipline

Expert Formal authority Personal model Facilitator Delegator

Discipline

1 Arts/music/theater = 4.682'10 5.1410 5.732-10 5.278'9 3.999

(n 34)
2 Humanities (n = 130) 3921,5,9 4.733'7 5.161 5.129 3.779

3 Foreign languages (n = 24) 4.22 5432,5,6,10 5.291 5.019 3.829

4 Social science (n = 96) 4.32 5.0110 5.231 5.009 3.769

5 Applied studies (n = 100) 4.612'10 4.923 5.221 5.009 3.729

6 Applied sciences (n = 92) 4.29 4.703'7 5.291 4.969 3.829

= 4.41 5.222'6'10 5.211 4.799 3.869

7 Business administration (n 56)
8 science (n = 4.47 5.0210 5.181 4.609 3.5310
Physical/biological 95)
= 4.281-8'10 3291-7,10
9 Mathematics/computer science (n 72) 4.662'10 5.II10 5.231

10 Education = 3.931'5'9 4 51-4,7,8,9 5.321 5i417,8,9 4.108'9

(a? 62)

n = the number of classrooms in that group.

groups were statistically reliable
The Newman-Keuls test was used to determine whether the variations in mean ratings between pairs of discipline
that showed reliable variations in their mean
(i.e., not likely to be due to chance). For each teaching style, the academic disciplines statistically
for the arts/music/theater the notation 4.68210 appears for
ratings are represented by the superscript notations (all /?'s < .05). For example, group,
were significantly different from discipline group 2
the expert teaching style. This signifies that the arts/music/theater group's ratings on the expert style
(humanities) and 10 (education).

148 COLLEGETEACHING
ticipants with scores that exceeded the findings is that teachers introducing the the Teaching Styles Inventory. Both have
worked on many of
mean on all of the primary styles in each methods of clusters 3 and 4 in table 2 conscientiously parts
this project over the past three years.
cluster was calculated. This analysis need to exercise caution. Some of these
showed that 92 percent of the sample fit methods are debates, role plays, stu
into the four clusters. The percentage of group projects and inde
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Sand, J. 1994. Student perceptions of teach
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Another implication of the latter Sand, with the data gathering and scoring of sity of Cincinnati.

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