Chapter 4

Electric Traction
In the modern world, traction system of any country clearly reflects the development of that country. In
the present age, it is the urgent requirement of a man to travel and carry goods at the fastest possible
speed in a safe and economic way. All this led in to the invention of electric traction.

The chief factor of electrification of railways or other traction services is one of the economics. When it
is found that operation by electric traction is cheaper than any alternative method and there are no
technical difficulties to adopt electric traction, it is being more and more popular.

Other reasons which have led to the use of electric traction on railways are:

1. Difficulties of smoke emission in big cities.

2. To avoid import of coal if water power resources are available.
3. Difficulties of procuring diesel etc. for diesel locomotives.

Requirements of an Ideal Traction System

The most requirements of the driving equipment for traction service are as follows:

 Maximum tractive effort should be exerted at starting in order that rapid acceleration
may be attained.
 The equipment should be capable of overloads for short periods.
 The wear caused on the track should be minimum.
 The locomotive or train unit should be self contained and able to run on any route.
 Braking should be possible without excessive wear on brake shoes.
 If possible the braking energy should be regenerated and returned to the supply.

Various Types of Electric Tractions

Basing on the types of supply source, the electrical traction system can further be classified as follows:

1. Self-contained electric vehicle:

In this type, the vehicle itself has a provision for generation of electrical energy required for traction
purposes. Various vehicles falling under this heading are:

i) Diesel electric trains and ships or diesel electric traction,

ii) Petrol electric trucks and lorries,
iii) Battery driven load vehicles.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 1

Out of these types, only the diesel electric traction system is commonly adopted and hence keeping in
view the limitations, it only needs discussion.

The diesel engine is coupled to a d.c. generator which feeds the electric motors for producing the
necessary propelling torque. The generator used for this purpose may be self or separately excited .If
separately excited system is employed, then the exciter is connected to parallel across the battery. The
batteries are also employed for providing self starting torque. The horse power of a traction motor
should be constant and proportional to the product of speed and torque.

i.e; H.P. N T ……………………………………………………………………….(i)

Where N is the speed of the motor and T is the torque. As the H.P. of diesel engine is of constant nature,
thereforein view of abve equation (i), the torque should be inversely proportional to the speed of the
motor,i.e.

………………………………………………………………………………………..(ii)

But the diesel engine has constant torque characteristics which is undesirable for traction. The constant
torque characteristics diesel engine is changed by employing a torque converter. The torque converter is
installed between the engine shaft and driving axles i.e. in the transmission system.

In diesel electric traction system, following transmission system are usually employed:

i) Mechanical transmission:

The mechanical transmission employed is similar to any other petrol or diesel type load vehicle. Gear
sets are fixed between the diesel engine shaft and the driving wheel. This system of transmission of
power is light and effective, but for railway traction work where some mechanical difficulties are to
occur this system becomes unsuitable.

ii) Electrical transmission.

If the p.d. across the traction motor is constant and is running at constant speed, the torque developed
by the motor will be of constant nature. But if suddenly additional tractive efforts are required say for
moving the train up the gradient, speed of the motor will be automatically, reduced according to its
characteristics. However this reduction in speed will not compensate for the additional requirements of
the tractive efforts. In order to supply the required amount of tractive efforts, the diesel engine will
supply more horse power and thus it is heavily loaded. To avoid overloading of diesel engines it is
essential that the speed and torque remain constant.

In case of a d.c. motor,

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 2

 ………………………………………………………………..………..(iii)

If flux is proportional to current then,

…………………………………………………………………………………..(iv)

In view of equations (i),(ii),(iii) and (iv)for obtaining constant H.P. of the motor and diesel engine

……………………………………………………………………………………………….(v)

So far obtaining constant H.P. characteristics, it is essential that the generated voltage should reduce
inversely with current. For achieving this, a series winding is provided on the generator and it is
generator and it is connected in such a manner that an increase in load current automatically reduces
the voltage.

In case of diesel electric traction, the speed control system employed is different from that employed in
electric traction system. For speed control the field excitation is varied. Only Rheostatic type of electric
braking is possible in this type of traction.

2. Electric vehicles fed from the distribution network.

The energy supplied fed to traction system can be from separate distribution line system.
i) D.C. supply system.
ii) A.C. supply system.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Traction

Advantages
 Lower running cost of locomotives and multiple units.
 Higher power-to-weight ratio, resulting in
 Fewer locomotives.
 Faster acceleration.
 Higher practical limit of power.
 Higher limit of speed.
 Less noise pollution (quieter operation).
 Lower power loss at higher altitudes.
 Lack of dependence on crude oil as fuel.

Disadvantages

 Significant cost of electrification.

 Increased maintenance cost of the lines.
 Overhead wires further limit the clearance in tunnels.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 3

 There are two systems for feeding the electric motors.

These are:

i) Conductor rail system, ii) Overhead rail system

The various vehicles falling under this heading are:
i) Tramways.
ii) Trolley buses.
iii) Electric locomotives or trains.

Tramways:

Tramways is a substitute for the ordinary load buses. There are two electric motors with
two driving axles. The tramways motors are usually of d.c. type being operated from 600V
supply. These are run on the rail track. A single overhead conductor having positive polarity
is run along the road and the rail track is employed as a return path for the current. The
complete system is either fed at one point or at one point or at different from the
substation. For controlling the speed:

i) Series parallel control system,

ii) Drum type master controllers,
iii) Field weakening methods are employed.

There are two master controllers on each (back and front) end of the tramways, this
facilities its controlling from either of the ends.

Trolley bus:

The tramways has one drawback, i.e. the track rails are required to be laid for it and in
innercity areas, where the traffic density is high, it will cause difficulty in the movements of
traffic. In this type, the use of track rail is avoided. In this case there are two overhead
conductors, which are fed at 600V d.c. The trolley has inflated type of tyres and these will
provide enough adhesion even with one driving axle, therefore only one d.c. motor is
required for the trolley. Speed control is achieved by field control method. It is essential to
maintain the adequate insulation resistance as the trolley bus is insulated from the earth.
The usual practice is to check the insulation resistance daily at the end of the day. Both
regenerative and rheostatic brakings are employed in this type of vehicle. Regenerative
braking is employed if speed is 20Km/hour, rheostatic braking is employed if the speed is
about 6km/hour and for further retarding of the vehicle, mechanical brakes are employed.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 4

 Electric Trains:

For early days of electric traction d.c. at 1500V and single phase a.c. at 11 to 14KV having
frequency 25 Hz or Hz were used. The performance of a.c. single phase traction motor
(series wound commutator motor) is satisfactory at low frequency. Because of the
additional equipments such as frequency converter etc. the use of d.c. system was more
acceptable and efficient. But later on considering the ohmic losses, the a.c. system has also
proved attractive. The voltage with the help of static transformers can be varied very easily
and the losses at high voltage transmission are less. Further, if higher voltage is used the
spacing between two adjacent sub-stations can be increased, thereby reducing the number
of feeding sub-stations. The low frequency difficulty has been overcome by adopting three
phase a.c. system. In case of three phase system, induction motors which can be usually
employed for traction purpose at normal frequency i.e. 50 Hz are used. Various systems of
electrification usually employed have been discussed below in detail.

In the beginning all developed or under developed countries have to consider (or are
considering) the economic problems to convert the old steam locomotive system to
electric locomotive system. The decision to shift over depends upon the following factors:

i) The cost of electrical energy,

ii) Availability of necessary funds.

If the electrical energy is cheaper and funds are available then it is advisable to shift over to
electric traction. In case the electrical energy is not cheaper then diesel electric system can
be adopted, provided the diesel is available at cheaper rates. Diesel electric system will also
be having following added advantages:

i) Existing track is not required to be modified,

ii) No overhead network is to be constructed.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 5

 System of Electrification for Traction Purposes
1. Direct Current: In this case, dc series motors are employed for obtaining necessary
propelling torque, however sometime in tramways and trolley buses, compound
motors are also employed. For tramways and trolley, buses the operating voltage is
600V, whereas in trains the operating voltage vary between 1500V to 3000V. Many
substations are feed used to feed the traction network, but if the railways or trolley bus
route is small even one sub-station can feed the traction network, but if the railways or
trolley bus route is small even one sub-station can feed the network, In sub-urban
railways the operating voltage is kept between 1500V to 3000V and spacing between
to sub-stations is kept between 30km to 40km. The usual practice is to feed the sub-
stations with a.c. at 33kV to 110kV. Each sub-station is equipped with transformer and
rotary converters to reduce the voltage to desired value and to convert a.c. to d.c. This
arrangement will reduce the cost of
i) Transmission lines,
ii) Copper losses in transmission.

These sub-stations are usually unattended type. Following are the advantages of d.c.
systems.

i) The characteristics of d.c. series motor is better than a.c. traction motor
as far as traction is concerned;
ii) Maintenance cost in case of d.c. system is low.
iii) The weight of d.c. motor per H.P. is less in comparision to a.c. motors.

But however, in this case overall cost will be more, because of heavy cost of additional
sub-station equipment i.e. converting machinery boosters etc.

It is concluded that this system is well suited for short distance and where there are
frequent stops.

2. Single Phase a.c. System : In this case, the operating voltage is between 300V to 400V
at frequency 25Hz or Hz. The energy is obtained at high voltage, in the range of
15kV to 25kV and frequency of the supply is normal. The high voltage energy is either
fed (i) directly to the locomotive or (ii) to sub-stations. The method (i) is adopted when
the operating radius is more than 30km than the energy supplied to the sub-stations
from where it is fed to the locomotive. The sub-stations or locomotives are equipped
with transformer or frequency converter for obtaining the operating voltage at low
frequency. The adjacent spacing between two sub-stations is usually adopted between
50 to 80km. Extra high voltage transmission lines can also be tapped for feeding the
sub-stations. The system is preferred on main lines system because in this case rapid
acceleration and retardation has less effect on the system and reduction in the
structure cost is the main criteria.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 6

 3. Three Phase a.c. System: Three phase induction motor operating at 300V to 3600V and
normal frequency or Hz are used for obtaining necessary propelling power. In this
case there are two overhead conductors and the track acts as a third conductor. Similar
to d.c. system, the sub-stations receive the power at high voltage where the voltage is
stepped down to the operating value. The frequency is also reduced if desired.
However it is difficult to collect the current from to overhead conductors and therefore
it is not usually adopted. In case the H.P. desired is more and high amount of
regeneration is required, this system is suitable. Theses conductors usually prevail in
hilly traction.

Types of Motors Used for Electric Traction

The motor is common to all systems of electric traction and as the conditions under which it
operates are very different and much more different than occurring in most industrial drives, a
special type of motor known as a traction motor has been developed.

The following are the general features of a satisfactory traction motor:

1. Electrical features:
a) High starting torque
b) Series speed-torque characteristics.
c) Simple speed control.
d) Possibility of dynamic or regenerative braking.
e) Good commutation under rapid fluctuations of supply voltage.

2. Mechanical features:
a) Robust and ability to withstand continuous vibrations.
b) Minimum weight and overall dimensions.
c) Protection against dirt and dampness.

No particular type of motor completely fulfills these requirements and of the various types
which have been tried and the only ones which have been found satisfactory in practice are the
series and compound motors for d.c. systems, the a.c. series motors for single phase systems
and the induction motor for 3-phase systems.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 7

Applications of the Different Types of Motor
Although the d.c. series, a.c. series and induction motor are all used for traction work but they
all are not equally suitable for all types of service. Series and compound motors are employed
on d.c. traction systems whereas single phase series and three phase induction motors are used
on a.c. systems. The applications of these motors are listed below.

1. D.C. series motors:

D.C. series motor is simple and robust and suitable for all types of traction service, but more
particularly for suburban railway service, where high starting torque and high rate of
acceleration are essential. Motors of 45 to 75kW, mass 5.4 to 7.2 kg per KW are more usual for
the larger motors required for railway work. Commutation is excellent up to twice full load, thus
cutting down brush replacements and commutator grinding to a minimum. This motor is
suitable for all types of traction service. Its various characteristics are:

 It has a high starting torque of the order of 3 to 5 times of full load torque.
 It has a series speed-torque characteristic and hence possesses the ability to run in parallel
with other motors.
 It has self protective property, high free running speed and reduced kVA demand on the
lines in case of overload.
 The speed of d.c. series motor can be controlled by number of methods.
 The d.c. series motors can be designed to withstand the sudden voltage rises and
temporary interruptions of supply normally taking place along the track.
 Regenerative braking is applied to d.c. traction motors with suitable modifications.
 Because of the high starting torque d.c. series motors are ideally suited for city and
suburban traction services.

2. A.C. Series Motors:

Many types of single phase motors have been used for traction work, but the only survivor
is compensated series motor and this can be built in sizes up to several hundred kW e.g.,
the 500kW motors for the 9000kW locomotive for the Swiss-Federal Railways. The voltage
is limited to about 300volts and the weight is 1.5 to 2 times that of a d.c. series motor. The
power factor at the starting is lower. A.C. series motors are not well suited for sub-urban
railway service with frequent stops. However, for main line work they are used on all the
single phase line, particularly in America, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Germany.

The single phase a.c. series motor is used in the single phase low frequency system of track
electrification. It has a series speed-torque characteristic. However, due to the low power
factor at starting, the starting torque is much lower than that of a d.c. series motor.
Because of their low starting torque these motors are used for main line service only.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 8

 3. Induction motors.
Induction motor is simplest, robust and available but the complication of the pole changing
or other equipments necessary to obtain speed control and large rheostats required for
starting make it unsuitable for traction work. Moreover, on account of its flat speed torque
characteristic, it cannot be applied to multiple-unit working. Except for Kando system
adopted in Hungary and a few existing sections of the Italian Stage Railways, it is not likely
to be used to any extent in the future.

An induction motor has a shunt speed-torque characteristic. This may lead to unequal load
sharing. Hence in a traction unit use of induction motors fitted to different wheels, the
wheels have to be connected by a connecting rod, so that the speed of all the wheels is
same.

This motor is however is obsolete for traction services and is not being used for any
further extension anywhere in the world.

Speed –Time Curve for Traction System

The curve drawn between the speed and time, taking the speed in km/hour on the y-axis and
time in seconds or minutes on x-axis is known as speed time curve. The speed time curve gives
the complete information of the motion of the train. This curve gives the speed at various times
after the start of the run directly. Slope of the curve at any point gives the acceleration at the
corresponding instant or speed.

Speed time curve mainly consists of

i) Initial acceleration period,

ii) Constant speed run or free run period,
iii) Coasting period,
iv) Retardation or breaking speed.

Typical speed time curve for suburban run with a short distance between stops is shown in
figure below.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 9

 Figure 1.1 : Typical speed time curve for sub-urban service.

When considering train movement from one station to another, the various limiting factors are:

Crest speed: The maximum speed attained by the train

Average speed: The mean speed from start to stop excluding the stop periods.
i.e., Average speed = .
The schedule speed: The mean speed including the stop periods.
i.e., Schedule speed = .

The complete information about the movement of the train between two stops can be
obtained from a speed time curve.

Main Parts of a Speed Time Curve

A typical speed –time curve for a train operating on main line service (on a level track)
shown in figure below. For the analysis it can be divided in to the following four parts.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 10

 O A B C D E

Figure 1.2 : Speed time curve for main line service.

1. Acceleration Period. This can be distinctly divided into two parts:
a. Acceleration due to notching (Rheostatic Acceleration):
During this period (O to A) the current is maintained approximately constant & the voltage
across the motor is gradually increased by cutting out the starting resistance. Thus tractive
effort is constant & therefore acceleration remains constant during this period.

b. Acceleration due to operation on speed curve:

During the notching period the voltage applied to the motor is progressively increased. At
point A full voltage is applied to the motor, but still the motor has not attained its full speed.
The speed continues to increase as per the speed torque characteristic of the motor. As the
speed increases, the torque developed and hence the acceleration produced decreases.
Hence between the points A and B, the slope of the curve gradually decreases. At point B,
the torque developed by the motor is just sufficient to overcome the train resistance. No
extra torque is available to produce acceleration and hence slope of the curve at B is zero.
The speed of the train beyond the point B will be constant and this is known as the
balancing speed.

2. Free Running Period.

In Figure 1.2 between points B and C, the power supplied to the motors is at full voltage and
speed over this period is constant.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 11

 3. Coasting Period.

In figure 1.2 at point C, power is shut off so that the train moves due to its kinetic energy.
Because the various resistances to the movement of the train, the speed falls steadily.

4. Braking Period.
In figure 1.2 at point D, the brakes are applied and it is assumed that it produces a constant
braking torque and hence a constant rate of de-acceleration. The train stops at point E.

Typical Speed Time Curves for Different Services

The shape of the speed time curve will be different for different category of services and
exclaimed as under:
1. City service or urban service:
In urban or city service the distance between the two stops is comparatively very short
(about 1 km or so). The time required for this run is very small say a few minutes. The
acceleration as well as retardation is required to be high so that high average speed and
short time of run is obtained. The acceleration and retardation for urban service is between
1.5 and 4km per hour per second and between 3 and 4km per hour per second respectively.
Free run is not present in this run. The coasting retardation is about 0.15km per hour per
second. The coasting period is also small. Typical speed time curve for urban service is
shown in figure.

2. Sub-urban service:
In this run the distance between two stops is little longer than urban service but smaller
than main line service (between 2 to 5km). Free run is not possible. Coasting is for a
comparatively longer period. Acceleration and retardation required are as high as for urban
service.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 12

 3. Main line service:
The distance between two stops in main line service is considerably more (more than
10km). In this service free run is for longer period. Duration of acceleration and retardation
is a small fraction of total running time and this doesnot affect the average and schedule
speeds and therefore these are of little importance in main line service.

Simplified speed time curves.

For preliminary calculations on speed time curves, in order to find out the crest speed for a
run between two stations and whether any particular schedule, as regards free running
time and coasting time etc., is possible, and actual speed time curve is replaced by a
trapezoidal or a quadrilateral curve. This way it is possible to make very rapid calculations.

1. Trapezoidal speed-time curve:

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 13

 For preliminary calculations on speed time curves, In figure 1.3, it is shown how a speed
time curve for a city or suburban service is replaced by a trapezoidal curve. The
simplified speed time curve consists of the accelerating period, the rates of accelerating
period, the rates of acceleration and retardation being the same as before. Since the
area under a speed-time curve represents the distance covered, it is arranged that the
area under the two curves is same.

Figure 1.3 Trapezoidal speed-time curve

As observed, the trapezoidal curve represents more closely the actual conditions of the
speed time curve for main line service. For this reason a speed time curve for long
distance runs is usually replaced by a trapezoidal curve. However, sometimes short
distance runs are also represented by such a curve.

Let α and ß be the acceleration and retardation respectively in m/S2, Vm be the crest
speed in m/s and T be the total time of run in seconds.

Acceleration period, t1 = Vm/ α

Retardation period, t3 = Vm/

Free running period, t2 = T – (t1 + t3) = ( ( ))

Total distance of run in km,

S = *Vm* + +
= + [T-( + )] +

= - -

Or, + )- +S = 0

Or, Vm2 + )- + 3600*S = 0

Or, kVm2-VmT +3600S = 0 ; k = +

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 14

 On Solving,
√
Vm = = √
The positive value can’t be adopted as value of Vm obtained in that case will be much
higher than that is possible in practice.
Hence,

Vm = √

2. Quadrilateral speed time curve:

In figure 1.4, it is shown how a speed time curve for a city or a suburban service is
replaced by a quadrilateral curve. Thus the rates of acceleration, braking retardation
and coasting retardation are same in the two cases. The coasting retardation is same
since the slope of the two curves during the coasting period is same.

Figure 1.4: Quadrilateral speed-time curve

As it is evident, the quadrilateral curve represents more closely the actual conditions of
the speed time curve for short distance runs i.e., for city and suburban services.
Acceleration period, t1 = V1/α
Retardation period, t3 = V2/ß
Coasting period, t2 = (V1 - V2)/ßc
Acceleration period, t1 = V1/α.........[1]
Retardation period, t3 = V2/ß..........[2]
Coasting period, t2 = (V1 - V2)/ßc.........[3]
S = S1+S2+S3 = +[ + ]+
On solving & expressing t2 in terms of T i.e. T = t1+t2+t3
We can arrive to (students need to solve the above equation)
S= + = (V1+V2)- -

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 15

 Replace t1 & t3 from [1] & [3]
7200S = T(V1+V2)-V1V2( + )..................................[4]
Also,
V2 = V1 – βct2 ......from [2]
= V1 – βc(T-t1-t3)
= V1 – βc(T - - )
From which,

V2 = ..............................[5]

Solving [4] & [5] values of s, v1 & v2 can be calculated.

Factors affecting schedule speed

The schedule speed of a train when running on a given service i.e, with the given distance
between stations, is affected by the following factors:

1. Acceleration and braking retardation.

2. Maximum or crest speed.
3. Stopping time or duration of stop.
Increasing the rates of acceleration and braking retardation increase the schedule speed. This is
particularly important in city and suburban services so as to hasten the schedule and also enable
more number of trains to be run.
As increase of the crest speed in case of city and suburban services, will reduce the coasting
period and also the time taken for particular values of acceleration period, hence the schedule
speed increases. In case of main line service an increase of crest speed will considerably increase
the schedule speed.

The stopping time affects the schedule speed, in the sense that increase of stopping time
reduces the schedule speed. This is particular significance in case of short runs where the
stopping time is comparable to the total time of run. However, in case of main line service this is
not of much significance.

Tutorials
1. A train has schedule speed of 60 km per hour between the stops which are 6 km apart
Determine the crest speed over the run assuming trapezoidal speed-curve. The train
accelerates at 2km p.h.p.s. and retards at 3 km p.h.p.s. Duration of stops is 60 seconds.

2. The schedule speed with a 200 tone train on an electric railway with stations 777metres apart
is 27.2 km per hour and the maximum speed is 20 percent higher than the average running
speed. The braking rate is 3.22 km p.h.p.s. and the duration of stop is 20 seconds. Find the

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 16

 acceleration required. Assume a simplified speed-time curve with free running at the maximum
speed.

3. A suburban electric train has a maximum speed of 65 km p.h. The schedule speed including a
station stop of 30 seconds is 43.5 km p.h. If the acceleration is 1.3km p.h. p.s., find the value of
retardation when the average distance between stops is 3 km.

Lecture notes for Electric traction Page 17